FORENSIC 2: PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

MODULE I: FORENSIC SCIENCE AND PERSIONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION

In most countries the detection of crime is the responsibility of the police, though special
law enforcement agencies may be responsible for the discovery of particular types of
crime.

Crime detection falls into three distinguishable phases:

I. The discovery that a crime has been committed;

II. The identification of a suspect; and
III. The collection of sufficient evidence to indict the suspect before a court.

Certain crimes in particular thus not have any witness, or those in which there may be no
identifiable victim, such as obscenity are often not discovered unless the police take
active steps to determine whether they have been committed.

To detect such crimes, therefore, special methods are sometimes required.

FORENSIC SCIENCE

Forensic Science defines it as “The application of science to those criminal and civil laws
that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system.” Forensic Science deals
with the application of the knowledge and methodology of various disciplines of science
to legal matters.

It involves the use of multiple disciplines such as physics, chemistry, biology, computer
science and engineering for evidence analysis.

For instance, physics is used to understand the pattern of a blood splatter, biology to
establish the source of an unidentified suspect and chemistry to determine the
composition of drugs.

Thus, the role of forensic science in criminal justice and the legal system is highly critical
but is often underrated.

HISTORY OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

▪ Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853) – Considered as the Father of Toxicology

▪ Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914) – Established the first scientific system of
personal identification by a series of bodily measurements. It was later replaced
by fingerprints in the early 1900s.
▪ Francis Galton (1833-1911) – First to study fingerprints and classify them for
filing.
 ▪ Leone Lattes (1887-1954) – Discovered that blood can be categorized into four
groups.
▪ Calvin Goddard (1891-1955) – Determined the comparison of bullets in guns –
Ballistics.
▪ Albert S. Osborn (1858-1946) – Developed principles of document examination.
▪ Walter C. McCrone (1916-2002) – Developed advances in microscopic techniques
to solve crimes and analyze evidence.
▪ Hans Gross (1847-1915) – Studied and developed principles of criminal
investigation.
▪ Edmond Locard (1877-1966) – Had a background in medicine and law, and was
the first one to use scientific methods for criminal investigation.

THE ROLE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

Forensic science plays an important role in the investigation of serious crimes. One of the
first significant achievements in the field was the development of techniques for
identifying individuals by their fingerprints.

In the 19th century, it was discovered that almost any contact between a finger and a
fixed surface left a latent mark that could be made visible by a variety of procedures (e.g.,
the use of a fine powder).

In 1894 in England the Troup Committee, a group established by the Home Secretary to
determine the best means of personal identification, accepted that no two individuals had
the same fingerprints a proposition that has never been seriously refuted.

In 1900, another committee recommended the use of fingerprints for criminal

identification. Fingerprint evidence was first accepted in an Argentine court in the 1890s
and in an English court in 1902. Many other countries soon adopted systems of
fingerprint identification as well.

A broad range of other scientific techniques are available to law enforcement agencies
attempting to identify suspects or establish beyond doubt the connection between a
suspect and a crime.

Since becoming reliably available in the late 1980s, DNA fingerprinting of biological
evidence (e.g., hair, sperm, and blood) can exclude a suspect absolutely or establish guilt
with a very high degree of probability.

Many other substances, such as fibres, paper, glass, and paint, can yield considerable
information under microscopic or chemical analysis.

Fibres discovered on the victim or at the scene of the crime can be tested to determine
whether they are similar to those in the clothing of the suspect.
Documents can be revealed as forgeries on the evidence that the paper on which they
were written was manufactured by a technique not available at the time to which it
allegedly dates.

The refractive index of even small particles of glass may be measured to show that a given
item or fragment of glass was part of a particular batch manufactured at a particular time
and place.

Computer networks allow investigators to search increasingly large bodies of data on

material samples, though the creation of such databases is time-consuming and costly.

The role of forensic science services starts at the crime scene with the recognition and
recovery of physical evidence.

It proceeds with its analysis and the evaluation of the results in a laboratory, and the
presentation of the findings to judges, prosecutors, lawyers and others in need of factual
information. From the first responders to the end-users of the information, all personnel
involved should have an adequate understanding of the forensic process, the scientific
disciplines and the specialized services provided by forensic laboratories.

Every incident, be it a crime, accident, natural disaster, armed conflict, or other, leaves
traces at the scene. The goal of the subsequent investigation is to correctly interpret the
facts, reconstruct the events and understand what happened.

Due to the transient and fragile nature of those traces, their reliability and the
preservation of their physical integrity depend to a very large extent on initial actions at
the scene of the incident.

Evidence integrity can be achieved with every limited means by observing a key set of
guiding principles.

Acting with care and professionalism throughout the crime scene investigation process
is critical for the admissibility of evidence for court purposes as well as for human rights
inquiries and humanitarian action.

ROLE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS

Forensic science is that piece without which the puzzle of a criminal investigation is
incomplete. Without the application of forensic science, criminals can never be convicted
unless an eyewitness is present.

While detectives and law enforcement agencies are involved in the collection of evidence,
be it physical or digital, it is forensic science that deals with the analysis of those evidence
in order to establish facts admissible in the court of law. Thus in a world devoid of forensic
science, murderers, thieves, drug traffickers and rapists would be roaming scot-free.
The duties and responsibilities of a forensic scientist in a criminal investigation is crucial
as it involves the careful examination of an evidence while ensuring that it is not
tampered with.

A diverse pool of forensic scientists and forensic tools go to the investigation of a criminal
act.

For instance, forensic pathologists are skilled at determining the cause of a death by
performing autopsies.

An autopsy helps establish the cause and manner of death through the examination of
body fluids and tissues.

Forensic scientists analyze physical evidence (fingerprints, blood, hair, etc.) collected
from the incident scene to identify suspects.

Additionally, forensic professionals use image modification tools to search for criminals
absconding from the law for a long time. This tool enables them to digitally age a
photograph to understand how the individual would look at aging.

SCOPE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

I. Forensic Biology/DNA – apart from fingerprint analysis, DNA profiling is the

other commonly used forensic technique in criminal investigations. DNA being
as unique to an individual as fingerprints, help forensic professionals identify
or confirm an unidentified person, or to eliminate suspects from a list of
accused.
The biological evidence most commonly used for DNA profiling includes
blood, saliva, semen, skin, urine, and hair. However, DNA fingerprints are
usually never used as the single piece of evidence in the court of law.
II. Forensic Odontology – forensic odontology helps in the identification of
victims when the body is left in an unrecognizable state. This is achieved
through an examination of their teeth, the alignment, and overall structure of
the mouth.
Forensic dentists or odontologists aid in the comparative identification of
a person by examining the development and anatomy of the teeth including
any restorative dental corrections such as filling. It is often applied to criminal
investigations for bite mark analysis.
III. Controlled Substances – chemicals that are legally recognized as having the
potential for abuse are called controlled substances. This includes “street
drugs” such as ecstasy or heroin and prescription drugs such as oxycodone.
The ability to detect and identify such controlled substances plays a crucial
role in aiding law enforcement agencies in their fight against drug abuse and
drug-based violence.
IV. Forensic Toxicology – forensic toxicology involves analysis of biological
samples to check for the presence of toxins and drugs. This branch of forensic
science is of prime importance in road accidents, poisoning, sexual violence
etc. The toxicology reports furnish key information about the nature of
substance present in an individual pertaining to an incidence.
It also determines whether the quantity of substances is normal as per a
therapeutic dosage or exceeds the permissible level. Since newer variants of
drugs are developed each day, this branch of forensic science is ever evolving
and demands up-to-date approach.
V. Forensic Anthropology – this deal with the examination of compromised
human remains or skeletons to help determine the age, height, gender, and
ancestry. It also helps establish the time since death identifying and examining
injuries, if any.
These analyses give valuable leads to investigators on identifying victims,
especially in cases where the bodies are beyond recognition.
VI. Forensic Pathology and Medico-Legal Death Investigation – forensic is a
branch of pathology that helps determining the cause of death by examining a
corpse. Forensic medicine thus involves the collection and analysis of medical
samples to deduce facts admissible in the court of law.
For instance, identification of wound patterns can help determine the
weapon used to inflict the wound. Additionally, forensic pathologists can
examine exit and entry wounds in deaths pertaining to the use of firearms or
other projectiles. A forensic pathologist can, therefore, draw crucial inferences
on whether the death is natural, criminal or accidental.

VII. Impression and Pattern Evidence – impression evidence is the evidence

created when two objects come in contact with enough force to create an
“impression”. This could involve a two-dimensional impression such as
fingerprint or three-dimensional one such as the marks on a bullet.
Pattern evidence analysis involves identification and analysis of additional
information within an impression and pattern evidence when used in
conjunction can help establish vital links between a suspect/tool to a crime
scene.
VIII. Trace Evidence – evidence such as fibers, soil, hair, gunshot residue, wood,
and pollen are some of the many examples of trace evidence. It derives its
name from its tendency to be easily transferrable between objects, people or
the environment during a crime.
Trace evidence often plays a pivotal role in establishing a prime link
between a suspect and the victim. For instance, a soil sample obtained from
the shoes of a victim can give critical clues on the location of the crime and thus
help in tracing the perpetrator.
IX. Cyber Forensics – cyber forensics involves the analysis of evidence found in
computers and digital storage media like pen drives hard disks etc. Its major
 objective is identifying, preserving, recovering, analyzing, and presenting facts
and opinions about the digital information.
Although it is mostly used for the investigation of cybercrimes, it also
widely used in civil proceedings. Cyber Forensics has been used in criminal law
since the mid-1980s, some notable’s ones being the Sharon Lopatka homicide
case, and the conviction of Dennis Rader, Dr. Conrad Murray – Michael
Jackson’s personal physician, and Joseph E. Duncan III.
X. Ballistics – ballistics is a specialized forensic science that deals with the
motion, behavior, dynamics, angular movement and effects of projectiles, such
as bullets, rockets, missiles, bombs etc. The use of ballistic in forensics is
mainly criminal investigations.
For instance, the examination of the bullet found at a crime scene can reveal
what type of gun was used to fire it and whether it is associated with any other
crime in the past. In fact, ballistic details are documented in a large database
that is accessible by law enforcement agencies across the globe.

IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN LAW

The word “forensic” has its roots in the Latin word “forenses” which means a forum. Back
in early Rome, a forum referred to a public place where judicial proceedings and debates
were held. Thus, the origin and the very definition of ‘forensic science’ points to its close
association with legal system.

Forensic Science involves the collection, preservation, and analysis of evidence suitable
for prosecuting an offender in the court of law. The application of the forensic science in
the criminal justice system is, therefore, an apparent picture.

The legal system widely recognizes the role of forensic evidence in the trial of criminal
offenders. This is because when scientific techniques and methods are used, there is not
much scope for bias or injustice. That is why DNA profiling and a host of other forensic
evidence are widely accepted in courts across the world.

Interestingly, the first forensic technique ever used involving finger and palm print
identification dates back to the Chinese (650 A.D.).

Forensic evidence is extensively used worldwide to both convict and exonerate

defendants. Thus, forensic science laboratories have mushroomed up all over the globe
in the past couple of decades.

In fact, special acts have been enacted in the US, Canada, and Australia to improve the
rendering of forensic services. This would ensure that crimes are detected with greater
certainty and consequently conviction rates can increase. Such acts place a great
emphasis on time-efficient and quality management of crime scene.
MODULE II: RELATED SCIENCES USE FOR PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

INTRODUCTION

People can be identified by their fingerprints. This assertion is supported by the

philosophy of friction ridge identification, which states that identification is established
through the agreement of friction ridge formations, in sequence, having sufficient
uniqueness to individualize.

People can also be identified from trace of their DNA from blood, skin, hair, saliva, and
semen by DNA fingerprinting, from their ear print, from their teeth or bite by forensic
odontology, from a photograph or a video recording by facial recognition systems, from
the video recording of their walk by gait analysis, from an audio recording by voice
analysis, from their handwriting by handwriting analysis, from the content of their
writings by their writing style (e.g., typical phrases, factual bias, and/or misspellings of
words), or from other traces using biometric techniques.

Since forensic identification has been first introduced to the courts in 1980, the first
exoneration due to DNA evidence was in 1989 and there have been 336 additional
exonerations since then.

Those who specialize in forensic identification continue to make headway with new
discoveries and technological advances to make convictions more accurate.

Body identification is a subfield of forensics concerned with identifying someone from

their remains.

A. ANTHROPOMETRY
1. Ancient Anthropometric Measurements
The ancient civilizations of Rome, Greece, and Egypt primarily used
anthropometric measurements for cultural purposes (e.g., artwork) to
represent beauty, power, and other desirable attributes of the human form.
Symmetry was particularly desirable, and units of measurement often
consisted of the “width of a human hand or length of a human foot”.
2. Anthropomorphic Measurements During the Renaissance
Artists during the renaissance applied anthropometric measurements to
artistic works by applying human proportions. One of the most famous
examples, is the works of the famous artist Leonardo da Vinci (the famous
Vitruvian Man), who obtained measurements of the human body by analyzing
cadavers. Other artists relied on live models and historical achieves to obtain
accurate anthropometric measurements.
3. Bertillon, Galton and Criminology
In 1883, Frenchman Alphonse Bertillon introduced a system of
identification that was named after him. The “Bertillonage” system was based
on the finding that several measures of physical features, such as the
dimensions of bony structures in the body, that remain fairly constant
throughput adult life.
Bertillon concluded that when these measurements were made and
recorded systematically, every individual would be distinguishable. Bertillon’s
goal was a way of identifying recidivists (repeat offenders). Previously police
could only record general descriptions.
Photography of criminals had become commonplace, but there was no easy
way to sort the many thousands of photographs except by name. Bertillon’s
hope was that, through the use of measurements, a set of identifying numbers
could be entered into a filing system installed in a single cabinet.
The system involved 10 measurements; height, stretch (distance from left
shoulder to middle finger of raised right arm), bust (torso from head to seat
when seated), head length (crown to forehead) and head width temple to
temple) width of cheeks, and “lengths” of the right ear, the left foot, middle
finger, and cubit (elbow to tip of middle finger).
It was possible by exhaustion, to sort the cards on which these details were
recorded (together with a photograph) until a small number produced the
measurements of the individual sought, independently of name. Bertillonage
was before long represented in Paris by a collection of some 100,000 cards and
became popular in several other countries’ justice systems.
England followed suit when 1894, a committee sent to Paris to investigate
the methods and its results reported favorably on the use of measurements for
primary classification and recommended also the partial adoption of the
system of fingerprints suggested by Francis Galton, then in use in Bengal,
where measurements were abandoned in 1897 after the fingerprint system
was adopted throughput the British India.
Three years later England followed suit, and, as the result of a fresh inquiry
ordered by the Home Office, relied upon fingerprints alone. Bertillonage
exhibited certain defects and was gradually supplanted by the system of
fingerprints and, latterly, genetics.
Bertillon originally measured variables he thought were independent –
such as forearm length and leg length - but Galton had realized that both were
the result of a single causal variable (in this case, stature) and developed the
statistical concept of correlation.
Other complications were: it was difficult to tell whether or not individuals
arrested were first-time offenders; instruments employed were costly and
liable to break down; skilled measurers were needed; errors were frequent
and all but irremediable; and it was necessary to repeat measurements three
times to arrive at a mean result.
B. ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropological criminology (sometimes referred to as criminal
anthropology, literally a combination of the study of the human species and the
study of criminals) is a field of offender profiling, based on perceived links
between the nature of a crime and the personality of physical appearance of the
offender.
Although similar to physiognomy and phrenology, the term “criminal
anthropology” is generally reserved for the works of the Italian school of
criminology of the late 19th century (Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, Raffaele
Garofalo, and Lorenzo Tenchini. Lombroso thought the criminals were born with
detectable inferior physiological differences.
He popularized the notion “born criminal” and thought that criminality was
a case of atavism or hereditary disposition. His central idea was to locate crime
completely within the individual and divorce it from surrounding social
conditions and structures. A founder of the Positivist school of criminology,
Lombroso opposed the social positivism developed by Chicago school and
environmental criminology.
Lombroso outlined 14 physiognomic characteristics which he and his
followers believed to be common in all criminals, some of which but are not
limited to: unusually short or tall height; small head, but large face; fleshy lips, but
thin upper lip; protuberances (bumps) on head, in back of head and around ear;
wrinkles on forehead and face; large sinus cavities or bumpy face; tattoos on body;
receding hairline; bumps on head, particularly above left ear; large incisors; bushy
eyebrows, tending to meet across nose; large eye sockets, but deep-set eyes;
beaked or flat nose; strong jaw line; small and sloping forehead; small or weak
chin; thin neck; sloping shoulders but large chest; large, protruding ears; long
arms; high cheek bones; pointy or snubbed fingers and toes.
Despite general rejections of Lombroso’s theories, anthropological
criminology still finds a place of sort in modern criminal profiling. Historically
(particularly in the 1930s) criminal anthropology had been associated somewhat
in eugenics as the idea of a physiological flaw in the human race was often
associated with plans to remove such flaws.
This was found particularly in America, with the American Eugenics
Movement between 1907 and 1939, and the Anti-miscegenation laws, and also in
Germany during the Third Reich where 250,000 mentally disabled Germans were
killed.
C. ODONTOLOGY
Forensic odontology is the application of dental science to legal
investigations, primarily involving the identification of the offender by comparing
dental records to a bite mark left on the victim or at the scene, or identification of
human remains based on dental records.
 Criminals have been known to leave bite mark impressions at the crime
scene, whether it is in food, chewing gum or, more commonly, on the victim. When
a bite mark is discovered, numerous steps should be taken.
One the mark has been sufficiently photographed, a saliva sample is taken
from the area for potential DNA evidence, casts or moulds can then be made. If
another bite impression is found elsewhere or if a teeth impression is taken from
a suspect, a comparison can be made.

Bite marks have been divided into seven classifications:

1. Hemorrhage: A small bleeding spot.

2. Abrasion: Undamaging mark on the skin.
3. Contusion: Ruptured blood vessels, bruising.
4. Laceration: Punctured or torn skin.
5. Incision: Neat puncture of the skin.
6. Avulsion: Removal of the skin.
7. Artefact: Bitten off piece of body.

Bite marks may be found on the flesh of victims of a violent attack, particularly on
the stomach, breasts or buttocks. Alternatively, they may be found on the suspect, left by
the victim during self-defense. The quality and accuracy of a bite mark are dependent on
numerous factors, including time-dependent changes, where the bite mark was found,
damage to soft tissue, dental similarity among individuals, and quality of photography,
impressions or measurements. If a bite mark is only represented as a bruise, it is often
extremely difficult to detect any individual characteristics.
In identifying human remains in their teeth, dental records should ideally be
obtained and compared to those of the unidentified body. If this is not possible, other
clues in the teeth may be useful. Tooth eruption is linked to a certain extent with age,
giving a possible rough estimation of the victim. When working with a young victim, the
stage of development of a child’s teeth may be used to determine their age, though this
can only be an estimate.
The state and wear patterns of an individual’s teeth may give insight into the
person’s age, diet, and dental history, as well as personal habits such as pipe-smoking and
eating disorders. A common method of comparing bite marks is to use transparent
overlays to record the biting edges of a suspect’s teeth and compare them with the crime
scene sample. These are often drawn on sheets of acetate, which can then be placed over
one another for comparison. If it is possible, a dental cast will be made of the bite mark
for later comparison to a suspect sample.
However, the reliability of forensic odontology has been called into question on
numerous occasions. The skin itself is not a good medium for dental impressions, often
having a number or irregularities that will cause distortion. Bite marks can be altered
through stretching, movement, or change environment.
There is also no set standard by which to analyze and compare bite marks. Aside
from criminal cases, forensic odontologists and dentists are greatly involved in the
identification of victims of mass disasters. Dental records in particular are beneficial in
identifying such victims.

HISTORY

The use of teeth for identification goes back to Roma times. In the first century A.D., the
Roman Emperor Claudius had his mistress, Lollia Paulina, beheaded and then demanded
to examine the teeth in the body to ensure the right woman had been put to death. He
knew she had a discolored front tooth.

In other early example of dental identification, William the Conqueror, King of England in
the eleventh century, would bite into wax used to seal official documents. His teeth were
misaligned, so his bite mark guaranteed the documents’ authenticity. In 1775, Paul
Revere, famous for alerting American colonists to the approach of British forces, made a
set of dentures for a friend, Dr. Joseph Warren, who was killed at the Battle of Bunker Hill
that year. Warren was buried in a mass grave, but his family wanted the body for a private
burial. Revere was able to identify Warren’s body through the dentures he had made.

In a similar case in 1914, a dentist in Scotland helped to identify a corpse in a grave-

robbing case. Such crimes were not uncommon at the time as the bodies were furnished
to medical schools. The victim had recently been fitted with a denture and this was
presented in court as evidence of her identity.

In United States courts, dental evidence was first presented in court in 1849 when the
incinerated remains of a George Parkman were identified by Nathan Cooley Keep through
a partial denture he had made for this patient. He proved identity by fitting the prosthesis
onto the cast that had been used in its manufacture. The evidence led to the conviction
and execution of a J.W. Webster for the murder.

The first use of dental records in the identification of victims of mass disaster was
probably the fire at the Vienna Opera House in 1878. Dental remains were also used to
identify some of the 126 dead in a fire in Paris in 1897, which prompted the writing of
the first textbook on forensic dentistry by the pioneering figure Oscar Amoedo. Since
then, forensic odontology has been used to identify the victims of many major incidents
such as plane crashes, fires, and terrorist attacks.

For instance, in the year 2000, Alaska Airlines Flight 261 crashed in California, killing 88
passengers and crew. A team of forensic dentists summoned to the scene found few intact
jawbones and worked with partial post-mortem records, comparing these with the full
ante-mortem dental charts which were sent to them from the victims’ dentists. Over 100
dental remains were studied and compared with 68 complete dental records.

In total, 22 of the victims were identified through their dental records. In the attacks on
the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, only around half of the estimated 2,748
victims were identified, through a mixture of DNA, jewelry, and dental records. Forensic
dentistry has also been used to identify some notorious figures from Nazi era, including
Adolf Hitler, Martin Bormann, Eva Braun, and Joseph Mengle.

The identity of John F. Kennedy’s assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, was confirmed through
dental records. The remains of Czar Nicholas II and his family, who were shot during the
1917 Russian Revolution, were also initially identified from their teeth.

The first time bite marks were ever used as evidence in a criminal trial was in the 1954
case Doyle v. State of Texas. This involved an assailant who left his bite mark in a lump of
cheese at the scene. A more famous case is that of serial killer Ted Bundy who left a bite
mark on the buttock of a victim, which helped secure his conviction.

D. IRIS RECOGNITION

Iris recognition is a method of identifying people based on unique patterns within the ring-shaped
region surrounding the pupil of the eye. The iris usually has a brown, blue, gray, or greenish color,
with complex patterns that are visible upon close inspection. Because it makes use of a biological
characteristic, iris recognition is considered a form of biometric verification.
In iris recognition, the identification process is carried out by gathering one or more detailed
images of the eye with a sophisticated, high-resolution digital camera at visible or infrared (IR)
wavelengths, and then using a specialized computer program called a matching engine to
compare the subject's iris pattern with images stored in a database. The matching engine can
compare millions of images per second with a level of precision comparable to conventional
fingerprinting or digital finger scanning.
In order for iris recognition to provide accurate and dependable results, the subject must be
within a few meters of the camera. Some control mechanisms must be implemented to ensure
that the captured image is a real face, not a high-quality photograph. The ambient lighting must
not produce reflections from the cornea (the shiny outer surface of the eyeball) that obscure any
part of the iris. The subject must remain stationary, or nearly stationary, with respect to the
camera, and must not be hostile to the process. Certain types of contact lenses and glasses can
obscure the iris pattern.

How Iris Recognition Works

Iris scanning measures the unique patterns in irises, the colored circles in people’s eyes.
Biometric iris recognition scanners work by illuminating the iris with invisible infrared
light to pick up unique patterns that are not visible to the naked eyes. Iris scanners detect
and exclude eyelashes, eyelids, and specular reflections that typically block parts of iris.

The Final result is a set of pixels containing only the iris. Next, the pattern of the eye’s
lines and colors are analyzed to extract a bit pattern that encodes the information in the
iris. This bit pattern is digitized and compared to stored templates in a database for
verification (one-to-one template matching) or Identification (one-to-many template
matching).

Iris scanner collect around 240 biometric features, the amalgamation of which are unique
to every eye. The scanners then create a digital representation of that data. That numeric
representation of information extracted from the iris image is stored in a computer
database.

Iris scanning is sometimes used in conjunction with other biometrics, such as fingerprints
and face recognition. John Daugman is the inventor of this system. He developed and
patented the first useful algorithms to perform this biometric recognition system.

Iris recognition works in two stages,

At first, it completes the enrollment process of an individual and creates a profile, then it
verifies that person by matching the data with its database.

A. Enrolment

The enrolment process is far from complexity and it takes a little time. Individuals need
to stand in front of the camera so that the camera could digitally photograph their Iris
with both ordinary light and invisible infrared.

The infrared system helps to focus all the features of darkly colored eyes that couldn’t be
done properly with an ordinary light. Now, a computer system analyzes these both digital
photographs and create your profile. It eliminates the unnecessary things like eyelashes
and identifies about 240 features that make every individual’s iris unique.

It is five times more than the features fingerprint recognition system creates. Then, the
system turns these featured into a 512- digit code number. Now, this data will be stored
in the database along with your name, address and other details. The whole enrolment
process is automatic, fast and hygienic.

B. Verification

The verification process is even easier than the enrolment process. Individuals will stand
in front of the iris scanner and scan their eyes to identify themselves. The iris scanner will
take a photograph of your eyes and quickly extract the number code.

Then the computer system will compare your data with its database. If your code match
with the database, you are perfectly identified and allowed to proceed. But, if your data
doesn’t match with the database, either you didn’t enroll before, or you’re faking your
identity.

E. DNA

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is in the nucleus of every cell in the body. It is a chain of
chemical compounds called bases, which carry energetic information and tell cells how
to grow, function and reproduce.

Two bases join together to create base pairs, of which there are about 3 million in your
DNA. The complete set of your compounds is called a genome. More than 99.9 percent of
every person’s genome is exactly the same. The tiny remainders is what makes one
person different from everybody else The exception is identical twins; whose genomes
are 100 percent alike.

How is DNA Tested?

To get your DNA tested, a sample of cells is taken from your body, for example, via blood,
saliva or sweat. Chemicals are added to the sample in the lab to separate the DNA, then it
is dissolved in water. A further chemical process creates a unique pattern of stripes called
a polymorphism (a little like a barcode), which can be studied and matched against other
samples to reveal the unique parts of your genome.

The development of DNA testing for the purposes of identification was as important a
breakthrough in the 1980s as the development of fingerprinting technology in the 1880s.
DNA identification testing is often used for the purpose of identifying the victims of
crimes and terrorist attacks such as those on Sept. 11,2001.

DNA testing is often used for the purpose of eliminating a suspect from a police inquiry
and, in other cases, for placing a suspect at the same of a crime.

Paternity

One of the most common uses of DNA testing is to provide information on the parentage
of a child. DNA testing is used for the purpose of the testing the parentage of children in
adoption, child support and custody, as well as for immigration purposes. As DNA is made
up of a mixture of the DNA of a person’s parents, the genetic structure allows the
parentage of a child to be estimated to a 99.9 percent probability.

The Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an is an invaluable tool in modern molecular

biology. It also serves an important purpose in law enforcement as a step in a process
called DNA fingerprinting.

The polymerase chain reaction uses two primers ( short single-stranded sequences of
DNA) and special high-temperature stable polymerase ( an enzyme that copies DNA) to
make many copies of a sequence in a DNA sample. PCR enables researchers to make lots
of copies of a specific region of the genome from DNA sample and thereby isolate it for
analysis.

DNA Fingerprinting in Forensic

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA typing, DNA testing or DNA profiling, is a
chemical test to establish the genetic makeup of a person or another living thing. The
technique was discovered by accident by British geneticist Alec Jeffrey in 1984, after he
extracted DNA from cells and fixed it to photographic film.

DNA fingerprinting was first used in a police investigation in the U.K. in 1986, and since
then million of people across the world have had their DNA tested during criminal
investigations. DNA fingerprinting is used in criminal cases, both to identify perpetrators
and exonerate innocent parties, by establishing or ruling out a link between a suspect and
piece of evidence.

It can also identify dead bodies that have decomposed so much they are no longer
recognizable. When used for forensic science, DNA testing uses probes to target regions
of DNA specific to humans, to rule out contamination by additional DNA from other
sources, such as bacteria or plants.

Other uses for DNA fingerprinting

DNA fingerprinting can be used for non- criminal identification, for example, to settle a
paternity suit, establish a relationship for inheritance purposes or to reconcile family
members separated by war or natural disaster.

In agriculture, DNA fingerprinting is used to identify genetically modified plants, improve

the effect of disease and insect control and reduce pesticide pollution. Additionally, DNA
can be used to prove pedigree in racehorses and other valuable animals.

F. GAIT ANALYSIS

Gait analysis is the systematic study of animal locomotion, more specifically the study of
human motion, using the eye and the brain of observers, augmented by instrumentation
for measuring body movement, body mechanics, and the activity of the muscles.

Gait analysis is used to assess and treat individuals with conditions affecting their ability
to walk. It is also commonly used in sports biomechanics to help athletes run more
efficiently and to identify posture-related or movement related problems in people with
injuries.

The pioneers of scientific gait analysis were Aristotle in De Motu Animalium ( On the Gait
f Animals) and much later in 1680, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli also called De Motu
Animalium. In the 1890s, the German anatomist Christian Wilhelm Braune and Otto
Fischer published a series of papers on the biomechanics of human gait under loaded and
unloaded conditions.

A typical gait analysis laboratory has several cameras (video or infrared) placed around
a walkway or a treadmill, which are linked to a computer The patient has markers located
at various points of reference of the body (e.g., iliac spines of the pelvis, ankle malleolus,
and the condyles of the knee), or groups of markers applied to half of the body segments.

Adding to this to the known dynamics of each body segment enables the solutions of
equations based on the Newton-Euler equations of motions permitting computations of
the net forces and the net moments of force about each joint at every stage of the gait
cycle. The computational method for this is known as inverse dynamics.
Chronophotography is the most basic method for recording of movement. Strobe
lighting at known frequency has been used in the past to aid in the analysis of gait on
single photographic images.

G. CHIROSCOPY

Science of palm print identification. Derived from two Greek word: Cheir-means “a hand”
and Skopein-means “to examine”.

Palm Print Pattern Areas

The friction ridges of the palms present patterns and the palm may be divided into
different

Pattern areas or zones. It is important to know and understand the general pattern flow
and configuration of the ridges found on the different pattern areas so as to help the
examiner narrow down his search of a specific latent impression for easier comparison
work.

1. Thenar Zone- this is large cushion area at the base of the thumb. Pattern of loop,
whorl, or a combination of them may appear. On some palms there is pattern in
this area, just the appearance of more or less straight ridges.
For the crime-scene investigation, latent impression of this area is usually found
on objects such as beer bottles, pipes used as weapons.
2. Hypothenar Zone- this zone contains a large cushion area just below the base of
the little finger. This zone may contain a loop or a whorl type pattern or no pattern
at all. There are ridges present. Latent impression of this area is common on
questioned documents or papers involved in handwriting.
3. Palmar Zone- this is the area at the base of the fingers. Usually, a broad delta is
noticed at the base of each finger. Patterns may appear between these deltas at the
intervals between the interdigital spaces.
4. Carpal Delta Zone- this is the area about the center of the palm, down near the
wrist where a delta is frequently present. For latent impression investigation, this
may appear on window sills and counter or table tops when the suspect requires
support for climbing.
Distal- in palm prints, it means toward the fingertips.
Proximal- it means toward the wrist. The major accessory creases, secondary
creases and accessory distal transverse crease form sometime after 18 weeks’
gestation. The fetus is usually to grasp tightly between 16 to 20 weeks’ gestation.

This folding of the palmar skin is believed to be responsible for the development of these
flexion creases. Once formed, even though the groves and volar pads disappear, flexion
creases remain permanent.
Phalanges of Fingers

1. Terminal phalange/phalanx- the end of joint/tip of fingers.

2. Middle phalange/ phalanx- the middle potion of fingers.
3. Proximal Phalange/phalanx- the base portion of fingers.

H. PODOSCOPY

The science of foot print identification and footwear identification. Derived from two
Greek words: Podo- means “the foot” and Skopein- means “to examine”.

Footprint Pattern Zone

Five pattern zones are found on the scale of the foot.

1. Ball zone- this area is found below the phase of the big toe. It may contain loops,
whorls or combination of these patterns. In some footprints it is devoid of any
pattern and will show a series of ridge formation running across the area. This
large cushion corresponds to the thenar zone of a palm print.
2. Plantar Zone- this is the space just below the base of the four little toes just below
the ball zone. It corresponds to the palmar zone of a palm print. Patterns may
appear in this area such as loops, whorls or a combination of these patterns, or
just plain unpatterned ridge formation.
3. Calcar Zone- this is the area located at the heel. Infrequent pattern does show in
this zone. What commonly appears are plain striations of ridge running from one
side to the other side.
4. Tibial Zone- this zone is an area on the tibial bone side of the foot where the big
toe is also located. It is very rare that patterns may appear on this zone.
5. Fibular Zone- this zone is situated on the little toe side of the foot just below the
plantar zone. It derives its name from the fibula bone which is a bone of the lower
leg corresponding to the ulna bone of the arm. Very infrequently are patterns
found on this zone.
6. Tread Area- this is an area which includes that portion of the foot lying between
the ball- plantar zones and calcar zone. The fibular and the tibial zones are found
within the tread area.

I. POROSCOPY

Study of the pore structure for the purpose of identification. Derived from the Greek
words: poros-means “a pore” and skopein- means “to examine.”

Pore Identification

In the annals of scientific personal identification, poroscopy finds its place as an

independent medium of identification. It can also be used as an aid to reinforce
identification using the papillary ridge characteristics method when the numbers of ridge
characteristics shown are very low.

Poroscopy is an important branch of the science of fingerprinting and is based on a

specialized study of pore structure found on the epidermal ridges of the skin as a means
of identification. Pores are mouth of the sweat gland ducts located on the summits of the
ridges arranged in a longitudinal row.

When one observes closely the surface of the ridges on the fingers or palm with the use
of a magnifying lens, you will notice the tiny globules of sweat that come out from these
openings. The sweating is continuous and is said to be a normal physiological process.

In 1912, Dr. Edmund Locard of Lyons, France examined pores in details and published a
paper as a result of his studies. According to Locard, the sweat pores vary in the following
ways;

1. Size- the size of the pores varies without system and several sizes of pores may be
found along the same ridges. He used fingerprint impressions to measure pores,
and found that pores vary in diameter from 88 to 220 micra. The largest pores are
three times the diameter and nine times the area of the smallest.
2. Shape- Dr. Locard found the pores to be elliptical, oval, square, rhomboid, or
triangular. Inked prints tend to have the pores filled in so that their shapes are not
clearly revealed.
3. Position on ridge- this is the most valuable feature of the pore structure and is the
most conspicuous. The pores usually lie in a single row along the mid-section or
crest of the ridge. The position of the pores may differ in their relative position to
each other. A few may appear grouped together or spread apart.
Occasionally two ores may appear to be abreast on the ridge or they may be so
close together that they appear to form a triangle. Such striking points are valuable
as points of identification and are also valuable in locating a fragment of a print in
the complete known impression.
4. Number and Frequency- this feature its characteristics of an entire print or of all
the prints of an individual and may be calculated in two ways;
A. The average number of pores that occurs on a given length of ridge.
B. The average number of pores found within the given area. The amount of pores
found in one centimeter of ridge varies from 9 to 18.

David R. Ashbaugh states that the number ranged from 1611 pores on smaller
fingers to 2658 on the larger thumb print. According to Robert D. Olsen Sr.
papillary skin contains an average of 2700 pores per square inch.

J. EDHEOSCOPY

Edges and shapes of the ridges. This includes the study of: endings, puckering, and
bifurcations.
In 1963, a fingerprint scientist, Salil Kumar Chatterjee of Calcut, India devised a system
founded on the unique and infinite configurations of the papillary ridges.

His published work was a result of his study pf the edge of the ridge and the various
shapes found there. The appearance and persistence of the ridge had previously been
established by Professor Harris Wilder, an American scientist who discovered that the
ridges first emerge in the fetus as bumps with a pore appearing randomly somewhere on
its structure.

These pore pods fuse together to form ridges. Each pore pool is a unique island of
individually. Because of this unique feature of the ridge edges, the acquire also a unique
characteristic of their own.

He described the characteristics as follow;

A. STRAIGHT
B. CONCAVE
C. CONVEX
D. TABLE
E. PEAK
F. POCKET
G. ANGLE and etc.

The main purpose od edgeoscopy is to prove identity by using small segments of papillary
skin lacking ridge detail for comparative examination and identification. Proof of identity
is established by the agreement of any ridge characteristics present, agreement of edge
characteristics, and agreement of any pores shown.

Combining then the three related science poroscopy, edgeoscopy, and ridge
characteristics for the purpose of the positive identification of fingerprints would give us
a new term ridgeology.

Three General Categories in Fingerprinting Dead Bodies

1. Mummification
2. Decomposition
3. Maceration

K. RIDGEOLOGY

Combination of; poroscopy and edgeoscopy ridge characteristics. Introduced by Sgt.

David R. Ashbaugh.

L. DERMATOGLYPHICS

Study of the lines, tracings, ridges of the skin of fingers, palms and hands. Derived from
“derma”- means “skin” and “glyphein”- means “to study.”
MODULE III: DACTYLOSCOPY / FINGERPRINT

Introduction

● A fingerprint is a composite of the ridge outlines which appears on the skin surface of the bulbs
on the inside of the end joints of the finger and thumbs.

● These ridges are commonly referred to as papillary or friction ridges.

● The ridges have a definite contour and appear in several ridge formations or patterns, each
possessing definite individual details by which positive identification can be made.

● Ridge characteristics are formed prior to birth and remain constant throughout life except for
growth and deep scarification.

● From law enforcement viewpoint fingerprints serve as an additional purpose.

● Since the ridges on the skin surface emit a film of perspiration or oily matter, there is the
tendency for the ridge impression to adhere to nonporous objects that any person may touch.

● Such fingerprints may be rendered visible by various powders and chemicals used for this
purpose.

● When latent impressions discovered at a crime scene during an investigation are searched
against the fingerprints of a suspect and a positive identification is made, these latent fingerprints
are admissible as evidence in court.

UNIT I

HISTORY OF PERSONAL IDENTICATION

Methods of Identification through the Ages

- Through the ages at different periods in man’s history, they tried a variety of methods to
separate a person from all others, but none of these early devices for personal
identification was found to be adequate until finger printing was adopted. Among the
primitives are;

1. Tattooing – was found its use, but tattoos can be duplicated, changed, or disfigured and
they had their own purpose. In ancient times, tattoos signified family, clan or tribal
relation. Today it signifies membership in gang organization.
2. Scarification – was also a means of identification in the past. This was done by cutting on
various parts of the body, thus leaving scars forming elaborate designs. However, this
form of barbaric skin marking was considered unreliable.
3. Personal Description – this was effectively practiced by the French police in the latter
part of the 19th century to identify criminals. Alphonse Bertillon named the method
Portrait Parle, which means speaking likeness. At first it helped lessen the burden of
identification, but it was also unreliable. The reasons are;
A. All features by which one could be identified were affected by changed either through
force or accident.
 B. In cases where double among human beings had occurred whether related or
unrelated. Blood-related cases involved monozygotic twins, triplets, and in some
incidental deliveries of quadruplets.
4. Photography – has come along way since its inception. It has been heavily relied on, but
again there are objections to it.
A. The angle at which the photograph is taken affects personal identification.
B. Changes due to age, one’s health condition, accident, existence of double.
5. Anthropometry – a system of identification based on the measurements of the various
bony structure of human body came to be known when it was introduced in the Police
Department in Paris, France in 1882, again by Alphonse Bertillon. It was the improvement
over all the previous methods and its use resulted in the great number of successful
identifications. The method did fill in a need to answer the great problem of the Paris
police at that time. It also filled the gap between the crude, earlier methods of
identification and later on the accurate, infallible fingerprint system.

Its disadvantages are;

A. It can only apply to adults
B. It took a long time to learn and apply the system
C. It was subject to errors and duplication

HISTORY OF PERSONAL IDENTICATION

- Historical accounts are based upon reliable records which may be in form of arts and
science, writings and inventions, and also customs, traits, and languages of different
people in the past.
- Through the untiring efforts of some anthropologists and ethnologists, and by means of
their researches, the true aspects of some of the earliest records which were drawn from
the examination of objects belonging to the dark, stone, and bronze ages found in graves,
cliffs, caves and other places were discovered.
- Some of these discoveries were in the from of carvings, drawings, and other designs were
linked with the modern methods of identification and some of these facts are briefly
outlined.

1. Holland and China. Identification of individuals was by means of branding, tattooing,

mutilation, and also manifested by wearing clothes of different design. In earlier
civilizations, branding and even maiming was used to mark the criminal for what he was.
The thief was deprived of the hand which committed the thievery. The Romans employed
the tattoo needle to identify and prevent desertion of mercenary soldiers.

2. Old Mexico. The Aztecs impressed their hands accidentally or intentionally on the
molded and still soft clays, of their hand-made idols to serve as their trade marks. The
tilted authorities stamped their hands on the death warrants for the men and women who
offered their lives to sacrifices for their idol gods.

3. France. Numerous rock carvings and paintings featuring hand designs and fingerprints
have been found on the granite wall slabs in the Neolithic burial passage of the L’lle de
 Gayr’inis. Other specimens were also found in the Spanish Pyrenees Cliff dwelling in Nova
Scotia, in the Balearic Island, Australia is, New England Coasts and in Africa.

4. Babylonia. The first use of fingerprints for personal identification originated when
Babylonian Magistrates ordered their officers making arrest and property confiscation to
secure the defendants fingerprints. These facts in clay tablets and cuneiform writings are
now preserved and kept in British Museums.

5. Judea. The holy Scripture or Bible contains many interesting facts based on fingerprints.
Paul, the Apostle. Used his own fingerprints to sing his letters (II Thessalonians 3:17- I,
Paul, greet you with my own hand. This is the mark in every letter. Thus, I write.) Other
significant quotations are found in Job 37:7 – his stealth up the hand of all men that every
man will know his works. And revelations 13:16 – it will cause all, the small and the great,
the rich and the poor, and the free and the bond, to have a mark on their right hand or in
their forehead.

6. Jerusalem. Fingerprint relics were found in clay lumps during the 4th and 5th centuries of
the Christian Era. The excavation of Palestine by the late Dr. Bade yield fragments of such
specimens.

7. China. Fingerprints are called Hua Chi. The value of fingerprints for purpose of
identification was found on a Chinese Clay seal made not later than the 3rd century.
During the Tang Dynasty, fingerprints were used in connection with the preparation of
legal documents. Kia Kung - yen, an author during this time stated that wooden tablets
were engraved with the full terms of the contract, and notches were out in the sides to
where they were identical so that the tablets could later be matched or tallied, thus
providing them genuine. This was the Bill of Loan quite similar to the present Bank Draft.
The Code of domestic relations as described in the Chinese Law Book of Yung Hwui states:
to divorce a wife the husband must write a bill of divorcement and state reasons or
grounds that are due for actions, and impress their palm prints thereon. For contracts,
fingerprints were also used by illiterates.

Early in the 12th century, in the novel, The Story of the River Bank fingerprinting found
itself already in their criminal procedure. Palm and sole impression were stamped on
deed of sale to prevent impersonation.

8. Japan. Deeds, notes and certification to be used as proofs were sealed by the mark of the
hand called Tegata. In the treatment of criminal, the important of the thumb (bo-in or bo-
an) was taken. The criminal signed only by thumbprint with regard to his sentence, and it
was considered as an inferior sort of signature. He was deprived of his civil rights. The
thumbprint which took the place of signature was not intended to establish the criminal
identity.

9. Constantinople. In treaty ratification, the Sultan soaked his hands in a sheep’s blood and
impressed it in a document as his real.
10. England. Thomas Bewick an English engraver, author, and naturalist engraved the
pattern of his own fingerprints on every wood-work he had finished to serve as his mark
so as to establish its genuineness.

11. The Londonderry Agreement (1691). This traditional law created in 1961 in London,
England. It requires both party to impress their thumb prints on a document that contains
the agreement and conditions.

12. United States.

a. JCA Mayer – in 1788, stated in his book, although the arrangement of skin ridges is
never duplicated into two people, nevertheless the similarities are closer among some
individuals. He does become the first to state that the prints of two persons are never
alike.
b. Inez Whipple (1871-1929) – he published a paper “The vential surface of the
mammalian chiridium with special reference to the conditions found in man.”
c. Thomas Taylor (1877) – is Microscopist of the Department of Agriculture,
Washington, DC. He made a formal letter to the Washington Police Department and
suggested that crime can be resolved with the latent prints from the crime scene.
d. Gilbert Thompson – a geologist in New Mexico who adopted the first individual use
of fingerprints on August 8, 1882 by using his own thumbprints as a protection to
prevent tampering with the pay orders he issued.
e. Isaiah West Taber – photographer in San Francisco who has already engaged in the
study and promotion of the fingerprint system even before Galton’s participation. He
advocated the use of the system for the registration of immigrant Chinese.

f. Samuel Clemens – an Englishman whose pen name is Mark Twain, informally

introduced Dactyloscopy in the United States through his books Life in the Mississippi
and Pudd’n Head Wilson, a novel based on dramatic fingerprint identification
demonstrated during court trial. His story pointed out the infallibility of fingerprint
identification in 1883.
g. Arthur Kollman (1883) – one of the first researchers to address the formation of
friction ridges in embryos.
h. Harold Cummins (1893-1976) – a professor of Anatomy of the School of Medicine at
Tulane University, Luisiana who studied Dermatoglyphics. Co-authored a book (with
Charles Midloo) “Fingerprint, Palms and Soles – An Introduction to
Dermatoglyphics”.
i. Dr. Henry P. Forest – utilize the first municipal use of fingerprints for non-criminal
registration on December 19, 1902 in the Municipal Civil Service Commission of the
City of New York. He required civil service applicants to be fingerprinted to prevent
them from having better and qualified persons to take the test for them and put the
system into practice.

j. Capt. James I. Parke – advocated the first state and penal use of fingerprint which
was officially adopted in Singing-sing prison on June 5, 1903 and later on at Auburn,
Napanoch and Clinton Penitentiaries.
 k. Sgt. Kenneth Perrier – an Englishman and first fingerprint instructor at St. Louise
Police Department, Missouri. He was one of the pupils of sir Edward Richard Henry
and through personal contact during the Words Fair Exposition held in St. Louise, a
fingerprint bureau was established on April 12, 1904.

l. Maj. R. McCloughry – the warden of the Federal Penitentiary of Leavenworth when

the office of the Attorney General of U.S. granted permission to establish a fingerprint
bureau therein on November 2, 1904. It was the first official National Government use
of fingerprints.
m. Mary K. Holand – the first American Instructress in Dactyloscopy.

n. Frederick A. Brayle (1910) – one of the earliest authors of First American books on
fingerprints published in Boston by the Worcester Press, Inc. in 1910.
o. Insp. Harry H. Caldwell (1915) – member of California Police Department, Bureau of
Identification. He wrote request letters to the "Criminal Identification Operators" in
August 1915, to form an organization of detectives and to further the Identification
profession.
p. International Association for Criminal Identification (1915) – the first organized
body of professional identification experts.

q. Frederick Kuhne (1916) – he published “The Fingerprint Instruction”, which

probably is the first authoritative book on fingerprinting to be circulated in the United
States.
r. Fingerprint and Identification Magazine (1919) – is a monthly published magazine
in United States that is devoted exclusively for fingerprint science that started in
1919.

s. F.B.I. – an identification unit therein was officially established by an Act of Congress

in 1924.
t. Dir. John Edgar Hoover – served 48 years as Director of now FBI (1924-1972). Died
at age of 77, during his term the America’s Most Wanted John Herbert Dillinger was
arrested.
u. Institute of Applied Science – the first private school to install laboratories for
instruction purposes in Dactyloscopy.
v. Harris Hawthorne Wilder – an American scientist who discovered that ridges first
emerge in the fetus.
w. Harry Mayers II – in 1925 installed the first official foot and fingerprint system for
infants in Jewish Maternity Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and the first
system in the states.

Pioneers in the Study of Fingerprint and their Contribution

1. Dr. Nehemiah Grew – in the year 1684 offered one of the earliest known European
publications of fingerprints, Theme of Skin Structure, he described the ridges of hands and
feet.
2. Prof. Marcelo Malpighi – an Italian Anatomist, known as the grandfather of Dactyloscopy.
He perceived the ridges to be drawn into Loops and Spiral. One layer of the skin was named
after him, the Malpighi layer.

3. Gouard Bidloo – in 1685 he wrote a book, human anatomy, in which he included a drawing
of the thumb print showing the ridge configuration of the whorl pattern.

4. Hintze (1751) – a German who made several writings about Ridge Formations.

5. Albinus (1764) – another German who made study similar with those conducted by Hintze.
His study was on ridge formations and characteristics of pores.

6. Prof. Jean Johannes Evangelist Purkenji – a Czechoslovakian professor in physiology,

theology and anatomy at the University of Breslau, Germany and was known as the Father of
Dactyloscopy. In 1823, he describes the various patterns of the fingers and systematically
classified and divided them into nine groups.

7. Herman Welcker – in 1856 took the prints of his own palms. In 1897 (41 years later), he
printed the same palm to prove that the prints do not change. (Principle of Permanency)

8. Sir William Herschel – in 1858 in Hoogly District of Bengal, India, he began the first known
official use of fingerprints in large scale. He printed the palm of the natives whom he had
business dealings in order to avoid impersonation among laborers. The first person that
Hershel fingerprinted was Rajyadhar Konai. The first inking of the fingers was attributed to
him and may be considered as the Father of Chiroscopy.

9. Dr. Henry Faulds- the Scottish surgeon stationed at Tsukiji hospital in Tokyo, Japan, who in
1880 wrote the English Journal “Nature” dealing with latent prints found at the crime scene.
He claimed that the impression would provide positive identification of offenders when
apprehended. He also wrote A Manual of Practical Dactyloscopy based on skin ridges of the
ridges of the fingers and toes. To him was attributed the use of printer’s ink and the printing
of all finger and thumb.
10. Sir Francis Galton- the scientist who divide the types of fingerprints into Arches, Loops, and
whorls knows as AWL method. His greatest contribution to dactyloscopy is the fact which he
had proven that the ridges remain constant and unchanging throughout life until
decomposition and that the friction ridges contain individual characteristics which he termed
as Galton’s Details. He wrote the book, Fingerprints and published it in 1892. His system was
officially adopted in 1894.

11. Alphonse Bertillon- a French whose method of identification was based upon eleven
measurements of the human anatomy, and used the metric system for recording the date. The
Bertillon system was generally accepted for thirty years. But it never recovered from the
events of 1903, when a man named Will West was sentenced to the U.S. Penitentiary at
Leavenworth Kansas. There was already a prisoner at the penitentiary at the time, whose
Bertillon measurements were nearly exact, and his name was William West.
Upon investigation, there were indeed two men. They looked exactly like, but allegedly not
related. Their Bertillon measurements were close enough to identify them as the same
 person. However, a fingerprint comparison quickly and correctly identified them as two
different people. They West men were apparently identical twin brothers per identifications
in later discovered prison records citing correspondence from the same immediate family
relatives.

12. Juan Vucetich- in 1891, an Argentinean criminologist whose system of classifying and filing
of fingerprint sets is still used by most of Spanish and Latin countries. His collection of
fingerprint records at his time was considered as the largest of its kind in the world. His
system was modified by Federico Oloriz Aguillera.

13. David Hepburn(1895)- published a paper entitled: “The papillary ridges on the hands and
feet of monkey and men” when he was a connected with the University of Edinburgh in
Scotland. Murder in the Tea Garde of Eden (India) A man was killed with his throat cut in the
Tea Garden of Eden in1897. The suspect was the ex-servant of the deceased. Police Office
Edward Richard Henry eventually found a book with two bloodstain prints which were
preserved and examined led to huis conviction (Vinluan &.Mendoza, 2006 P.7).

14. Sir Edward Richard Henry- publish the book Classifications and Uses of Fingerprints. His
system was adopted on July 1,1901 in London and with some modifications is still in general
use in most English-speaking countries of today. He modified the Galton’s system. His system
was also acclaimed and officially adopted in wales as well as throughout England and emerge
as father of fingerprint. The basic Henry with modifications and extensions and law
enforcement agencies throughout England and emerge as Father of Fingerprint. The basic
Henry with modifications and extension is used by the federal Bureau of Investigation and
law enforcement agencies throughout the United States.

15. Edward Foster (1863-1965)- a Canadian constable of the Dominion Police who attended
the World’s Fair to guard a Display of gold. He suggested that fingerprint system would b more
effective than Bertillon system.

1905- Fingerprinting was officially adopted by US Army. It was known as the first military use of
fingerprinting.

1907-Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the US Navy. First Navy use on January 11, 1907

1908- Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the US Marine Corps.

1911- State Illinois, USA made the first conviction based solely upon fingerprint evidence in
People v. Jennings was known as the first judicial ruling on fingerprint in US.

1919-Marked the publication of fingerprint and Identification Magazine in Chicago. The first
monthly journal devoted exclusively for fingerprint science.

1. Mr. Jones- the one who first taught fingerprint in the Philippines Constabulary sometimes
in the year 1900.
2. Bureau of Prisons- records shows that on 1918 Carpets already bear fingerprints.
3. People vs. Medina- the first leading judicial decision in the Philippines.
 4. Lt. Asa N. Darby- under his management during the re-occupation of the Philippines by
the American Forces, a modern and complete fingerprint files have been established for
Philippines Commonwealth.
5. Mr. Generoso Reyes- the first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the
jurisprudence on the science of fingerprinting.
6. Plaridel Educational Institution- College of Criminology, Maynila, the first
governmental recognized school to teach the science of fingerprinting and other police
sciences.
7. Republic Act No. 409- created the Criminal Records and Identification Division (CRID)
under the Manila Police Department (MPD) (now WPD) in 1900.
8. Commonwealth Act No. 181- Created the Division of Investigation (D.I) that authorized
the use of the fingerprint Identification system on Nov. 13, 1936.
9. Capt. Thomas Dugan (of NYPD) & Flaviano C. Guererro (Filipino member of FBI)-
they have helped the NBI establish their fingerprint files, conducted trainings among NBI
personnel and assisted in its first operations.
10. Reorganization Act No. 1407- created the Bureau of Prisons (now BuCor) on Nov. 1,
1905. At that time, the Bertillon system of identification was in use.

UNIT II
Ridge Formation

Ridges begin to form on the human fetus five to six months before birth. Since ridges are the basis
for fingerprint identification they seemed to appear as continuous lines – some short and curved,
other long and straight, and a few like islands containing a single pore structure. During the
process of growth and development these ridge formations are not continuous lines but consist
of islands, each containing a small opening or pore.
As they grow, they fuse together and eventually the round contours flatten and straighten out to
form a continuous straight or short line.

The ridges in these parts of the human body are formed into patterns by virtue of the fact that the
epidermis is penetrated and molded by the dermal papillae. The pore is a small opening anywhere
across the ridges surface but is usually found near the center.

A duct serves as a passage way for the watery substance that exists at its mouth, the pore. The
sweat gland is where perspiration is discharged.

Relative to the appearance of ridges, we take notice of the depression found between them. These
spaces are called furrows. We know that when perspiration comes out of the pore, it courses over
the ridges down into the furrows where it acts as lubricant to prevent drying and cracking of the
skin.

Development of Ridges
a. 3rd-4th month- ridges start to develop
b. About 6 months- ridges are fully developed\
 c. Fingerprints remain constant until during the decomposition stage of the skin of
the corpse.
d. Fingerprint size- may change
e. Ridge characteristics pattern- does not change

Components of the Friction Skin

a. Ridge Surface- the component of the skin that actually forms the fingerprint impression.
b. Ridges- are tiny elevation or hill like structures and appear as black lines with tiny white
dots called pores in an inked impression.
c. Furrows- canal- like impression or depression found between the ridges which appear
white lines.
d. Pores (sometimes called islands)- are small opening found on skin and appear white
on plain impression.
e. Sweat Duct- is a long-host like structure that serves as the passage way for the sweat.
f. Sweat Glands-are responsible for the production of the sweat.

Anatomy of the Skin

The skin is an organ composed of three anatomical layers: epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis,
these anatomical layers together function to provide the body with a protective barrier, body
temperature regulation, sensation, excretion, immunity, a blood reservoir, and synthesis of
vitamin D.

The outer layer of skin is the epidermis. The epidermis prevents water loss through evaporation,
acts as a receptor organ, and provides a protective barrier for the underlying tissues.
Melanocytes, the pigment- producing cells of the epidermis, play a key role in the protective
barrier. The pigmentation produced by the melanocytes shields the DNA of the keratinocytes
(primary cell type of the epidermis) from the sun’s harmful rays. Additionally, the melanocytes
are responsible for the synthesis of vitamin D.

The dermis is a layer of connective tissue that supports the epidermis. It is a network of cells,
fibers, blood vessels, and gelatinous material that provides structural support and nourishment
for the epidermis. The dermis serves as a blood reserve and participates in sensory reception and
temperature regulations.

The hypodermis lies under the dermis and is loose connective tissue that contains a pad of
adipose cells (fats) that contour the body and serve as an energy reserve. Fibers link the
epidermis to the dermis and the dermis to the hypodermis.

Structure of Friction Ridge Skin

The ridges and furrows on the surface of the friction ridge skin are firmly rooted in the dermis by
primary ridges (under-the-surface ridge) and secondary ridges (under the valleys). The primary
and secondary ridges are interlocked with the dermis to provide support and strength to the
friction ridge skin. Additionally, sweat glands extend from the primary ridges and are anchored
in the dermis or hypodermis.
Epidermis
The epidermis is described as a “stratified, continually renewing epithelium that exhibits
progressive differentiation (keratinization, cornification) in a basal to superficial direction”. In
other words, the epidermis is a layered tissue that must constantly replace the cells leaving the
surface. New cells are generated in the basal layer and pushed toward the surface.

As the cells move toward the surface, they undergo sequential changes in chemical composition.

The epidermis is composed of several different types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes,

Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. The keratinocytes are the cells that undergo differentiation
and are lost at the surface.
The epidermis is the protective barrier: it is imperative that the skin balance the number of new
keratinocytes leaving the surface. This balance is achieved by communication and adhesion.

Keratinocytes
The primary cell of the epidermis is the keratinocyte. Keratinocytes account for 90-95% of the
epidermal cells. Eve though keratinocytes change in chemical composition as they reach the
surface, all keratinocytes are distinguishable by the presence of keratin intermediate filaments.

Keratin is a durable protein organized into bundles (filaments) the extend throughout the cell and
provide structural support. Keratin reinforces the skin cells so that they do not break when
subjected to physical stress. There are about 20 varieties of keratin distributed throughout the
epidermis, designated K1 through K20.

The keratinocytes of the friction ridge skin express keratins not expressed elsewhere on the body,
specifically K9, K6, and K16. Keratinocytes of the friction ridge skin also express a more complex
pattern of keratin distribution than the rest of the skin. K9 is found only in the keratinocytes
above the basal layer of the primary ridges.

The basal keratinocytes in the deepest part of the primary ridges express K17.
The basal keratinocytes along the vertical segments of the primary ridges express K6. K16 is
found only in the keratinocytes of the secondary ridges and in the keratinocytes above the dermal
papillae.

Keratin K9 is predominantly expressed in the suprabasal layer and stratum spinosum of the
primary ridges. Keratin K17 is expressed in clusters in the basal layer of the primary ridges.
Keratin K16 is expressed in the secondary ridges.

The differences in the keratin produced and distributed across the friction ridge skin are
attributed to the greater amount of mechanical stress on the friction ridge skin. The keratin
produced in the cells of the primary ridges (K9) is more durable than the keratin produced in the
secondary ridges (K16).

From, a mechanical standpoint, the surface ridges withstand, most of the compression when the
friction ridge skin touches a surface, thereby necessitating enhanced durability. The more pliable
keratin produced in the secondary ridges allows the furrows to act as a hinge between the stiffer
surface ridges.
Structure of Friction Ridge Skin

Layers of the Epidermis

The five layers of keratinocytes in the friction ridge skin epidermis: Stratum Basale, stratum
spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum. There is an informal
layer, the suprabasal layer, between the stratum basale and the stratum spinosum in the primary
ridges.
The layer of the epidermis is named on the basis of microscopic appearance of the keratinocytes
change in appearance and composition as they are pushed toward the surface and undergo
differentiation. During the stages of differentiation, the cells become keratinized (filled with
keratin).

1. Stratum Basale
The stratum basale is the innermost layer of the epidermis and consists of a single layer of
keratinocytes with occasional melanocytes and Merkel cells. The keratinocytes in the basal
layer continually divide and are the wellspring of all the keratinocytes in the upper layers.

Each keratinocytes contains a large nucleus. The nucleus consists of a lighter-stained

chromatin and a darker-stained nucleolus.

Chromatin is the active DNA specific for that particular cell type (keratinocyte in this
instance). The nucleolus is compacted DNA responsible for synthesizing ribosomes.

Ribosomes are structures in the cell that help build proteins.

The basal cells are connected to the basement membrane zone by hemidesmosomes. The
hemidesmosomes link the basal cells to the dermis via the basal lamina. The basal lamina is
broken down into two regions: lamina lucida and lamina densa. Desmosomes and focal tight
junctions attach the basal keratinocytes to each other.

There are small spaces between the cells. These intercellular spaces allow nutrients and
signals that have passed from the dermis via the basement membrane zone to diffuse
throughout the keratinocytes of the basal layer.

a. Basal Cell Mitosis

When a basal keratinocytes divides, it undergoes mitosis. Mitosis is the mechanism by which
a cell replicates its DNA, the two copies of the DNA migrate to different sides of the cell, and
the cell physically separates into two. Each cell contains a complete copy of the DNA.

When a basal keratinocyte divides in epidermis, the original cell remains in the basal layer
and the newly generated cell sits on top of it. When the basal keratinocytes divide again, the
first generated cell is displaced into the stratum spinosum by the newly generated cell The
cycle continues, each new cell pushing the older cells toward the surface of the epidermis.

b. Basement Membrane Zone

The keratinocytes of the stratum basale are associated with the dermis via the basement
membrane zone. The basement membrane zone contains elements of both the epidermis and
dermis. In addition to providing structural support to the skin, the basement membrane zone
is the filter through which nutrients pass from the dermal vessels to the basal keratinocytes.
The basement membrane zone includes the portion of the plasma membrane of the basal
keratinocytes that sits on the dermal- epidermal junction. The basal keratinocytes have
specialized attachment plaques, termed hemidesmosomes, that project anchoring filaments
down toward the dermis. The area just below the basal cells containing these anchoring
filaments is called the lamina lucida.

The dermis contributes the lamina densa and sublamina densa fibrillar zone to the basement
membrane zone. The lamina densa contains protein (e.g., collagen fibers). The filaments of
the hemidesmosomes in the lamina lucida are interwoven with the fibers of the lamina densa.

The sublamina densa fibrillar zone is the uppermost portion of the dermis and contains elastic
fibers, and anchoring plaques. The fibers and anchoring plaques of the sublamina densa
fibrillar zone are interwoven with the fibers of the lamina densa.

The hemidesmosomes of the basal keratinocytes and the interlocking fibers throughout the
basement membrane zone prevent the basal cells from migrating. The basal keratinocytes are
locked down to their position in the epidermis. The keratinocytes of the basal layer, and
throughout the layers of the epidermis, are tightly bound to one another via desmosomes and
focal tight junctions.

Desmosomes exist between cells throughout the entire epidermis (friction ridge skin and
nonfriction ridge skin).
There is, however, variation. Desmosomes vary in size, depending on the body location of the
skin.

The desmosomes between the keratinocytes of the friction ridge skin are larger than those of
nonfriction ridge skin.

Along with the larger desmosomes, the keratinocytes of the friction ridge skin also have a
greater density of keratin. The increase in the size of the desmosomes and density of keratin
indicates that desmosomes are site specific, depending on the amount of physical stress the
particular area of skin must endure.

Desmosomes also show variation with the layers of the epidermis. Desmosomes undergo
modifications as the cells progress outward from the basal layer of the epidermis. In the
friction ridge skin, the desmosomes are continually reinforced as the cells are pushed toward
the surface.
Upon reaching the outer portion of the stratum corneum, the desmosomes are broken down
to release the cells from the surface

The differences in the structure of the basal cells in the primary and secondary ridges explain
their differences in function. The basal cells of secondary ridges, with long projections into
the dermis, serve an anchoring function.

The basal cells of the primary ridges have a morphology similar to stem cells and can be
induced to multiply by tissue demand or injury. The basal cells also differ in the rate at which
they multiply. The basal cells of the secondary ridges divide more frequently than the primary
ridges because the basal cells of the primary ridges give rise to cells that divide in the
suprabasal layer.

c. Suprabasal Layer
The basal keratinocytes of the secondary ridges continuously divide—each basal cell dividing
to push one cell at a time into the stratum spinosum. The basal cells of the primary ridges
behave a little differently.

The basal keratinocytes of the primary ridge divides to create a new cell
This new cell does not immediately enter the stratum spinosum and commit to
differentiation. The newly generated cell, termed a transient amplifying cell, undergoes a
couple of cell divisions while it sits in the suprabasal layer. After cell divisions are complete,
the transient amplifying cells are pushed upward into the stratum spinosum and begin
differentiation.

More cells are produced in the primary ridges than in the secondary ridges because of the
transient amplifying cells. The cells of the primary ridges maintain the surface ridges, where
more cells are needed because of greater abrasion.
2. Stratum Spinosum
As the keratinocytes are pushed toward the surface, they begin to undergo differentiation.
The cells become polyhedral in shape and desmosomes (cell junctions) are reinforced.
Keratin production is increased, and the keratin filaments are organized concentrically
around the nucleus and extend int the desmosomes.

New structures, lamellar granules, appear in the cells as the cells are pushed toward the limit
of the stratum spinosum. Lamellar granules are pockets of lipids that first appear in the
stratum spinosum but do not become active until the cells reach the stratum granulosum.

The stratum spinosum is so named because of the spiny appearance of the cells in microscope
slide preparations. During the process of making the slide, the cells dehydrate, causing them
to shrink away from one another. The spines are where the desmosomes are still holding the
cells together.

3. Stratum Granulosum
As the cells are pushed toward the surface, they continue structural and chemical
modification. Keratinocytes entering the stratum granulosum contain characteristics
keratohyalin granules. The keratinocytes are programmed to fill with keratin; the
keratohyalin granules contain proteins profilaggrin, keratin, and loricrin) that facilitate the
process.

The lamellar granules become active as the cells reach the upper portion of the stratum
granulosum. The lamellar granules release their lipid content into the space between the cells.
The lipid coats the cells, providing the skin with a hydrophobic barrier.

4. Stratum Lucidum
The keratinocytes undergo an abrupt transition to the stratum lucidum. The cells are
keratinized and have completed their programmed cell death. Although the cells are no longer
living, chemical activity continues inside the cells as the final modifications are made to the
keratin.

5. Stratum Corneum
With layer upon layer of nonviable, terminally differentiated keratinocytes, the stratum
corneum is the significant epidermal layer that allows skin to act as a major barrier. The
arrangement of keratinocytes is described as a “brick-and-mortar model”. The keratin filled
cells (bricks) are surrounded by the lipids (mortar) secreted while the cells were in the
stratum granulosum.

Although they are dead, the cells of the stratum corneum continued to undergo modification
as the are pushed from the deeper portion of the stratum corneum to the surface of the skin.
The cells in the deeper portion of the stratum corneum are thicker and have more densely
packed keratin, a weaker cell membrane, and more cell-to-cell attachments.
 As the cells are pushed toward the surface, the cell membrane becomes more rigid and the
desmosomes are degraded. These changes allow the cells to shed when they reach the surface.

Outer scarf or Epidermis – is stratified (layered), squamous (flat) epithelial tissue which 5
layers thick.
a. Stratum corneum (corneous layer) – consists of 25-30 layers of stratified squamous dead
keratinocytes (skin cells) that are constantly shed.
b. Stratum Lucidum (transparent layer)- is present only in thick skin (lips, soles of feet, and
palms of hands). Little or no cell detail is visible.
c. Stratum granulosum (granular layer)- 3-4 layers of cell thick consisting of flattened
keratinocytes. At this level the cells are drying.
d. Stratum spinosum (Malpighian layer)- several layers thick, consisting mostly of
keratinocytes. Together with the stratum basale it is sometimes referred to as the living layer.
e. Stratum basale generating layer)- a single layer of cells in contact with the basement
membrane.

These cells are mitotically active- they are alive and reproducing. Four types of cells are present
in this layer.
Keratinocytes (90%)- responsible for waterproof and toughening the skin
Melanocytes (8%)- synthesize the pigment melanin which absorbs and disperses ultraviolet
radiation.
Tactile cells- very sparse and function in touch reception.
Nonpigmented granular dendrocytes- cells that ingest bacterial and foreign debris.
 a. Nonkeratinocytes
Communication of the keratinocytes with the melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and
Merkel cells is necessary for the skin to function properly

Melanocytes produce the pigments that are deposited into the keratinocytes. This
pigment, melanin, protects the genetic material of the keratinocytes from ultraviolet
damage.

Melanocytes reside in the basal layer of the epidermis and, in addition to providing
surrounding keratinocytes with melanin, produce vitamin D.

The Langerhans cells are an extension of the body’s immune system. Upon exposure
to invading bacteria, Langerhans cells initiate an alert that causes the body to recruit
more aggressive immune cells (T cells) to attack the invaders.

The Merkel cells are an extension of the nervous system and participate in the
transmission of the sensation of touch: “shape, size, and texture of objects and two-
point discrimination”. Merkel cells occur sporadically in the basal layer of the
epidermis and are associated with free nerve endings from the dermis.

a. Papillary Dermis
●The dermis is the connective tissue that supports the epidermis and binds it to the
hypodermis. The dermis is composed of two layers; the papillary layer and the reticular
layer. The outer papillary layer is a loose connective tissue containing anchoring fibrils
and numerous dermal cells. The anchoring fibrils secure the dermis to the epidermis via
the basement membrane zone. The papillary layer of the dermis forms the dermal
papillae.

●Inner scarf or dermis is much thicker than the epidermis the primary function of the
dermis is to sustain and support the epidermis. The papillary layer is made up of
connective tissue with the fine elastic fibers. The surface of the area of this layer is
increased by the dermal papillae. These fingerlike formations greatly increase the surface
area for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients and waste products between dermis and
epidermis.

a. Dermal Papillae
• Dermal Papillae are malleable, peg like projections of the papillary dermis between the
primary and secondary ridges. The malleable nature of the dermal papillae is important
because the epidermal-dermal junction remodels with age and is response to sheering
stress on the surface of the skin.
• During the remodeling, the epidermis forms sheets of tissue that cross-link adjacent
primary and secondary ridges. These sheets of tissue are called anastomoses. As the
epidermal anastomoses form, the dermal papillae are molded into increasingly more
complex structures. The formation of dermal papillae and epidermal anastomoses
increase the surface area of attachment between the epidermis and dermis, thereby
increasing the bond between the epidermis and dermis.
b. Reticular Dermis
• The reticular dermis is a compact connective tissue containing large bundles of collagen
and elastic fibers. The organization of these fibers provides the dermis with strength and
resilience. The Reticular dermis is connected to the hypodermis by a network of fibers.

c. Circulatory System of the Dermis

• There are two plexuses of arterial blood vessels in the dermis. One plexus lies between
the papillary and reticular dermis and the other between the reticular dermis and the
hypodermis. Capillaries extend from the arterial plexus and into the dermal papillae to
form the dermal papillary loop.
• Blood passes from the arterial capillaries in the dermal papillae to the venous capillaries.
Veins are organized into three plexuses; one associated with each arterial plexus and a
third plexus in the middle of the reticular dermis.

a. Nervous System of the Dermis

• A vast network of sensory and autonomic nerve branches innervates the dermis. The
autonomic nerve network is responsible for controlling blood flow and glandular
secretions (sweat). The sensory system contains receptors for sensations; touch,
temperature, pain, and itch. The dermis participates in sensory perception via free nerve
endings, Meissner corpuscles, Ruffini corpuscles, and Pacinian corpuscles.
• Free nerve ending and Meissner corpuscles are found in the dermal papillae. Free nerve
endings are found in each dermal papilla and provide a rapid response to stimuli.
Meissner corpuscles are found in about every fourth papilla and function as touch
receptors. Pacinian and Ruffini corpuscles are locate throughout the dermis and also
function in the transmission of pressure.

● Sweat Glands

• Although the skin produces several appendages (e.g., hair, nails, sebaceous glands), the
eccrine sweat gland is the only appendage of the friction ridge skin. Eccrine sweat glands
are found all over the body surface and function primarily in thermoregulation.

• The sweat glands do not function individually but rather as groups or simultaneously
over the entire surface of the body. The sweat glands of the palm and soles are larger,
more active, and denser than in any other area of skin.

• Eccrine sweat glands are classified as simple tubular glands whose ducts open at the
skin surface. The coiled secretory portion of the gland is embedded in the dermis or
hypodermis, and the duct extends through the epidermis. The fluid secreted by the
eccrine sweat glands is predominantly water (99.0 – 99.5 %).

• The remaining constituents of sweat include sodium chloride, potassium, ammonia,

urea, lactate, uric acid, creatinine and creatine, amino acids, sugars, immunoglobulin A,
epidermal growth factor, and select hormones, enzymes, and vitamins.
C. Hypodermis
• Beneath the fibrous reticular dermis there is an abrupt transition t the adipose tissue of
the hypodermis. Adipose (fat) tissue serves as an energy reserve, cushions the skin,
contours the body, and allows for mobility of the skin over underlying structure.

• The dermis and hypodermis are physically connected through interlocking fibers and
share blood vessel and nerve networks. The primary cell of the hypodermis is the
adipocyte. Adipocytes are organized in lobules by fibrous connective tissue and store the
subcutaneous fat.
Module IV : FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

Introduction
Records have shown that there are more than 50 fingerprint classifications
throughout the world. Some of them are the Gasti system of Italy, the Pateer system of
Holland, Vucetich system of Argentina, and some other systems used by other countries.
But the most popular one is the Henry, Galton, FBI classification system. This
system is well known all over the world because of its influence and popularity among
democratic countries and because of its gigantic facilities.
•The main purpose of a classification system is to facilitate the filing, searching and
retrieval of fingerprint records.
•Classification means the sorting of things into divisions or groups for easy and fast
location.
•In fingerprint science, it refers to the arrangement of fingerprint records into groups or
sub-groups for filing purposes.

Steps in Fingerprint Classification

Blocking Out – is the process of writing below each pattern the corresponding symbol of
the fingerprint pattern in the spaces provided in the card conspicuously or in capital
letters purposely to facilitate the attainment of the primary classification.

Symbols of the Fingerprint Patterns in Blocks

Plain Arch ---------------------------------------- A
Tented Arch ------------------------------------- T
Radial Loop -------------------------------------- / or \
Ulnar Loop -------------------------------------- / or \
Plain Whorl ------------------------------------- W
Central Pocket Loop Whorl ----------------- C
Double Loop Whorl --------------------------- D
Accidental Whorl ------------------------------ X
Right Hand (Blocks No. 1 – 5)
1 2 3 4 5
Plain Arch Tented Arch Radial Loop Ulnar Loop Plain Whorl

A T / \ W
6 7 8 9 10
Central Pocket Double Loop Accidental Radial Loop Ulnar Loop
Whorl Whorl Whorl
C D X \ /
Left Hand (Blocks No. 6 – 10)
Table 1 Blocking Out
Division of the Classification Formula
a. Primary Classification
b. Secondary Classification
1. Capital Letter Group
2. Small Letter Group
c. Sub-secondary Classification
d. Major Classification
 e. Final Classification
f. Key
Classification Line – this refers to a line placed on the right upper corner of the
fingerprint card where the classification formula is exhibited.

A. Primary Classification – this is the result of the summation of all the

numerical values assigned to whorl, appearing in a fingerprint card which
are expressed as numerators and denominators plus the pre – established
fraction of one over one 1/1.
Steps in Primary Classification
1. Pairing – the ten fingerprints from corresponding fingers
are divided into pairs, totaling 5 pairs all.

Right Hand
1 2 3 4 5

First Pair Second Pair Third

Left Hand
6 7 8 9 10

Pair Fourth Pair Fifth Pair

Table 2 Pairing
Assigning numerical values to whorl patterns only.

Right Hand
1 2 3 4 5

16 16 8 8 4
Left Hand
6 7 8 9 10

4 2 2 1 1

Table 3 Assigning Numerical Values

Knowing the numerators and denominators in the pairs.

Right Hand
1 2 3 4 5

Denominator Numerator Denominator Numerator Denominator

Left Hand
6 7 8 9 10

Numerator Denominator Numerator Denominator Numerator

Table 4 Knowing the Numerators and Denominators

 4. Summing up the numerical values of whorls assigned to the
fingers plus the pre-established fraction of 1/1.

B. Secondary Classification

1. Capital Letter Group. The secondary classification is symbolized by

capital letters of the patterns represented by the two index fingers after the
primary classification in the classification line. The fingerprint pattern
appearing on the right index finger is the numerator while the fingerprint
pattern from the left index finger is the denominator.
Combinations of the following symbols are used;
Plain Arch ---------------------------------------------------- A
Tented Arch ------------------------------------------------- T
Radial Loop -------------------------------------------------- R
Ulnar Loop --------------------------------------------------- U
Plain Whorl -------------------------------------------------- W
Central Pocket Loop Whorl ------------------------------ C
Double Loop Whorl ---------------------------------------- D
Accidental Whorl ------------------------------------------- X

1 2 3 4 5
Tented Arch
T
6 7 8 9 10
Double Loop
Whorl
D
Table 5 SC Capital Letter Group
2. Small Letter Group. This classification refers to the three types of
fingerprint patterns only; the plain arch, tented arch and radial loop.
Whenever any or all of these patterns appear in any finger or fingers, excluding
the two index fingers, its symbol is exhibited in the classification line as small
(a) for plain arch, small (t) for tented arch, and small (r) for radial loop, before
and/or after the secondary classification by capital letters, depending on the
finger of origin.

1 2 3 4 5
Plain Arch Radial Loop Ulnar Loop Plain Whorl

A / \ W
6 7 8 9 10
Central Pocket Accidental Radial Loop Ulnar Loop
Whorl Whorl
C D X \ /
Table 6 SC Small Letter Group

A. Sub-secondary Classification
This is derived through the process of ridge - counting the loops or ridge -
tracing the whorl-type patterns appearing on the index, middle, and ring fingers of
 both right and left hands. Whenever loop patterns are shown on the above mentioned
fingers, each should be ridge-counted and the result of such count in number be
displayed on the right upper corner of the block where found and later on represented
by a letter symbol (I or O) in the classification line based on the inner and outer group
division table for ridge-counts of loops.
Whorls are ridge-traced and the result of such tracing is represented by letter
symbols I,M, O on the table for symbols of whorls for ridge-tracing. The letter symbols
are then placed on the right upper corner of the blocks where found and later on the
same symbols are exhibited on the classification line.
Ridge Counting
This is the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line
drawn between the delta and core of a loop. A white space must always intervene
between the delta and the first ridge to be counted.

Fig. 15 Ridge Counting

Rules in Ridge Counting
1. Locate the exact point of the core and delta.
2. Count all ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line drawn
between the core and delta.
3. Never include the core and delta in the count.
4. Incipient ridges are never counted, no matter where they appear.
Incipient ridge – unusual type of ridges found in a small percentage of patterns; short,
narrow, and badly formed ridges found between two well-formed and full-bodied ridges.
Numerical values of ridges that is included in ridge-counting.
1. A ridge island or dot is given one ridge count.
2. A short ridge is given one ridge count.
3. A long ridge is given one ridge count.
4. An abrupt-ending ridge is given one ridge count.
5. A bifurcating ridge, it depends.
6. Ridge enclosure is counted as two ridges.
7. Criss-crossing or meeting of two ridges is counted as two ridges.
Fig. 16 Ridge Count
Rules for Ridge-count of Loops and their Symbol
1. A ridge-count of 1 to 9 inclusive of each index finger is inner and is
symbolized by capital letter I, while a count of 10 or more is outer symbolized
by capital letter O.
2. A ridge-count of 1 to 10 inclusive of each middle finger is inner and
is symbolized by capital letter I, while a count of 11 or more is outer and
symbolized by capital letter O.
3. A ridge count of 1 to 13 inclusive of each ring finger is inner and is
symbolized by capital letter I, while a count of 14 or more is outer and is
symbolized by capital letter O.
1 2 3 4 5
Tented Arch Radial Loop Ulnar Loop

T / \
6 7 8 9 10
Double Loop Accidental Radial Loop
Whorl Whorl
D X \
Table 7 Sub-Secondary Classification
Ridge- Tracing
Ridge-tracing – this is a process of tracing the ridge that originates from the left delta
flowing towards the right delta or near that point and determining the number of
intervening ridges between the traced ridge and the right delta to constitute the three
subdivisions; inner, meeting, and outer, which are represented by capital letters I, M, O.
Rules in Ridge Tracing
1. Ridge-tracing always starts from the left delta proceeding towards
the right delta or nearest to that point.
2. When the ridge being traced ends abruptly, drop to the next ridge
below to continue the tracing until the traced ridge runs into or comes
opposite the right delta.
3. When a left delta is a dot ridge, the next ridge just below is taken to
effect the tracing until it reaches opposite the right delta.
4. When the ridge being traced is a bifurcation always follow the lower
branch until the tracing is completed.
Symbols for Whorls as a Result of Ridge-Tracing
1. When the ridge being traced from the left delta to the right
delta passes inside or in front of the right delta and there are 3 or more
intervening ridges between the traced ridge and the right delta, the result
of the tracing is known as inner and represented by capital letter I.
2. When the ridge being traced passes on either inside or
outside of the right delta and there are two or less ridges intervening
between the traced ridge and the right delta or it actually meets the right
delta, the result of the tracing is known as meeting and is represented by
capital letter M.
3. When the ridges being traced passes outside or below the
right delta and there are three or more ridges intervening between the
traced ridge and the right delta, the result of the tracing is known as outer
and represented by capital letter O.

D. Major Classification
The major classification is quite similar in derivation to the sub-secondary
classification though it applies only to thumb. This is done by ridge - counting the
loops and ridge – tracing the whorls appearing on the thumbs. The whorls are
ridge – traced, as is done in the sub-secondary classification. Two sets of table for
symbols are used in loops whenever both loop patterns appear in the thumbs.
1 2 3 4 5
Radial Loop
/
6 7 8 9 10
Central Pocket
Whorl
C
Table 8 Major Classification
Table A
1. A ridge - count of 1 to 11, inclusive, is small. It is represented
by capital letter S.
2. A ridge – count of 12 to 16, inclusive, is medium. It is
represented by capital letter M.
3. A ridge – count of 17 or more, inclusive, is large. It is
represented by capital letter L.
Table B
To be applied only to the loop from the right thumb when the ridge count
of the loop from the left thumb is 17 or more, making it large (L).
1. A ridge – count of 1 to 17, inclusive, is small. It is represented
by capital letter S.
2. A ridge – count of 18 to 22, inclusive, is medium. It is
represented by capital letter M.
3. A ridge – count of 23 or more, inclusive, is large. It is
represented by capital letter L.

E. Final classification
• The final classification is the exhibition in a numerical figure of the ridge count
of loops and whorls from the two little fingers. The result of the ridge - count is exhibited
on the right upper corner of the block where found and placed at the extreme right of the
classification line. The ridge count of right little finger is the numerator while that of the
left little finger is the denominator.

1 2 3 4 5
Plain Whorl

W
6 7 8 9 10
Ulnar Loop
C /

Rules in deriving the ridge - count of whorls

• 1. A plain whorl or central pocket loop whorl is treated as an ulnar loop.

• Fig. 21. This is the right little finger, a plain whorl showing an imaginary line for ridge
counting to determine the final classification. Note that the delta used is the left delta
because this is treated as an ulnar loop.
•Fig. 22. This pattern is also a plain whorl. In this case, the imaginary line is drawn from
the right delta because the pattern comes from the left little finger and is treated as ulnar
loop.

• 23. An accidental whorl must be ridge counted from the extreme corresponding delta
to the nearest core.
• Fig. 24. This is another whorl pattern identified as accidental whorl. In deriving the ridge
count for the final classification, the rule states it must be ridge counted with the least
number of ridge count.

F. Key classification

• the key classification is derived by ridge - counting the first loop in a set of prints. The
ridge count of the first loop may come from the right thumb or any other finger except
the little fingers. The Ridge- count is always placed at the extreme left of the

classification line and is always represented as numerator, no matter where it is taken.

Where there is no loop the first whorl is

Ridge - counted, being treated as an ulnar loop and the result of the count is displayed on
the left upper corner of the block where found.

Recording fingerprints

• taking fingerprints is not a difficult job, but it requires patience and concentration. It
requires the operator's skill in controlling the subject's hand; the subject must merely
give his fingers and stand in a relaxed position. The person taking the prints is called the
fingerprint recorder.

• knowledge of what constitute a fingerprint is very important. The fingerprint recorder

must know what is a single, clear, classifiable pattern, and must know when a pattern is
complete. It is important that the points required for classification are obtained in the
taking of good impressions.

The outer terminus or deltas which are often missed in rolled impressions are considered
important points in classification. Therefore, if deltas are clearly shown, the pattern may
be of good quality printing.
• to the professional fingerprint recorder, the equipment for taking fingerprints consists
of a device to hold the card, fingerprint ink, a glass plate, and fingerprint roller.

• the first step in taking fingerprints is to clean the inking plate thoroughly. Before
starting to fingerprint the subject, make sure that his hands are clean and dry.

• If his hands are perspiring freely, wipe them off with a soft, clean cloth dampened with
alcohol. Use of paper napkins can suffice, as they act like blotters.

• Should the subject's hands be dry and hard, pour a little lotion into the palms of his
hands and have him massage it into his fingertips. Be careful not to use so much lotion
that his fingers become greasy. Let him massage the lotion into his fingers until the fingers
become tacky.

• After this, place a dab of ink the size of a match head on the edge of the glass slab, another
on the middle and still another on the opposite edge.

•The recorder must be on the subject's left side and in recording the rolled prints of the
right hand; he records first the thumb and continues the process finger by finger up to
the little finger.

• After this, he takes the left hands rolled prints in the manner from the thumb to the little
finger. In taking the rolled impressions, the side of the bulb of the finger is placed upon
the inking plate and the finger is rolled to the other side until it faces the opposite
direction.

• Plain impressions of the left hand fingers are printed on the left side corner on the card
below. Plain impressions are recorded for purposes of reference by the rolled
impressions.

• Observation has shown that there are several causes which render poor - quality
recorded prints. They are lack of control of the subject's hand, carelessness, lack of skill
and ignorance, and a clear apparatus. Frequently, the prints are left out, open to exposure,
and uncovered. It is of utmost importance that fingerprints recorders must exercise
reasonable care in taking fingerprints and that they should be familiar with the rules of
classification to avoid errors.

• Problems in recording inked fingerprints

• Whenever a technician encounters some problems which have escaped his knowledge
concerning difficult fingerprinting, he must use his good judgment in recording the
impressions and make specific comments on the back of the card as to what the
abnormality is.

• 1. Temporary disabilities. One of the problems that a fingerprint officer may encounter.
Occupational problems (acid workers, plasterers, cement mixers, assembly workers in
electrical appliance plants) pose a challenge to fingerprint technicians.
TAKING LEGIBLE FINGERPRINTS

FINGERPRINT IMPRESSION TYPES

Two Types of Impressions

"Rolled" impressions are the upper ten impressions taken individually, which are the
thumb, index, middle, ring and little fingers of each hand. These are referred to as "rolled"
impressions because the fingers are rolled nail to nail in order to obtain all available ridge
detail.

ROLLED IMPRESSIONS

"Plain" impressions are the impressions at the bottom of the card taken simultaneously
without rolling. The fingers of each hand are printed at a forty-five degree angle. The
thumbs are printed simultaneously to ensure proper positioning. These are referred to
as the "plain," slapped," or "flat impressions. Plain impressions are used to verify the
sequence and accuracy of the rolled impressions.

PLAIN IMPRESSIONS

Ink (Black Printers Ink) and Paper (Standard Fingerprint Card, FD-249 Criminal Card or
FD-258 Applicant Card).
PORELON PAD

Contains a built- in ink supply.

Porelon Pad and Paper (Standard Fingerprint Card, FD-249 Criminal Card or FD-258
Applicant Card).

DIGIT 10

Chemical Method Prints as red ink and changes to black ink upon processing (apply
regular pressure when fingerprinting or fingerprints may be smeared)
POSTMORTEM KIT

Consists of a "spoon," "finger

straightener," and a "spatula."

*Enables you to obtain a legible set of

fingerprints from abnormal situations.

Using the ink and paper method, retabs may

be used to reprint fingerprints (use only one
per fingerprint block). For Live Scan, the
image can be deleted and retaken.

SUGGESTIONS FOR TAKING LEGIBLE FINGERPRINTS

Recommended height for fingerprinting is thirty-nine inches from floor. Fingers to be

printed must be clean and dry. Wiping the individual's fingers with an alcohol swab and
then drying them should prevent perspiration from being a problem. Individual's
occupation may have caused a wearing down or rough surface on the fingerprints. Use a
softening agent or ridge builder to enhance the ridge detail.

Fingerprint Patterns Not Discernable/Poor Quality

Ensure person taking prints uses techniques & procedures for taking legible fingerprints

COMMON PROBLEMS REGARDING IMAGE QUALITY

Equipment Related

Each agency must contact their vendor to

ensure their equipment is in compliance
with parameters for image compression,

The individual usually stands to the right

and rear of the person taking fingerprints
The individual being fingerprinted should
be asked to stand in front of and at a
forearm's length from the fingerprinting
de
• Encourage the individual being fingerprinted to relax and look at some distant object
which may distract them from what you are doing.

• Grasp the individual's right hand at the base of the thumb with your right hand. Guide
the finger being printed with your left hand, cupping your hand over the individual's
other fingers.

Bulb of the finger Bulb of the finger

First Joint First Joint

If using the ink and paper method, roll the finger on the inking plate or Porelon pad so
the entire fingerprint area is evenly covered with ink. The ink should be rolled from nail
to nail and from the crease of the first joint to the tip of the finger.

In taking the rolled impressions care should be exercised to ensure the bulb of each finger
is rolled from nail to nail and from the crease of the first joint to the tip of the finger. The
weight of the finger is all the pressure needed to clearly record the fingerprint.

To avoid slipping, which smudges and blurs the fingerprints, roll the thumbs in toward
the subject and the fingers away from the center of the subject's body. This process
relieves strain and leaves the fingers relaxed when rolling so that they may be easily
lifted.
Classification of scarred patterns, amputation and missing fingers at birth

Standard procedures to be follow

1. When a fingerprint is so marred by a scar that the general pattern type is

unrecognizable and the ridge - counting and ridge - tracing cannot be determine the
impression should be given the same pattern interpretation and sub-classification with
the corresponding finger of the other hand.

2. When a fingerprint is partially scarred and the general pattern type can be determined
with reasonable accuracy but the ridge cannot be counted or traced, the impression
should be given the ridge-count or tracing value of the corresponding finger of the other
hand, if the corresponding finger is of the same general pattern type. If the corresponding
finger is not of the same type, the scared impression should be given a probable value and
referenced to all other possible combinations.

3. When a fingerprint is scarred beyond its general pattern type recognition and the
ridge-counting and tracing cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so
happens that the corresponding finger of the other hand is also scarred, both patterns are
arbitrarily interpreted as meeting whorls.

4. In a case where a finger is amputated, it is given the interpretation both as to general

pattern type and to ridge-count or trace as the corresponding finger of the other hand.

5. If all fingers of either hand are missing, you must consider them all as having the
interpretations as the corresponding fingers of the other hand. If all ten fingers are cut
off, all ten are interpreted as being meeting whorls.

Filing fingerprint records

Before filing classified fingerprint records, you should follow the routine procedure of
sequencing. This means the placing of a group of classified sets into their correct filing
order before filing or searching them. This act of arranging the classified cards into
groups is important because it saves time and eliminates confusion. It prevents the
technician from going to one filing cabinet to another and wasting unnecessary effort in
opening and closing file drawers.

Filing system - refers to the operation of locating the proper place in the fingerprint file
where a certain set of patterns belongs and depositing it there.

Filing out - entering on a fingerprint record card all known data about the subject, except
the fingerprint themselves.

Fingerprint classification index - a series of guide cards having tabs which are the
various classification combinations.
Sequencing-the placing of the group of classified sets of prints in their correct filing order
before beginning to file or search them.

Catch of identification - the location or finding of a previously filed duplicate record card
of the subject.

The sequencing operation

The first step is to separate all these classified cards into five piles. Each pile will contain
a number of cards. For pile 1, all cards having denominators of 1 are put together. In pile
2, cards having the denominator of 2 to 12 inclusive are put together. The third pile will
have sets of cards with denominators of 13 to 19 inclusive. All sets with denominators 20
to 27 inclusive are placed in pile four; and in the fifth pile those sets having denominators
28 to 32 inclusive are put together.

The second step involves the sorting again of the cards in each pile according to their
denominators. Begin to sort the cards in pile 5 by placing all the cards into 5 smaller piles,
starting with denominator 28, then one for denominator 29, and on through 30, 31, and
32.

Reference classification

Reference classifications are called second choice classifications. A classifier classifies

a set of prints according to the pattern interpretations that seems logical to him and then
gives reference classifications for any alternate interpretations of the individual patterns.
This pattern interpretation is referred to as reference work.

There is not so much emphasis to be placed upon it, provided the classifier is guided by
some factors that affect this particular classification work. He must be apprised of such
factors as: the amount of ink used, pressure exacted during the process of recording,
differences in eyesight, individual judgment, imprint of worn-out ridges due to
occupation, crippled and amputated fingers and scars.

The use of reference classification insures finding a fingerprint record if one had been
kept inside a bureau file. But this searching process may depend on the classification. If
there are more than one reference classifications, it will entail a longer period for
searching. Search slip contains various combinations and their reference classifications
based on a set of prints having questionable patterns, ridge-count, or ridge-trace.

Classifying questionable patterns

The lesson about pattern interpretation, we have studied that about almost all fingerprint
patterns can be assigned definite interpretations as to its pattern type, ridge-counts, and
ridge-traces. But due to great number of recorded inked fingerprints from the time this
system was used up to the present and for those to be taken in the coming generations,
and due to the fact that no two persons have been found to be alike in every detail, nature
sometimes gives us a little percentage of these questionable patterns which defy definite
interpretations.

This is to be expected because of the millions of recorded prints to be classified, they come
only under the three families or groups of patterns. There are no definite rules that would
govern correct interpretation of approximating, doubtful, or questionable patterns. What
is needed is whenever you encounter a pattern that defies positive definite
interpretation, either as to pattern type, ridge-count, or ridge-trace, you should interpret
it the way it appears most strongly to you and then make a reference to all other possible
interpretations.

For example, in blocking out a set of prints if the pattern representing the right index
finger borders between an plain arch and a tented arch, the symbol should be a?t, or if the
pattern of the left index is on the line between a tented arch and a radial loop, then the
symbol should be t?r. When a question involves ridge-counts, it should be marked 10?11
or 13?14. This relates to bordering count of 1 to be exhibited s letter i or o for inner or
outer in loop patterns. For whorls being ridge-traced, the pattern should be mark I? O or
M? O.

Recording of footprints

There is similarity in recording fingerprints with ink and of foot printing; however, there
are existing differences. Footprint is more like recording palm print.

The operator will first prepare his outfit for printing. He must see to it that the roller and
the subject's feet are free from any dirt or foreign matter. He then runs the roller in the
glass slab, spreading the ink on the surface uniformly.

As soon as he distributed the ink evenly, he then runs the roller back and forth over the
sole of the subject's bare foot. To steady the operation and to avoid repetition, the subject
should be seated and be standing when recording his footprints. It is very difficult to
obtain inked footprints when the subject is standing. The recommended height of a bench
or chair should be 18" to 20".
Module V: Latent Fingerprints

Introduction

Fingerprints found at the scene of the crime are known as latent prints. They are the
result of the imprints of the ridges on our fingers and palms. They are found frequently
on smooth surfaces as a result of the exudation of the watery substances which come out
from the pores on the surface of the skin. These prints are not normally readily visible to
the naked eye.

Latent fingerprints are of two classes; the visible and invisible or hidden print.
Invisible prints are those marks made by perspiration and other substances on the skin
surface; these require application of latent-print development technique to show and
photograph them. Visible fingerprints are divided into two: the molded prints and
fingerprints made by fingers smeared with colored substances, such as paint, ink,
grease, blood, or dirt. Molded prints are those imprints of the ridges on soft substances
like soap, clay, butter, melted candle, chocolate, paraffin, and wax.

Fingerprint examination at scene of crime

The investigator, to be successful in his search for finger marks, must have patience,
enthusiasm, and persistence. He must conduct his search systematically. The investigator
must exercise with greatest care that other clues are not destroyed during the search for
finger marks. When he begins to look for these chance prints he usually starts at the point
of entry or a place where the culprit had gained entrance.

A window or door through which the intruder entered will most probably possess latent
prints. These are shown on broken glass and must be carefully examined by the crime-
scene officer concerned. For private residences, the most likely place to look for print is
on the case or safe from which personal effects have been stolen such as money, jewelries,
etc. It is advisable also to examine jewel boxes, cabinet drawers, locked boxes, and other
places where valuables had been kept.

If the reported place is an office or commercial establishment, the investigator should

look around the opened safe, smashed cash box, and broken desks. If the intruder gained
entry after darkness, search for any light bulbs he might have unscrewed to conceal his
unlawful act.

Common latent print locations for stolen automobiles

1. The rear view mirror

2. Windshield

3. Dashboard area

4. Steering wheel
5. Seat control lever

6. Back area

7. Outside mirror

8. Top of door

9. Outside edges of door

11. Door handles

12. Window handles

Finger marks made in different ways

1. A perspiration mark made by a clean finger.

2. Impression made by a dirty finger.

3. Finger marks made on envelop gums, chocolate, cheese, melted candles, putty

And paraffin.

4. Blood marks.

5. Marks shown on dust.

6. Marks on oily or greasy objects.

Factors affecting latent impressions

1. Climatic conditions. Under this factor, too much exposure to the elements would
reduce the chance of their being recovered. Heavy condensed moisture such as rain,
snow, or dew will immediately erase fingerprints. Excessively high temperature caused
by direct rays of the sun during summer months can destroy them in a matter of few
minutes. The winds due to warm temperature will cause the. Disappearance of
fingerprint evidence because of the increased evaporation of watery substances. Dust
accumulating on finger impressions also obliterates identifying ridge characteristics.

2. Subject factors. Under this, we have the distinction of deciphering finger marks left by
male or female human being. For those prints belonging to young female adults, friction
ridge is found to be finer than those of men. However, it was also found that fine ridges
can be seen on young and old and that manual labor affected or strengthened the ridges
and therefore, an attempt to identify a latent print as that of female is objectionable.

3. Nature of the surface. Latent fingerprint left on the smooth non-porous surface like
glass, metal, ceramic, or enamel will formally retain their usefulness longer than those
impressed on a porous surface such as fabric, unpolished wood, paper, and other rough
surface objects. These very rough surfaces may retain the deposits of latent print residue,
but it is impossible to decipher the ridge characteristics left behind due to the nature of
the receiving surface.
Module VI: AUTOMATED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
(AFIS)
The Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) is the state of the art computer based
identification system. It is the process of automatically matching one or many unknown
fingerprints against database of known and unknown prints. It replaces the outdated manual
fingerprint classification adopted by most law enforcement agencies throughout the world over
the past decade.

AFIS systems utilize specialized software and powerful computer hardware configurations to
create unique mathematical maps based upon relationships between the characteristics present
within the finger or palm friction ridge skin structures. Modern AFIS systems rapidly extract
information from the fingerprint to establish the pattern type, minute points and the axis of the
image. The use of mathematical algorithms enables a fingerprint to be compared with millions of
file prints within a matter of seconds.

The latest AFIS systems may also incorporate palm print matching capabilities. In the majority of
operating systems palm print images are divided up into a number of small segments so that the
software can effectively and efficiently code, store and search the palm data within a reasonable
time frame.

AFIS software utilizes the impressions obtained from the rolled index fingers or thumbs to search
and match against existing tenprints records within the database.

This matching process is used in proving identity in the recording of criminal convictions.

The AFIS system may use the rolled impressions or a combination of the rolled and flat
impressions of all fingers to compare against the unsolved crime latent database. This process is
used when comparing new arrest finger and palm images against the unsolved crime latent
database or when comparing new crime scene latent evidence against the existing arrest records
within the tenprint database.

Latent images can be scanned from physical lifts negative, photographs or uploaded from digital
cameras, all in high quality detail. When searching an unknown print against the AFIS database,
the system provides a candidate list of the closest matching fingerprint images from the tenprint
database. The fingerprint examiner verifies the results and indicates whether an identification
has been made against any one of the nominated candidates.

While the list provided by the AFIS is given in order of decreasing match value, the final
identification as established by the

fingerprint expert may not necessarily be among the first few candidates on the list. Despite the
progress made in computer hardware and software, AFIS technology has not yet eliminated the
need for human verification of AFIS match results.

The AFIS database contains several separate databases, each with its own specific purpose and
storage scheme, to facilitate efficient overall system performance. These include the tenprint,
palm print and unsolved crime case image databases.

Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) in the Philippines

AFIS is a type of biometric system that uses digital imaging to capture a fingerprint, which then
can then be compared to a database of fingerprint records to help determine the identity of an
individual.

AFIS is a biometrics system commonly used in law enforcement where sets of prints recovered in
the crime scene were compared against the database of known and unknown prints.

Law Enforcement AFIS has the ability to perform the following functions:

1. Search a set of known fingerprints (tenprints) against the records of an existing tenprint
database (Tenprint Inquiry (TI));

2. Search a latent print from a crime scene against a tenprint database (Latent Inquiry (LI));

3. Search a latent print from a crime scene against the record of existing unsolved crimes database
(Latent to Latent Inquiry (LLI)); and

4. Search a new tenprint against the record of existing unsolved crimes database (Tenprint to
Latent Inquiry (TLI)).

Purpose of Equipment

• AFIS is the answer to the labor-intensive and time consuming process of classifying, searching,
and matching fingerprint used for identification.

• AFIS is primarily use by law enforcement agencies for criminal identification. The most
important of which include identifying a person suspected of committing a crime or linking a
suspect to other unsolved crimes. It also helps to identify victim of natural and man-made
disasters.

• No matter how competent the evidence technician is at performing his job, the gathering of
physical evidence at a crime scene will be futile unless such evidence can be properly processed
and analyzed. Since fingerprints are by far the most frequently retrieved physical evidence,
making the system of analyzing such prints effective will contribute the most toward greater
success in identifying criminal offenders through the use of physical evidence.

Functions of AFIS

Tenprint inquiry

This inquiry compares the tenprint of an arrested suspect with the fingerprints of criminals on
file to verify the identity and criminal history of the suspect.

Latent inquiry

This inquiry compares a latent print from a crime scene with the fingerprint that are stored in the
database to identify the perpetrator of the crime.

Offense inquiry

This inquiry compares the tenprint of offender with latent prints on file from unsolved crimes to
see if the suspect committed previous offenses.
Serial crimes

This inquiry compares a latent print from a crime scene with latent prints on file form unsolved
crimes to see if the same person has committed other crimes.

Procedure in Fingerprint Inquiry and Image Verification

Procedure in Fingerprint Inquiry and Image Verification

1. Tenprint latent print images are read via scanner and stored in a storage disk. When the
workstation issues an inquiry, the fingerprint matching processor gets data from the storage and
compares with each print. 2. The fingerprint matching processor compares minutiae data
detected from search prints to minutiae data of registered print. Those prints that have
resemblance in minutiae are selected as candidate match.

3. The position, directions and relations of the minutiae of the search print and file print are
compared. If any minutiae resemble each other these are selected as pair minutiae. If the numbers
of pair minutiae exceed the set value, the degree of resemblance is calculated by rotating the
search print axis around the file print axis until the most minutiae pairs are found.

4. Candidate fingerprint images for fingerprint selected by the fingerprint matching processor are
automatically retrieve from the database.

5. The search print image and candidate fingerprint are displayed side by side and are verified on
the fingerprint work station. The fingerprint images can be magnified, rotated and shows the pair
minutiae by charting.

Procedure in Tenprint Identification

1. Police makes a fingerprinting of the suspects together with important demographic data
information

2. The fingerprint card is sent to the PNP Crime Laboratory (AFIS) to confirm the identity and
criminal history of the suspect. After which the fingerprint card is sent to the Fingerprint
Workstation for verification.

3. The operator conducts a verification of near hit candidates through the fingerprint matching
processor by entering the search fingerprint on the processor a result of which is a candidate
fingerprint.

4. Once the candidate fingerprint is a hit candidate a tenprint card is registered to future criminal
history at the same time replies the subject's identity and criminal history. If a candidate
fingerprint is considered no hit candidate, tenprints are registered to the database.

Procedure in Latent Print Identification

1. Police gathers fingerprint evidences at the crime scene.

2. The fingerprint evidence is sent to the PNP Crime Laboratory (AFIS) to identify suspect and
other crime committed by the same person. After which, the print will be sent to the fingerprint
workstation for latent print scanning.
3. The operator conducts a verification of near hit candidates through the fingerprint matching
processor a result of which is a candidate fingerprint.

4. Once the candidate fingerprint is a hit candidate responses are the suspects verification, other
crimes committed by the same suspect and serial crimes. While if a candidate fingerprint is
considered a non-hit candidate, latent print is registered to the database.
Module VII:LATENTPRINT EXAMINATION AND PRESENTATION OF
FINGERPINT EVIDENCE IN COURT
Introduction

After the latent print has been processed and developed from the crime scene the next thing to
do is to look for a possible match of such questioned print with those available standard prints
on file. In fingerprint comparison, the ridge characteristics of the questioned prints will be
compared with ridges characteristics of the standard print. A point of similarities must be
properly established to obliterate some doubts.

Steps in Latent Fingerprint Examination

1. Recognition -This includes processing of latent prints in the crime scene, preliminary
screening, photography and lifting of the prints.

2. Identification -includes laboratory processing, enhancement, comparison of known and

unknown prints.

3. Individualization - includes the method of matching the prints for identification purposes
followed by evaluation.

4. Reconstruction - this will be done if there was non-matching of prints. The condition and
position should be identified and the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) may be
used.

Steps in Fingerprint Examination (Introduced by Sgt. Asbaugh)

1. Analysis - general patterns and name of Specific patterns are identified.

2. Comparison - ridge details of the fingerprints are being compared.

3. Evaluation-The making of a conclusion whether the latent print and fingerprint of suspect are
the same.

4. Verification - The opinion of an examiner should be verified by 1-2 examiner/s.

Uses of Fingerprint

Fingerprint identification has long been regarded by its greatest contribution to law enforcement.
This science provides distinct service in administration of justice and many other areas where
positive identification is paramount importance.

1. Identification of criminal whose fingerprint was found at the crime scene.

2. Identification of fugitives through a comparison of fingerprints.

3. Means of personal identification.

5. Prevention of hospital mistakes in the identification of infants.

6. Identification of person suffering from amnesia.

7. Identification of missing person.

8. Personal identification of victims of disaster works.

9. Identification of unconscious person.

10. Licensing procedure for automobile, firearms and other equipment's.

Number of Ridge Characteristics as a Basis of Absolute Identity

There are no national or international rules or laws that fix the number of ridge characteristics
that must be present in both the questioned and the standard prints that should be used for
establishing for absolute identity. Experts of different countries differ in the requirements of the
minimum number. In England, the minimum ridge characteristics is 16, in US the minimum ridge
is 12 ridge characteristics. However, fingerprint experts in these countries believe that identity
can be established in lower number of guidelines.

The guidelines are;

a. Clearness of the pattern.

b. Rarity of the type.

c. Presence of core and delta in decipherable part.

d. Presence of pores.

e. The perfect and clear identity of the width of the ridges and furrows of direction of the lines.

The Law of Multiplicity of Evidence States that the greater the number of similarities or
dissimilarities the greater the probability for the conclusion to be correct.

Dogmatic Principle of Fingerprint

Dogmatic Principle of Fingerprint

1. Principle of individuality - there are no two fingerprints that are exactly alike.

2. Principle of permanency - the configuration and details of individual ridges remain constant
and unchanging.

3.Principle of infallibility - the fingerprint evidence is reliable.

Reasons why fingerprint is one of the most infallible means of identification

1. Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of the intra uterine life and it will remain
throughout life until final decomposition of the body.

2. The pattern formation is formed by papillary ridges contain peculiar characteristics upon
which a person can easily identified by fingerprint examiners.

3. Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the world accept, adopt and
utilized the fingerprint system as a means of absolute identification of a person.
4. The court and other authorities take cognizance of its importance and reliability of fingerprints
as a means of identification.

Number of Ridge Details for a Fingerprint to be Accepted as Evidence

There are no international rules or laws setting the required no. of similarities of latent and
suspect's fingerprint.

Other countries set points of similarities:

a. England = 16 similarities

b. United States = 12 similarities

c. European Countries = 15 similarities

Preparation of Fingerprint Chart for Court Presentation

There are four important elements an examiner should keep in mind in comparing two
fingerprints. 1. Prints must be of the same type of patterns.

2. The quality of the friction ridges must conform in both prints.

3. The number of charted ridge characteristics must correspond in both latent and inked prints.

4. Location, direction, and distances of friction ridges must be in agreement in both latent and
inked prints.

Identity can be declared when two fingerprints have similar ridges and the same number of
ridges. Ridges must correspond in every Galton detail and must be of the same kind in the same
relative position.

1. There is no law requiring enlargements of fingerprint charts. Enlargement may be 8′′ x 10" or
even 12′′ × 14′′ inches. Enlargement smaller than these are too small to show ridge characteristics
for the court to see.

2. Mark off the latent print first. A latent print is usually fragmentary and ridges are obscured.

3. The charted ridge characteristics in the latent print must bear the same number with those

characteristics in the record print.

4. Mark off and number only those characteristics that appear in both latent and record prints.

5. When marking the ridge characteristics, be sure that you are using enlarged photographs of the
natural size prints for a better view. Do not attempt to mark off the ridge details on the natural
size prints. This will muddle your work because the ridge formations are so small.

6. Be sure that when placing the projection lines which point out the ridge characteristics none of
these lines cross each other.

7. Be careful not to place the projection lines in red ink so heavily that they will obscure the ridge
characteristics. Place each line up to the ridge characteristics only but not over it.
8. There is no set rule to follow in charting out ridge characteristics for comparison, but it is a
general practice among examiners to start with the core if it is shown in the latent print.

9. Do not tamper or make any unnecessary marks on the enlargement exhibit. Never, under any
circumstances, do anything also to the negatives of the evidence. The law of evidence requires
that all evidences must be in its original condition as circumstances will permit.