ASPECTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE - PAPER II

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION

What is Linguistics?

Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and its focus is the systematic investigation of the properties
of particular languages as well as the characteristics of language in general. It encompasses not only the
study of sound, grammar and meaning, but also the history of language families, how languages are acquired
by children and adults, and how language use is processed in the mind and how it is connected to race and
gender. With close connections to the humanities, social sciences and the natural sciences, linguistics
complements a diverse range of other disciplines such as anthropology, philosophy, psychology, sociology,
biology, computer science, health sciences, education and literature. The subfield of Applied Linguistics
emphasizes the use of linguistic concepts in the classroom to help students improve their ability to
communicate in their native language or a second language. Before the 20 th century, linguistics evolved in
conjunction with literary study and did not employ scientific methods. Modern-day linguistics is considered
a science because it involves a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of
language.

LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE

Linguistics can be understood as science, in both general and specific terms. Generally, we use the term
‘science’ for any knowledge that is based on clear, systematic and rational understanding. Thus we often
speak of the ‘science of politics’ or statecraft, or the science of cooking’. However, we also use the term
‘science’ for the systematic study of phenomena, enabling us to state some principles or theories regarding
the phenomena. This study proceeds by examination of publicly verifiable data obtained through observation
of phenomena, and experimentation; in other words, it is empirical and objective. Science must also provide
explanation after adequate observation of data, which should be consistent, i.e. there should be no
contradiction between different parts of the explanation or statement; and economical, i.e. a precise and non-
redundant statement is to be preferred.

Science is considered a systematically organized body of knowledge on a particular subject. Similarly,

linguistics is a systematic study of language. As science follows observation and experiment, linguistics does
these too. It fulfills the entire prerequisite for being considered a science.

 Firstly, the subject matter for linguistics is a language that is mandatory for any scientific method. As
science studies and examines the subject matter clearly and explicitly, linguistics also studies
language holistically.
 Secondly, the study of language is based on an objective observation or investigation. Like any
scientific experiment, there is no way linguistics can be subjective. The result is described
objectively as well without any subjective bias. This quality makes linguistics as reliable as any
scientific investigation.
 Thirdly, the result of a scientific study is supposed to be systematically arranged. Such effort is also
seen in linguistics study when it tries to show the interrelationship between the subject matters that it

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 deals with. So systematic observation is another necessary part of linguistics that is similar to
science.
 Fourthly, for empirical and experimental studies in linguistics tools like hypothesis, sampling,
instrumentation, and statistical data analysis are used which are followed by inferences.
Thus, linguistics is both an empirical science and a social science. In fact, it is a human discipline
since it is concerned with human language; so it is part of study of humanities as well. This includes
the study of literature, and appreciation of the beauty and music of poetry. In understanding
language, humankind can understand itself. Moreover, since every branch of knowledge uses
language, linguistics is central to all areas of knowledge. The traditional distinction of science, art
and humanities are not relevant for linguistics.

NATURE AND SCOPE OF LINGUISTICS

Linguistics today is a subject of study, independent of other disciplines. Before the twentieth century, the
study of language was not regarded as a separate area of study in its own right. It was considered to be a part
of studying the history of language or the philosophy of language, and this was known not as linguistics but
as philosophy. So Linguistics‘ is a modern name which defines a specific discipline, in which we study
language not in relation to some other area such as history or philosophy, but language as itself, as a self
enclosed and autonomous system, worthy of study in its own right. It was necessary at the beginning of the
growth of modern linguistics to define this autonomy of the subject; otherwise it would not have been
possible to study the language system with the depth and exhaustiveness which it requires. However, now
we acknowledge that while linguistics is a distinct area of study, it is also linked to other disciplines and
there are overlapping areas of concern.

The main concern of modern linguistics is to describe language, to study its nature and to establish a theory
of language. That is, it aims at studying the components of the language system and to ultimately arrive at an
explanatory statement on how the system works. In modern linguistics, the activity of describing the
language system is the most important and so modern linguistics is generally known as descriptive. But
linguistics has other concerns as well, which fall within its scope and these include historical and
comparative study of language. These differ from the descriptive approach in their emphasis; otherwise,
these approaches also involve description of language.

SYNCHRONIC APPROACH

Synchronic (‘Chronos’ stands for ‘time’) and diachronic approaches in linguistics are one of the two main
temporal dimensions of language study introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure in his Course in General
Linguistics. Synchronic linguistics is a study of language at given time. This approach sees language as a
living whole, existing as a ‘state’ at one particular time. Like chess, the important part of language is how
pieces move and the positions of all pieces relative to one another. The shape of each piece is only important
in that its potential can be recognized. A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the
same time. In the 20th century, synchronic description has come to be regarded as earlier to diachronic
description; the latter presupposes that synchronic descriptions at various stages of the development of a
language have already been carried out. Previously, linguists had placed the importance on diachronic
linguistics.

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 DIACHRONIC APPROACH

Historical linguistics, also termed diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study of language change over time.
Tracing the development of English from the Old English period to the twentieth century is a diachronic
study. Diachronic literally means across-time, and it describes any work which maps the shifts and fractures
and mutations of languages over the centuries. It considers the development and evolution of a language
through history and investigates language changes as they have occurred from time to time.

BRANCHES OF STUDY

 Phonetics (the study of how speech sounds are produced and perceived)
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the production and classification of the world’s speech
sounds. The production of speech looks at the interaction of different vocal organs, for example the lips,
tongue and teeth, to produce particular sounds. By classification of speech, we focus on the sorting of
speech sounds into categories which can be seen in what is called the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
 Phonology (the study of sound patterns and changes)
Phonology is the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages. Put more formally,
phonology is the study of the categorical organisation of speech sounds in languages; how speech sounds are
organised in the mind and used to convey meaning. In this section of the website, we will describe the most
common phonological processes and introduce the concepts of underlying representations for sounds versus
what is actually produced, the surface form.
 Morphology (the study of word structure)
Morphology is all about our mental dictionary and the words stored in our minds; the mental system of rules
that helps us form and understand words. The capacity of your mental lexicon is immense, and we benefit
from this knowledge not only when we use existing words but also when we create or try to understand new
words. Take the word mouse for instance; its associations have broadened from simply being an animal to a
computer device.
 Syntax (the study of sentence structure)
In linguistics, syntax is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases
and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence
structure, agreement, the nature of cross linguistic variation, and the relationship between form and meaning.
 Semantics (the study of linguistic meaning)
Semantics tries to understand what meaning is as an element of language and how it is constructed by
language as well as interpreted, obscured and negotiated by speakers and listeners of language.
 Pragmatics (the study of how language is used in context)
Pragmatics is the study of the practical aspects of human action and thought and the use of linguistic signs,
words and sentences, in actual situations.

 Historical Linguistics - the study of language change

 Sociolinguistics - the study of the relation between language and society
 Computational Linguistics - the study of how computers can process human language
 Psycholinguistics - the study of how humans acquire and use language

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KINDS OF LINGUISTICS - DESCRIPTIVE, COMPARATIVE AND HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS

DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS

Descriptive linguistics is concerned with the description and analysis of the ways in which a language
operates and is used by a given set of speakers at a time. It emphasized in modern linguistics as it is as the
fundamental aspect of the study of language. It also analyses the phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax,
semantics, and pragmatics that exist within a language. It endeavours to understand how speech sounds are
produced and perceived, the formation and arrangement of words, and the practical use of languages in
context. For example, one aspect of descriptive linguistics might be studying the way sounds in a language
may change depending on the sounds that precede or follow them, known as phonology.

As part of its scope, descriptive linguistics also examines linguistic relativity, which pertains to the idea that
different languages and cultures perceive and interact with the world in distinct ways. This is deeply
connected with the principle that language structures can affect our cognition and perceptions. An instance
of this could be how some languages specify absolute directions (like north, south, east, west) while others
might use relative ones (like left, right, forward, backward) which could influence spatial cognition in
speakers of these languages. Descriptive linguistics intersects with sociolinguistics and linguistic
anthropology as well, since it also pays attention to the social and cultural aspects of language. For instance,
it assesses how language usage differs based on factors such as gender, age, class, and race.

COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS

Comparative Linguistics is the study of human language as a species-specific phenomenon in all facets of its
occurrences. It is concerned with comparing two or more languages. Why are languages the way they are?
How come there are both remarkable similarities and extreme differences in the languages of the world?
How do languages change? Comparative Linguistics is chiefly interested in general patterns that shape each
and every language, both in their current structure (synchrony) and in their historical developments
(diachronic). In other words, Comparative Linguistics is a discipline that seeks to formulate general
principles of language. As such it differs from language-specific programs like German Studies, Slavic
Studies, which seek to understand an individual language in itself. The kinds of principles that are studied in
Comparative Linguistics cover the nature of the language faculty and the architecture of grammar, the
evolution and history of language families and language areas, general patterns in the acquisition of

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languages by children and adults, and the relationship of languages with social and cultural structures on the
one hand, and with patterns in cognition and the brain on the other hand.

However, the practical foundation of Comparative Linguistics ultimately lies in individual languages and
their histories. Therefore, a comparative linguist is naturally also concerned with detailed research on
individual languages. As the large languages of Europe and elsewhere are typically already covered by
language-specific programs, comparative linguists usually study less well-known languages when they seek
to expand their database. An important part of a comparative linguist’s research activities therefore involves
fieldwork on under-researched, and often endangered, languages world-wide and/or philological work on
earlier stages of languages.

HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS

Historical linguistics explores different aspects of language change. It looks for similarities between
languages that show a common origin and attempt to arrange related languages into family trees. They also
apply various patterns of how sound changes in languages to their analysis of the oldest known variations of
related languages in order to reconstruct their lost shared proto-language ancestors. Historical linguistics
findings have been utilised to solve historical problems of concern to society which extend far beyond
linguistics. Those dedicated to the humanistic study of individual languages would find their fields much
impoverished without the richness provided by historical insights into the development of these languages-
just imagine the study of any area of non-modern literature in French, German, Italian, Spanish or other
languages without insights into how these languages have changed.

A very important reason why historical linguists study language change and are excited about their field is
because historical linguistics contributes significantly to other sub-areas of linguistics and to linguistic
theory. For example, human cognition and the human capacity for language learning are central research
interests in linguistics, and historical linguistics contributes significantly to this goal. As we determine more
accurately what can change and what cannot change in a language, and what the permitted versus impossible
ways are in which languages can change, we contribute significantly to the understanding of universal
grammar, language typology and human cognition in general-fundamental to understanding our very
humanity.

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