Theorizing Religious Extremism: Causes and Impacts

§ DOI: 10.31703/gsssr.2022(VII-I).08 § URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.31703/gsssr.2022(VII-I).08

§ Vol. VII, No. I (Winter 2022) § Pages: 76 – 84 § p- ISSN: 2708-2121 § e-ISSN: 2708-3616

Fozia Bibi * | Qaiser Iqbal † Abia Yousaf ‡

Abstract: Extremism is a great threat to the security of Pakistan. The growing extremism is affecting all fields of
life. In Pakistan, many people have been killed in sectarian violence. Since independence, Pakistan has been
confronting the problems of ethnonationalism, sectarianism and extremism. Furthermore, after 9/11 Pakistani
society faced a lot of problems due to religious extremism. With the passage of time sectarianism and religious
intolerance is enhancing and extremism has deep social, economic and psychological impacts on Pakistani
society.

Key Words: Extremism, Sectarianism, Government, Madrassa, Impacts, Zarb-e-Azab

Introduction population is Sunni and almost 25 per cent

population is Shiia (Riffat,2015).
The word extremism means, the condition or
act of taking an extreme view or the taking of
The Analysis of Religious Extremism and
extreme actions by the people. In simple
words, it can be defined as a person who Social Constructivism
favours or resorts to immoderate, Social constructivism states that ideas play a
uncompromising, or fanatical methods or vital role in shaping the actors' identities,
behaviour. Similarly, religious extremism can actions and interests. Ideas shape the self-
be defined as extreme ideas, actions and will to image of the actors as well as the image of
implement those ideas, beliefs and faith in others. Moreover, the interaction among
other people in society. Terrorism and different actors is also shaped and affected by
extremism are often associated with each other the ideas (Shaughan A. Keaton et.al.2011). For
but both are different. For instance, some instance, a positive representation of a state by
extremists use terrorism as a means to manifest other states will reveal the friendly relations
their beliefs and ideas. Therefore, one can say among them. Similarly, a negative perception
that all terrorists are fanatics but all extremists of other actors will show the unfriendly nature
are not necessarily to be terrorists (Adil,2021). of the relations between two actors/ states. As
The main purpose of this study is to explore the the main focus of this study is to explore the
origin of religious extremism in Pakistan and its root causes of extremism in Pakistan.
effect on the society of Pakistan. Furthermore, Social constructivism will be used to
it also explores whether religious extremism is analyze how different politicians particularly
a threat to Pakistan. It also elaborates on the President Zia-ul-Haq’s policies enhanced
impacts of religious extremism on Pakistani extremism in Pakistani society. For instance,
society. Pakistan is a Muslim country and the President Zia-ul-Haq belongs to the Sunni sect
majority of the population is Muslim, with of Islam and he mainly focused on policies
which approximately 70-75 per cent according to Sunni fiqh. When President Zia-ul-
Haq made the collection of zakat mandatory it

* Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Rawalpindi Women University, Rawalpindi, Punjab,

Pakistan. Email: fbpol@f.rwu.edu.pk (Corresponding Author)

† Visiting Lecturer, Department of IR, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, KP, Pakistan.
‡ Charge of Economics, Department of Finance, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Citation: Bibi, F., Iqbal, Q., & Yousaf, A. (2022). Theorizing Religious Extremism: Causes and Impacts. Global
Strategic & Security Studies Review, VII(I), 76-84. https://doi.org/10.31703/gsssr.2022(VII-I).08
Theorizing Religious Extremism: Causes and Impacts

created unrest among the Shiia community of sects helps to explore the main causes of
Pakistan and they raised voices against the extremism in Pakistan.
policy. Fiqah-e-Jafaria has different beliefs
regarding zakat and they felt fear of Sunni The Historical Background of Religious
dominance because of government ordinance. Extremism in Pakistan
This policy of President Zia-ul-Haq was
perceived as fear and threat by the Shiia The root of religious extremism can be traced
community of Pakistan and to counter such back to 1947 when Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Hind
policies by the government they have made announced its reinstatement as a religious
their own Shiia organizations like Sipah-e- group in Pakistan. Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Hind was
Muhammad etc. In such an environment, the against the partition of India and post-partition
Sunni community also established they become active in Punjab, Pakistan. The
organizations such as Sipah-e-Shaba etc. founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah
(Hashmat Ullah Khan et.al. 2020). also realized the danger of the misuse of
religion in politics. Therefore, on August 11,
Fanatic organizations and groups have 1947, in his first address to the Constituent
their own beliefs, values, perceptions, identity Assembly of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah
and misperceptions regarding religious beliefs, declared that there will be no part of
and socio-political setup. Since the era of sectarianism and such beliefs in the politics of
President Zia-ul-Haq religious extremism is Pakistan. Later on, in 1952-53 the first anti-
one of the major challenges for Pakistan. The Ahmadi agitation was reported ( Mahmud,
majority of the population of Pakistan is Sunni 2019).
and Shiia and these are two major sects in
Pakistan. Both sects have different beliefs, A strong consensus was existing on the
identities and interests. Therefore, both have issue of Ahmadi. In Pakistan, most political
established their own madrassa, and parties choose sensitive religious matters to get
organizations. Moreover, the gap between the public support or to divert their attention from
two sects has increased due to the role of any particular national or foreign policy issue.
different Heads of these organizations and In 1974, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto declared Ahmadis
groups. Consequently, the misunderstanding as non-Muslims (Moin,2019). However, the
of the gap between the two groups has affected same group played a key role in the toppling of
the peace of Pakistani society for the last few Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's government. However,
decades. with the passage of time extremism has
intensified when different politicians ignored
Furthermore, negative perceptions, the issue and adopted policies to protect their
differences in identities and beliefs further own interests in politics. The main example of
resulted in sectarianism in the society. religious intolerance is the era of President Zia-
According to social constructivism, ideas, ul-Haq, as during his presidency sectarianism
perceptions and misperceptions play a vital and extremism increased ( Ali Shan Shah et al.,
role and in the case of Pakistan, the 2016).
misperception among Shiia and Sunni sects
has intensified the extremism and sectarianism
Extremism during the Regime of
in Pakistan. From the 1980s till 2000 Pakistan
witnessed many sectarian clashes between the President Zia-ul-Haq
two sects (Montero, 2007). In 2007, a sharp General Zia-Ul-Haq imposed martial law in
resurgence in sectarian violence was reported. Pakistan on July 5, 1977, suspended the
For instance, in Shiia, the Sunni target killed constitution of 1973 and stated that Islamic
many innocent people were killed in the main laws will be enforced in the country. He further
cities of Pakistan such as Karachi, Quetta, announced that the new elections will be held
Peshawar etc. Social constructivism helps to within ninety days but later on he postponed
analyze the role of norms, values, beliefs, the elections and blamed Bhutto’s government
perceptions and misperceptions. In the case of for fraud in the elections. Furthermore, Zia-ul-
Pakistan, the role of perceptions, Haq banned all political activities in the
misperceptions and ideas of Shiia and Sunni country and postponed the elections again in
1979. (Imran Khan et.al., 2017). On the other

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 Fozia Bibi, Qaiser Iqbal and Abia Yousaf

hand, in February 1981, the Pakistan people's groups in Pakistan (Ahmar, 2007). This was the
party started a movement for the restoration of time when the Soviet Union also invaded
democracy with the help of other parties. (Amir Afghanistan in 1979 and it also provided a
Ahmed Khuhro et,al., 2013).While instead of the justification for foreign powers to play their
restoration of democracy President Zia-ul-Haq cards and support their allies in Pakistan.
tried to legitimize himself through the program The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan
of Islamization. Moreover, Zia-ul-Haq had also gave a justification to President Zia-ul-Haq
taken a few steps toward the Islamization of the to stay in power. President Zia-ul-Haq
country. Like during 1979, different ordinances extended his term and used the justification of
such as the Hadood ordinance, Shariat Courts, Jihad to contain the influence of the Soviet
Zakat and Usher ordinance were introduced by Union (Tariq, 2007). Many Afghan refugees
President Zia-ul-Haq. Moreover, reforms in migrated to Pakistan after the Soviet invasion
education policies were also introduced. For (1979) and Pakistan provides shelter for
instance, the syllabus of Islamic studies was millions of Afghan people. As a result, a large
modified according to Sunni Fiqqah. number of refugees, drugs and lethal weapons
Consequently, such reforms in education found their way into Pakistan. (Ahmar, 2016).
policies made the Shiia community Religious parties gained unprecedented
uncomfortable and dissatisfied. Shiia influence in national affairs during this period.
community also demanded education and Huge funds were channelled through Pakistan
syllabus according to their Fiqqah. It further and given to the religious parties, which lodged,
enhanced the gap between the two sects and motivated and trained the Mujahideen to fight
due to a lack of trust the elements of against communist infidels. The Afghan people
sectarianism were also triggered. lived in camps and in the rural areas of NWFP
Furthermore, Zia-ul-Haq policies and Baluchistan (Frédéric Grare et al., 2011).
regarding the compulsion of Zakat and These two provinces have cultural, linguistic
enforcement of Shariah were perceived and religious ties with Afghanistan. The Afghan
negatively by the Shiia community as they have refugees belong to different tribes and systems
different practices in this regard. It further which further resulted in clashes within
resulted in demonstrations by the Shiia groups and leads to bloodshed. Furthermore,
community against the government on July the migration of massive Afghan people
1980 in the capital city of Pakistan (Riffat, 2015). affected Pakistan's economy and threatens to
Additionally, Shiia and Sunni communities social conditions of the society. Moreover, the
started to establish separate organizations to Pakistani government provided shelter and
protect their identity and interest. For instance, food to Afghan refugees and it was a burden on
Sipah-e-Muhammad was created by Shiia and Pakistan's economy (Anchita Borthakur, 2017).
Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan was made by the Furthermore, because of Pakistan's
Sunni community. The main purpose of such support for the Afghan mujahidin Soviet Union
organizations was to counter the threat and initiated a hostile campaign against Pakistan.
dominance of other sects (Azam, 2020). As a The Soviets stated that Pakistan had
result, the extremism in society increased established many bases and centres that
which affected the peace and stability of trained terrorist groups for armed riots within
Pakistan badly. Afghanistan. In response, the Soviets exploited
In 1979, two major events further the ethnolinguistic and regional differences
enhanced the extremism in Pakistan. The first between Pakistani provinces especially in
was the Iranian revolution which had a great Balochistan and NWFP. To create instability in
impact on the Shiia population of Pakistan. On Pakistan, the Soviet Union further supported
one hand, the Iranian revolutionary Balochistan against the government and
government was also trying to extend their threatens Pakistan through national elements
support to Shiia sects throughout the world, of Balochistan to establish an independent
particularly in Pakistan (Abou Zahab, 2002). Balochistan. (M. Mushtaq,2009)
Saudi Arabia was afraid of Iranian influence
and to counter the threat of Iran, Saudi Arabia
also provided all kinds of assistance to Sunni

78 Global Strategic & Security Studies Review (GSSSR)

Theorizing Religious Extremism: Causes and Impacts

A Brief Analysis of Extremism in Pakistan peace, stability and security of Pakistan. Since
the regime of President Zia-ul-Haq, Pakistan
In Pakistan, madrassa are providing free
was gradually Islamized but it reached a peak
religious education, boarding and lodging and
in the 1980s and extremism was an outcome of
are essentially schools for the poor after
Zia-ul-Haq’s policies of Islamization (Mir
completing most pupils find it hard to get a job
Zohair Hussain,1994). During the 1980s-1990s
in any good institution. Therefore, most of them
Lashkar-e-Jhangvi and Sipah-e-Sahaba openly
hold the office of mullahs or become a part of
declared war against each other (Riffat, 2015).
religious organizations and often are acting in
Consequently, more people became the target
dubious activities. A few madrassas got
of sectarian attacks. In Pakistan; unfortunately,
financial aid from the government Zakat fund.
the military and civilian governments could
Whereas the rest are being run by their
not cope with extremism. In political activities
organizations either using foreign funds
both religious parties, SSP and TJP were
directly provided to them by foreign
allowed to participate. Furthermore; different
countries/organizations or through donations
governments used these groups for their
(Shaikh,2009).
political purposes.
In Pakistan, the rise of sectarianism
The major political parties PPP and PMLN
conflicts is closely related to the madrassa
also did an alliance with these groups. During
boom. Madrassa culture is posing an internal
the second term, Benazir Bhutto made an
security threat to Pakistan as almost all sects
alliance with religious zealots such as Jamiayat
have their own madrassas which resulted in
Ulma-e-Islam (JUI) of Maulana Fazal-ur-
sectarianism. Similarly, different religious
Rehman which further provided an
groups are promoting extremist thoughts about
opportunity for SSP to pursue sectarian
religion which is further promoting religious
violence in Pakistan. The extremists also
intolerance in the country. Moreover, a few
gained a stronghold when Nawaz Sharif came
extremist groups are using madrassas to train
to power and Nawaz Sharif seriously tried to
the Jihadi groups and they are preaching the
concentrate on this issue during his
concept of Jihad as an individual act rather
government (1997-1999). The anti-terrorism act
than a state affair. In 1979 two major incidents
bill of 1997 was accepted by the parliament
increased the influence of Saudi Arabia in
which emphasized combating terrorism and
Pakistan. The first of the Iranian revolution and
sectarianism in the country. Later on, under the
the second was the Soviet Union's invasion of
anti-terrorism ordinance of July 1999, this law
Afghanistan. Many scholars claims since then
was amended.
many madrassas are getting financial help
from private sources linked with Saudi Arabia. Before 9/11 Pakistan was a fragile state in
The main reason behind Saudi Arabia's interest the eyes of America. Since the Afghan-Soviet
to support Sunni groups was to contain the war, Pakistan was supporting the Taliban
influence of post-revolutionary Iranian government and it had been criticized
influence ( Afzal, 2019). With the passage of internationally. On the other hand, India was
time, two main religious parties emerged as one constantly blaming Pakistan for the growing
of the main political parties of Pakistan. activities of Jihadis in Kashmir and it was taken
Jamaat-e-Islami and Jamat-e-Ulma-e-Islam as terrorism by India. The Kargil war (1999)
and both religious-political parties have an between Pakistan and India was stopped with
influence on different madrassa of Pakistan. the interference of the U.S and again they
Saudi Arabia being a supporter of the Wahabi considered that Pakistan was responsible for
school of Islam has started supporting the the Kargil war (Rashid, 2011). The U.S strongly
Sunni madrasas of Pakistan. Moreover, during disliked the acquisition of nuclear weapons by
the 1980s-90s Shiia-Sunni clashes were also at Pakistan in 1998. Furthermore, the lack of
their peak (Riffat, 2015). democracy in Pakistan also became a serious
alarm for the U.S as General Musharraf
Due to sectarianism, many people
disposed of the democratic rule of Nawaz
including religious scholars, of both sects got
Sharif in 1998. The 11 years of Civilian rule in
injured or dies. As a result, during that decade
Pakistan ended with General Musharraf's
sectarian violence, target killing and attacks
military coup in 1999.
increased and it becomes a major threat to the

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 Fozia Bibi, Qaiser Iqbal and Abia Yousaf

9/11 has brought a U-turn in the foreign step against Lal-Masjid then they would take
policy of Pakistan towards Afghanistan. There serious counter-insurgency. This gave the
was no other option for Pakistan except to join opportunity to the Taliban to enter Islamabad
US WOT against zealot groups (Naeem and pose a serious threat to the capital and after
Mahboob Malik, 2020). Once again the general the Lal-Masjid operation extremism further
public was hopeful that they would eliminate increased in the country ( Sobia Jamil et
the extremist elements if the wave of al.2019). Moreover, after the Musharraf
liberalization would flourish in Pakistan but government, the civilian government of the
unfortunately, it could not happen. According PPP could not address the issue of extremism
to US State Department’s report, General and terrorism which further enhanced unrest
Musharraf remained an influential ally to get in the country. Like in Aafia Siddiqi's case if
rid of terrorism and extremism. The Musharraf was alleged and the same occurred
government had remained uneven in coping with the civilian government of PPP in
with these religious organizations. Hence, the Raymond Davis case, who was an American
government crackdown has been termed as national (Sawh,2015). Even Musharraf's
uneven owing to the fact that the government policies about WOT were adopted by PPP's
has treated different religious groups elected government (2008-2013). In May 2013,
differently. PMLN came into power and the new
Post 9/11 Pakistan's alliance with the USA government tried to negotiate with the
against the Taliban has created a security extremist groups (Umbreen Javed, 2016).
dilemma as people of northern tribal areas However, after the failure of any
were supporting the Taliban. Moreover, to agreement/negotiation, the government of
support the Taliban they stood against the Pakistan has decided to take strict action to
government which further enhanced security bring peace to the country. Therefore, the
problems for Pakistan ( Fazal Rabbi, 2012). government has launched a military operation
Such a critical environment paved the way for in North Waziristan and FATA areas to
terrorism in Pakistan. Post 9/11 Pakistan has eliminate the extremists and terrorists against
suffered due to suicide attacks, and bombings the foreign and local rebellious groups. The
and become a hub of terrorism. The terrorist operation is proceeding successfully and on
attacks on public and official places increase 15th November Major General Zafarullah Khan
security threats for Pakistan, in this regard (commander of Zarb-e-Azab) stated that 90%
attacks sensitive places such as GHQ and PNS of areas have been cleared from the terrorist by
Mahran base are key examples of it ( Irshad, the Pakistan military. (Ehsan,2014). Up till now,
2011). Therefore, it can be said that religious many terrorists have been killed and this
intolerance and extremism can lead to operation will be continued until the clearance
terrorism and it poses real challenges to the of North Waziristan from terrorists (ISPR,
peace and development of a society. October 2014). Between 2002-2013 more than
In 2007, President Musharraf launched 52000 people including innocent civilians and
"operation silence" to eliminate the extremist personnel of different forces were killed in
group of Lal-Masjid as they were involved in different attacks ( Nadia Mushtaq, 2013).
illegal activities. Furthermore, they alleged However, the government of Pakistan took
relations with the extremist and banned security measures to deal with terrorism and
organizations n they threatened the Pakistani Operation Rah-e-Rast and Operation Rah-e-
state to implement strict Sharia laws and their Nijat, Zarb-e-Azab is some main operations
demands were much influenced by the against terrorism (Umbreen Javed, 2015).
Taliban. Moreover, they were involved in
harassing the general public in the capital city Impacts of Extremism on Pakistani
of Islamabad. However; due to the operation's Society
silence Pakistan faced the serious threat of Religious extremism has many impacts on
extremism and terrorism. Lal-Masjid Pakistani society which are discussed below:
leadership asked for support from the Taliban.
At the time of the operation, the Taliban
announced that if the government takes any

80 Global Strategic & Security Studies Review (GSSSR)

Theorizing Religious Extremism: Causes and Impacts

Socio-Culture Impacts of Extremism trauma for years due to numerous suicide

attacks, bomb blasts etc (Jamal-ud-Din et
Extremism deeply affects the socio-economic
al.,2022). People were uncertain about the
and political aspects of any society. In the
security of their lives and future. A huge
context of Pakistan, extremism the impacts of
number of females suffered from insomnia, and
extremism are still affecting the peace and
depression and most men suffered from fear
stability of Pakistan. Extremism has influenced
and disillusionment ( Farzana Bari,2010). On
the economic-social institutions, the psyche of
daily basis, different incidents of attacks, terror
the general public and social gatherings as
and extremism were reported and it also
well. Due to numerous incidents of religious
enhanced the insecurity among the general
intolerance, debates and discussions on
public.
extremism are quite common in Pakistan. Post
9/11 terrorism has severely affected the
socioeconomic fabric of Pakistani society. Due
Economic Impacts and Extremism
to terrorism and extremism poverty, Extremism has not only ruined the education,
unemployment, inflation, corruption, and and health sectors but also affected the
crimes have increased, while tourism and economic growth and development of
foreign investment in Pakistan have decreased Pakistan. People suffered because of economic
(Irshad,2011). Since the last few decades the loss as it increased unemployment, poverty,
incidents of extremism, sectarianism and corruption and crimes in society. Due to
ethnic problems have increased. It further extremism economic, agricultural, industrial
divides society into different sects, and groups and tourism sectors have been affected badly.
which are further contributing to extremism. Terrorism and extremism have deeply affected
Moreover, extremism is not only affecting and the peace and development of Pakistan
involving men but it is also influencing the lives especially the people of FATA and KPK
of women in Pakistan. For instance, most of the suffered the most. All this further affected the
extremist religious groups want to limit and revenues of agriculture, industries, and
restrict the role of women within the four walls manufacturing sectors (Ali, 2010). Due to
of the home. They also encourage the strong extremism, “the loss to agriculture alone
hold and control of men in all matters including amounts to Rs.35 billion,” (Arshad, 2010). The
family affairs. Moreover, these extremist poor law and order situation has also damaged
groups are not in favour of women's right to the fruit-based economy of Northern areas of
education. Therefore, they mainly target girls' Pakistan. It has resulted in the loss of billion of
schools and other educational institutions. rupees to farmers, labourers and landowners (
Post 9/11 Taliban has attacked and Ali, 2010).
destroyed many educational institutes of Due to the poor law and order situation,
women as they perceive that the modern low literacy rate, climate change disasters,
education system is a threat to their beliefs ( energy crisis, water shortage, lack of advanced
Manzoor Afridi, 2014). For instance, only in the techniques in the agriculture sector and low
Valley of Sawat almost 120 girls and 80 other investment in business the economic growth of
schools were destroyed by the Taliban ( Zahid Pakistan has been affected. In this regard, poor
Khan, 2011). Furthermore, these groups were governance and uncertain economic condition
also against the use of modern technology and further triggered social issues like extremism in
techniques, especially in the field of health and Pakistan. As a result, foreign investment and
they banned vaccination in northern areas. tourism have also decreased in Pakistan.
Therefore, extremism can easily lead to Therefore, it cannot be ignored that extremism
terrorism and this social evil has harmed the and terrorism have affected the growth,
social and cultural values of Pakistani society. productivity and development of the entire
country (Arshad, 2010).
Psychological Impacts of Extremism
Overcoming the Religious Extremism
The psychological impacts of extremism are
also undeniable. For instance, Pakistani people § Without education, no society can
remained in hopelessness, uncertainty and progress. Therefore, the government of

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 Fozia Bibi, Qaiser Iqbal and Abia Yousaf

Pakistan should allocate more budget and groups in their parties by bringing
for education as with improving literacy them under one flag of Pakistan. With
rate, Pakistan cannot completely the promotion of nationalism, people
extremism. from different sects and groups may
§ The role of religious scholars is also think of one nation and stop promoting
important to deal with extremism. their interests as separate groups.
However, only muftis and § Political stability is also important to
knowledgeable molvies should be make a long-term policy to deal with all
allowed to teach about Islam and Dean. social, political and economic issues
§ All madrassa should be officially successfully.
registered and government should keep § The role of individuals is also important
a check on their financial resources to to promote peace at the societal and
avoid foreign funding. state level. The individuals should also
§ Media can also play a vital role to play their role to eliminate the evil of
promote peace and harmony among the extremism from society by promoting
people of different sects and groups. In the message of brotherhood and peace
this regard, only trained and educated rather than dividing themselves into
journalists can understand the spirit of different groups and Sects.
the cause to make Pakistan a peaceful
country.
Conclusion
§ The infrastructure of extremist and
terrorist groups should be dismantled Extremism has a negative impact on the social-
and government should not allow them economic and political aspects of Pakistani
to reemerge with new names and society. Terrorist attacks, poor governance,
identities. and law and order discourage local and foreign
§ The government should do negotiations investment. Consequently, it resulted in more
with such groups to understand their unemployment, poverty, corruption, crimes
psyche and demands. However, if the and human rights violation. Pakistan is an
use of force is necessary for the peace of underdeveloped country and without dealing
society then the government should use with social evils like extremism it would not be
force to dismantle such extremism and easy to make Pakistan a better, peaceful
terrorist groups. country. Therefore, the government shall pay
§ The government of Pakistan should special focus to promote harmony among the
close all those madrassas that are people of different sects, organizations and
affiliated with terrorist or extremist ethnic-religious-political groups. In this
organizations. There should be a regard, the role of politicians, education,
madrassas regulatory authority to check academia, religious scholars, and media is vital
the role and functions of madrassas. to promote peace and religious tolerance.
§ Political leadership can play a positive
role by including the people of all sects,

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Theorizing Religious Extremism: Causes and Impacts

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