Skip to content

MAIN MENU

Chapter: 2 – Writing and City Life | Class: 11

– History Ncert Notes

Leave a Comment / History New Ncert (6 to 12), Blog / By odstu

Table of Contents

● Mesopotamia and Its Geography

● The Significance of Urbanisation
● Movement of Goods into Cities
● The Development of Writing
○ Literacy
● The Uses of Writing
● Urbanisation in Southern Mesopotamia: Temples and Kings
● Life in the City
● A Trading Town in a Pastoral Zone
● Cities in Mesopotamian Culture
● Ncert Notes

Mesopotamia and Its Geography

● City life began in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia is derived from the Greek words’ mesos’,
meaning middle, and ‘potamos’, meaning river.)
● It is a flat land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers that is now part of the
Republic of Iraq.
 ● In the north, there is a stretch of upland called a steppe, where animal herding offers
people a better livelihood than agriculture.
● Agriculture began between 7000 and 6000 BCE.
● The soil was fertile here, but natural causes threatened agriculture.
● Ur, Lagash, Kish, Uruk and Mari were some of its important cities.
● The excavation work started 150 years ago.

The Significance of Urbanisation

● Mesopotamian civilization was based on a definite plan. Cities and towns develop when
an economy develops in areas other than food production, so it becomes advantageous
for people to cluster in towns.
● Urban economies comprise food production, trade, manufacturing and services.
● There is a social organization in place.
● Helpful for the city manufacturers.
● The division of labour is a mark of urban life.

Movement of Goods into Cities

● However rich the food resources of Mesopotamia, its mineral resources were few.
● The south lacked many things people used in the north, such as stones for tools, seals
and jewels, wood for carts and wheels, and metal for tools, vessels, and ornaments.
● The ancient Mesopotamians could trade their textiles and agricultural produce for wood,
copper, tin, silver, gold, shell and various stones from Turkey and Iran or across the Gulf.
This trade may have been possible because of the Mesopotamians’ plentiful resources
and ability to trade with other cultures.
● Mesopotamia was a land of canals and natural channels, which were used as routes of
goods transport between large and small settlements. The Euphrates was a world route,
and its importance to Mesopotamia will become clear in later chapters.

The Development of Writing

 ● The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, consisted of picture-like signs
and numbers.
● The Mesopotamians were the first to use clay tablets to keep records of transactions.
They wrote on these tablets with a stylus to keep track of the different transactions in
their city life.

1. Political Factors

● Assyria is a region in the north of the Middle East that is known for its history, culture,
and language. The Assyrians settled the region around 1100 BCE, and Sumerian was
the first language spoken. Assyria later became known for its powerful empires and their
global influence. Today, the region is home to several cultures and languages and
remains a key part of the Middle East.
● Ancient civilizations used writing to keep records, make dictionaries, announce changes
to customary laws, and narrate the deeds of kings. By doing so, writing allowed for more
accurate and organized communication between different groups of people.
● In Mesopotamian understanding, kingship was responsible for organizing trade and
writing.

2. Religious Factors

● The first temples were small shrines made of unbaked bricks. Over time, temples
became the residences of various gods. The first known temple was built in a village in
the middle of nowhere. Since then, temples have been built in various places around the
world.
● The first temples were built in southern Mesopotamia around 5000 BCE. These centres
of religious activities were dedicated to different gods and goddesses. As settlements
began to develop and grow, the temples became a central part of the culture and religion
of the people. Today, temples are still a central part of many cultures and religions.

3. Social Factors
 ● In ancient Mesopotamia, the nuclear family was the norm. This family structure consisted
of a married son and his family residing with his parents. The father was the head of the
family.
● A ruling elite had emerged
● Had a major share of the wealth
● Followed the nuclear family system and patriarchal system
● Condition of women
● System of marriages
● In Mesopotamian tradition, Uruk was the city par excellence, often known simply as The
City.

4. Economic Factors

● Writing began in Mesopotamia in 3200 BCE.

● Writing became a record of transactions
● 2600 BCE, the letters became cuneiform, and the language was Sumerian
1. Urbanism
2. Trade
3. Record of transaction

System of Writing

● The ancient Mesopotamian scribes had to learn hundreds of signs to write down their
thoughts. They had to be able to handle a wet tablet and get it written before it dried.
This skill was very important because it allowed the Mesopotamian people to
communicate with one another.

Literacy

● Writing reflected the mode of speaking

● King and very few could read and write.
● Official letter from a king could be read
 ● For the most part, however, writing reflected the mode of speaking.

The Uses of Writing

● Connections between city life, trade and writing are brought out.
● It has brought out in a long Sumerian epic poem about Enmerkar (king)
● Kingship was able to organize trade and writing
● King Enmerkar of Uruk desired lapis lazuli and other precious metals to adorn the temple
of his city. He sent his messenger to procure them from the chief of a faraway land called
Aratta.

Urbanisation in Southern Mesopotamia: Temples and Kings

● Settlement in southern Mesopotamia began around 5000 BCE, with the first cities
emerging from some of these settlements. These cities were of various kinds, with some
developing around temples and others becoming trade centres. The earliest imperial
cities were also developing at this time.
● The earliest known temples were shrines made of unbaked bricks. These shrines were
either small and located in the homes of the early settlers, or they may have been built at
specific spots in the villages. Over time, the temples became larger and more elaborate,
eventually becoming the villagers’ central points of worship.
● The ancient Sumerians had to contend with floods, drought, locusts, and other natural
disasters. They developed irrigation systems to help offset these risks, allowing them to
cultivate crops even in unfavourable conditions.
● Archaeological surveys conducted at Uruk have revealed that around 3000 BCE, the
settlement had grown to an enormous size, with an estimated 250 hectares. Dozens of
small villages had been abandoned, likely due to a major population shift.

Life in the City

● We have seen that a ruling elite emerged, consisting of a small section of society with a
major share of the wealth.
 ● The vast wealth displayed in ancient Mesopotamia is clear evidence of the importance of
the jewellery, gold vessels, wooden musical instruments inlaid with white shells and lapis
lazuli, and ceremonial daggers. These items were often buried with some kings and
queens at Ur, demonstrating their high value.
● The nuclear family was the norm in Mesopotamian society. A married son and his family
often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the family.
● · Ur was a town whose ordinary houses were systematically excavated in the 1930s.
● · There were no street drains we found in contemporary Mohenjo-Daro.

A Trading Town in a Pastoral Zone

● Around 2000 BCE, Mari was the royal capital of a thriving kingdom. Herders exchanged
goods such as young animals, cheese, leather, and meat in return for grain, metal tools,
and other goods. The manure of a penned flock was also very useful to a farmer.
● In the fall, the nomads would leave, and the farmers would harvest their crops. The
shepherds would come back in the winter to graze their flocks. The cycle would repeat
until the next summer.
● The kings of Mari were originally from the Amorite culture, and their dress differed
considerably from that of the original inhabitants. These kings were respected by the
Mesopotamian gods and their people, who saw them as leaders committed to their own
culture and traditions. Moreover, they built a temple for the god of the steppe, Dagan, in
Mari.
● Inter Mixture culture:
○ Mesopotamian society and culture were open to different people and cultures.
○ Thus, the vitality of the civilization was, of course – an intermixture culture
● Mari is located on the Euphrates River in a prime position for trade – in wood, copper,
tin, oil, wine, and other goods carried in boats along the Euphrates. This has helped the
city prosper, and it is now one of Syria’s most important urban centres.
● The most important thing to note about tablets is that they were made from copper from
the island of Cyprus, which is known for its copper deposits. Tin was also an item of
trade in this era.

Cities in Mesopotamian Culture

 ● City life was a cherished ideal in Mesopotamia. Cities were where people of many
different cultures and communities lived side by side. After cities were destroyed in the
war, poets would often recount their beauty in poetry.
● After the death of Gilgamesh, Enkidu returns to the city of Uruk to seek counsel from the
elders. They tell him that the most important thing in life is to enjoy the moment and
never forget the city’s beauty. Gilgamesh would have agreed, and his city of Uruk was
one of the most beautiful and impressive in the world.
● Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, ruled after Enmerkar. In Gilgamesh’s time, Uruk was a
great city. Gilgamesh didn’t simply rely on his strength to keep Uruk safe – he took great
pride in his city and the people who had built it. Gilgamesh knew that his sons would
continue to rule after he died, and he took comfort in that knowledge.

The Legacy of Writing

● The Mesopotamian tradition of time reckoning and mathematics has been the foundation
of scholarship worldwide. This legacy is evident in the many written texts that have been
created over the centuries, allowing generations of scholars to build upon each other’s
work.
● The ancient Egyptians were some of the earliest astronomers and could accurately
predict solar and lunar eclipses. They also knew about the stars’ positions and night sky
constellations.