From c.

300 CE onwards, political hierarchies can be identified by the titles of rulers, which reflect
relations of paramountcy and subordination. Gupta kings assumed imperial titles such as
maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka, and parameshvara. They also connected themselves with the
gods through epithets such as parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and parama-
bhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna). Some historians have suggested that the
Gupta kings claimed divine status. For instance, the Allahabad prashasti describes Samudragupta as a
god dwelling on earth, as Purusha (the Supreme Being) and as the equal of the gods Dhanada
(Kubera), Varuna, Indra, and Antaka (Yama). Such assertions can be seen as reflections of an attempt
to exalt the king’s status by comparing him with the gods, rather than as an assertion of the king’s
divinity. Seals and inscriptions mention official ranks and designations, whose precise meaning is
often uncertain. The term kumaramatya occurs on six Vaishali seals, which suggests that this title
represented a high-ranking officer associated with an office (adhikarana) of his own. The designation
‘amatya’ occurs on several Bhita seals, and the kumaramatya seems to have been pre-eminent
among amatyas and equivalent in status to princes of royal blood. Kumaramatyas were variously
attached to the king, crown prince, revenue department, or a province. One of the Vaishali seals
refers to a kumaramatya who seems to have been in charge of the maintenance of the sacred
coronation tank of the Lichchhavis. Individuals of the rank of kumaramatya sometimes had additional
designations as well, and such ranks could be hereditary. For example, Harishena, composer of the
Allahabad prashasti, was a kumaramatya, sandhivigrahika, and mahadandanayaka, and was the son
of mahadandanayaka Dhruvabhuti. The Karamdanda stone inscription of Kumaragupta mentions two
generations of mantri-kumaramatyas who served two generations of kings —Shikharasvamin who
served Chandragupta II, and Shikharasvamin’s son Prithivishena, who served Kumaragupta I.
Prithivishena is subsequently described as mahabaladhikrita. The Gupta empire was divided into
provinces known as deshas or bhuktis, administered by governors who were usually designated as
uparikas. The uparika was directly appointed by the king and, in turn, frequently appointed the head
of the district administration and the district town board. A Vaishali seal refers to the office of the
uparika of Tirabhukti. One of the Damodarpur copper plates (which refers to Gupta era years 124
and 129) describes Chiratadatta, the uparika of Pundravardhana bhukti, as appointed by the king
(Kumaragupta I). It further states that Chiratadatta appointed kumarama-tya Vetravarman as head of
the adhishthana adhikarana (district office) of Kotivarsha. Another Damodarpur plate (of unknown
date) tells us that Kumaragupta I appointed maharaja Jayadatta as uparika of the same province, and
that Jayadatta in turn appointed the ayuktaka Bhandaka as head of the adhisthana adhikarana of
Kotivarsha. The Damodarpur plate of the reign of Vishnugupta, dated in year 224 of the Gupta era,
mentions an uparika whose name is lost, but who has the epithets maharaja, bhattaraka, and
rajaputra and who appointed Svayambhudeva as vishayapati. It also refers to the uparika as carrying
on the administration ‘with the enjoyment of [the rule] consisting of elephants, horses, and soldiers’,
indicating his control over the military machinery as well. The fact that the uparika had the title
maharaja in three of the Damodarpur plates indicates his high status and rank in the administrative
hierarchy. The Eran pillar inscription of Budhagupta, dated Gupta year 165, refers to maharaja
Surashmichandra as a lokapala governing the land between the Kalindi and Narmada rivers. Lokapala
here seems to refer to a provincial governor. Saurashtra was an important province of the Gupta
empire. Skandagupta’s Junagarh inscription provides details about the Sudarshana lake that had
been built during the Maurya period and repaired in Rudradaman’s time. It states that Skandagupta
appointed Parnadatta as goptri (governor) of Surashtra (Saurashtra). Parnadatta in turn appointed his
son Chakrapalita to govern the city where this inscription was inscribed. In Gupta year 136 (i.e., 455–
56 CE), the Sudarshana lake burst its embankments due to torrential rain and Chakrapalita had the
breach repaired after two years’ work in the year 137 (i.e., 456–57 CE). The inscription thus reflects
the practice of the delegation of official responsibilities from father to son, and the role of the
provincial government in initiating the repair of waterworks. The provinces of the Gupta empire were
divided into districts known as vishayas, under officers known as vishayapatis. The vishayapati seems
to have been generally appointed by the provincial governor. However, the Indore copper plate
inscription dated in Gupta year 146, during the reign of king Skandagupta, suggests that this was not
always the case. It describes the vishayapati Sharvanaga who was governing Antaravedi (which
referred either to the area around Indore or Kanauj) as being favoured by the king, which suggests
that he owed his appointment to him. It may be noted that the Eran pillar inscription of the time of
the Huna ruler Toramana refers to Airakina vishaya, indicating an element of continuity in
administrative divisions in post-Gupta times. Significant details of district-level administration in
Bengal are reflected in the Damodarpur copper plates dated in Gupta year 124 during the reign of
Kumaragupta I. These record orders regarding certain land transactions issued to village officials by
the adhikarana of Kotivarsha vishaya. The adhishthana adhikarana of Kotivarsha had five members—
the uparika or vishayapati (who was the head), the nagara-sreshthin (chief merchant/banker),
sarthavaha (chief caravan trader), prathama-kulika (chief artisan or merchant), and prathama-
kayastha (chief scribe or an officer in charge of revenue collection). This indicates that the vishayapati
was assisted in his administrative duties by certain prominent members of the town. Administrative
units below district level included clusters of settlements known variously as vithi, patta, bhumi,
pathaka, and petha. There are references to officials known as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras. At the
village level, villagers chose functionaries such as the gramika and gramadhyaksha, and village elders
also had an important role to play in various matters. The Damodarpur copper plate of the reign of
Budhagupta (of Gupta year 163) mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members)
headed by the mahattara. Mahattara has a range of meanings including village elder, village
headman, and head of a family or community. The Sanchi inscription of the time of Chandragupta II
mentions the pancha-mandali, which may have been a corporate village body.

The Gupta king was assisted by a council of mantrins (ministers). The Allahabad prashasti refers to an
assembly or council, presumably of ministers—known as the sabha. The various high-ranking
functionaries included the sandhivigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war),
who seems to have been a high-ranking officer in charge of the conduct of relations with other
states, including initiating war and concluding alliances and treaties. Harishena, composer of the
Allahabad prashasti, was (among other things) a sandhivigrahika. An Udayagiri inscription describes
Virasena Shaba, a sandhivigrahika of Chandragupta II, as a poet. These two inscriptions indicate that
officers who discharged the job of drafting treaties had much more than just basic skills of drafting
and composition. Several seals and inscriptions of c.300–600 CE mention the names of dandanayakas
and mahadandanayakas, who were high-ranking judicial or military officers. One of the Vaishali seals
mentions a mahadandanayaka named Agnigupta. The Allahabad prashasti refers to three
mahadandanayakas. The fact that the composer of the prashasti, Harishena, a mahadandanayaka
(with the additional titles of sandhivigrahika and kumaramatya), was the son of mahadandanayaka
and khadyatapakita Dhruvabhuti, suggests the hereditary nature of such important administrative
posts. The inscription also mentions mahadandanayaka Tilakabhatta as the executor of the
inscription. A Bhita seal mentions a mahadandanayaka named Vishnurakshita. This official also had
the designation mahashvapati (commander of the cavalry), clearly indicating military functions, and
he is said to have appointed the kumaramatya. Seals and inscriptions mention other military
designations such as baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander-in-chief of the army). A Vaishali
seal mentions Yakshavatsa, a bhatashvapati (commander of infantry and cavalry). The standard term
senapati does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but is mentioned in some Vakataka epigraphs. A
Vaishali seal mentions the ranabhandagaradhikarana—office of the military storehouse. Another
Vaishali seal mentions the adhikarana (office) of the dandapashika, which may have been a district-
level police office. The officials connected specifically with the royal establishment included the
mahapratihara (chief of the palace guards) and the khadyatapakita (superintendent of the royal
kitchen). A Vaishali seal mentions a person named Vinayashura, described as both a mahapratihara
and a taravara. (It is interesting to note that the latter also occurs as a title of high rank in earlier
inscriptions from Nagarjunakonda.) The top layer of the administrative structure also included
amatyas and sachivas, who were executive officers in charge of various departments. The system of
espionage included spies known as dutakas. The ayuktakas were another cadre of high-ranking
officers. It is possible that there is some similarity between their functions and those of the yuktas of
the Ashokan inscriptions and Arthashastra. The Allahabad prashasti describes Samudragupta’s
ayuktakas as ceaselessly engaged in restoring wealth to the many conquered kings. One of the
Damo-darpur plates mentions an ayuktaka who was also a bhandaka and head of the district town
administration of Kotivarsha vishaya. A Vaishali seal mentions the adhikarana of the
vinayashitisthapaka of Tirabhukti. The term vinayashitisthapaka has been translated as ‘one who
maintains moral and social discipline’, but the precise functions of this officer are unclear.