International Journal of Cultural Studies and Social Sciences

IMPACT OF GEOMORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS ON LAND USE AND LAND

COVER: A CASE STUDY ON A SUB-BASIN OF MANIPUR RIVER

Letminthang Baite, Research Scholar, Gauhati University

Dr. Niranjan Bhattacharjee, Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, Pandu College

Abstract
Terrain analysis is an effectiveway of understanding the interaction among
environmentalprocessesand its relation with vegetation.The role played by terrain characters is
reflected in the land use pattern. In this paper, selectedterrain parametersare preparedand evaluated in
Geographic Information System (GIS) tools. The objective of this article is to analyze the terrain
characteristics of the basin and observe the effect of terrain on land use and land cover patterns. It is
found that an NDVI value varies according to changes in terrain parameters and specific landform
types. Also, human activities are notably marked by low NDVI values in this study area. The plain
area (Slope < 4) has a low NDVI as time of satellite image acquisition happens after paddy harvest
and before new sowing crops. The land use and land cover respond significantly to the terrain
characteristics. Built and scrub forests are prominently found in the southwest-facing slope while
jhum fields occur mostly in the southeast direction. Each elevation zone and slope belt has a
dominant land use and land cover class. It is found that the land use and land cover pattern are
closely related to the personality of the terrain.
Keywords: Terrain parameters, Morphometry, NDVI, Basin, Vegetation, Landuse.

Introduction
A drainage basin is a land area drained by a river and its tributaries whose boundary is naturally
demarcated by the ridge lines of the watershed. “River basin has its own personality disregarding the
political boundary” (Anonymous).It is an important geographical unit for solving various
environmental problems like soil erosion, sedimentation, river siltation, flood management,
anddeforestation. A basin is a suitablelandscape unit to study the hydrology and physical parameters
related to the environmental system. It usually acts as a unifying entity among the different elements
in the environment.The hydrological cycle at basin scale is important for hydrologists and water
resource managers. The geo-hydro dynamics of a drainage basin are controlled by the morphology,
soil, geologic-structural factors, vegetation, and climatic-hydrologic factors(Horton, 1932).
Vegetation also forms an important component of a river basin (Yang et al., 1963) due to its role in
water exchange and energy transfer. Morphometric analysis of a river basin is useful for groundwater
assessment, site management, construction of check dams, and artificial recharge structures(Biswas
et al, 2014).
Terrain analysis at the basin level helps in understanding the various hydro-geomorphologic
processes and their interaction with the flora and fauna within the system(Florinsky, 1996).The
energy interaction at the basin scale is an open system in which sunlight, wind, and precipitation help
run the engine of the ecology. The role of morphometric parameters in basin dynamism is substantial
(Biswas et al.,2014) and so is its influence on the land use system. The maximum impact on river
basins is caused by human populations due to the high demand for water-related resources (Yang et
al., 1963).The land use and land cover affect the river basin through the hydrological cycle, runoff,
and water quality. On the other hand, the landforms and terrain characteristics influence the land use
and land cover patterns. Different landform units produce its own characteristics vegetation type
(Nagamatsu and Osamu, 1997) as well as the cropping pattern. Land surface morphology exerts
strong influence on the spatial distribution of plants and trees (Wilson & Gallant,2000).
The main agriculture land use in the basin are shifting cultivation, wet paddy cultivation, small-scale
commercial farms, vegetable gardens,etc. Other economic activities include charcoal making, fuel
wood gathering, bamboo shoot harvesting, and hunting of birds and animals. All these economic
activities adversely affected the natural state of the basin ecosystem.Analysis of the terrain
characteristics will enable us to understand the nature of relations among the various physical,
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IMPACT OF GEOMORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS ON LAND USE AND LAND COVER: A
CASE STUDY ON A SUB-BASIN OF MANIPUR RIVER
biological, and human interactions in the basin ecosystem. The objectives of the study are; analyses
of the terrain characteristics and to examine the impact of terrain on the land use and land cover
pattern.The study is conducted with the help of remote sensing datain a GIS environment.
Study Area
The study area, a sun-basin of the Manipur River, is located roughly between latitudes 24o12’57”
North to 24o22’56” North and longitudes 93o43’22” East to 93o52’9” East.The basin lies in the
Northeastern part of Churachandpur district in the state of Manipur, India. The basin measures a total
area of 153 km2.The study area is drained by the Tuining River which is a right-bank tributary of the
Manipur River, a tributary of the Chindwin River which meets the Irrawaddy River and eventually
ends its journey at the Nicobar Sea of the Bay of Bengal (Singh, 2014).

Figure 1 Location of the study area

The study area comprised a small valley formed by the floodplain of the Tuining Riverand its larger
tributaries and surrounded by hillsthat form the catchment area.The climate is Humid Sub-Tropical
type and has an annual average rainfall of 2030 mm. The annual temperature ranges from as high as
37oC in summer and 1oC in winter. The maximum humidity is 100% and the minimum humidity
reaches 61%. The climate is suitable for the cultivation of kharif crops like maize,rice, and a variety
of vegetables. Moderately dense forest covers the hills with patches of abandoned shifting cultivation
fields here and there covered by tall grasses and small trees.
The entire district of Churachandpur lies inthe Indo-Burmese Arc region with much geological
complexity(GSI). Geologically the study area belongs to part of the Disang series of rock formations
(CWG, 2013). Pasco (1912) and Evans (1964) reported that the rocks west of the Imphal Valley
belong to Barail and those to the east are the Disang group (GSI, 2011). Light to grayish brown color
Disang rocks give rise to black to dark grey & light reddish brown clay and silt on weathering
(CWG, 2013).

Methodology
The digital elevation model of the study area is extracted from an SRTM 30m X-band of the year
2011 and is used for analysis of the terrain. The surface models of the terrain are derived from the
30m DEM using ArcGIS 10.3. All the terrain parameters are automatically extracted from the DEM
by using the software. DEM is successfully used in the study of the basin and its properties with the
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 International Journal of Cultural Studies and Social Sciences
help of GIS software (Prasanakumar et al., 2011; Biswas et al., 2014; Farhan et al., 2015;Arulbalaji
and Gurugnanan, 2017). The drainage system was extracted from the DEM 30m with a stream
threshold value of 500 pixels (i.e. 4.5 sq.km.) upstream area. For stream density map preparation
stream was derived at a lower threshold value of 300 pixels (2.7sq.km.) of upstream area. Other
terrain parameters and objects are manually calculated or derived through software analysis.An
LULC map prepared from Landsat OLI imagery for 2019 is downloaded from USGS
(https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/ ). The classified LULC map has seven different land use and land
cover classes with an overall accuracy of 83.30% and 0.80 Kappa Coefficient (K).
The degree of vegetation disturbance using land use and human activities is determined through the
Normalized Difference of Vegetation Index (NDVI). It is derived from the formula
𝑁−𝑅
NDVI=𝑁+𝑅
Where R and N are the surface reflectance from the Red (wavelength ~ 0.6 μm) and near-infrared
(wavelength, λ~0.8 μm) region of the spectrum.
NDVI is classified into three groups low, medium, and high NDVI. The satellite imagery used in
deriving the NDVI is Landsat 8 OLI for April 1, 2020. This is the time of transition of season from
winter to spring in this part of the country; therefore vegetation except evergreen trees shed their
leaves. Most cultivation crops are harvested and the ground lays bare in this season. The NDVI map
is vectorized and overlaid on the maps prepared for selected terrain parameters namely elevation,
slope, and aspect. The results are quantified and recorded in tables for further analysis. This analysis
enables us to see the pattern of vegetation distribution and human activities affecting the natural state
of the vegetation. Three terrain parameters namely elevation, slope, and aspect are selected for
further analysis between the vegetation greenness and terrain parameters.Terrain parameters like
elevation, slope, and aspect are derived from SRTM DEM 30m with the help of ArcGIS 10.3

Figure 2 LULC and terrain characteristics in Tuining basin

Results and discussion

The drainage system followsthe dendritic type (Figure 1) whichimplies thatthe basin has uniformand
sedimentary strata rock types. Dendritic drainage pattern develops on rocks having uniform
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IMPACT OF GEOMORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS ON LAND USE AND LAND COVER: A
CASE STUDY ON A SUB-BASIN OF MANIPUR RIVER
resistance with no structural control (Thornbury,2004).A low circular ratio (Table 1) indicates that
the basin is less susceptible to flood hazards. However, the peak and mean runoff, and annual
discharge directly depend on the size of the basin area (Arulbalaji and Gurugnanan, 2017). Circular
basins discharge runoff more efficiently but they are at higher risk of flood due to short lag time and
high peak flow(Biswas et al, 2014).But run-off of the basin also depends on stream length,
frequency, geological structure, land use, land cover, climate,slope, and relief of the basin (Arulbalaji
and Gurugnanan,2017). The current study area experiences occasional floods usually during the
retreating monsoon season in October and November. Recurring heavy rainfall for a few hours can
cause the river to overflow its banks. The flood submerges and destroys the standing rice fields in its
way but the inundation lasts for a few hours only.The flood water rapidly flows towards the mouth of
the riveremptyingitself into the Manipur River.This phenomenon flood in the basin may be attributed
to the basin geometry. The basin circulatory ratio also indicates the phase of the geographical cycle
of the landscape. According to Miller (1953), the low, medium, and high values of Rcimply young,
mature, and old stages of the geographic cycle (Farhan et al., 2015).
Table1: Basin Parameters
Sl.No. Parameters Formula Reference Result
1 Basin length Software calculation 31 km
2 Basin area Software calculation 153 km2
3 Basin perimeter Software calculation 66 km
2
4 Form Factor Rf=A/L Horton(1932) 0.23
5 Elongation Ratio Re=1.28√A/L Schumm(1956) 0.51
6 Circulatory ratio Rc=4𝞹A/P2 Miller(1953) 0.44
8 Sinuosity index Is= l/d Software calculation 30/13=2.3
Where A, P, and L are the area, perimeter, and length of the basin respectively, while ‘l’and‘d’ are
the actual length and shortest length from the origin to the mouth of the river.
Based on the value of the elongation ratio i.e. 0.51, the basin under study is an elongated one.
Youthful basins have relatively longer elongation (Molin et al., 2004) with high relief. Low Re is
associated with high relief whereas high Re implies low basin relief. Revalues close to zero are
typically low relief basins (Farhan et al., 2015) whereas the reverse holds for high relief as the value
gets closer to one. In other words, elongated basins have high relief and circular basins have low
relief. As the value of the elongation ratio approaches 1 the basin is near circular, but as the value
gets lesser near zero the basin becomes more and more elongated.The circularity ratio and elongation
ratio indicate that the basin is in the youthful stage of the geographic cycle.
The form factor is the ratio of the basin area to its axial lengthwhichhas a direct relationship with
peak discharge (Sreedevi et. al., 2009). The form factor is indicative of the flow intensity of
discharge in the river basin in which a small value signifies an elongated basin.The Rf value of the
basin is 0.23, so a low peak discharge of longer duration is expected in the basin.The sinuosity index
(Is=2.3) implies that the river is in the early transitional stage. The sinuosity index lying between 1
and 20 indicates the transitional, regular, and irregular path of the river. If the sinuosity index is more
than 20 it means that the river is torturous and highly meanders.
Relief parameters
Table 2: Terrain Variables
Terrain variables Minimum Maximum Mean Standard deviation
Elevation (meter) 707 1865 935 157
Aspect (degree) 0 358 178 87
Drainage density 0.29 3.80 1.95 0.66
Stream frequency 1.0 12.9 6.22 1.54
The basin has a maximum elevation of 1865 meters from sea level and 707meters at its mouth. The
area under 980-meter elevation constituted more than 50% of the whole basin area. The 0-4 slope

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 International Journal of Cultural Studies and Social Sciences
belt consists of 4% of the basin area and is its most fertile and productive area. Moderate slope (10-
20) and steep slope (20-35) constitute 41% and 47% of the basin area. These slope belts offered
moderate and strong limitations on the land for agricultural uses (FAO, 1976). Slope direction or
aspect is classed according to the cardinal direction into eight groups as shown in Fig. 5. The area
covered by the slope aspects differs little from 11% (South and North) to 14% (East and West).
The study area has varied topography from low-lying floodplain to rugged hills elevated as much as
1800meters above mean sea level. Open slopes and upper slopes make up 53.77% of the total
area.The plain area is about 639 hectares formed by the floodplain of the Tuining River and its
tributaries. Since the upper slopes of the catchment area are used extensively for shifting cultivation,
the river transported much sediment during the monsoon seasons. This plain area and narrow valleys
are used for paddy cultivation during the kharif season and vegetables post-harvest.
Land use and land cover pattern
Satellite imagery is employed inthe extraction of biophysical information and vegetation cover.These
data are crucial forthe explanation and investigation of forest distribution, human activities, and
socioeconomic processes (Siva et al., 2020). The land use pattern of the area is inference from the
Normalized Difference of Vegetation Index of the study area. NDVI is the most widely used
vegetation index in the assessment and monitoring of cover (Jiang et al, 2006). The NDVI of the
study area is classified into three classes (Figure 7);NDVI lower than 0.5 are barren land and paddy
fields, and 0.5 to 0.7 are fallow land, settlement, andsparse vegetation. Those areas with a greenness
value higher than 0.7 are forests with thick vegetationcover.
Table 3: NDVI variation with change in slope and elevation
NDVI Mean elevation (in meters) Mean slope(in degree)
Low 800 8
Medium 987 19
High 948 20
NDVI is low in the low-elevation and gentler regionof the basin (Table 3). There is a concentration
of settlements, roads, and other human activities in this region due advantages offered by the
topography. Maximum greenness occurs atthe mean elevation of 948meters but the NDVI
decreasesin the higher altitude region. It follows that maximum NDVIis found at the mid-altitudinal
region. On the other hand, slope and NDVI increase correspondingly i.e. as the slope gets steeper the
vegetation greenness gets enhanced. This reflects the intense human activities on the lower slope
belts (valleys and foothills) while vegetation in the steep and rugged terrain is least
disturbed.Mortality and health vegetation depends on the intricacyof natural and anthropogenic
disturbance on the vegetation(Nagamatsu and Osamu, 1997). Regions where anthropogenic activities
are intense like the present study area; landscape is marked by patches of bare ground or waste land.
Therefore the use of Normalized Difference of Vegetation Index (NDVI) for the study of vegetation
disturbance by anthropogenic agents is much appropriate.

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IMPACT OF GEOMORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS ON LAND USE AND LAND COVER: A
CASE STUDY ON A SUB-BASIN OF MANIPUR RIVER

Figure 3 Distribution of LULC in different slope directions (aspects)

Aspect is an important terrain attribute as it determines the amount of insolation received by an area.
The influence of aspect on soil properties, vegetation types, ecohydrologic fluxes, and hillslope
morphology are observable at different spatial scale in arid and semi-arid environments (Yetemen et
al., 2015).Several studies have found a significant difference between north-facing slopes and south-
facing slopes in terms of the floristic diversity, vegetation structure, and density (Cantlon, 1953;
Holland and Steyn, 1975; Yang et al., 2020; and Yetemen et al., 2015).Different slope aspects
received different amounts of solar radiation resulting in unequal air and soil moisture
conditionswhich consequently affect the vegetation (Cantlon, 1953). Spatial distribution and
abundance of vegetation type strongly depend on the orientation of the slope. Jhum field has a
maximum area in the Southeast (SE) facing slope (Figure 3). Normally the sites that receive a higher
amount of insolation are selected for rice cultivation in jhum fields. Scrub forest and built are
predominant in the southwest (SW) direction which implies more vegetation disturbance adjoining
the built area. The area of forest is significantly less in the north and south-facing slopes while it
occurs more abundantly in the east, northeast, and southeast aspects (Figure 3). Dense forest is found
almost exclusively on the northern aspect. 93.8% of the total dense forest area is found in the north
and northwester aspect in the Tuining river basin. Yang et al., (2020) found a similar result in their
study of the Min river valley in Hengduan Mountains Region, China. The north facing slopes have
more moisture, biomass, and diversity than the southern aspect (Yang et al., 2020).Terrain characters
have a strong influence on the spatial distribution of solar radiation, precipitation, soil formation, soil
moisture, and soil organic content. This phenomenon resulted in spatial variation in vegetation
distribution and land use patterns. Florinsky(1996) in his study of vegetation cover in the East
Kazakhstan regionfound the usefulness of topographic models in vegetation investigation.Aspect is
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 International Journal of Cultural Studies and Social Sciences
the direction of orientation of the slope on the land surface. Solar radiation, evapo-transpiration, flora
and fauna distribution and abundance are the land surface parameters associated with slope aspect in
the environment(Wilson and Gallant,2000).
The distribution of the land use and land cover classes in different slope belts and elevation zones is
presented in Figure 4. The first layer has three elevation zones which constitute 153 km2of the basin
area i.e. 708-944 meters (50%), 944-1185 meters (41%), and 1185-1854 meters (9%). The
intermediate layer has five sections representing the five slope belts (0-4, 4-10, 10-20, 20-35 and 35
above) in each elevation zone. The outermost layer represent the area of land use and land cover
classes within the two terrain attributes.

Figure 4 Distribution of LULC in different slope belts and elevation zones

Forest (moderately dense) and scrub land (forest) are the most prominent land cover class in the all
the slope belts of the elevation zones (Figure 4). However, in the middle elevation zone (944-1185
meters) dense forest occupy a substantial portion in the steep slopes (20-35). Scrub forest is present
in all the elevation zones across different slope belts. This is indicative of the extensive deforestation
in the catchment area of the basin. Permanent agricultural land which lies as current fallow
concentrated exclusively on the 0-4slope belt in 704-944 elevation zone. Jhum field (shifting
cultivation) is absent in elevation below 944 meters and found in the steep slopes of the higher
elevation. Maximum jhum field is observed between 944 and 1185 meter in the 20-35 and the same
slope belt in 1185-1841 meter elevation zone. It is found also in the 10-20 slope belts in both the
elevation zones.
Slope gradient influence all the gravity induced flow on the land surface and control the surface and
subsurface flow rate of materials and runoff, precipitation, vegetation, soil water content and land
capability class (Wilson and Gallant,2000).There is a difference in vegetation patterns and species
composition in micro-scale landforms, between upper and lower hill slopefor example (Kikuchi and
Miura, 1993). Slope angle and the direction it is facing (aspect) is closely associated with the local
variation in species composition and the prediction of vegetation patterns (Holland and Steyn, 1975).
Landform types relates to moisture distribution, energy and nutrients availability which are essential
for plants to thrive and flourish. It is not only the inducing factors but also the inhibiting forces that
influence vegetation distribution. Nagamatsu and Osamu(1997) found that due to frequent and
intense soil disturbance herbaceous plants like fern and shrub thrive in most disturbed sites in lower
slopes while dense vegetation are found in upper slopes where enough soil moisture are available.
Therefore we can say that “Landform unit is the most important factors affecting vegetation
distribution(Sakai et al., 2013).”

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IMPACT OF GEOMORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS ON LAND USE AND LAND COVER: A
CASE STUDY ON A SUB-BASIN OF MANIPUR RIVER
The lower elevation below 800m where the rivers and its tributaries forms small valleys and
floodplain are used for wet paddy cultivation. Sediments and nutrients from eroded soil and
vegetation litters from the upper regions are brought down by the river. These sediments are
deposited banks and flood plain area enriching the soil on annual basis by the monsoon rain. The
peripheral areas adjacent to the flood plain attract a high density of population.
Settlements are scattered along the state highway and other roads connecting important villages. The
sites of these villages are usually at the foothills adjoining valleys and plain.

Conclusion
Analysis of the relations between LULC and terrain attributes of the Tuining river basin shows a
close association between the two landscape matrices. The land use and land cover pattern is
reflected in the NDVI in which lower greenness index indicate anthropogenic activities on the
landscape. Healthy and undisturbed forest is indicated by high greenness value.Different land use
and land cover classes responds differently to the change in the terrain variables. Vegetation type
varies with the change in elevation, slope and aspect. Understanding the correct relationship between
terrain characteristics and vegetation cover ensure natural resource utilization without much harm to
the environment. This approach to environmental studies can be a valuable service for land use
planning, environmental protection, and natural resource conservation.

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