184 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.

KEYWORDS: Late Holocene – Mobility – Social networks – Petroglyph

ROCK ART RELATEDNESS AND CIRCULATION

PATHS IN NORTHEAST PATAGONIA, ARGENTINA

Natalia Carden, Florencia Borella and Marcelo Cardillo

Abstract. This work presents original information from the recording of petroglyphs in
Paredón de los Grabados, located in the middle course of the Salado stream, Río Negro Prov-
ince, Argentina. The Salado basin connects the foothills of the Somuncura Plateau with the
west coast of the San Matías Gulf. Due to its intermediate geographic location, the site be-
comes a relevant point for the study of mobility and social interaction between the Atlantic
coast and the Patagonian interior. Different lines of evidence suggest the recurrent use of the
place during the late Holocene, including historical times. Comparative analysis indicates
that these petroglyphs share more similarities with interior rock art than with coastal rock art.
Social and chronological implications of such patterns of connectivity are discussed.

Introduction Domingo Sanz and Fiore 2014 for syntheses). From

In this paper, we approach the issue of the human the information-exchange perspective, several authors
circulation paths and interaction networks among emphasised the active role of style as a visual system
hunter-gatherer societies from northeast Patagonia that reinforces social interaction networks in poor
through a comparative study of rock art. This goal is environments with unpredictable distributions of
part of a major archaeological project that explores the resources (Gamble 1982; Jochim 1983; Osborn and
mobility and settlement systems of the hunter-fisher- Hitchcock 2019). In such contexts, social bonds — i.e.
gatherer populations who inhabited the region since kinship, inter-group cooperation, alliances — are
the Middle Holocene to post-contact times (Borella favoured strategies because they create safety nets
et al. 2019a). Our starting point is the study of a new under situations of resource scarcity (Whallon 2011).
site with petroglyphs, located in a subsidiary creek Although the environment is a relevant cause, socio-
of the Salado stream in its middle course, and named demographic factors also influence the fluidity and
Paredón de los Grabados (hereafter PG). This locus is flexibility of social networks. David and Lourandos
48 km west of the Atlantic Ocean and 30 km north of (1998: 197–198) stated that populations of low density
Sierra Grande city, in Río Negro province (Fig. 1). The and reduced patterns of aggregation, like those from the
Salado stream connects the foothills of the Somuncura arid Australian regions, exhibited relatively more open
Plateau with the Atlantic coast in a semiarid landscape social systems, while populations of higher density and
where water is a critical resource. Due to its relatively increased levels of aggregation, as in the more fertile
central position in respect to other sites with rock art or ecologically diverse regions of Australia, tended
from the region, PG becomes a crucial point for eva- to display more closed and territorially bounded
luating mobility vectors and social interaction net- social formations. Open networks are characterised
works between the Patagonian coast and its interior by broad and homogeneous distributions of cultural
(Fig. 1). Therefore, the objective is to characterise its traits, while more closed networks are congruent
petroglyphs in order to compare them to the rock art with the development of regional styles. According to
information from other sites of southeast Río Negro. these authors, the regionalisation process in Australia
Our study of rock art is based on the concept of occurred during the late Holocene as a conjunction of
style, which we understand as part of the variability environmental, socio-demographic and socio-political
of material culture that participates in nonverbal issues. In north-central Chile, Troncoso et al. (2016)
communication processes. In this fashion, style highlighted historical dynamics and social organisation
encodes and expresses information about diverse social as significant elements that need to be considered in
aspects, such as identity, status, wealth, ownership, addition to the environment for understanding the
religious belief and political affiliation (Wobst 1977; structuration of social networks.
Wiessner 1983; Whallon 2011; see Hegmon 1992 and The maintenance of regional networks requires
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185

Figure 1. Location of the studied sites in southeast Río Negro: 1. Punta Odriozola (PO); 2. Paredón de los Grabados
(PG, analysed here); 3. Cueva Galpón (CG); 4. Rinconada Catriel (RC); 5. Piedra Pintada de Corral Curá;
6. Laguna Azul (LA); 7. El Ganso (EG); 8. Los Manantiales (LM); 9. Bardas de Antonio (BA).

mobility; social bonds are reaffirmed in the context been explored through the study of the circulation
of these movements, through which material culture of different items of material culture, such as lithic
circulates using gift-giving or exchange, ceremony materials (Flegenheimer et al. 2013), decorated Rheidae
and ritual (Wiessner 1982; Conkey 1984; Whallon eggshell fragments (Fiore and Borella 2010; Carden and
2006: 261). Hunter-gatherer regional networks have Martínez 2014), decorated stone plaquettes and axes
been explored in the Patagonian region through the (Acevedo 2015; Lynch et al. 2018) and painted bones
stylistic analysis of different kinds of material culture. (Romero and Barberena 2017). Based on this regional
The expression of identity has been evaluated from background, if PG constitutes a crucial locale in the
the spatial and temporal distribution of style in rock pathway between the coast and the interior in the semi-
art (Albornoz and Cúneo 2000; Belardi 2004; Crivelli desert environment of northeast Patagonia, human
2006; Boschín 2009), decorated stone plaquettes and transit or interaction networks between these areas
axes (Belardi 2004), beads (Fiore 2012; Leonardt 2016a), should be evidenced by stylistic similarities in rock art.
decorated bone harpoons (Fiore 2012), lithic projectile
points (Prates 2008) and cranial vault modification Archaeological background: evidence of mobility
(Serna et al. 2018). Other processes approached through and interaction networks in northeast Patagonia
this theoretical framework for the study of rock art The coast of Río Negro province was inhabited since
are colonisation (Fiore 2006), regionalisation (Re et at least 6000 years BP. Archaeological investigations
al. 2009), social fission and fusion (Belardi and Goñi carried out in the San Matías Gulf (hereafter SMG)
2006), territoriality (Carden 2008; Romero and Re 2014; revealed fishing activities in coastal scenarios very
Barberena et al. 2016), human circulation (Bellelli et al. different from the current ones. The density and
2008; Podestá et al. 2008) and social interaction (Belardi diversity of the archaeological materials recovered in
2004; Scheinson 2011; Carden and Borella 2015; Vargas marine inlets (bays and coves) evidence their intensive
et al. 2019). Visual communication systems have also occupation. Geoarchaeological studies indicated that,
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from the middle Holocene, a series of changes in the BP (Borella et al. 2015; Cardillo et al. 2017; Scartascini
coastal morphology caused the adjustment of the and Borella 2017). The comparative analysis of rock
coast and the disappearance of the inlets, modifying art revealed significant similarities with labyrinthine
the fishing practices and the collection of molluscs motifs from interior Santa Cruz province, at distances
(Favier Dubois and Kokot 2011; Favier Dubois and between 700 and 900 km south from PO (Carden and
Scartascini 2012). From the late Holocene, there was Borella 2015).
gradual incorporation of other resources available In the Paileman Range, located in the north-eastern
in the environment for subsistence, both marine and foothills of the Somuncura Plateau, two sites with rock
terrestrial (Borella et al. 2011; Borella and L’Heureux art were registered (Fig. 1). Cueva Galpón (hereafter
2014; Borella et al. 2015a, 2015b; Marani 2018, CG) is a large cave with red, black and white paintings,
Scartascini 2017). Changes detected from human where two graves were recovered and dated to c. 3000
palaeodiets (Favier Dubois et al. 2009a) were also years BP (Carden and Prates 2015; Prates et al. 2016).
documented through lithic technology, which revealed One of the burials was deposited over a grass bed with
different hunting techniques developed during the several funeral offerings, such as plant ropes, a colihue
late Holocene (Cardillo and Alberti 2015; Alberti and (Chusquea culeou) reed foreshaft and a small pouch of
Cardillo 2018). The diversification of diet recorded for viscacha (Lagidium viscacia) hide with human hair in its
this period was possibly a response to a resource interior (Prates et al. 2016). The material culture associ-
instability that affected the traditional modes of sub- ated to the other burial consists of shell and bone beads,
sistence. It may be interpreted as an intensification a fragment of a native copper plate, textile remains, a
strategy since it enhanced the carrying capacity of lithic ‘bola’ and a 920 g lump of red pigment. The pre-
the environment with the aid of new technologies sence of superimpositions indicated different events of
(i.e. pottery and small projectile points related to the rock art production; Carden and Prates (2015) proposed
bow and arrow) and more intensive use of grinding that the cave was repeatedly used for ritual purposes
implements. This situation was possibly triggered by unrelated to the domestic sphere. This is an unusual
a demographic increase at c. 1000 years BP that led to case since the regional evidence from north Patagonia
the saturation of the coastal springs, which were the shows that caves with rock art and human burials
most favourable spots for human settlement (Favier also have evidence of domestic activities. The absence
Dubois et al. 2009a). Evidence of mobility or social of archaeological materials such as stone tools,
networks in the SMG is constituted by different kinds pottery sherds, hearths and archaeofauna in CG may
of materials, such as lithics, rock art, portable art and be related to the lack of freshwater sources near the
personal ornaments. Although there are primary and cave (Prates and Mange 2016). Although the study of
secondary sources of good quality rocks that were inter-regional interaction is still in process, several ele-
widely exploited for making tools in the area, obsidian ments suggest long-distance exchange networks, such
artefacts were also found (Alberti 2016). Since this raw as the colihue reed, which grows in the humid forests
material is not naturally available in coastal Patagonia, of the cordilleran region, and the shell beads from the
it must have been transported from inland sources Atlantic coast (Prates et al. 2011). Rinconada Catriel (RC)
(Stern 2018). From the geochemical analyses of the is a large rockshelter with painted motifs, where Gradin
obsidian, at least five interior sources were identified in identified a sequence of three stylistic modalities
Chubut and Neuquén provinces, at distances between (Gradin 2003). Red dots and dragged lines made with
200 and 560 km from the Atlantic coast (Cardillo and fingertips and hand prints constitute the first one,
Scartascini 2007; Favier Dubois et al. 2009b; Alberti et while the second is composed of red rectilinear motifs
al. 2016). (zigzags, crenellated lines, staggered lines, parallel and
Furthermore, the analysis of the designs engraved perpendicularly arranged lines) related to Menghin’s
in fragments of Rheidae eggshells from the north style of ‘Grecas’. The third one is the best preserved;
coast of the SMG revealed motifs that are also present it includes rectilinear black and red motifs, such as a
on other supports (e.g. stone axes and plaquettes, complex labyrinth, crosses, ‘Z’ and zigzags combined
pottery, rock art) in distant areas from continental with dots. According to the author, the three modalities
Patagonia. These similarities suggested the existence were temporally framed in the last 1000 years; the
of an extensive system of communication beyond the third one corresponded to the latest moments of the
objects on which the images were produced (Fiore pre-Hispanic occupation. Although it is not associated
and Borella 2010). Other potential markers of human with permanent water sources, RC is close to several
circulation in the SMG are engraved valve spoons and natural wells that accumulate rain from the slopes of
shell beads (Deodat 1967; Cardillo and Borella 2017). the Paileman Range (Prates and Mange 2016).
Long-distance communication systems were also The first archaeological information from the north-
proposed through the formal analysis of petroglyphs in eastern portion of the Somuncura Plateau corresponds
Punta Odriozola site (hereafter PO), located on the west to Gradin’s (1971) survey of a series of lagoons —
coast of the SMG (Fig. 1). These motifs are spatially Laguna Azul, El Ganso and La Maciega — in which he
associated with other archaeological remains and registered stone habitation structures whose material
several traces of shell middens dated in c. 3000 years culture was later studied by García and Pérez de Micou
 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.
187

Figure 2. A. Close view of PG. B. general view of the outcrop.

(1980). Although Gradin (2003) found red paintings in plaquettes, which resemble motifs that circulated
La Pintada de Corral Curá, approximately 10 km east widely in Patagonia on the same kinds of objects, as
of Laguna Azul, he did not mention other rock art evi- well as on other supports, i.e. shells, Rheidae eggshells,
dence from the area. Almost four decades later, these pottery and rock art (Lynch et al. 2018).
sites were revisited, and new rock art information was
obtained after the recording of red paintings in Laguna Paredón de los Grabados:
Azul (LA) and petroglyphs in El Ganso (EG) (Fig. 1). landscape and archaeological context
Also, a new site with petroglyphs and red paintings, The information presented in this work is original
named Bardas de Antonio (BA), was located 30 km since no previous archaeological research occurred in
south of these basins (Blanco et al. 2013; Miotti et al. the study area. It is located in extra-Andean Patagonia,
2014; Blanco 2015; Fig. 1). Another site with rock art characterised by a temperate climate with low annual
from the Somuncura Plateau is Los Manantiales (LM) rainfall (<200 mm from April to September) and strong
(Fig. 1). It is composed of red and yellow paintings, as western winds. This arid-semiarid environment is
well as petroglyphs, some of which are overpainted in covered by xerophilous vegetation and a shrub-grami-
red (Albornoz 2003). Given its high altitude (above 1000 neous steppe (León et al. 1998). Together with the
m a.s.l), the Somuncura Plateau is available during the Verde Stream, the Salado Stream is one of the two most
spring and summer, which are the birth and breeding important basins in southeast Río Negro province.
seasons of guanacos. In this harsh environment, the Its sources are located in the eastern foothills of the
deep basins offer shelter and water and concentrate Somuncura Plateau, from which it drains into the
high biodiversity. Miotti et al. (2016) defined them as Atlantic Ocean. Currently, it carries water intermittently
nodes within the high seasonal mobility and circulation throughout the year. Given the environmental
networks of the hunter-gatherer populations. Prates characteristics of the region, where freshwater is a
and Mange (2016) proposed that these places could critical resource, this watercourse was possibly a
have been controlled from the foothills of the plateau natural corridor for human populations in the past
for the exploitation of guanacos. (Borella et al. 2019a). In its middle course, it borders
LA was dated to c. 1900 and c. 1700 years BP; the outcrops of the Marifil Volcanic Complex, which is
material evidence from the semicircular stone struc- part of the North Patagonian Massif, characterised by
tures — pottery fragments, lithic artefacts and archaeo- the presence of siliceous rocks (Márquez et al. 2011).
faunal remains — supported the hypothesis of multiple In 2016, rural inhabitants informed about the
activities, from which they were interpreted as domestic presence of rock art near El Salado farm, after which
spaces (Miotti et al. 2016; Lynch and Terranova 2019; the Ministry of Culture of Río Negro requested a
Vargas Gariglio et al. 2019). On the other hand, the management plan in order to enable touristic guided
circular structures were related to the control of animal visits (Borella et al. 2017). A step of the management
resources due to their high panoramic visibility of the plan involved the recording of rock art along more
surrounding landscape (Miotti et al. 2016). The presence than 50 m of the rock face to be included in the touristic
of allochthonous lithic raw materials in LA pointed path (Fig. 2a). The present study is based on this
towards inter-regional exchange systems. Chalcedony documentation, with some additional observations
was related to the Aneken quarry in Somuncura, 110 from other sectors not included in the guided visit
km west from this site, while the black obsidian sources (Fig. 2b).
are in the southern portion of this plateau (Chubut Different types of stone tools and glass fragments
province), more than 200 km far (Lynch and Terranova were collected on the surface, and five 1 m2 test pits
2019). Long-distance communication systems are were excavated up to 50 cm deep in order to detect
also evidenced by the designs engraved on the stone materials in stratigraphic position. No results were
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obtained from the test pits, from which absolute The available circulation surface around the panels was
chronology remains a pending objective. Among the considered for estimating ease of movement around
lithic materials, a great variety of flaked tool types, them. Four kinds of access to motifs, related to the
including projectile points, was observed on surface difficulty of reaching the panels where they are located,
scatters around the studied sector. Ground stone tools were defined based on these variables. These categories
were also recovered, such as a ‘bola’ and a basalt mortar are derived from the experience of female and male
and pestle of non-local raw material. Other sectors adult rock art recorders between 165 and 175 cm tall:
with rock art, pottery fragments and stone habitation • access 1: direct;
structures were registered outside the visit section near • access 2: indirect, requiring help from other people,
the petroglyphs, and are currently being processed fallen rocks or scaffolding;
and analysed. The evidence recorded so far indicates • access 3: indirect, requiring further means of
that this is a redundantly occupied place with good scaffolding and collaboration for climbing vertical
conditions of shelter, availability of freshwater, lithic cliffs;
raw materials, fauna and plant resources (Borella et • access 4: indirect, requiring climbing slopes.
al. 2019a).
The assumption behind location analysis is that
the selection of support for making rock art involves
Methodology choices, such as the possibility of observing the image
The recording of rock art in PG required dividing the again, of making it visible for other people, and
site into sectors and panels. Sectors were distinguished preserving it through time (Aschero 1997: 19). The
after major motif discontinuities in the outcrop, while number of participants in rock art production and
panels were delimited by the presence of fractures its future consumption could be anticipated through
or changes in the orientation, and inclination of the placing it in specific locations (Criado Boado 1991;
rock faces (Loendorf 2001). Our study of the rock Hartley and Volley Vawser 1997; Carden 2008; Bradley
art’s formal variability considers ‘motifs’ as units of 2009; Quesada and Gheco 2011). Motifs placed in
analysis and evaluates their relation to morphological hidden places on the rocks or in very dark or backlit
classes and subclasses, their colour, size and technique sectors point towards private contexts of production
(Gradin 1978; Carden 2008; Fiore 2009). The different and use (Lenssen-Erz 2004) and suggest that the act of
techniques for producing petroglyphs are characterised producing them was more important than their future
according to the kind of movement of the instrument visualisation (Taçon and Ouzman 2004; Carden 2013).
on the rock support as defined by Álvarez and Fiore Conversely, depictions placed deliberately in locations
(1995); Bednarik (2007); Blanco (2015) and Vergara and for being seen by people approaching a site have the
Troncoso (2015a): character of signals when they can be perceived from
• Pounding (or direct percussion): implies striking a considerable distance (Bradley et al. 1994; Lenssen-
the rock support with a simple instrument, such Erz 2004; Crivelli 2006). Combined with location, motif
as a cobble with a sharp edge. When hammering size is another relevant variable that conditions bodily
is superficial, it leaves small and shallow concave movements for observing them (Loubser 2013). Five
percussion pits; when it is deeper, grooves exhibit size categories were defined according to the area
U-shaped cross-sections. covered by motifs:
• Abrasion: this technique requires scraping the • very small: less than 100 cm2
support through the bidirectional movement of • small: between 100 and 249 cm2
an instrument whose edge is perpendicular to the • medium: between 250 and 599 cm2
direction of use. • large: between 600 and 2500 cm2
• Incision: implies cutting the support using the • very large: more than 2500 cm2
unidirectional or bidirectional movement of an
instrument whose edge moves parallel to the In the case of simple lines, strokes and single dot
direction of use. In motifs made by this technique, alignments, size categories were defined through their
grooves exhibit V-shaped cross-sections. length:
The analysis of superimpositions was combined • very short: up to 5 cm
with the evaluation of the petroglyphs’ relative degree • short: between 6 and 15 cm
of varnish cover and weathering conditions in order • medium: between 16 and 50 cm
to define a sequence of rock art production (Keyser • long: between 51 and 150 cm
2001; Bednarik 2007; Re 2010, 2016). The chronology Groove depth was also measured in order to
was also inferred through the recognition of post- distinguish petroglyphs that are observable by their
contact elements (objects and inscriptions) in the rock colour contrast with the rock support and those that
art assemblage. can also be visualised by relief difference, especially
Location patterns were defined through the position when sunlight reaches the panels. Grooves less than 0.5
and orientation of the rock supports and the distance cm deep are considered sub-superficial, those between
of motifs from the ground; two recorders measured the 0.5 to 0.9 cm are defined as shallow, those between 1
latter aspect with a 50 m flexible tape (Fig. 3: sector 1). to 1.9 cm are deep, while those deeper than 2 cm are
 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.
189

Figure 3. Delimited sectors in PG.

very deep. relatedness between PG and other sites of northeast

The comparative study evaluates the relationship Patagonia.
between PG and other sites with rock art in northeast
Patagonia (Fig. 1). It is focused on the presence-absence 1. Motif information
of motifs, considering three different attributes: The recorded rock face is more than 50 m long
morphology, size and technique. The morphological and between 10 and 12 m high. It was divided into
analysis is centred in PG’s motifs with a subclass detail four sectors and 43 panels in which 210 motifs are
in order to seek which kinds of motifs from this site distributed (Fig. 3 and Table 1). The majority of motifs
are repeated in the other rock art assemblages. From is concentrated in sector 2 and indicates that this spot
this common repertoire, morphological relatedness was preferentially selected for producing rock art.
between PG and each one of the other sites is calculated
according to the number of shared subclasses. It is Sector n panels % panels n motifs % motifs
considered weak if the common motifs cover up to 1 13 30 30 14
30% of the total shared subclasses, medium if they 2 16 37 143 69
cover between 31% and 70%, and strong if they are 3 8 19 22 10
above 70%. The estimation of size relatedness evaluates 4 6 14 15 7
how many of the shared motif subclasses between two Total 43 100 210 100
sites are also similar in their dimensions (length and
Table 1. Distribution of panels and motifs in PG.
width). The technical relatedness between two sites
is calculated according to how many of their shared Except for two red pictograms, the remaining
motifs were also made by the same techniques. Three motifs are petroglyphs, one of which was overpainted
technical categories are considered: petroglyphs (in in red. Lichens are an important agent affecting the
the different varieties defined above), overpainted preservation of the petroglyphs in PG, some of which
petroglyphs and paintings. Size and technical are much exfoliated. Among the extractive production
relatedness are weak if similarity covers up to 30%, techniques, pounding is the most abundant (n=197,
medium between 31% and 70%, and strong above 70%. 95%), followed by a combination of pounding and
abrasion (n=9, 4%), abrasion (n=1, 0.5%) and pounding
Results combined with incision (n=1, 0.5%). Groove depths
The first subsection of the results refers to the were measured in petroglyphs not covered by lichens
main tendencies obtained from the formal analysis that could be reached by the recorders. In the measured
of PG’s rock art. The second subsection considers the sample, most grooves are sub-superficial; this group
implications of the location patterns, and the third is numerically followed by shallow grooves, deep
one provides elements for the estimation of a relative grooves and a few very deep grooves (Table 2). In
chronology. Finally, the fourth subsection analyses the motifs deeper than 0.5 cm the image is observable not
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only by colour contrast with the rock support but also aligned (some alignments being more than 1 m long) or
by relief difference. This condition accentuates their geometrically arranged as ovals and circles (Table 3 and
visibility when sunlight reaches the panels. Fig. 4). Cupules are isolated, grouped or attached. Lines
are simple (straight, curved, meandering), parallel,
Groove depth cm n motifs % motifs perpendicular, cross-shaped, ‘ladder’ shaped, cross-
Sub-superficial: < 0.5 85 54 hatched or U-shaped. Some of them exhibit complex
Shallow: 0.5–0.9 57 35 irregular shapes that insinuate anthropomorphous
Deep: 1–1.9 19 12 images (Table 3 and Fig. 4). Circular figures are simple,
Very deep: 2–25 3 2 concentric, with interior dots or adjunct lines. Other
geometric figures are more irregularly shaped and may
Total 164 100
be attached in patterns; one of these was overpainted
Table 2. Groove depth in petroglyphs from PG. in red, surpassing the pounded area (Table 3 and Fig.
5). Animal footprints and a human footprint were
The two painted motifs are a straight line and also identified. The former correspond to birds and
aligned short strokes. Among petroglyphs, the most felines; both can reach dimensions that far exceed
abundant motifs are lines, followed by dots, circles, the real footprints’ sizes (Table 3 and Fig. 5). The
cupules and animal footprints. The remaining classes only motif classified as an object was interpreted as
are scarce and cover very low percentages (Table 3). a personal ornament (see below). Together with two
Internal variability within some classes of motifs is also representations of cattle brands, it is probably post-
high. Dots are isolated, grouped in fields, dispersed, Hispanic (Table 3).

Motif classes Motif subclasses n motifs % motifs

Dots 56 27.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cupules 8 9 21 10.1
Strokes 10 11 3 1.5

12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Lines 73 35.4

19 20 21 22 23 24

Circles 27 13.1
25 26 27 28 29

Polygons 3 1.5
30 31

Anthropomorph? 1 0.5
32

Tracks 19 9.2
33 34

Objects 1 0.5
35

Cattle brands 2 1
36 37
Total: 10 Total: 37 Total: 206 100

Table 3. Motif variability in PG. Non-identified motifs are excluded.

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191
2. Location patterns
Rock faces selected as panels are mostly
vertical planes; this condition is relevant
for defining how they could be accessed
for producing and closely observing rock
art. The analysis excludes motifs in fallen
rocks whose original position is unknown.
Access 1 motifs are the most abundant; they
are located up to 2.15 m, within the manual
field of a kneeling or upright person in the
base of the outcrop (Table 4) and can be
easily observed by anyone who approaches
the panels (Fig. 6a). This group is followed
numerically by access 2 motifs, which tend
to surpass the manual field and are on
vertical planes between 2.20 and 3.20 m high
(Table 4). The access to these panels must
have been relatively simple for tall people or
with the aid of fallen rocks or other people
(Fig. 6b).
Very few motifs are of access 3; they are
between 3.25 and c. 5 m above the ground.

Access n motifs % motifs

1: < 1 – 2.15 m 137 69
2: 2.20 – 3.20 m 38 19
3: 3.25 – approx.
5 8
5m
4: 3 – > 5 m 19 9
Total 199 100 Figure 4. Variability of motifs in PG. A. Lines that resemble
anthropomorphous figures; B. Parallel lines interpreted as a condor
Table 4. Kinds of access to the rock art panels by local residents; C. Long lines and aligned dots. D. Dotted area;
of PG. E. Parallel aligned dots.

Figure 5. A. Concentric circle with an overlapped dot; B. Polygonal figure on the right; C. Attached geometric figures
overpainted in red (D Stretch lab 33.3% scale: 10); D. Diamond pattern with superimposed oversized feline footprint.
192 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.

Further means of scaffolding and collaboration may

have been necessary in order to reach these panels on
steep cliffs. The most outstanding example is panel
3, which is at approximately 5 m height and must
have required climbing a cliff to reach a tiny step
for producing the petroglyphs (Fig. 7a, b). Access 4
motifs are between 3 m and more than 5 m above the
ground. The highest panels are not necessarily the most
difficult to reach, such as panel 43, located on the top
of the outcrop, which can be approached through a
straightforward climb across a gentle slope (Table 4,
Fig. 8a). At the panel, there is enough space available
to produce motifs or to observe them in detail (Fig.
8b). Although other access 4 motifs require climbing
Figure 6. A. Panel 28: Access 1; B. Panel 29: Access 2.
through more pronounced slopes to observe them
closely and the standing surface below them is minute,
they are also relatively easy to reach (Fig. 8c).

Figure 7. A. Access 3 to Panel 3; B. Close view.

Figure 8. Access 4 motifs. A and B. General and close view of Panel 43; C. Panels 36 and 37.
 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.
193
Size x size length x length depth x depth
Access n motifs
range cm2 cm2 range cm cm range cm cm
1: <1–2.15 m 137 6.25–1800 257.1 10–78 28.8 0.2–2.5 0.49
2: 2.20–3.20 m 38 12–1312 318.6 10–140 36.8 0.2–0.75 0.26
3: 3.25–approx. 5 m 5 100–9790 3119 – – 0.2–0,6 0.28
4: 3–>5 m 16 25–7392 1532.1 7–10 8.5 0.4–1 0.65
Table 5. Motif dimensions, according to their kind of access.

No matter the height of motifs and their relative tones in their grooves. A single case was registered
ease of access, most of them can be observed from in which red paint was applied over a petroglyph
the base of the outcrop, especially when the rock (see Fig. 5c), although it is not sure if this application
supports receive direct sunlight. This circumstance corresponds to the same production event of the
allowed detecting motifs that had not been previously petroglyph or a later event.
registered; for example, the circular and curvilinear The scarce pottery fragments retrieved near the
concentric motifs from the highest panel could only area of the rock art panels suggest a Late Holocene
be observed in the morning. Conversely, other motifs chronology since no ceramic evidence older than 2000
could only be registered under the incidence of the years BP has been found so far in north Patagonia and
afternoon sun. The impact of direct sunlight on grooves the east Pampean-Patagonian transition (Fernández
deeper than 0.5 cm enhances the perception of bas- and Vítores 2008; Favier Dubois et al. 2009a; Cúneo
reliefs. This condition led to evaluate groove depth 2010; Eugenio and Aldazabal 2013; Barberena et al.
and motif size related to the kind of access in order to 2015; Borella et al. 2015; Gómez Otero et al. 2015;
estimate the visualisation strategies of the people who Borges Vaz et al. 2016; Miotti et al. 2016; Borges
produced them. Results show that motif size increases Vaz 2018; Borella et al. 2019b; Vargas Gariglio et al.
with height; average motif size in access 1 and access 2019). Different archaeological vestiges evidence
2 motifs is medium, while it is very large in access 3 the occupation of PG in post-contact times, such as
motifs and large in access 4 motifs (Table 5). No direct stone habitation structures and garbage dumps with
relation was found between motif length and height remains of metal, earthenware, wood, glass fragments
in simple lines, strokes and single dot alignments. The and glass bottles. Two cattle brands on different
longest motifs of this kind are access 1 and access 2, faces of a boulder evidence the production of rock
located between less than 1 m to the ground and 3.20 art in post-contact times (Fig. 9a). Although both
m (Table 5). There is also no direct relation between petroglyphs have low varnish degrees, one of them
groove depth and kind of access because the deepest was superimposed on a ‘bird footprint’ by pounding
grooves are in access 1 and access 4 motifs, distributed and abrading (Fig. 9b) while the other one, exhibiting
from less than 1 m from the ground to the top of the the lightest patina, was superimposed to a dotted
outcrop. However, access 1 average groove depth is oval figure through pounding and incision (Fig. 9c).
influenced by the concavity of the cupules, which are The technical and varnish differences indicate that
very small motifs whose diameter rarely surpasses 10 they were produced in different moments, the latter
cm. These tendencies suggest that high panels were being the most recent. In the Somuncura Plateau,
selected for making motifs to be seen from the base of Blanco (2015) registered thin lines made by incision
the outcrop by their large size and their deep grooves, over other petroglyphs made by percussion. The same
which were enhanced by direct sunlight. Some of kinds of motifs are superimposed on pounded motifs
these panels were difficult to reach and offered little in different regions of Chile. In semiarid northern
space once they were approached, which limited the Chile, Vergara and Troncoso (2015b) distinguished
positions that could be adopted in order to produce Colonial from post-Colonial petroglyphs. The former
petroglyphs or interact with them closely. are situated between the 16th and 18th centuries and
are characterised by European subject matter (e.g. horse
3. The relative chronology of petroglyphs riders, Christian crosses) made by the same techniques
The analysis of 19 cases of superimpositions, com- of the pre-Hispanic motifs (i.e. pounding). The latter
bined with the evaluation of varnish degree and wea- are thin lines made by incision, probably with metal
thering, did not reveal clear tendencies for proposing knives, sometimes superimposed to pre-Hispanic
a rock art sequence for PG. Dots predominately overlie and Colonial petroglyphs. According to the authors,
other motifs; however, their varnish degree is not more they correspond to the period between the 18th and
developed than the underlying motifs’. Cupules tend 19th centuries. In Argentina, livestock branding for
to have the most developed varnish degrees, although marking ownership was practised from the beginning
they may overlie or underlie other kinds of motifs. The of the Spanish colony and continues at present times
strong erosive conditions observed in the site due to (Schiaffini 2019). The production of these kinds of
an intense lichen growth complicated the evaluation marks on rock supports was a common practice among
of varnish because some motifs exhibit light and dark drovers (arrieros) and herders (crianceros) of indigenous
194 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.

on rocks and cattle were bird

footprints, spirals, ceremonial
axes, rectangles, triangles,
trapezes and different kinds
of straight lines (Moldes 1999:
447).
Another indicator of a late
chronology in PG’s rock art is
a singular motif which has no
counterpart in the Patagonian
region. It is similar to a trarilonco,
which is characteristic Mapuche
silver jewellery composed of
chained elements from which
small circular disks hang
through upper appendixes with
small holes (Miranda 2015: 68–
69; Fig. 10). Mapuche women
and girls have worn trariloncos
as necklaces and tiaras since
the mid-19th century until
Figure 9. Cattle brands in Paredón de los Grabados. A. General view; B and C. Close
present times (Reccius 1983;
views.
Morris von Bennewitz 1992,
1997; Campbell 2015). Another
descent in different provinces of Argentina, such as kind of attachment before using solid silver chains
San Juan, Neuquén and Santa Cruz (Podestá et al. was linking silver coins with suspension holes in their
2006, 2011; Acevedo et al. 2013; Hajduk et al. 2016). borders to wool headbands through small shackles
An interesting inverse relationship between rock art (Reccius 1983). It should not be ruled out that similar
and cattle marks was recorded by Moldes (1999), who ornaments could have also been made with other kinds
mentioned that at the end of the 19th century and the of materials in pre-Hispanic times. Circular shell beads
beginning of the 20th century, Mapuche herders of have been frequently recovered in the archaeological
Río Negro maintained their native symbolic universe record of the Patagonian region (Zubimendi 2015).
by marking their livestock with brands resembling Particularly in the SMG, shell, saponite and malachite
motifs from the region. Common figures reproduced circular beads with central suspension holes were
registered in surface and
through the excavation of shell
middens and human burials
dated between c. 3000 and 400
years BP (Cardillo and Borella
2017). However, circular or
oval beads with suspension
holes in their borders are more
likely candidates as elements
of an ornament similar to the
petroglyph described here.
Such kinds of shell beads were
retrieved in Casa de Piedra de
Ortega and Pilcaniyeu, west
Río Negro. In the former site,
they were associated with the
archaeological layers of c. 1400
years BP and post-Hispanic age
(Fernández and Ramos 2008),
while in the latter they were
dated between c. 2500 years BP
and the 19th century (Boschín
2009; Leonardt 2016a). Shell
Figure 10. Motif resembling at trarilonco (silver ornament used by Mapuche beads with suspension holes
women). in their borders have also been
 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.
195
registered in Chenque 1 site
from South La Pampa (central
Argentina), dated bet-ween c.
1000 and 350 years BP (Cimino
et al. 2004; Berón 2018). The
archaeological record of conti-
nental Patagonia opens our in-
terpretation of this petroglyph
because it widens the possi-
bilities of raw materials for
making personal ornaments.
However, it is relevant to note
that circular archaeological
shell beads from this region
most commonly exhibit central
holes, particularly within the
last 2000 years (Leonardt 2016b).

4. Comparative analysis
in northeast Patagonia
From the available rock
art information of northeast
Patagonia, it is evident that five Figure 11. Rock art relatedness between PG and other rock art sites from northeast
sites located between 40 and Patagonia.
128 km from PG share motifs
with this place. These are PO, in the SMG, CG and attached geometric figures, as well as lines and dot
RC, in the Pailemán Range, and EG and BA, in the alignments longer than 1 m (Table 6). The largest white
Somuncura Plateau (Fig. 1). The degree of relatedness paintings can be better observed from the entrance of
between these rock art assemblages varies according the cave than from close up. Therefore, PG’s and CG’s
to the three motif attributes considered: morphology, motifs strongly relate in morphology and size, but they
size and technique. As concerns morphology, 25 of the are not technically related (Fig. 11).
37 subclasses of motifs identified in PG (68%) are also Motif subclasses from PG repeated in RC are
present in the other sites. Among these 25 subclasses, grouped dots and simple lines (Table 6). The former
six (24%) are shared with PO, 18 (72%) with CG, five are red and black and correspond to the first and third
(16%) with RC, 10 (40%) with EG and 18 (72%) with BA stylistic modalities defined by Gradin (2003 a), while
(Table 6). Therefore, the morphological relatedness of the latter are red paintings from the second stylistic
PG with CG and BA is strong, while it is medium with mode. Although parallel and perpendicular lines are
EG, and weak with PO and RC (Fig. 11). large in both sites, the remaining shared subclasses
Shared motif subclasses between PG and PO are are medium and small in RC, while they are medium,
simple forms prevalent in the Patagonian region and large and very large in PG. Thus, the morphological
extra-regionally (Table 6). Except for lines longer relatedness between these sites is weak, while their
than 1 m, their size is small and medium. Oversized size relatedness is medium, and their technical
bird footprints are only present in PG. Although the relatedness is lacking. Common motifs between PG
predominant technique identified in both sites is and EG (Table 6) are generally smaller in the latter;
pounding, grooves are sub-superficial in PO, while pounding is the dominant technique in both sites, with
they are sub-superficial, shallow, deep and very deeper grooves in PG. Their relatedness is medium
deep in PG. The most complex motifs from PO have in morphology, size and technique. Pounding is the
no counterparts in north Patagonia; they resemble dominant technique in motifs shared between PG and
labyrinthine figures from the interior plateaus of BA. Even though motif size tends to be smaller in BA
Santa Cruz province, between 700 and 900 km south compared to PG, Blanco (2015) registered fields of dots
(Carden and Borella 2015). Thus, the morphological and parallel lines covering large areas of the supports,
relatedness between PG and PO is weak, while their as well as large concentric circles with deep grooves on
size and technical relatedness is medium (Fig. 11). conspicuous rocks. The circular motifs resemble PG’s
Motif subclasses from CG present in PG especially concentric ‘U’ lines of panel 43 in their morphology
correspond to the latest painting episode identified and high visibility (see Fig. 8b). Consequently, the
by Carden and Prates (2015). It is composed of red morphological and technical relatedness between
and white paintings larger than those from previous PG and BA are strong, while their size relatedness is
episodes are. Some examples are multiple alignments medium (Fig. 11). Although there is little information
of dots, oversized animal footprints, patterns of about Los Manantiales, in the Somuncura Plateau (site
196 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.

Salado Stream SMG Pailemán Range Somuncura Plateau

PG PO CG RC EG BA

2 2 7
2 4

2 4 5 4 5 6

6 7 7 5 7

8 8

12 13 12 13 14
12 13 14 12 14
12 13 14 16 17

17 16 18
16 17 18
18 20 21 18

19

19 20 21 24

20 22
22 24

25 25 26
25 26 27 25 26 27 25 26

28 28
28
28 27
28

30

30 31

31

33 33
34
33
34 34
34 34
Table 6. Shared motifs between PG and other rock art sites from northeast Patagonia. Numbers indicate motif subclasses
identified in PG according to Table 3. Images from other sites were reproduced from Carden and Borella (2015) for PG;
Carden and Prates (2015) for CG; Gradin (2003a) for RC; Blanco (2015: 264–333) for EG and BA.

No. 8 in Fig. 1), Albornoz (2003) mentions petroglyphs in PG. Blanco (2015) also registered this technique in
overpainted in red. According to her description, the spirals from BA.
red paint exceeds the groove area; such as we registered
 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.
197
Discussion this rock art is a maximum of c. 2000 years BP. This
Comparative rock art analysis indicates a strong inference is based on the strong similarities detected
morphological and size relatedness between PG and with the northeast Somuncura Plateau, whose human
CG, which is 40 km north from the former site in the occupations date between c. 1900 and 1700 years BP
Pailemán Range, at Somuncura’s foothills. The technical in Laguna Azul (Miotti et al. 2016; Vargas Gariglio
difference between these sites may be explained by et al. 2019). On the other hand, similarities with the
an intention to make images durable, considering Pailemán range refer to the last 1000 years BP in RC
that paintings have more chances of preservation in (Gradin 2003) and to the latest painting episode of CG,
sheltered places than in open-air sites. However, the whose unknown age postdates 3000 years BP (Carden
funerary archaeological context of CG is also relevant and Prates 2015).
for understanding the presence of paintings in this site. The post-Hispanic petroglyphs are related to
The spatial contiguity of a grave with a large lump the increasing complexity of the socioeconomic and
of red pigment to a rock art panel with red paintings political relationships that characterised this period. If
suggested that this burial and the first painting episode our interpretation was correct, the presence of a salient
were closely related practices (Carden and Prates 2015). trarilonco motif (silver jewellery) in PG could be framed
Although this hypothesis remains to be tested through in the Mapuche expansion during the 19th century
compositional analyses of the buried pigment and from the region of Valdivia in Chile to the Argentine
the rock paintings, it implies that the paint itself had Pampas and northeast Patagonian steppe. Their
particular connotations beyond motifs. spread to Argentina was prompted by the necessity of
A strong morphological and technical relatedness acquiring cattle and driving it to Chile for commercial
was registered between PG and BA, which are 128 km purposes. This process increased competition, alliances
distant. The presence of large and very large motifs and power relationships that led to the emergence of
with deep grooves in prominent panels from these sites chiefdoms (Aldunate 1983). Silver ornaments were
suggests signalling behaviours. These nodes within important status and wealth markers among loncos
the hunter-gatherer circulation paths are related to (chiefs), who used them mainly as horse gear, while
freshwater sources where faunal and plant resources their wives and daughters wore them as jewels. They
concentrate. The archaeological evidence shows that were important elements of exchange for obtaining
they were redundantly occupied (Blanco 2015; Miotti cattle in the Pampas; at the same time, they sealed
et al. 2016; Lynch et al. 2018; Borella et al. 2019a). The alliances with the local groups, who reinforced their
reproduction of similar motifs in the middle course hierarchy and power through the possession of these
of the Salado stream and the Somuncura Plateau objects (Aldunate 1983; Campbell 2015). Furthermore,
can be explained by the circulation of ideas that Mapuche women wore trariloncos for protective pur-
were reproduced through common ritual practices poses in ritual and political gatherings (Morris Von
by people who made a complementary use of these Bennewitz 1992). In this social milieu, the presence of
environments, whether by relocating their camps in such kind of ornament in PG’s rock art is the product of
different seasons or by social networks. The act of the expanded social networks operating in the process
marking these places through highly visible images of the state formations of Chile and Argentina. Within
can also be understood as part of the definition of these networks, not only the objects circulated through
flexible hunter-gatherer territorial rights (Ingold 1986: exchange but also the ideas related to their political and
130–164). In PG, situated halfway between the coast magic power. Their singular expression in PG suggests
and the interior, they could also be signalling this key the relevance of this place as a ritual gathering point.
spot linked to the Salado stream, which was a crucial On the other hand, cattle brands reproduced on
circulation path in the arid-semiarid landscape. rocks were identity markers that represented their
The relatedness between PG and the remaining sites ownership (Podestá et al. 2006). Currently, among the
is weaker, especially with RC (Pailemán Range) and Mapuche herders of Chubut and Río Negro provinces
PO (SMG). The lack of specific similarities between the (Patagonia, south Argentina) they are also symbols
petroglyphs of PG and PO should not dismiss the of friendship, social alliances and kinship relations
possibility of complementary use of interior and coastal since cattle branding events demand collective work
environments. Instead, it may be explained by the and acquire a festive character (Schiaffini 2019). In
different chronologies of the associated archaeological San Juan province (central-west Argentina), brands
contexts. While the hunter-fisher-gatherer assemblages were recurrently reproduced on prominent rocks
to which PO’s petroglyphs are closely linked were along watercourses and functioned as landmarks
dated to c. 3000 years BP, no radiocarbon dates could that signalled the best routes for driving cattle into
be obtained so far from PG. Although different kinds Chile within an extremely arid landscape (Podestá
of material culture support a late chronology that et al. 2006). Considering the strategic location of PG
reaches a post-Hispanic age, it is still necessary to solve for human transit and its ecological setting in an
until what extent the production of petroglyphs can arid-semiarid environment, possibly the cattle brands
be traced back. Until further evidence is recovered, reproduced there could have had a similar role, such
the most reasonable chronological estimation for as the older petroglyphs which they overlap had, in
198 Rock Art Research 2020 - Volume 37, Number 2, pp. 184-203. N. CARDEN et al.

the more distant past. Dalila Herrera Villegas, who assisted us in rock art
recording. Mónica Berón and Roberto Campbell provided
valuable information and bibliography about Mapuche
Conclusions
silver jewellery. We also appreciate Sabrina Leonardt’s
The morphological, technological and size orientation for approaching the diversity of information
characterisation of PG’s petroglyphs led to subsequent about pre-Hispanic Patagonian ornaments. Mercedes
comparative analysis with other rock art assemblages Podestá, Guadalupe Romero Villanueva, Anahí Re and Pía
from northeast Patagonia. The analysis was based Falchi guided us into the recognition of cattle brands among
on the assumption that information exchange, inter- the petroglyphs of Paredón the los Grabados; and Hernán
group cooperation and alliances are favoured social Schiaffini also made interesting comments on this issue.
strategies in risky and unpredictable environments Francisco Vergara contributed to the distinction of petroglyph
(Gamble 1982). If PG was a crucial locale in the pathway production techniques, and Rocío Blanco shared information
about rock art from the Somuncura Plateau. Mara Basile and
between the coast and the interior, the expectation
three anonymous RAR reviewers considerably improved
was to find stylistic similarities between these areas, the original version of this article through their accurate
since style reinforces social interaction networks. comments and acute observations. Fieldwork was funded by
Preliminary results support stronger relationships with PIP-CONICET 112-201101-00589 and PICT-ANPCyT 3575,
the Somuncura Plateau and the Pailemán Range than and work permits were granted by the Secretary of Culture
with the San Matías Gulf. An aspect that distinguishes of Río Negro. We express our special gratitude to Carmelo
PG’s petroglyphs from most of the other motifs is Morón from El Salado Farm, who kindly facilitated lodging
their larger average size related to a tendency to select and logistical support.
elevated panels. These patterns suggest that their
Dr Natalia Carden and Dr Florencia Borella
producers planned the visibility of the images because
INCUAPA-CONICET
panels were highly valued as landmarks that guided Facultad de Ciencias Sociales
mobility and facilitated social communication in the Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos
Patagonian steppe. In the context of effective human Aires
occupation of different spaces (sensu Borrero 1994–95) Av. Del Valle 5737
and higher demography within the late Holocene, Olavarría, C. P. 7400
these attributes could also be hinting to an increasing Argentina
territorial behaviour among the hunter-gatherer cardennatalia@gmail.com, fborella@soc.unicen.edu.ar
groups, which became more competitive during the
Dr Marcelo Cardillo
European contact period.
IMHICIHU-CONICET
The stylistic differences between PG and the Facultad de Filosofía y Letras
coastal petroglyphs do not exclude the hypothesis Universidad de Buenos Aires
of connectivity between these areas since they are Saavedra 15
the product of the different temporalities of the Buenos Aires (C1083ACA)
archaeological contexts to which they are associated. Argentina
Due to its geographic situation in the middle course marcelo.cardillo@gmail.com
of the Salado stream, PG remains a relevant potential
nexus between the Atlantic coast and the interior. The
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