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Volume 53

Advances in Natural and Technological

Hazards Research

The book series entitled Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards

is dedicated to serving the growing community of scholars,
practitioners and policy makers concerned with the different scientific,
socio-economic and political aspects of natural and technological
hazards.
The series aims to provide rapid, refereed publications of topical
contributions about recent advances in natural and technological
hazards research. Each volume is a thorough treatment of a specific
topic of importance for proper management and mitigation practices
and will shed light on the fundamental and applied aspects of natural
and technological hazards.
Comments or suggestions for future volumes are welcomed.
Editors
Sandeep, Parveen Kumar, Himanshu Mittal and Roshan Kumar

Geohazards
Analysis, Modelling and Forecasting
Editors
Sandeep
Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar
Pradesh, India

Parveen Kumar
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

Himanshu Mittal
National Center for Seismology, New Delhi, India

Roshan Kumar
Department of Electronics and Information Technology, Miami College
of Henan University, Kaifeng, China

ISSN 1878-9897 e-ISSN 2213-6959

Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research
ISBN 978-981-99-3954-1 e-ISBN 978-981-99-3955-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3955-8

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
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dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
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Foreword
Turkey Earthquake of M7.8 on February 6, 2023 is the most recent
example of natural geohazards, it has claimed over 50000 of human
lives and has inflicted vast infrastructural damages. The extent of
damages, economic losses and time frame required to recapitulate pre-
earthquake scenario are still illusive. Since the advent of the theory of
Plate Tectonics, concentration of strong earthquakes in the well-defined
seismic belts, their recurrence interval as well as monitoring of stress
generation/accumulation, improved imaging of crustal structures have
greatly enhanced our understanding of the process leading to
catastrophic earthquakes. Although multiple seismological,
geophysical, geochemical, hydrological and animal behavior, etc are
collated and a few successes stories are reported as long, intermediate,
and short-term precursors but prediction of an earthquake with precise
location, magnitude, and time window still remains an unaccomplished
challenge of earth sciences. Further, there is famous saying that
earthquakes do no kill people, it is the collapse of buildings due to
violent shaking caused by the traveling seismic waves account for the
loss of lives and damage to standing structures. Given these recognition,
major science and technical programs geared to co-up with growing
geohazards of earthquake are aimed at developing the earthquake
resistance society with a motto “Earthquake safe structures, the basis of
the safe life”.
The present edited book entitled “Geohazards: Analysis, Modelling
and Forecasting” is an comprehensive attempt to share advances in
several areas of geohazard quantification and their implementation by
policymakers, city planners and above all by society. The most
fascinating aspects are all the four co-editors; Dr. Sandeep, Dr. Parveen
Kumar, Dr. Himanshu Mittal, and Dr. Roshan Kumar, are young emerging
researchers with complimentary expertise and specializations, I
congratulate them for choosing such a challenging theme of Seismic
Geohazard for their maiden compilation. The book comprising of 12
chapters, authored by actively engaged researchers in wide spectrum of
geohazards, cover three major components of the geohazard studies.
For example, the Observation and Analysis of earthquakes occurrences,
linkages with regional tectonics, stress-drop pattern, etc. Second set of
presentation deal with modelling of geophysical, geochemical (radon)
data to identify precursors or signal useful for early hazards warning.
Importance of such studies stems from the fact most rapidly advancing
tools including artificial intelligence and machine learning are used to
estimate potential seismic hazard. Finally, the background information
on the site-specific amplification, source mechanism and stress-decay
patterns are critical inputs to simulate end scenario hazards map,
which under varied tectonic can be used to landslide vulnerability
assessment, liquefaction in fault zone, tsunami risk assessment, and the
use of early warning systems to avert disastrous effects. The end
scenario hazards parameters also provide critical inputs to design for
earthquake resistance infra-structure, an ultimate goal of geohazard
studies. I am sure the simplimistic mode of presentation, highlighting
the key issues of geohazard assessment, will be fruitful to both the
subject specialists, policymakers as well as bring awareness among the
common public and students. I wish good luck to co-editors and
publishers for the success of the efforts and dedication.
Prof. Baldev Raj Arora (Former Director)
Preface
The growing vulnerability and exposure to failures in risk reduction
and policy-making have increased the severity of geohazard impact
many folds. This strongly demands an extensive understanding of
various geohazards and their impetus. Furthermore, detailed
geohazard analysis, modeling, and forecasting are needed to reduce the
impacts of extreme events. This unique book volume includes chapters
from renowned experts from different nations in response to the
increased interest in understanding the geohazards. The geoscientists
and all other researchers interested in methods for reducing
geohazards are extremely interested in the subject. This book involves
the geohazards aspects of the different domains on a single podium,
making it significant and unique.
This book comprises a total of 12 chapters, which cover
contemporary developments of modeling, and analysis techniques
especially in the field of hazard and risk associated with earthquakes,
vulnerability assessment for landslides, the assessment of tsunami risk
in coastal regions, the implementation of early warning systems to
prevent catastrophic consequences. While the book provides a
fundamental knowledge of geohazards, the case studies illustrate
recent developments in hazard reduction and disaster mitigation
techniques. The purpose of compiling this book volume was to draw
attention to the distinctive characteristics of the geohazards. For
comprehending the many forms of geohazards modeling and
forecasting, the book is an essential necessity for all researchers,
scientists, students, and the industry. This book focuses on the recent
trends and information on different geohazard types, ranging from
earthquakes to landslides to Tsunamis. This book will significantly
contribute to the acquisition of policy-relevant knowledge for risk
reduction, which will provide direct benefits to the general public.
We are grateful to all the authors who produced such top-notch
chapters for this book. We owe gratitude to all technical reviewers for
giving up their time and expertise. Sincere appreciation is extended to
the publishing team for their hard work and effectiveness, which are
evident in the book’s final form. We think that by describing and
comprehending geohazard’s ideas from many angles, this book will
advance knowledge and understanding in the field.
Sandeep
Parveen Kumar
Himanshu Mittal
Roshan Kumar
Varanasi, India
Dehradun, India
New Delhi, India
Kaifeng, China
About This Book
This book presents a comprehensive analysis of diverse aspects of
geohazards. The growing vulnerability and exposure to failures in risk
reduction and policy-making increase the severity of geohazard
impacts by many folds. Therefore, detailed geohazard analysis,
modeling and forecasting are needed to reduce the impacts of extreme
events.
An interdisciplinary approach to hazard mitigation provides an
advanced tool for risk reduction. The book thus summarizes recent
modeling and analysis techniques for hazard assessment and risk
mitigation. Topics discussed in the book are hazard and risk associated
with earthquakes, vulnerability assessment for landslides and
avalanches, the assessment of tsunami risk in coastal regions, the
implementation of early warning systems to prevent catastrophic
consequences, climate change risk modeling and risk communication.
The convergent approach with the aspects of natural, engineering,
and social sciences attracts a vast audience working to advance disaster
science. This book also significantly facilitates the acquisition of policy-
relevant knowledge for risk reduction, which is beneficial to the general
public.
Contents
1 Signature of Active Tectonics and Its Implications Towards
Seismic Hazard in Western Part of Stable Peninsular India
Kapil Mohan, Naveen Kumar, Rakesh Dumka and Sumer Chopra
2 Stress Dissipation in the North-West Himalaya:​What We Learnt
from Post-seismic Stress Changes
Somak Hajra and Devajit Hazarika
3 The Crust and Upper Mantle Structure Beneath the Bangladesh
and Its Effects on Seismic Hazard
Ritima Das, Utpal Saikia and Gokul Kumar Saha
4 Seismological Data Quality Controls—A Synthesis
Cédric P. Legendre and Utpal Kumar
5 Use of Geophysical Techniques in Seismic Hazard Assessment
and Microzonation
Sumer Chopra, Pallabee Choudhury, Rakesh Nikam,
Peush Chaudhary, Harsh Limbachiya and Vishwa Joshi
6 Earthquake Response and Its Implications Towards the
Structural Design Codes for Himalayan Range and Adjoining
Regions of India
Babita Sharma and Manisha Sandhu
7 Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI):​A Parameter to Assess
Liquefaction Hazard
Supratim Chanda, Neeraj Kumar and D. Kushwaha
8 Radon Time Series Data for Earthquake Precursory Studies in
Taiwan:​An Overview
Vivek Walia, Arvind Kumar and Ching-Chou Fu
9 Spatial Prediction of Earthquake-Induced Landslide Susceptible
Zones—A Case Study from Indian Himalaya
Sandeep Kumar, Parveen Kumar, Sameeksha Kaushik,
Yaspal Sundriyal and Vikram Gupta
10 Tsunamis in the Past and Recent Years over Indian Coasts:​A
Review
 Babita Dani, Vaibhava Srivastava, A. P. Singh and R. Bhatla
11 Instrumentation of India’s First Regional Earthquake Early
Warning System and Site Characterization​of Its Stations
Pankaj Kumar, Kamal, M. L. Sharma, R. S. Jakka and Pratibha
12 Overview of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning
(ML) in Seismology
Harendra Kumar Dadhich
About the Editors
Sandeep is working as an assistant professor in the Department of
Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University (BHU) since 2016. He completed
his Master’s degree in Geophysics from Kurukshetra University and
Ph.D. degree in Seismology from IIT Roorkee. His research interests
include simulating strong ground motions and the statistical analysis
and comparison of observed and simulated data. He is a lead or co-
author of 32 journal articles in international peer-reviewed journals.
Sandeep has also contributed to the scientific community as a reviewer
of many research articles and projects. He has completed a project
funded by the Department of Science and Technology (DST)–Science
and Engineering Research Board (SERB) and is currently running a
project sponsored by the Institute of Eminence (IoE) Cell, BHU.
Recently, he has been selected for the prestigious Indian Society of
Earthquake Science’s Young Scientists award-2021 and Indian
Geophysical Union’s Dr. J.G. Negi Young Scientist award-2022 for his
significant contributions in the field of seismology. In 2022, Sandeep
also received a SERB International Research Experience (SIRE)
fellowship to work on the upgradation of the earthquake early warning
system at the University of Michigan, USA.

Parveen Kumar currently works as a scientist in the Wadia Institute

of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India. Earlier, he was awarded a
position as a post-doctoral fellow (funded by the University Grants
Commission) to carry out his research work. He collaborated
internationally in research with the Leibniz Institute for Applied
Geophysics, Hanover, Germany. During his career, he has worked, and is
still working, on several sponsored and consultancy projects. His
research interests include strong motion seismology, earthquake
hazard evaluation, geohazard assessment such as landslide and
avalanche hazards, and earthquake source studies. He has carried out
extensive fieldwork in the Himalayan belt to establish the seismicity
detection network and investigate subsurface structure by the
multichannel analysis of surface waves. He has published more than 30
research papers in SCI-indexed journals and has supervised several
Ph.D. and Master’s degree students. He holds a Ph.D. from the Indian
Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India, and a Master’s from
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India.

Himanshu Mittal currently works as a scientist-E at the National

Centre for Seismology, under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, New Delhi,
India. Earlier, he worked as a research associate and scientist-C at the
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India. He also worked as a
research scientist (post-doc) for more than 5 years at National Taiwan
University (NTU) and National Cheng Kung University (NCKU), Taiwan.
He was responsible for various studies related to earthquake early
warning (EEW) as well as strong-motion studies. Additionally, he
served at Amity University, Jaipur, India, for 6 months as an associate
professor. His major expertise is in strong-motion simulation,
earthquake hazard assessment, site characterization, and EEW, among
other areas. Recently, he has developed EEW systems for different
regions worldwide. He was an active researcher in reporting the
functioning of EEW in Taiwan during the Meinong earthquake of
February 2016 and the Hualien earthquake of February 2018. He tested
the functionality of an EEW system in India using the recorded
earthquake data from Taiwan and completed extensive fieldwork in the
Himalayan belt to establish a seismicity detection network in the
Himalayas. He has published more than 40 research papers in SCI-
indexed international journals and is actively engaged in collaboration
with various national and international institutes.

Roshan Kumar currently works as an assistant professor at the

Department of Electronic and Information Technology, Miami College of
Henan University, China. Earlier, he completed his post-doc position at
Zhejiang University, China. His research interests include earthquake
early warning systems, seismic signal processing, and landslide
warning systems. He holds a Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of
Technology, Roorkee, India, and a Master’s from Thapar University,
India. To date, he has published more than 30 papers and also filed two
Indian patents in his short academic career.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
Sandeep et al. (eds.), Geohazards, Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards
Research 53
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3955-8_1
1. Signature of Active Tectonics and Its
Implications Towards Seismic Hazard in
Western Part of Stable Peninsular India
Kapil Mohan1, Naveen Kumar2, 3 , Rakesh Dumka2 and Sumer Chopra2
(1) National Center for Seismology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, New
Delhi, India
(2) Institute of Seismological Research, Knowledge Corridor,
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
(3) EDRC Hydel & Tunnels Larsen and Toubro Limited, Faridabad,
India

Naveen Kumar
Email: naveen5attri@gmail.com

Abstract
The Dadra-Nagar Haveli and the surrounding region, in western India,
have been facing moderate seismicity since 1856. Two historic events
(Magnitude Ms 5 in 1935 and Magnitude Ms 5.7 in 1856) were reported
in the past in this region. Additionally, more than 200 earthquakes (1.0
≤ M ≤ 5.7) were also reported between M 1 and 5.7 in this area. The
epicentre of these earthquakes follows the trend of the faults mapped
in the study area. Current study is aimed to map the tectonic features in
the region and their associated tectonic-geomorphic features to infer
the tectonic behaviour and their impact on seismic hazard in the
western part of India. The RIAT of the watersheds of main rivers has
been estimated through the analysis of geomorphic indices like stream
length (SL) gradient, hypsometric integral (HI), basin shape (BS) and
valley floor (VF) and three classes (class II high (1.3 ≤ RIAT < 1.5), class
III—moderate (1.5 ≤ RIAT < 1.8), and class IV—low (1.8 ≤ RIAT)) have
been found in the study area indicating it a seismically active region.
The study area falls within the Panvel seismic zone and the recent
seismicity has also been witnessed in the vicinity of N-S trending linear
geological features. The presence of seismicity, faults with slickenside
planes, shear zones with brittle nature, deformed dykes and
extensional features suggests that the region has faced neotectonic
activities and is even now active seismically. Through geological
fieldwork, the evidence of past major seismic events (>5.5) is also
found well preserved in the form of SSDS/seismites in quaternary
sediments. The identified SSDS/seismites are mostly formed within the
sandy silt, sandy gravel and clay beds; and include sills, dykes,
suspended clast blocks, slump structures, and convolute bedding. The
extent and dimension of these seismites indicate that the mechanism to
trigger these and forces driven for the source of these features are
shock waves of earthquake. The maximum moment magnitude of Mw
6.2 has been estimated based on the maximum displacement recorded
along the normal active fault mapped in the study area, which trends
N170°–N350°, with a sharp dip of 72° in the SW direction. The seismic
hazard assessment of the area considering scenario earthquake of Mw
6.2 along this fault located east of Silvasa city has been estimated using
the Stochastic Finite Fault Modelling simulation technique. A maximum
peak ground acceleration (PGA) of the order of ~0.44 g has been
assessed in the area with a maximum site amplification of 2.15.

Keywords Panvel seismic zone – Relative index of active tectonics –

Soft sediment deformation – Seismic hazard assessment

1.1 Introduction
Neotectonics and active tectonics are the key geological agents, which
are responsible for the modelling of present-day geomorphology on the
earth. The tectonic processes are responsible for the many geological
hazards to society. Among all the geological hazards, earthquakes have
the most disturbing effect on society. In the field of earth science, the
tectonic geomorphology is a rising domain due to its addition of
distinctive tools like geodetics, geomorphology, geochronology.
Additionally, these tools help in assessment of the deformation rate,
incision upliftment, erosion and fault slip rates (Kumar et al. 2020b).
For a long time, the peninsular shield of India has been considered
stable seismically and the region has the potential of generating only
low-level seismicity at few places (De Montessus de Ballore 1911;
Tandon and Chatterjee 1968; Krishnan 1968). However, this belief has
been shattered after the occurrence of the 1967, Koyna Earthquake of
M 6.2. The M 6.2 magnitude Koyna earthquake forced researchers to
reconsider and reassess the seismic status of Peninsular India. The
detailed studies conducted by (Chandra 1977; Auden 1949; Watts and
Cox 1989; Bansal and Gupta 1998; Dole et al. 2000; Rajendran 1997;
Sheth, 1998; Raj et al. 2003; Mohan et al. 2007; Kaplay et al. 2013,
2016; Naik and Awasthi 2003; Kale et al. 2016; Jade et al. 2017, Kumar
et al. 2022, 2020a, b) show that, PFS zone, the Konkan coastal belt,
Koyna are affected by tectonically generated deformation activities in
the Deccan Volcanic region.
The profound accessibility of Geographic Information System and
their role in the uninterpretation of digital elevation models has helped
to the purposes of RIAT evaluation by means of geomorphic indices.
The research on this subject are growing and have seen significant
growth in last decades (Kumar et al. 2022). The GIS-based software
enables to extract and analyse of landscapes with detailed information.
The Assessment of RIAT from indices of geomorphic shows the rates of
upliftment and deformation in the landscapes for the long time (Bull
1977; Kumar et al. 2022).
The current area under study is situated in western portion of DVP
in the Western India (Fig. 1.1). Since late Triassic/early Jurassic to late
Cretaceous periods, West Coast of India has evident persistent rifting
events. The current study area is situated in the Panvel flexure seismic
zone (Fig. 1.1), which is undergoing through earthquake events later
1618 (Rao 2005; Rao and Rao 1984; Kumar et al. 2020a) (https://​isr.​
gujarat.​gov.​in/​). Key purpose of this research is to evaluate the seismic
hazard in area as there are no considerable studies associated to active
tectonic and seismic hazard due active fault (s) in the area under study.
Fig. 1.1 The Tectonic map of Western India (after Biswas 1982; Sheth 1998), KMF-
Kachchh Mainland Fault, KHF-Katrol Hill Fault, ECF-East Cambay Fault, WCF-West
Cambay Fault, NKF-North Kathiawar Fault, SNF-Son-Narmada Fault, NTF-North
Tapti Fault

1.2 Geological Setting and Study Area

The area under study is situated in western parts of India (Fig. 1.1). In
the west, it’s confined by WCF (west coast fault), whereas in east is
bounded by Western Ghats escarpment and the central portion is
occupied by the Panvel flexure (Fig. 1.1). The Deccan basalt, trachyte
and rhyolite complex dominates the study area with basic rock dykes.
The central parts of the study area are occupied by alluvium these
sediments are distributed in intermittent spots of major rivers (Kumar
et al. 2022 and 2020a, b). During Pliocene, the Western Coast of is
formed due to the faulting (Krishnan 1953). The WCF is the main
tectonic structure in this part of India. Due to its NNW-SSE trend, the
straight orientation in the west coast and up to the Gulf of Cambay in
the north and continue to the south of Mumbai is considered to be due
to this fault (Bombay) (Krishnan 1982).

1.3 Seismotectonics of the Study Area

The area is experiencing earthquakes since 1856. Two historical events
(MS5 in 1935 and MS5.7 in 1856) were recorded in the study area
especially concentrated in the southern part (Kumar et al. 2020b;
Bansal and Gupta 1998; Chandra 1977). At present, the seismicity in
the region endorses the active nature of the present tectonic features;
epicentres of the earthquakes are focussed beside these tectonic units
(Kumar et al. 2020a). A substantial number of earthquakes between M1
to 5.7 (Chandra 1977; Bansal and Gupta 1998 and Kumar et al. 2020b)
are documented in the area under study. The disruption due to the
tectonism is even now marked by several earthquakes in western India
(Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2 a The Seismotectonic map of western India b The Seismotectonic map of
the study area (After Kumar et al. 2020b)

1.4 Methodology
The targeted research work is distributed into three parts (i) evaluation
of RIAT, (ii) soft-sediment deformation study and (iii) estimation of
seismic hazard due to an active segment of the fault.
1.4.1 Evaluation of RIAT
For evaluation of the RIAT, the remote sensing (RS) and geographic
information system (GIS) techniques are used. The network of streams
and the demarcation of watershed boundaries are done utilizing Survey
of India toposheet at 1:50,000 and SRT Digital Elevation Models (30 m)
in the GIS system. The recognition of linear feature like faults,
lineaments and dykes, processing of image, production of the FCC, and
preparation of shaded relief maps are prepared. The indices, i.e., Bs, HI,
SL, Vf, are assessed and after calculation of all, sub-watersheds are
classified in three category on the basis of the value of index. Finally,
these values are added and each every sub-watershed has been
grouped according to the value of the RIAT (Relative Index of Active
Tectonics).

1.4.2 Soft Sediments Deformation (SSD) Structures

The study related to seismite (SSDS) is completed in the steps as
follows:—seismites are identified, mapped in alluvial sediments pile up
along Damanganga river banks in the study area. These seismites were
measured and their association with the surrounding layers of
sediments was done. Then the literature related to the seismites has
been reviewed and the reasons (whether primary or secondary) behind
the formation of these seismites are studied. In addition, the
mechanism of trigger, the earthquake distribution and the
manifestation of active faults in the region have been investigated.

1.4.3 Seismic Hazard Assessment Due to Active

Fault Segment
To determine the seismic hazard of any area, the future earthquake
potential valuation is mandatory. Precisely, it is essential to estimate the
size of the earthquakes that might be produced by any specific fault.
The magnitude of earthquake may be related to rupture parameters
like length and displacement (Iida 1959; Tocher 1958; Chinnery 1969).
To estimate these parameters, prior paleo-seismic and geologic studies
of active faults are required. The parameters/data from the geological
and geomorphic studies can be used to evaluate the time of historical
earthquakes, the extent of displacement of each event, and the
segmentation of the fault zone (Schwartz and Coppersmith 1986;
Schwartz 1988; Coppersmith 1991) in the study area. To interpret
these source features into estimates of earthquake size, the empirical
relationship between rupture parameters and the measure of
earthquake size, typically magnitude, is required (Wells and
Coppersmith 1994).
Numerous published realistic relationships are available to relate
magnitude to various fault rupture parameters, like fault rupture
displacement versus rupture length and magnitude versus rupture area
(subsurface and surface both), magnitude contrasted with total fault
length (Tocher 1958; Iida 1959; Albee and Smith 1966; Chinnery 1969;
Ohnaka 1978; Slemmons 1977, 1982; Acharya 1979; Bonilla and
Buchanon 1970). There are research works also available that relate
the seismic moment and magnitude to the rupture length, width, and an
area of the rupture (as assessed from the amount of deformations at
surface, the aftershock zone extent, or functions of earthquake source
time) (Utsu 1970; Kanamori and Anderson 1975; Wyss 1979; Singh et
al. 1980; Purcaru and Berckhemer 1982; Darragh and Bolt 1987). The
empirical relationships proposed by Wells and Coppersmith (1994)
were well-tested and used in a number of significant studies in the
seismic Hazard Assessment (Mohan et al. 2017, 2018, 2021). Therefore,
the same relationship has been used in the present study to estimate
the earthquake magnitude from the observed displacement, estimation
of rupture area, rupture length and rupture width. The details are as
follows.

1.4.3.1 Maximum Earthquake Magnitude

The length of surface rupture and the maximum displacement on
continental fault traces are the most commonly used parameters to
conclude magnitudes for paleo-earthquakes (Wells and Coppersmith
1994). Here, we have used the maximum displacement method (Wells
and Coppersmith 1994) to calculate the maximum magnitude of an
earthquake along the identified faults present in the study area.
Maximum Displacement Method
The maximum displacement method involves determining the
maximum displacement (MD) estimated from the paleoseismological
investigations associated with a paleoearthquake, and comparing that
value to the maximum displacement measured or computed for an
instrumentally recorded earthquake (Wells and Coppersmith 1994).
The empirical relationship between Moment magnitude (M) and
MD will have the form of:

Regressions coefficient derived by Wells and Coppersmith (1994)

for Moment magnitudes (M) and maximum displacement (MD) are:

Along the normal active faults mapped in the study area, the
maximum surface displacement of ~0.25 m is measured. Thus in the
above equation with MD = 0.25, the possible Moment magnitude of Mw
6.2 is estimated.

1.4.3.2 Estimation of Seismic Hazard

The seismic hazard can be estimated using two different methodologies
(i) Deterministic Seismic Hazard Assessment and (ii) Probabilistic
Seismic Hazard Assessment. In the case of seismic designing and
retrofitting of structures, the DSHA has an advantage (McGuire 2001).
The DSHA is also useful to check the worst-case scenarios (the largest
magnitude at the closest distance) and in the training and plans for
emergency response and post-earthquake recovery (McGuire 2001).
In the present study, the deterministic seismic hazard assessment
has been conducted to estimate the seismic hazard due to the active
segment of the Kilvani Fault (Fig. 1.3), where a displacement of 0.25 m
was observed. The Strong motion simulation involves the rigorous
mathematical exercise covering the earthquake source/rupture
(geometry, nucleation, and propagation) and seismic wave propagation
(between the source to the site) through different rock boundaries in
the earth’s crust. While passing through different subsurface layers, the
seismic waves change (amplifies/deamplifies) and reach the site.
Cancani (1904) initiated the simulation of strong motion (SM) by
generating the SM parameters from the seismic intensity. Later on,
Housner (1947) proposed the concept of black-box simulation for
simulating SM by using white Gaussian noise. Presently, mainly five
types of SM simulation techniques are available. These are (1)
composite source modelling (Saikia and Herrmann 1985; Saikia 1993;
Zeng et al. 1994; Yu 1994; Yu et al. 1995), (2) stochastic simulation
(Boore 1983; Lai 1982; Boore and Atkinson 1987), (3) empirical Green
function technique (EGF) (Hartzell 1978, 1982; Hadley and Helmberger
1980; Kanamori 1979; Mikumo et al. 1981; Irikura and Muramatu
1982; Irikura 1983, 1986; Muguia and Brune 1984; Hutchings 1985;
Kamae and Irikura 1998; Irikura and Miyake 2011), (4) semi-empirical
approach (Midorikawa 1993; Joshi and Midorikawa 2004; Joshi et al.
2001; Mohan 2014), and (5) Stochastic Finite Fault Source Modeling
Technique (SFFMT) (Motazedian and Atkinson 2005). Every simulation
technique follows certain conditions for the assumptions of source,
path, and site effects and rarely estimates all three in one step. Due to
advancements in the research methodologies, the SM simulation can be
effectively done by dividing it into three major parts (i) source
characterization and rupture propagation, (ii) wave propagation from
source to base rock/Engineering bedrock (EBR), and (iii) wave
propagation from EBR to surface considering near-surface effects
gathered in the form of site amplification from geotechnical or/and
geophysical parameters like Vs. Generally, one can choose any
technique based on available input parameters (source, path and site
conditions). The SFFMT is a well-tested SM technique of simulation and
well tested in Gujarat by Chopra et al. (2010, 2013), Mohan et al. (2017,
2018, 2021) for seismic hazard assessment. In view of this, the
technique has been selected to estimate the strong motion at a grid
interval of 10 km × 10 km. A significant portion of the study area is
covered with sediments. The United State Geological Survey (USGS)
provided the worldwide Vs30 values based on the topographic slope
(Allen and Wald 2009). The Vs30 values in the study region vary from
250 m/sec to 900 m/sec. Therefore, the strong motion has been
simulated at B/C Boundary at Vs30 of 760 m/sec and crustal
amplifications suggested by Boore and Joyner (1997) for the Vs30 of
760 m/sec. The near-surface wave attenuation/Fall-off of the high
frequency (>1 Hz) Fourier amplitude spectrum (Anderson and Hough
1984)/Kappa values (ĸ) is taken as 0.03 as used by Chopra et al. (2010)
for the estimation of seismic hazard in the adjacent Mainland Gujarat.
The Quality factor and stress drop were also considered as suggested
by Chopra et al. (2010) for the adjacent Mainland Gujarat area. The
input parameters considered for the simulation of ground motion are
given in Table 1.1.

Fig. 1.3 The PGA (in cm/sec 2) distribution map at a Vs of 760 m/sec due to an
earthquake of Mw6.2 along the Kilvani Fault

Table 1.1 The selected model parameters for the simulation of ground motion

Magnitude (Mw) 6.2

Fault length and width (17 km and 11 km) Wells and Coppersmith
(km) (1994)
Strike and dip 170° and 72°
Slip distribution Random
Shear wave velocity 3.6 km/sec Chopra et al. (2010)
Stress drop 100 bars Chopra et al. (2010)
Kappa 0.03 Chopra et al. (2010)
Anelastic attenuation 118f0.65 Chopra et al. (2010)
Q(f)
Geometric spreading 1/R (R≤40 km) Bodin et al. (2004)

1/R 0.5 (40≤R≤80 km)

1/R 0.55 (R≥80 km)

Duration properties fc -1 (R < 10 km) Atkinson and Boore (1995)

fc -1 + 0.16R (10≤R≤70km)

fc -1 - 0.03 (70<R≤130 km)

fc -1 + 0.04R (130<R<1000
km)
Site amplification plays a significant role in the estimation of
seismic hazards in any area. In the study area, the Vs30 values proposed
by USGS have been used to estimate the site amplification factors at a
grid interval of 10 km × 10 km by using the velocity–amplification
relationship proposed by Matsuoka and Midorikawa (1994). The PGA
distribution map thus prepared at Vs30 of 760 m/sec, the site
amplification map (between the Vs of 760 m/sec and the surface Vs)
and the PGA distribution map at the surface level have been shown in
Figs. 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5, respectively.
Fig. 1.4 The site amplification map of the study area
Fig. 1.5 The PGA (in cm/sec 2) distribution map of the surface level due to
earthquake of Mw6.2 along the Kilvani Fault

1.5 Result and Discussions

1.5.1 Faults and Lineament Mapping
During the field geological mapping, a normal fault has been mapped
near Kilvani village trending N170°–N350°, with a sharp dip of 72° in
the SW direction (Fig. 1.6a). It is evident by the impressive growth of
slickensides, the slickensides were occupied by fine-grained white
zeolites and calcite. The slickensides zone is very well visible in a depth
of 2–4 m in road cuttings (Fig. 1.6a). The slickenlines are suddenly
tending towards the south-SW on the surface of fault. The smoothness
in touch in the downward direction on slickeside surface and upward
direction roughness is observed (Fig. 1.6b), which suggests that the
missing western block moved down relative to the block east of the
fault (Doblas 1998; Argles 2010). The exposed bedrock along the rock
cutting is mainly Basalt, which is found sheared and very closely spaced
fractures are formed due to the faulting. The presence of normal fault
with a trend N170°–N350° dipping 72° SW suggests the NE-SW
extension in the study area. The slickensides on striated fault planes
were recorded in the expose rock section at Kilvani and Meghwal,
(Fig. 1.6). Generally, they present on fresh outcrops showing, thin (~1–
5 mm), mineralized (secondary zeolite and quartz, and calcite.) the
planes of fault that display primarily a normal slip. Mineralized layers
are likely to erode (Doblas 1998; Whiteside 1986; Kranis 2007). The
Kilvani fault is the younger fault in the study area as along this fault the
displacement in the sediments has been mapped. Though other faults
(like the WCF and PF) are also present in the region but along these
faults, the signature of displacement or movement has not been found
in the study area. The Kilvani Fault also follows the trend of the major
faults and the epicentres are occurring along the trend of these faults.
Therefore, to estimate the hazard related to seismic event in the area
and to estimate the maximum seismic potential, the Kilvani Fault has
been considered.
Fig. 1.6 a Normal fault near Kilvani village (20°18′1.70"N, 73° 5′53.55"E) road
exposures with strike N170°–N350° and dip amount 70° in SW direction, b
Slickensided fault plane showing the direction of movement by black arrows (After
Kumar et al. 2020b)
The lineament map has also been generated in the study area, and
the results of the analysis depict that these lineaments display
maximum resemblance with the trend of the tectonic features present
in the area. The lineament density analysis was performed in GIS
platform by dividing the study area into four sectors, the results of the
lineament density analysis show that the highest density of the
lineaments is in the central portion of the study area along the axis of
the Kilvani Fault and other tectonic features (Fig. 7b), while the lowest
lineament density in alluvial portion. The high lineament density
(Fig. 7b) observed in the central portion (in a black circle) was linked
with the regional tectonic features present in the study area.
Furthermore, the interpretation of the rose diagram and overlay
investigation shows that maximum lineaments/linear geological
structures are aligned to sub-parallel (N–S direction) to the Kilvani
Fault and other tectonic structures (Fig. 7b inset).
Fig. 1.7 Structural lineament map of the area: a lineament density map in which the
flat area shows low concentration as compared to flanks, b rose diagram of
lineaments with a major trend in N-S direction (inset) (After Kumar et al. 2020b)

1.5.2 Relative Index of Tectonic Activities

The indices like stream length index, valley to floor ratio, hypsometric
integral, and basin shape index are calculated, and their collective
results were combined to assess the relative index of tectonic activity
(RIAT) in the study area. The stream length is an important tool to
estimate the relative tectonic activities of any area. The aberration in
the profile of river from the steady state may be due to the effect of the
lithological, or climatic and tectonic reasons (Hack 1973). The SL index
value has been estimated and the area is distributed into 54 sub-basins.
Based on the results and the values classified into three classes; Class I
(SL, ≥ 600), Class II (300, < SL < 600), and Class III (SL, ≤ 300). The 07
numbers of sub-basins come in class-I, a sum of 10 sub-basins comes in
class-II and 10 sub-basins comes in Class-III. The results of the study
disclose the presence of moderate and high activities in the eastern and
northern portions, individually. The central and western portion is
moderately least tectonically active along with fairly high stream length
index value. The valley to floor ratio index is measured to differentiate
among V and U shaped valleys. These are (V-shaped) developed in
response to upliftment and flat-floored (U-shaped) wide valleys formed
as a reaction to the stability of base level (Bull 1977). The incision by
river results into uplift,emt, while low Vf is associated to progressive
incision rate and uplift. The < 1 Vf value is related to the V-shaped
valleys, linear streams shape with and revealed active upliftment and
non-stop downgrade cutting. The > 1 Vf value is associated to flattened
or valleys with U shaped, which displays attainment of erosion of base
level mainly in response to relative tectonic inactivity (Keller 1986;
Keller and Pinter 2022). In the region, the valley to floor width index is
calculated in the main streams of sub-basins. Three numbers of classes
were classified in this case also; Class I, (Vf ≤ 0.5), Class II, (0.5 < Vf <
1.0), and Class III, (Vf ≥ 1.0). The findings of the study reveal that the
majority of the area comes in Class 1, which shows the V-shape and
therefore discloses a remarkably higher degree of tectonic activity. The
hypsometric integral index is unbiased of area of the basin and is
usually consequent for a precise drainage basin. Usually, the HI outlines
the elevational dispersal of an exact area of land, mainly a drainage
basin (Strahler 1952). The high value of hypsometric index is possibly
related to the current tectonic activity, whereas, the low values signify
the mature landscapes, which have been further eroded and less
affected by the recent tectonic activities (Strahler 1952). After the
results of the analysis, in relations of concavity and convexity of
hypsometric curve, the HI may be categorized into three classes, Class
1, (HI ≥ 0.5) shape of concave curve; Class 2, (0.4 < HI < 0.5) a shape of
concave-convex curve, Class 3, (HI ≤ 0.4) the convex shape of curve. The
quantity of the breadth of sub-basins varies as of one place to another
hence the average value is taken to assess the shape of studied river
basin. As per Elias et al., 2019, the index of basin shape (Bs) comprises
three classes: (Class I) basin with Elongated shape (Bs ≥ 4); (Class II)
basin with semi-elongated shape (3 ≤ Bs < 4), and (Class III) basin with
Circular shape (Bs < 3) (Fig. 1.8). The results of the study reflect that
high values of Bs are associated with the basins with elongated shapes,
generally connected to relatively enhanced tectonic activities, and low
values of Bs entitled to basins with a circular shape generally
associated with low tectonic activities.

Fig. 1.8 Basin shape index distribution in the sub-watersheds in the study are (after
Kumar et al. 2022)
The eruption of Deccan flood basalt took place at ~65 Ma and
covered > 500, 000 km2 (Chandra 1977; Cox 1988; Acharya et al. 1998;
Ramesh and Estabrook 1998). The earlier research in the Deccan
province ascribed the viewed variations basically to change in climate,
geomorphology, riverine systems, fluctuations in sea levels, and only
devoted to the Deccan upland region connection with movements
related to neotectonism (Dikshit 1970; Kale and Rajaguru 1987; Watts
and Cox 1989; Widdowson and Cox 1996; Renne et al. 2015; Kale et al.
2016). In the present research, an effort is made to evaluate RIAT. The
values of the indices computed are added to compute Relative index of
Tectonic Activities and then appraised the spatial extent and dispersal
of tectonic activities in the study area. The value of RIAT attained by
addition of all the indices is grouped in three categories to describe the
grade of RIAT in the region, which are given as: 1.3 ≤ RIAT, < 1.5 in Class
II with high activities; 1.57–1.86, class III with moderate activities; and
2.0–2.33 Class IV, with low comparative tectonic activities separately.
The distribution of these categories is shown in (Fig. 1.9). The river
basins 44,42, 21, 2 fit in to class II (with high activities); the basins
52,43,8,4,3,1 fit into class III (with moderate activities); left all sub-
basins fit into class IV (with low activities). The relative index of
tectonic activities is high alongside the UGF (Upper Godavari fault), the
WGE (Western Ghats escarpment), new lineaments and faults, present
in the study area.

Fig. 1.9 Distribution of relative index of active tectonics (RIAT) in the Darda and
Nagar Haveli and surroundings (after Kumar et al. 2022)
 In the study area, various types of seismites also mapped from
various location in the river sediments during the field investigation.
The seismites are primarily found in sandy silt, silty clay and sandy
gravels. Major seismites in the area include dykes of intrusive nature
and sills of sediments, sediments with slumping structures, clast
chunks with suspended nature and bedding with convolute shape.

1.5.3 Deformation Mechanism

In previous studies in the central regions of Maharashtra the
occurrence of SSDS, warping/flexures of sediments, remarkable
displacement and deformation in alluvial deposits were
documented (Dole et al. 2000, 2002; Rajendran 1997; Kaplay et al.
2013, 2016; Kale et al. 2016). There are various deformation
mechanisms, which describe the formation of the seismites. Mills
(1983), suggested that the seismites are produced by the disruption of
non-lithified and sedimentary layers with water saturation.
Researchers like Mills (1983), Lowe (1975), Owen (1987, 2003),
Moretti and Sabato (2007) have recommended various deformation
mechanisms behind the formation of seismites. The seismites may be
formed by the failure in slope due to slumping, liquidization and shear
stresses. It might happen if driving force results in reverse density
(Allen 1982). The liquefaction or fluidization of the sediments is the
most important reason in development of seismites in cohesion-less
and water-rich sediment layers (Allen 1982). Normally, the process of
the cause and the distortion can be instigated because of the results of
exterior instruments like groundwater fluctuations, gravitational and
storm currents, and an event of earthquake (Sims 1975; Lowe 1975;
Owen 1987, 1996).

1.5.3.1 Trigger Mechanism

There are several probable trigger mechanisms described by various
researchers most of them are summarized in this section. The
commonly accepted trigger mechanisms are (a) loading of sediment
(Moretti and Sabato 2007; Anketell et al. 1970), (b) storm and
turbiditic currents (Molina et al. 1998; Dalrymple 1979; Alfaro et al.
2002), (c) sudden collapse in sediments (Waltham and Fookes 2003;
Moretti et al. 2001; Moretti and Ronchi 2011), (d) liquefaction of soil
through previous fissures (Holzer and Clark 1993; Guhman and
Pederson 1992), (v) an earthquake event (Lowe 1975; Seilacher 1969;
Sims 1975; Rossetti 1999; Calvo et al. 1998; Alfaro et al. 1999). In the
study area, the sediment loading appears to be of least significance for
features observed in the alluvial deposits within the study area.
Seismites mapped in the study area are present in a large area, which
recommends a further regional trigger mechanism in comparison to
the limited acts of loading of sediment and storms current, collapse
structures, turbiditic currents, and liquefaction via previously existing
fissures. Seismic shaking due to the earthquake event could be the most
plausible trigger mechanism and it might be the major reason for the
development of the seismites within the study area, while present study
area is bordered by faults which are active in nature (neotectonically),
the Panvel Flexure Fault and its sympathetic faults. The deformed
sediments found in the study area may probably be categorized as
seismites, based on their extent, nature (river deposits), shapes and
dimensions (Owen 1996; Sims 1975; Rossetti 1999; Calvo et al. 1998).
The seismites are formed due to earthquake shock after its occurrence
and for the development of these features; an area must have
undergone to tectonic event and earthquake activities (Moretti and
Sabato 2007; Jones and Preston 1987). The ground Shaking done by an
earthquake is the widely accepted and famous phenomena behind
sediment fluidization. All through the incidence of an earthquake, the
pressures in pores are increased for the short time, which results into
the loss of contact with grain–grain and short-term loss of strength as
of limited pore water expulsion (Allen 1977). In study area, these
seismites are qualified for earthquake origin on the basis of the
explanations as follows: (a) undeformed beds of soil are present below
and above the deformed beds; (b) the size of soil grains of deformed
sediments falls in the range of soil liquefaction because of shaking due a
seismic ecevnt (Balkema 1997); (c) seismites and their extent, shape,
magnitudes, sedimentological properties and facies, are common to the
studies on seismites by Rossetti (1999), Sims (1975), Vanneste et al.
(1999) and Jones et al. (2000); (d) the presence of active faults in the
present study area (Kumar et al. 2020a,b, 2022) and has been
experiencing earthquakes with magnitude M ≥ 5, thus the seismites in
the alluvial soil from the area meet with key conditions to be
characterized as seismites. To trigger liquefaction in the soil, an
earthquake of magnitude 2–3 is enough (Seed and Idriss 1971). For
causing liquefaction in the soil, an earthquake magnitude must be >4.5
(Marco and Agnon 1995). The presence of active faults within 15 km to
50 km distance of the study area also affirms the seismites of seismic
origin (Fig. 1.10). In view of all the above evidence, it has been
postulated that the seismites present in the study area are developed
due to the earthquake event of magnitude M ≥ 5. It has also been
proposed that the earthquake, which might have generated the
seismites, possibly will be between magnitude 5 and 7 in the
surrounding region.

Fig. 1.10 The variation in epicentre distance of seismites (blue ellipse) with their
association to 1618, 1856 earthquake (M6.9 and 5.7) affected the study area (after
Kumar et al. 2020a)
In an area, if you observe seismic activeness through RIAT, the
presence of seismites etc., then it becomes essential to estimate the
seismic hazard based on the seismic potential of identified active
seismic source(s). In the present study, a displacement of the order of
25 cm (0.25 m) has been estimated along the Kelvani fault. Based on
the displacement–magnitude empirical relationship, an earthquake
potential of Mw 6.2 has been estimated along this fault. The PGA
distribution map of the region based on a scenario earthquake of MW
6.2 along the Kevani fault at Vs of 760 m/sec2 and surface using site
amplification factor estimated through Vs have been simulated using
SFFMT. A PGA value of the order of 40 cm/s2 to 1.360 cm/s2 has been
estimated at Vs 760 m/sec with the maximum value in the western part
(towards the dipping direction) of the Kelvani Fault near Silvasa
(Fig. 1.3). A site amplification of the order of 0.9–2.15 has been
estimated in the study area with a maximum value in the N and NW
part (near Vapi) (Fig. 1.4). The higher value of site amplification is
estimated in the area covered with the sediments. A surface PGA of the
order of 40 cm/sec2 to 440 cm/sec2 has been estimated in the study
area with a maximum value in the western part of the Kelvani fault
(near Silvasa and Rakholi, towards the dip direction) (Fig. 1.5).

1.6 Conclusion
The Dadra-Nagar Haveli and the surrounding region, in western India,
have been experiencing moderate seismicity (more than 200
earthquakes (1.0 ≤ M ≤ 5.7) since 1856 including two historic events
(Magnitude Ms 5 in 1935 and Magnitude Ms 5.7 in 1856). A study is
conducted to map the tectonic structures in the region and their
associated tectonic-geomorphic features to infer the tectonic behaviour
and their impact on seismic hazard in the study area. RIAT of the
watersheds of main rivers has been estimated through the geomorphic
analysis SL gradient, HI, BS and VF and 03 groups (1.3 ≤ RIAT < 1.5 in
class II with high activities, 1.5 ≤ RIAT < 1.8 in class III—with moderate
activities, and 1.8 ≤ RIAT in class IV—with low activities, have been
found in the study area indicating it a seismically active region. The
study area falls within the Panvel seismic zone with the presence of
faults with slickenside bearing planes, shear zones with brittle
behaviour, extensional features and deformed dykes suggesting that the
study area has faced neotectonic activities and is still active seismically.
Through geological fieldwork, the evidence of past major seismic
events (>5.5) is also found well preserved in the form of
SSDS/seismites in quaternary sediments. The extent and dimension of
these seismites indicate that the mechanism to trigger these and forces
driven for the source of these structures were shock waves by an
earthquake. The maximum moment magnitude of Mw 6.2 has been
estimated based on the maximum displacement recorded along the
normal active fault mapped in the study area (Kelvani Fault), which
trends N170°–N350°, with a sharp dip of 72° in the SW direction. The
seismic hazard assessment of the area considering scenario earthquake
of Mw 6.2 along this fault located east of Silvasa city has been estimated
using the Stochastic Finite Fault Modelling simulation technique. A
maximum PGA of the order of 360 cm/sec2 has been estimated at the
EBR with the Vs of 760 m/sec and 440 cm/sec2 has been estimated at
the surface level with a maximum site amplification factor of 2.15 in the
area.

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
good deal of work was done by the Civil Service Committee of the
House, and none at all by the corresponding committee of the
Senate. The three chairmen of the House committee were Mr.
Lehlbach, Mr. Andrew, and Mr. De Forest. All three were able and
conscientious men and stanch supporters of the law. The chairman
in the 52d Congress, Mr. John F. Andrew, was throughout his whole
term of service one of the ablest, most fearless, and most effective
champions of the cause of the reform in the House. Among the other
members of the committee, in different Congresses, who stood up
valiantly for the reform, were Mr. Hopkins, of Illinois, Mr. Butterworth,
of Ohio, Mr. Boatner, of Louisiana, and Mr. Dargan and Mr. Brawley,
of South Carolina. Occasionally there have been on the committee
members who were hostile to the reform, such as Mr. Alderson, of
West Virginia; but these have not been men carrying weight in the
House. The men of intelligence and ability who once familiarize
themselves with the workings of the system, as they are bound to do
if they are on the committee, are sure to become its supporters. In
both the 51st and the 52d Congresses charges were made against
the Commission, and investigations were held into its actions and
into the workings of the law by the House committee. In each case,
in its report the committee not only heartily applauded the conduct of
the Commission, but no less heartily approved the workings of the
law, and submitted bills to increase the power of the Commission
and to render the law still more wide-reaching and drastic. These
bills, unfortunately, were never acted on in the House.
The main fight in each session comes on the Appropriation bill.
There is not the slightest danger that the law will be repealed, and
there is not much danger that any President will suffer it to be so
laxly administered as to deprive it of all value; though there is always
need to keep a vigilant lookout for fear of such lax administration.
The danger-point is in the appropriations. The first Civil Service
Commission, established in the days of President Grant, was starved
out by Congress refusing to appropriate for it. A hostile Congress
could repeat the same course now; and, as a matter of fact, in every
Congress resolute efforts are made by the champions of foul
government and dishonest politics to cut off the Commission’s
supplies. The bolder men, who come from districts where little is
known of the law, and where there is no adequate expression of
intelligent and honest opinion on the subject, attack it openly. They
are always joined by a number who make the attack covertly under
some point of order, or because of a nominal desire for economy.
These are quite as dangerous as the others, and deserve exposure.
Every man interested in decent government should keep an eye on
his Congressman and see how he votes on the question of
appropriations for the Commission.
The opposition to the reform is generally well led by skilled
parliamentarians, and they fight with the vindictiveness natural to
men who see a chance of striking at the institution which has baffled
their ferocious greed. As a rule, the rank and file are composed of
politicians who could not rise in public life because of their attitude
on any public question, and who derive most of their power from the
skill with which they manipulate the patronage of their districts.
These men have a gift at office-mongering, just as other men have a
peculiar knack in picking pockets; and they are joined by all the
honest dull men, who vote wrong out of pure ignorance, and by a
very few sincere and intelligent, but wholly misguided people. Many
of the spoils leaders are both efficient and fearless, and able to strike
hard blows. In consequence, the leaders on the side of decency
must themselves be men of ability and force, or the cause will suffer.
For our good fortune, we have never yet lacked such leaders.
The Appropriation committees, both in the House and Senate,
almost invariably show a friendly disposition toward the law. They
are composed of men of prominence, who have a sense of the
responsibilities of their positions and an earnest desire to do well for
the country and to make an honorable record for their party in
matters of legislation. They are usually above resorting to the arts of
low cunning or of sheer demagogy to which the foes of the reform
system are inevitably driven, and in consequence they can be relied
upon to give, if not what is needed, at least enough to prevent any
retrogression. It is in the open House and in Committee of the Whole
that the fight is waged. The most dangerous fight occurs in
Committee of the Whole, for there the members do not vote by aye
and no, and in consequence a mean politician who wishes ill to the
law, but is afraid of his constituents, votes against it in committee,
but does not dare to do so when the ayes and noes are called in the
House. One result of this has been that more than once the whole
appropriation has been stricken out in Committee of the Whole, and
then voted back again by substantial majorities by the same men
sitting in open House.
In the debate on the appropriation the whole question of the
workings of the law is usually discussed, and those members who
are opposed to it attack not only the law itself, but the Commission
which administers it. The occasion is, therefore, invariably seized as
an opportunity for a pitched battle between the friends and foes of
the system, the former trying to secure such an increase of
appropriation as will permit the Commission to extend its work, and
the latter striving to abolish the law outright by refusing all
appropriations. In the 51st and 52d Congresses, Mr. Lodge, of
Massachusetts, led the fight for the reform in the Lower House. He
was supported by such party leaders as Messrs. Reed, of Maine,
and McKinley, of Ohio, among the Republicans, and Messrs. Wilson,
of West Virginia, and Sayers, of Texas, among the Democrats.
Among the other champions of the law on the floor of the House
were Messrs. Hopkins and Butterworth, Mr. Greenhalge, of
Massachusetts, Mr. Henderson, of Iowa, Messrs. Payne, Tracey, and
Coombs, of New York. I wish I had the space to chronicle the names
of all, and to give a complete list of those who voted for the law.
Among the chief opponents of it were Messrs. Spinola, of New York,
Enloe, of Tennessee, Stockdale, of Mississippi, Grosvenor, of Ohio,
and Bowers, of California. The task of the defenders of the law was,
in one way easy, for they had no arguments to meet, the speeches
of their adversaries being invariably divisible into mere declamation
and direct misstatement of facts. In the Senate, Senators Hoar, of
Massachusetts, Allison, of Iowa, Hawley, of Connecticut, Wolcott, of
Colorado, Perkins, of California, Cockrell, of Missouri, and Butler, of
South Carolina, always supported the Commission against unjust
attack. Senator Gorman was naturally the chief leader of the
assaults upon the Commission. Senators Harris, Plumb, Stewart,
and Ingalls were among his allies.
 In each session the net result of the fight was an increase in the
appropriation for the Commission. The most important increase was
that obtained in the first session of the 53d Congress. On this
occasion Mr. Lodge was no longer in the House, having been
elected to the Senate. The work of the Commission had grown so
that it was impossible to perform it without a great increase of force;
and it would have been impossible to have put into effect the
extensions of the classified service had this increase not been
allowed. In the House the Committee on Appropriations, of which Mr.
Sayers was chairman, allowed the increase, but it was stricken out in
the House itself after an acrimonious debate, in which the cause of
the law was sustained by Messrs. Henderson and Hopkins, Mr.
McCall, of Massachusetts, Mr. Coombs, Mr. Crain, of Texas, Mr.
Storer, of Ohio, and many others, while the spoils-mongers were led
by Messrs. Stockdale and Williams, of Mississippi, Pendelton, of
West Virginia, Fithian, of Illinois, and others less important.
When the bill went over to the Senate, however, Mr. Lodge, well
supported by Messrs. Allison, Cockrell, Wolcott, and Teller, had the
provision for the increase of appropriation for the Commission
restored and increased, thereby adding by one half to the efficiency
of the Commission’s work. Had it not been for this the Commission
would have been quite unable to have undertaken the extensions
recently ordered by President Cleveland.
It is noteworthy that the men who have done most effective work
for the law in Washington in the departments, and more especially in
the House and Senate, are men of spotless character, who show by
their whole course in public life that they are not only able and
resolute, but also devoted to a high ideal. Much of what they have
done has received little comment in public, because much of the
work in committee, and some of the work in the House, such as
making or combating points of order, and pointing out the danger or
merit of certain bills, is not of a kind readily understood or
appreciated by an outsider; yet no men have deserved better of the
country, for there is in American public life no one other cause so
fruitful of harm to the body-politic as the spoils system, and the
legislators and administrative officers who have done the best work
toward its destruction merit a peculiar meed of praise from all well-
wishers of the Republic.
I have spoken above of the good that would come from a thorough
and intelligent knowledge as to who were the friends and who were
the foes of the law in Washington. Departmental officers, the heads
of bureaus, and, above all, the Commissioners themselves, should
be carefully watched by all friends of the reform. They should be
supported when they do well, and condemned when they do ill; and
attention should be called not only to what they do, but to what they
fail to do. To an even greater extent, of course, this applies to the
President. As regards the Senators and Congressmen also there is
urgent need of careful supervision by the friends of the law. We need
criticism by those who are unable to do their part in action; but the
criticism, to be useful, must be both honest and intelligent, and the
critics must remember that the system has its stanch friends and
bitter foes among both party men and men of no party—among
Republicans, Democrats, and Independents. Each Congressman
should be made to feel that it is his duty to support the law, and that
he will be held to account if he fails to support it. Especially is it
necessary to concentrate effort in working for each step of reform. In
legislative matters, for instance, there is need of increase of
appropriations for the Commission, and there is a chance of putting
through the bill to reform the Consular service. This has received
substantial backing in the Senate, and has the support of the
majority of the Foreign Affairs Committee. Instead of wasting efforts
by a diffuse support of eight or ten bills, it would be well to bend
every energy to securing the passage of the Consular bill; and to do
this it is necessary to arouse not only the Civil Service Reform
Associations, but the Boards of Trade throughout the country, and to
make the Congressmen and Senators feel individually the pressure
from those of their constituents who are resolved no longer to
tolerate the peculiarly gross manifestation of the spoils system which
now obtains in the consular service, with its attendant discredit to the
national honor abroad.
People sometimes grow a little down-hearted about the reform.
When they feel in this mood it would be well for them to reflect on
what has actually been gained in the past six years. By the inclusion
of the railway mail service, the smaller free-delivery offices, the
Indian School service, the Internal Revenue service, and other less
important branches, the extent of the public service which is under
the protection of the law has been more than doubled, and there are
now nearly fifty thousand employees of the Federal Government who
have been withdrawn from the degrading influences that rule under
the spoils system. This of itself is a great success and a great
advance, though, of course, it ought only to spur us on to renewed
effort. In the fall of 1894 the people of the State of New York, by a
popular vote, put into their constitution a provision providing for a
merit system in the affairs of the State and its municipalities; and the
following spring the great city of Chicago voted, by an overwhelming
majority, in favor of applying in its municipal affairs the advanced and
radical Civil Service Reform Law, which had already passed the
Illinois Legislature. Undoubtedly, after every success there comes a
moment of reaction. The friends of the reform grow temporarily
lukewarm, or, because it fails to secure everything they hoped, they
neglect to lay proper stress upon all that it does secure. Yet, in spite
of all rebuffs, in spite of all disappointments and opposition, the
growth of the principle of Civil Service reform has been continually
more rapid, and every year has taken us measurably nearer that
ideal of pure and decent government which is dear to the heart of
every honest American citizen.

FOOTNOTES:
[13] Scribner’s Magazine, August, 1895.
 VIII
ADMINISTERING THE NEW YORK POLICE
FORCE[14]

In New York, in the fall of 1894, Tammany Hall was overthrown by

a coalition composed partly of the regular republicans, partly of anti-
Tammany democrats, and partly of independents. Under the latter
head must be included a great many men who in national politics
habitually act with one or the other of the two great parties, but who
feel that in municipal politics good citizens should act independently.
The tidal wave, which was running high against the democratic party,
was undoubtedly very influential in bringing about the anti-Tammany
victory; but the chief factor in producing the result was the wide-
spread anger and disgust felt by decent citizens at the corruption
which, under the sway of Tammany, had honey-combed every
department of the city government, but especially the police force. A
few well-meaning people have at times tried to show that this
corruption was not really so very great. In reality it would be difficult
to overestimate the utter rottenness of many branches of the city
administration. There were a few honorable and high-minded
Tammany officials, and there were a few bureaus which were
administered with more or less efficiency, although dishonestly. But
the corruption had become so wide-spread as seriously to impair the
work of administration, and to bring us back within measurable
distance of the days of Tweed.
 The chief centre of corruption was the Police Department. No man
not intimately acquainted with both the lower and humbler sides of
New York life—for there is a wide distinction between the two—can
realize how far this corruption extended. Except in rare instances,
where prominent politicians made demands which could not be
refused, both promotions and appointments towards the close of
Tammany rule were made almost solely for money, and the prices
were discussed with cynical frankness. There was a well-recognized
tariff of charges, ranging from two or three hundred dollars for
appointment as a patrolman, to twelve or fifteen thousand dollars for
promotion to the position of captain. The money was reimbursed to
those who paid it by an elaborate system of blackmail. This was
chiefly carried on at the expense of gamblers, liquor sellers, and
keepers of disorderly houses; but every form of vice and crime
contributed more or less, and a great many respectable people who
were ignorant or timid were blackmailed under pretence of forbidding
or allowing them to violate obscure ordinances and the like. From top
to bottom the New York police force was utterly demoralized by the
gangrene of such a system, where venality and blackmail went hand
in hand with the basest forms of low ward politics, and where the
policeman, the ward politician, the liquor seller, and the criminal
alternately preyed on one another and helped one another to prey on
the general public.
In May, 1895, I was made president of the newly appointed police
board, whose duty it was to cut out the chief source of civic
corruption in New York by cleansing the police department. The
police board consisted of four members. All four of the new men
were appointed by Mayor Strong, the reform Mayor, who had taken
office in January.
With me, was associated, as treasurer of the Board, Mr. Avery D.
Andrews. He was a democrat and I a republican, and there were
questions of national politics on which we disagreed widely; but such
questions could not enter into the administration of the New York
police, if that administration was to be both honest and efficient; and
as a matter of fact, during my two years’ service, Mr. Andrews and I
worked in absolute harmony on every important question of policy
which arose. The prevention of blackmail and corruption, the
repression of crime and violence, safeguarding of life and property,
securing honest elections, and rewarding efficient and punishing
inefficient police service, are not, and cannot properly be made,
questions of party difference. In other words, such a body as the
police force of New York can be wisely and properly administered
only upon a non-partisan basis, and both Mr. Andrews and myself
were quite incapable of managing it on any other. There were many
men who helped us in our work; and among them all, the man who
helped us most, by advice and counsel, by stalwart, loyal friendship,
and by ardent championship of all that was good against all that was
evil, was Jacob A. Riis, the author of How the Other Half Lives.
Certain of the difficulties we had to face were merely those which
confronted the entire reform administration in its management of the
municipality. Many worthy people expected that this reform
administration would work an absolute revolution, not merely in the
government, but in the minds of the citizens as a whole; and felt
vaguely that they had been cheated because there was not an
immediate cleansing of every bad influence in civic or social life.
Moreover, the different bodies forming the victorious coalition felt the
pressure of conflicting interests and hopes. The mass of effective
strength was given by the republican organization, and not only all
the enrolled party workers, but a great number of well-meaning
republicans who had no personal interest at stake, expected the
administration to be used to further the fortunes of their own party.
Another great body of the administration’s supporters took a
diametrically opposite view, and believed that the administration
should be administered without the least reference whatever to party.
In theory they were quite right, and I cordially sympathized with
them; but as a matter of fact the victory could not have been won by
the votes of this class of people alone, and it was out of the question
to put these theories into complete effect. Like all other men who
actually try to do things instead of confining themselves to saying
how they should be done, the members of the new city government
were obliged to face the facts and to do the best they could in the
effort to get some kind of good result out of the conflicting forces.
They had to disregard party so far as was possible; and yet they
could not afford to disregard all party connections so utterly as to
bring the whole administration to grief.
In addition to these two large groups of supporters of the
administration, there were other groups, also possessing influence
who expected to receive recognition distinctly as democrats, but as
anti-Tammany democrats; and such members of any victorious
coalition are always sure to overestimate their own services, and to
feel ill-treated.
It is of course an easy thing to show on paper that the municipal
administration should have been administered without the slightest
reference to national party lines, and if the bulk of the people saw
things with entire clearness the truth would seem so obvious as to
need no demonstration. But as a matter of fact the bulk of the people
who voted the new administration into power neither saw this nor
realized it, and in politics, as in life generally, conditions must be
faced as they are, and not as they ought to be. The regular
democratic organization, not only in the city but in the State, was
completely under the dominion of Tammany Hall and its allies, and
they fought us at every step with wholly unscrupulous hatred. In the
State and the city alike the democratic campaign was waged against
the reform administration in New York. The Tammany officials who
were still left in power in the city, headed by the comptroller, Mr.
Fitch, did everything in their power to prevent the efficient
administration of the government. The democratic members of the
Legislature acted as their faithful allies in all such efforts. Whatever
was accomplished by the reform administration—and a very great
deal was accomplished—was due to the action of the republican
majority in the constitutional convention, and especially to the
republican Governor, Mr. Morton, and the republican majority in the
Legislature, who enacted laws giving to the newly chosen Mayor, Mr.
Strong, the great powers necessary for properly administering his
office. Without these laws the Mayor would have been very nearly
powerless. He certainly could not have done a tenth part of what
actually was done.
Now, of course, the republican politicians who gave Mayor Strong
all these powers, in the teeth of violent democratic opposition to
every law for the betterment of civic conditions in New York, ought
not, under ideal conditions, to have expected the slightest reward.
They should have been contented with showing the public that their
only purpose was to serve the public, and that the republican party
wished no better reward than the consciousness of having done its
duty by the State and the city. But as a whole they had not reached
such a standard. There were some who had reached it; there were
others who, though perfectly honest, and wishing to see good
government prosper, yet felt that somehow it ought to be combined
with party advantage of a tangible sort; and finally, there were yet
others who were not honest at all and cared nothing for the victory
unless it resulted in some way to their own personal advantage. In
short, the problem presented was of the kind which usually is
presented when dealing with men as a mass. The Mayor and his
administration had to keep in touch with the republican party or they
could have accomplished nothing; and on the other hand there was
much that the republican machine asked which they could not do,
because a surrender on certain vital points meant the abandonment
of the effort to obtain good administration.
The undesirability of breaking with the republican organization was
shown by what happened in the administration of the police
department. This being the great centre of power was the especial
object of the republican machine leaders. Toward the close of
Tammany rule, of the four Police Commissioners, two had been
machine republicans, whose actions were in no wise to be
distinguished from those of their Tammany colleagues; and
immediately after the new board was appointed to office the machine
got through the Legislature the so-called bi-partisan or Lexow law,
under which the department is at present administered; and a more
foolish or vicious law was never enacted by any legislative body. It
modelled the government of the police force somewhat on the lines
of the Polish parliament, and it was avowedly designed to make it
difficult to get effective action. It provided for a four-headed board, so
that it was difficult to get a majority anyhow; but, lest we should get
such a majority, it gave each member power to veto the actions of
his colleagues in certain very important matters; and, lest we should
do too much when we were unanimous, it provided that the chief, our
nominal subordinate, should have entirely independent action in the
most important matters, and should be practically irremovable,
except for proved corruption; so that he was responsible to nobody.
The Mayor was similarly hindered from removing any Police
Commissioner, so that when one of our colleagues began
obstructing the work of the board, and thwarting its effort to reform
the force, the Mayor in vain strove to turn him out. In short, there was
a complete divorce of power and responsibility, and it was
exceedingly difficult either to do anything, or to place anywhere, the
responsibility for not doing it.
If, by any reasonable concessions, if, indeed, by the performance
of any act not incompatible with our oaths of office, we could have
stood on good terms with the machine, we would certainly have
made the effort, even at the cost of sacrificing many of our ideals;
and in almost any other department we could probably have avoided
a break, but in the police force such a compromise was not possible.
What was demanded of us usually took some such form as the
refusal to enforce certain laws, or the protection of certain law-
breakers, or the promotion of the least fit men to positions of high
power and grave responsibility; and on such points it was not
possible to yield. We were obliged to treat all questions that arose
purely on their merits, without reference to the desires of the
politicians. We went into this course with our eyes open, for we knew
the trouble it would cause us personally, and, what was far more
important, the way in which our efforts for reform would consequently
be hampered. However, there was no alternative, and we had to
abide by the result. We had counted the cost before we adopted our
course, and we followed it resolutely to the end. We could not
accomplish all that we should have liked to accomplish for we were
shackled by preposterous legislation, and by the opposition and
intrigues of the basest machine politicians, which cost us the
support, sometimes of one, and sometimes of both, of our
colleagues. Nevertheless, the net result of our two years of work was
that we did more to increase the efficiency and honesty of the police
department than had ever previously been done in its history.
 But a decent people will have to show by emphatic action that they
are in the majority if they wish this result to be permanent; for under
such a law as the “bi-partisan” law it is almost impossible to keep the
department honest and efficient for any length of time; and the
machine politicians, by their opposition outside the board, and by the
aid of any tool or ally whom they can get on the board, can always
hamper and cripple the honest members of the board, no matter how
resolute and able the latter may be, if they do not have an aroused
and determined public opinion behind them.
Besides suffering, in aggravated form, from the difficulties which
beset the course of the entire administration, the police board had to
encounter—and honest and efficient police boards must always
encounter—certain special and peculiar difficulties. It is not a
pleasant thing to deal with criminals and purveyors of vice. It is very
rough work, and it cannot always be done in a nice manner. The
man with the night stick, the man in the blue coat with the helmet,
can keep order and repress open violence on the streets; but most
kinds of crime and vice are ordinarily carried on furtively and by
stealth, perhaps at night, perhaps behind closed doors. It is possible
to reach them only by the employment of the man in plain clothes,
the detective. Now the function of the detective is primarily that of the
spy, and it is always easy to arouse feeling against a spy. It is
absolutely necessary to employ him. Ninety per cent. of the most
dangerous criminals and purveyors of vice cannot be reached in any
other way. But the average citizen who does not think deeply fails to
realize the necessity for any such employment. In a vague way he
desires vice and crime put down; but, also in a vague way, he
objects to the only possible means by which they can be put down. It
is easy to mislead him into denouncing what is necessarily done in
order to carry out the very policy for which he is clamoring. The
Tammany officials of New York, headed by the Comptroller, made a
systematic effort to excite public hostility against the police for their
warfare on vice. The law-breaking liquor seller, the keeper of
disorderly houses, and the gambler, had been influential allies of
Tammany, and head contributors to its campaign chest. Naturally
Tammany fought for them; and the effective way in which to carry on
such a fight was to portray with gross exaggeration and
misstatement the methods necessarily employed by every police
force which honestly endeavors to do its work. The methods are
unpleasant, just as the methods employed in any surgical operation
are unpleasant; and the Tammany champions were able to arouse
more or less feeling against the police board for precisely the same
reason that a century ago it was easy to arouse what were called
“doctors’ mobs” against surgeons who cut up dead bodies. In neither
case is the operation attractive, and it is one which readily lends
itself to denunciation; but in both cases it is necessary if there is a
real intention to get at the disease. Tammany of course found its best
allies in the sensational newspapers. Of all the forces that tend for
evil in a great city like New York, probably none are so potent as the
sensational papers. Until one has had experience with them it is
difficult to realize the reckless indifference to truth or decency
displayed by papers such as the two that have the largest circulation
in New York City. Scandal forms the breath of the nostrils of such
papers, and they are quite as ready to create as to describe it. To
sustain law and order is humdrum, and does not readily lend itself to
flaunting woodcuts; but if the editor will stoop, and make his
subordinates stoop, to raking the gutters of human depravity, to
upholding the wrong-doer, and furiously assailing what is upright and
honest, he can make money, just as other types of pander make it.
The man who is to do honorable work in any form of civic politics
must make up his mind (and if he is a man of properly robust
character he will make it up without difficulty) to treat the assaults of
papers like these with absolute indifference, and to go his way
unheeded. Indeed he will have to make up his mind to be criticised,
sometimes justly, and more often unjustly, even by decent people;
and he must not be so thin-skinned as to mind such criticism
overmuch.
In administering the police force we found, as might be expected,
that there was no need of genius, nor indeed of any very unusual
qualities. What was needed was exercise of the plain, ordinary
virtues, of a rather commonplace type, which all good citizens should
be expected to possess. Common sense, common honesty,
courage, energy, resolution, readiness to learn, and a desire to be as
pleasant with everybody as was compatible with a strict performance
of duty—these were the qualities most called for. We soon found
that, in spite of the wide-spread corruption which had obtained in the
New York police department, the bulk of the men were heartily
desirous of being honest. There were some who were incurably
dishonest, just as there were some who had remained decent in
spite of terrific temptation and pressure; but the great mass came in
between. Although not possessing the stamina to war against
corruption when the odds seemed well-nigh hopeless, they were
nevertheless heartily glad to be decent and to welcome the change
to a system under which they were rewarded for doing well, and
punished for doing ill.
Our methods for restoring order and discipline were simple, and
indeed so were our methods for securing efficiency. We made
frequent personal inspections, especially at night, turning up
anywhere, at any time. We thus speedily got an idea of whom
among our upper subordinates we could trust and whom we could
not. We then proceeded to punish those guilty of shortcomings, and
to reward those who did well, refusing to pay any heed whatever in
either case to anything except the man’s own character and record.
A very few of these promotions and dismissals sufficed to show our
subordinates that at last they were dealing with superiors who meant
what they said, and that the days of political “pull” were over while
we had the power. The effect was immediate. The decent men took
heart, and those who were not decent feared longer to offend. The
morale of the entire force improved steadily.
A similar course was followed in reference to the relations
between the police and citizens generally. There had formerly been
much complaint of the brutal treatment by police of innocent citizens.
This was stopped peremptorily by the simple expedient of dismissing
from the force the first two or three men who were found guilty of
brutality. On the other hand we made the force understand that in the
event of any emergency requiring them to use their weapons against
either a mob or an individual criminal, the police board backed them
up without reservation. Our sympathy was for the friends, and not
the foes, of order. If a mob threatened violence we were glad to have
the mob hurt. If a criminal showed fight we expected the officer to
use any weapon that was necessary to overcome him on the instant;
and even, if it became necessary, to take life. All that the board
required was to be convinced that the necessity really existed. We
did not possess a particle of that maudlin sympathy for the criminal,
disorderly, and lawless classes which is such a particularly unhealthy
sign of social development; and we were bound that the
improvement in the fighting efficiency of the police should go hand in
hand with the improvement in their moral tone.
To break up the system of blackmail and corruption was less easy.
It was not at all difficult to protect decent people in their rights, and
this was accomplished at once. But the criminal who is blackmailed
has a direct interest in paying the blackmailer, and it is not easy to
get information about it. Nevertheless, we put a complete stop to
most of the blackmail by the simple process of rigorously enforcing
the laws, not only against crime, but against vice.
It was the enforcement of the liquor law which caused most
excitement. In New York we suffer from the altogether too common
tendency to make any law which a certain section of the community
wants, and then to allow that law to be more or less of a dead-letter if
any other section of the community objects to it. The multiplication of
laws by the Legislature, and their partial enforcement by the
executive authorities, go hand in hand, and offer one of the many
serious problems with which we are confronted in striving to better
civic conditions. New York State felt that liquor should not be sold on
Sunday. The larger part of New York City wished to drink liquor on
Sunday. Any man who studies the social condition of the poor knows
that liquor works more ruin than any other one cause. He knows
also, however, that it is simply impracticable to extirpate the habit
entirely, and that to attempt too much often merely results in
accomplishing too little; and he knows, moreover, that for a man
alone to drink whiskey in a bar-room is one thing, and for men with
their families to drink light wines or beer in respectable restaurants is
quite a different thing. The average citizen, who doesn’t think at all,
and the average politician of the baser sort, who only thinks about
his own personal advantage, find it easiest to disregard these facts,
and to pass a liquor law which will please the temperance people,
and then trust to the police department to enforce it with such laxity
as to please the intemperate.
The results of this pleasing system were evident in New York when
our board came into power. The Sunday liquor law was by no means
a dead letter in New York City. On the contrary no less than eight
thousand arrests for its violation had been made under the Tammany
regime the year before we came in. It was very much alive; but it
was only executed against those who either had no political pull, or
who refused to pay money. The liquor business does not stand on
the same footing with other occupations. It always tends to produce
criminality in the population at large, and law-breaking among the
saloonkeepers themselves. It is absolutely necessary to supervise it
rigidly, and impose restrictions upon the traffic. In large cities the
traffic cannot be stopped; but the evils can at least be minimized.
In New York the saloonkeepers have always stood high among
professional politicians. Nearly two thirds of the political leaders of
Tammany Hall have, at one time or another, been in the liquor
business. The saloon is the natural club and meeting place for the
ward heelers and leaders, and the bar-room politician is one of the
most common and best recognized factors, in local political
government. The saloonkeepers are always hand in glove with the
professional politicians, and occupy toward them a position such as
is not held by any other class of men. The influence they wield in
local politics has always been very great, and until our board took
office no man ever dared seriously to threaten them for their flagrant
violations of the law. The powerful and influential saloonkeeper was
glad to see his neighbors closed, for it gave him business. On the
other hand, a corrupt police captain, or the corrupt politician who
controlled him, could always extort money from a saloonkeeper by
threatening to close him and let his neighbor remain open. Gradually
the greed of corrupt police officials and of corrupt politicians, grew by
what it fed on, until they began to blackmail all but the very most
influential liquor sellers; and as liquor sellers were very numerous,
and the profits of the liquor business great, the amount collected was
enormous.
 The reputable saloonkeepers themselves found this condition of
blackmail and political favoritism almost intolerable. The law which
we found on the statute books had been put on by a Tammany
Legislature three years before we took office. A couple of months
after we took office, Mr. J. P. Smith, the editor of the liquor-dealers’
organ, The Wine and Spirit Gazette, gave out the following interview,
which is of such an extraordinary character that I insert it almost in
full:
“Governor Flower, as well as the Legislature of 1892, was elected
upon distinct pledges that relief would be given by the Democratic
party to the liquor dealers, especially of the cities of the State. In
accordance with this promise a Sunday-opening clause was inserted
in the excise bill of 1892. Governor Flower then said that he could
not approve the Sunday-opening clause; whereupon the Liquor
Dealers’ Association, which had charge of the bill, struck the
Sunday-opening clause out. After Governor Hill had been elected for
the second term I had several interviews with him on that very
subject. He told me, ‘You know I am the friend of the liquor dealers
and will go to almost any length to help them and give them relief;
but do not ask me to recommend to the Legislature the passage of
the law opening the saloons on Sunday. I cannot do it, for it will ruin
the Democratic party in the State.’ He gave the same interview to
various members of the State Liquor Dealers’ Association, who
waited upon him for the purpose of getting relief from the blackmail
of the police, stating that the lack of having the Sunday question
properly regulated was at the bottom of the trouble. Blackmail had
been brought to such a state of perfection, and had become so
oppressive to the liquor dealers themselves, that they communicated
first with Governor Hill and then with Mr. Croker. The Wine and Spirit
Gazette had taken up the subject because of gross discrimination
made by the police in the enforcement of the Sunday-closing law.
The paper again and again called upon the police commissioners to
either uniformly enforce the law or uniformly disregard it. A
committee of the Central Association of Liquor Dealers of this city
then took up the matter and called upon Police Commissioner
Martin.[15] An agreement was then made between the leaders of
Tammany Hall and the liquor dealers, according to which the monthly
blackmail paid to the police should be discontinued in return for
political support.[16] In other words, the retail dealers should bind
themselves to solidly support the Tammany ticket in consideration of
the discontinuance of the monthly blackmail by the police. This
agreement was carried out. Now what was the consequence? If the
liquor dealer, after the monthly blackmail ceased, showed any signs
of independence, the Tammany Hall district leader would give the tip
to the police captain, and that man would be pulled and arrested on
the following Sunday.”
Continuing, Mr. Smith inveighed against the law, but said:
“The (present) police commissioners are honestly endeavoring to
have the law impartially carried out. They are no respectors of
persons. And our information from all classes of liquor-dealers is that
the rich and the poor, the influential and the uninfluential, are
required equally to obey the law.”
There is really some difficulty in commenting upon the statements
of this interview, statements which were never denied.
The law was not in the least a dead-letter; it was enforced, but it
was corruptly and partially enforced. It was a prominent factor in the
Tammany scheme of government. It afforded a most effective means
for blackmailing a large portion of the liquor sellers and for the
wholesale corruption of the police department. The high Tammany
officials and police captains and patrolmen blackmailed and bullied
the small liquor sellers without a pull, and turned them into abject
slaves of Tammany Hall. On the other hand, the wealthy and
politically influential liquor sellers controlled the police, and made or
marred captains, sergeants, and patrolmen at their pleasure. In
some of the precincts most of the saloons were closed; in others
almost all were open. The rich and powerful liquor seller violated the
law at will, unless he had fallen under the ban of the police or the
ward boss, when he was not allowed to violate it at all.
Under these circumstances the new police board had one of two
courses to follow. We could either instruct the police to allow all the
saloonkeepers to become law-breakers, or else we could instruct
them to allow none to be law-breakers. We followed the latter
course, because we had some regard for our oaths of office. For two
or three months we had a regular fight, and on Sundays had to
employ half the force to enforce the liquor law; for the Tammany
legislators had drawn the law so as to make it easy of enforcement
for purposes of blackmail, but not easy of enforcement generally,
certain provisions being deliberately inserted with the intention to
make it difficult of universal execution. However, when once the
liquor sellers and their allies understood that we had not the slightest
intention of being bullied, threatened or cajoled out of following the
course which we had laid down, resistance practically ceased.
During the year after we took office the number of arrests for
violation of the Sunday liquor law sank to about one half of what they
had been during the last year of the Tammany rule; and yet the
saloons were practically closed, whereas under Tammany most of
them had been open. We adopted no new methods, save in so far
as honesty could be called a new method. We did not enforce the
law with unusual severity; we merely enforced it against the man
with a pull, just as much as against the man without a pull. We
refused to discriminate in favor of influential law-breakers. The
professional politicians of low type, the liquor sellers, the editors of
some German newspapers, and the sensational press generally,
attacked us with a ferocity which really verged on insanity.
We went our way without regarding this opposition, and gave a
very wholesome lesson to the effect that a law should not be put on
the statute books if it was not meant to be enforced, and that even
an excise law could be honestly enforced in New York if the public
officials so desired. The rich brewers and liquor sellers, who had
made money hand over fist by violating the excise law with the
corrupt connivance of the police, raved with anger, and every corrupt
politician and newspaper in the city gave them clamorous
assistance; but the poor man, and notably the poor man’s wife and
children, benefited very greatly by what we did. The hospital
surgeons found that their Monday labors were lessened by nearly
one half, owing to the startling diminution in cases of injury due to
drunken brawls; the work of the magistrates who sat in the city
courts on Monday for the trial of the offenders of the preceding