Indus Valley Civilization

 The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC. It flourished between 2600 BC and
1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared
around 1400 BC.
 This is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab,
Pakistan).
 Pre-Harappan civilization has been found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan which shows the first evidence
of cotton cultivation.
 Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur
(Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar,
Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far away as
Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

Features of Indus Valley Civilization

 BC. 2700- BC.1900 ie for 800 years.

 On the valleys of river Indus.
 Also known as Harappan Civilization.
 Beginning of city life.
 Harappan Sites discovered by – Dayaram Sahni (1921) – Montgomery district, Punjab, Pakistan.
 Mohanjodaro discovered by – R. D. Banerji – Larkana district, Sind, Pakistan.
 The city was divided into Citadel(west) and Lower Town(east).
 Red pottery painted with designs in black.
 Stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, long stone blades etc.
 Copper, bronze, silver, gold present.
 Artificially produced – Faience.
 Specialists for handicrafts.
 Import of raw materials.
 Plough was used.
 Bodies were buried in wooden coffins, but during the later stages ‘H symmetry culture’ evolved
where bodies were buried in painted burial urns.
 Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron not used.

Town Planning and Structures

 The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning.

 Harappa and Mohenjodaro each had its own citadel or acropolis, which was possibly occupied
by members of the ruling class.
 Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by
the common people.
 The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed the
grid system.
 Granaries constituted an important part of the Harappan cities.
 The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable, because in the contemporary
buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used.
 The drainage system of Mohenjodaro was very impressive.
 In almost all cities every big or small house had its own courtyard and bathroom.
 In Kalibangan many houses had their wells.
 At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections
within the town were also separated by walls.
Reasons for Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

Though there are various theories, the exact reason is still unknown. As per a recent study by IIT
Kharagpur and the Archaeological Survey of India, a weaker monsoon might have been the cause of the
decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. Environmental changes, coupled with a loss of power of rulers
(central administration) of Indus valley to sustain the city life might be the cause (Fariservis Theory).
There might be a resource shortage to sustain the population, and then people moved towards south
India. Another theory by Dr Gwen Robbins Schug states that inter-personal violence, infectious diseases
and climate change had played a major role in the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Vedic Civilization
The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC. This is the next major civilization that occurred in
ancient India after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by 1400 BC. The Vedas were composed in
this period and this gives this age the name. The Vedas are also the chief source of information about
this era. The Vedic Age started with the coming of the Aryans or Indo-Aryans.

VEDIC AGE

 The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad chronological strata:
i) The early Vedic or Regvedic period (1500-1000 B.C.).
ii) The later Vedic (1000-600B.C.).

The early Vedic or Regvedic period (1500-1000 B.C.)–

 The source of information of this period includes the archeological evidences as well as the
literary source i.e. Rig Veda. It is an important source of information for this period.
 The Rig Veda has many things in common with the Avesta, which is the oldest text in the Iranian
language.

Geographical extension –

 The early Aryans settled in eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, Punjab and parts of western
U.P.The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in India is called the Land of Seven Rivers
or Sapta Sindhava (the Indus and the five tributaries and the Saraswati).

Political Organization –

 The tribe = Jana and king = Rajan was the leader in battle and protector of the tribe.
 His office was not hereditary and was selected among the clan’s men.
 The Rajan was not an absolute monarch government was responsible for councils like Sabhas,
Samitis, Gana and Vidhata.
 Women only can attend the Gana and Vidhata.
 The basic social unit was the Kula = family and head called kulapa.
 King was assisted by the Purohit(important) and head of army was called senani (second imp
post)
 No regular army was maintained by king
 Aryans army was advanced and use chariot driven by horse.
 No regular revenue system kingdom was maintained by tributes called BALI and assets won in
the battle.

Social Life –

 Family was the basic unit of society and was patriarchal in nature.
  Women enjoyed equal powers.
 Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are a few instances of polyandry,
levirate (marry to brother’s widow) and widow marriage.
 No child marriage evidences
 Both dowry and bride price were recognized during the Early Vedic period.
 Throughout the Vedic period, education was imparted orally.
 They enjoyed chariot racing. Both men and women wore ornaments.
 The Aryans loved music and played the flute, lute and harp.
 There are references to singing and dancing girls. People also delighted in gambling.

Economy –

 Their bronze smiths were highly skilled and produced tools and weapons much superior to those
of Harappa culture. There were artisans like carpenters, weavers, cobblers, potters, etc.
 Aryans followed mixed economy = Agriculture + Pastoral in which pastoral is dominant.
 Most of their wars were fought for cow (most important form of wealth).
 Standard unit of exchange was the cow. At the same time coins were also there (gold coins like
Nishka, Krishnal and Satmana).
 Gavyuti= measurement of distance, Gopati = king, Godhuli = time.
 Lived in fortified mud settlements.
 The staple crop was ‘yava’or “java” which meant barley.

Religion –

 From Rig-Veda, we come to know that there were 33 gods that time who were divided into
three categories viz., Varuna, Surya, Aditi, and Savitri were heavenly gods. Indra, Rudra, Maruts
etc. were Atmospheric gods. Agni, Soma, and Prithvi were earthly gods.
 The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings.
 Didn’t believe in erecting temples or idol worship. Worshipped in open air through yajnas.

Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000-600 B.C.) –

Geographical extention –

 They reveal that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western U.P. covered by
the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
 In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning;
Later with the use of iron tools which became common by 1000-800 B.C.
 In Later Vedic period, many great cities like Videha, Kaushambhi, Kasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur and
Indraprashtha etc. had sprung up.

Political Organization—

 Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms.

 Powers of the king who was called the Samrat increased.
 importance of assemblies declined.
 Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies and the term ‘Rashtra’ indicating
territory first appeared in this period.
 The Sabha and the Samiti were now not powerful enough to check the power of the kings. The
office of the monarch had now become more or less hereditary.
 A regular army was maintained for the protection of the kingdom.

 The officials got many new assistants of the king were present. References of Priest
(Purohita),Commander in chief (Senapati), Charioteer (Suta),Treasurer (Sangrihita), Tax collector
 (Bhagdugha),
Chief Queen (Mahisi) and the Great companion (Aksavapa).

social life-

 The four fold division of society became clear initially based on occupation which later became
hereditary; Brahmins (priests), Kshatriya (warriors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, and
traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three).
 Women enjoyed freedom and respect but their status deteriorated compared to earlier time.
 In this age also Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling the main pastime.
 Now in place of four main Varna’s many new castes were born, leading to the complexities of the
caste system.
 Life of men divided into four ashrams i.e. Bramhachrya, Grahast, sanyas, vanprast.

Types of marriages –

 Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man

of the same class.
 Daiva: Marriage in which the father gave his
Daughter to a sacrifi cial priest as part of his fees.
 Arsa: Marriage in which a token bride price of a
cow and a bull was paid to the daughter’s father.
 Prajapatya: Marriage in which the father gave the
girl without any dowry and without demanding bride price.
 Gandharva: Marriage often clandestine, by the consent of the two parties.
 Asura: Marriage by purchase.
 Rakshasa: Marriage by capture.
 Paishacha: Marriage involving the seduction of a
girl while sleeping, etc.
 Anuloma marriage: was the marriage of higher varna man with a lower varna woman.
 Pratiloma marriage: was the marriage of a lower varna man with a higher varna woman.

Important Vedic Rituals

 Asvamedha: A king performed this sacrifice which meant control over the area in which the royal
horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for three days at the end of which the horse
scarified was performed. The Asvamedha sacrifice concluded with the sacrifice of 21 sterile cows.
 Vajapeva: A chariot race was performed in which the king must win the race (it was fixed). It was
meant to re-establish the supremacy of the king over his people.
 Rajasuya: A sacrifice ceremony which conferred supreme power on the king.
 Ratnahavimsi: A part of Rajasuya ceremony where different royal officials (ratnins) invoked
different gods and goddesses.
 Upanayana: An initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of the higher varnas in their
eighth year.
 Pumsayam: A ceremony to procure a male child.
 Garbhadhana: A ceremony to promote conception in women.
 Culakarma: A ceremony, also known tonsure performed for boys in their third year.
 Semontannayam: A ceremony to ensure the safety of the child in the womb.
 Jatkarma: A birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord.

Pottery—
  The later Vedic people used four types of pottery: black and red ware, black-slipped ware,
painted grey ware and red ware.

Economy –

 The Nishka replaced cow as a unit of value.

 Rig-Veda mentions only gold and copper or bronze but Later Vedic texts mention tin, lead, silver
and iron.

Religion –

 Rituals and formulae became prominent in the cult of sacrifice.

 Indra, Varuna, Surya and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the creator) became supreme.
Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people.
 Varna systems became more rigid.

The Vedic Literature –

 The word ‘veda’ comes from the root ‘vidi’ signifying knowledge.
 Vedas are also known as ‘Shruti’ (to hear) as they were passed from generation through verbal
transmission.
 They are four in all – Rig-Veda, samaveda, yajurveda and Atharveda.
 Each Veda is further subdivided into Samhitas.

Rig veda –

 Oldest religious text in the world.

 The third Mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra (addressed to the sun/Savitri – goddess
associated with Surya).

Samveda –

 Derived from the root ‘Saman’ i.e. ‘melody’. It is a collection of melodies.

 Contains ‘Dhrupad Raga’ which is the oldest of the ragas.

Yajurveda –

 Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices.

 There are two main text of yajurveda –
 White yajurveda (shukla yajurveda)= mantras
 Black yajurveda (Krishna yajurveda)=commentary in prose

Atharvaveda –

 Entirely different from three other Vedas.

 Atharvaveda refers to king as protector of Brahmans and eater of people.
 From the point of view of Vedic rituals, Atharvaveda is the most important.

The Brahamans

 They explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox

manner.
 Each Veda has several Brahmans attached to it.
  The most important is ‘Satpatha Brahmana’ attached to Yajurveda which is the most exhaustive
and important of all. It recommends ‘One Hundred Sacred Paths’.

The Aranyakas —

 Also called ‘forest books’, written mainly by the hermits living in the jungles for their pupils.
 These are the concluding part of the Brahman’s.
 Deals with mysticism and philosophy. Opposed to sacrifice and emphasized meditation.
 Form a bridge between ‘Way of Work’ (Karma Marg) which was the sole concern of the
Upanishads and the ‘Way of Knowledge’ (Gyan Marg) which the Brahmans advocated.

The Upanishads–

 The word means ‘to sit down near someone’ and denotes a student sitting near his guru to
learn.
 its also Called Vedanta (the end of the Vedas) firstly because they denote the last phase of the
Vedic because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly because they reveal
the final aim of the Vedas.
 They are the main source of Indian philosophy.
 There are 108 Upanishads.
 They also condemn the ceremonies and the sacrifices.
 They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the doctrine of action
(karma).
 Mandukyu Upanishad is the source of ‘Satya Mevya Jayate’.

Smritis —

 Explains rules and regulations in the vedic life.

 Main are Manusmriti,Naradsmriti , Yagyavalkyasmriti and Parasharsmriti.
 Dharmasutras contain social laws popularly known as ‘Smriti’.
 Earliest Dharmasutra is the Manusmriti which is also called Manav Darshan.

Vedangas –

 Six Vedangas are Shiksha which deals with pronunciation, Kalpa which deals with rituals,
Vyakarana which deals with grammar, Nirukta which deals with etymology or phonetics,
Chhanda which deals with meter and Jyotisha which deals with astronomy.

Epics –

There are two epic – Ramayana written by Valmiki

Mahabharata written by Vyas.

Jainism

 Founded by Rishabhanath, the first Tirthankara.

 There were 24 Tirthankara (Prophets or Gurus) and all of them were Kshatriyas. Rishabhanath’s
reference is also there in the Rigveda. But there is no historical basis for the fi rst 22
Tirthankaras. Only the last two are historical personalities.
 The 23rd Tirthankara Parshwanath (symbol: snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Benaras.
His main teachings were:
o Non-injury
o Non-lying
o Non stealing
 o Non-possession.
 The 24th and the last Tirthankara was Vardhman Mahavira (symbol: lion). He added celibacy to
his main teachings.

Life of Mahavira

 Born in 599 BC at Kundagrama near Vaisali.

 Siddhartha was his father: Trisala his mother, Yasoda his wife and his daughter was Priyadarsena
married to Jamali.
 Jamali became his first disciple
 Attained Kaivalya at Jrimbhikagrama in eastern India at the age of 42.
 He got title of jina,arihant
 Died at the age of 72 in 527 BC at Pavapuri near Rajagriha.
 He was called Jina or Jitendriya, Nirgrantha and Mahavira.
 MAHAVEER WAS RELATED TO BIMBSAR

Origin of Jainism

 Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as the Vedic religion.
 The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras.
 There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was Vardhaman Mahavira.
 The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
 The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi. He may have lived in the 8th
or 7th century BC.
 All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth.

Founder of Jainism – Vardhaman Mahavira (540 – 468 B.C.)

 Considered the last Tirthankara.

 He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali.
 His parents were Kshatriyas. Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan); Mother – Trishala
(Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka King Bimbisara).
 He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
 At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic.
 He also observed self-mortification.
 After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnan. He
attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal tree aged 42. This is called Kaivalya. Thereafter,
he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all
bonds), and Kevalin.
 He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Pava (near Rajagriha) aged 72.

Causes of the rise of Jainism

 Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic.

 Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit thus was more accessible to the common man as
compared to Sanskrit.
 It was accessible to people of all castes.
 Varna system had rigidified and people of the lower castes led miserable lives. Jainism offered
them an honourable place.
 About 200 years after the death of Mahavira, a great famine in the Ganga valley prompted
Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu (last Acharya of the undivided Jain sangha) to migrate to
Karnataka. Jainism spread to Southern India after that.
Teachings of Jainism

 Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.

 He did not believe in God’s existence. According to him, the universe is a product of the natural
phenomenon of cause and effect.
 He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but the soul does not.
 One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma.
 Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
 Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system, unlike Buddhism. But he also said that
man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions and not birth.
 Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity, and self-mortification were
expounded.
 Two elements of the world: Jiva (conscious) and Atma (unconscious):
o Right faith
o Right knowledge
o Right conduct (observance of five vows)
1. Ahimsa (non-violence)
2. Satya (truth)
3. Asteya (no stealing)
4. Parigraha (no acquiring property)
5. Brahmacharya (abstinence)

Split in Jainism

 When Bhadrabahu left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his followers.
 Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could be worn. Thus, split
Jainism into two sects:
1. Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners
2. Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners

First council

 Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC.

 Presided by Sthulabahu.

Second Council

 Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in 512 AD.

 Presided by Devardhigani.
 12 Angas was compiled here.

Buddha’s Life

 Gautama, the Buddha also known as Siddhartha, Sakyamuni and Tathagata.

 Born in 563 BC (widely accepted), at Lumbini, near Kapilvastu, capital of the Sakya republic.
 Left home at the age of 29 and attained Nirvana at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya.
 Attained Nirvana or Enlightenment at 35 at Uruvela, Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipaltree
 Delivered his first sermon at Sarnath.
 He attained Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara in 483 BC.
 His first sermonis called ‘Dharmachakrapravartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.
 Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of U.P.) in
483 B.C. at the age of 80 in the Malla republic.

CAUSE OF ORIGIN OF BUDHISM AND JAINISM

During later vedic period [around 5 circa B.C]. These two important religions came up with new
philosophies.

 Expensive & complicated Vedic rituals, Superstitious beliefs, mantras confused the people.
 The teachings of the Upanishads were highly philosophical, therefore not understood by all.
 The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in society.
 Desire of Vaishya to improve their social position due to the increase in trade and economic
prosperity.
 Unrest in society due to supremacy Brahmina.
 practice of killing cows became hindrance to new agri economy.
 Increase in sacrifice and idol worship due to advent of Mahayana led to lowering of moral values
 Destruction of Buddhist monuments by Huns and the Turkish invaders.

CAUSES FOR DECLINE OF BUDDHISM

 Decline of Buddhist Sanghas due to violation of Buddist principles & discipline.

 The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite. So masses moved away.
 The attack of Huns in 5th & 6th centuries and Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed the
monasteries.
 Buddhism was mainly urban religion with rural India always Hindu. When Islam came to India, it
impacted the urban regions & thus Buddhism.
 Revival of Brahmanism and Division among Buddhists
 Rajput rulers were warlike and could not follow the policy of Ahimsa.
 Loss of Royal Patronage.

Gupta Empire
Origin of Gupta Empire

The decline of the Mauryan empire resulted in the rise of two major political powers – the Kushanas and
the Satavahanas in the north and south respectively. Both these empires brought political unity and
economic growth in their respective areas. The Kushan reign in north India came to an end around c.230
CE and then a good part of central India came under the domain of the Murundas (possible kinsmen of
the Kushanas). The Murundas ruled for only 25 – 30 years. Around the last decade of the 3rd century CE
(about 275 CE), the dynasty of the Guptas came to power. The Gupta empire established its control
over a good part of the former dominions of both the Kushanas and the Satavahanas. The Guptas
(possibly Vaishyas) kept northern India politically united for more than a century (335 CE- 455 CE).

 The Guptas are believed to have been feudatories of the Kushanas.

 The original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar with their centre of
power at Prayag (U.P).
 The Guptas set up their rule over the fertile plains of the Madhyadesha, also known as Anuganga
(the middle Gangetic basin), Saketa (U.P Ayodhya), Prayag (U.P) and Magadha (mostly Bihar).
 The Guptas made good use of the iron ore reserves in central India and south Bihar and also took
advantage of their proximity to the areas in north India which carried on silk trade with the
Byzantine empire (eastern Roman empire).
 The Gupta period in ancient India is referred to as the “Golden Age” because of the numerous
achievements in the field of arts, literature, science and technology. It also brought about the
political unification of the subcontinent.

Chandragupta I (320 – 335 CE)

 Was the son of Ghatotkacha.

  Chandragupta Ⅰ is considered to be the founder of the Gupta Era which started with his
accession in 319 – 320 CE.
 He strengthened his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis (Nepal). He married
Kumaradevi, a princess of the Lichchhavi clan and this added to the power and prestige of the
Gupta family (Vaishyas).
 He extended his kingdom through conquests. His territory extended from the Ganges River to
Prayaga by 321 AD.
 He issued coins in the joint names of his queen and himself.
 He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings).
 He was successful in building a small principality into a great kingdom.
 His empire consisted of Uttar Pradesh, Bengal and parts of modern Bihar, with Pataliputra as its
capital.
 He is considered the first great king of the Gupta Empire.

Gupta Empire – Samudragupta (c. 335/336 – 375 CE)

 The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta Ⅰ’s son and successor
Samudragupta.
 The Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayaga – Prashasti) gives a detailed account of his
achievements. He followed the policy of war and conquest. This long inscription was composed
by his court poet, Harisena, in chaste Sanskrit. The inscription is engraved on the same pillar that
carries the inscription of peace-loving Ashoka.
 Much of the Indian subcontinent was directly or indirectly under his control – from kingdoms in
Nepal and Punjab in the north to the Pallava kingdom at Kanchipuram in the southeast. The last
vestiges of the Kushana rule, like the Shakas, the Murundas and even the independent territory
of Simhala (Sri Lanka) acknowledged his suzerainty. The places and the territories conquered by
Samudragupta can be divided into five groups:
o Group Ⅰ – Includes rulers of Ganga-Yamuna doab, who were defeated. He uprooted
nine Naga rulers and annexed their territories.
o Group Ⅱ – Includes rulers of the eastern Himalayan states and some frontier states such
as the princes of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, etc. who surrendered to his might. It also includes
parts of Punjab.
o Group Ⅲ – Includes the forest kingdom situated in the Vindhya region (central India)
known as atavika rajyas and forced their rulers into servitude. The conquest of this region
helped him to move towards the south.
o Group Ⅳ – Includes twelve rulers of eastern Deccan and south India who were defeated
and his power reached as far as Kanchi (Tamil Nadu), where the Pallavas were forced to
recognise his suzerainty. It is important to mention that Virasena was the commander of
Samudragupta during his southern campaign. In the south, he adopted the policy of
political conciliation and reinstated the defeated kings on their thrones. These states
acknowledged his suzerainty and paid him tributes and presents.
o Group Ⅴ – Includes the Shakas of western India and Kushana rulers of north-west India
and Afghanistan. Samudragupta swept them out of power.
 Though he had spread his influence over a vast area, and even received tributes from many kings
of south-east Asia, Samudragupta exercised direct administrative control mainly over the Indo-
Gangetic basin. According to Chinese sources, Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a
missionary to Samudragupta for permission to build a Buddhist temple at Bodh Gaya.
 After conquering the territories, Samudragupta celebrated by performing the asvamedha (horse
sacrifice). He issued coins with the legend “restorer of the asvamedha”. It is because of his
military achievements that Samudragupta was hailed as the ‘Indian Napoleon’.
 He was equally great in his personal accomplishments. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription speaks of
his magnanimity to his foes, his polished intellect, his poetic skills, and his proficiency in music.
He is known by the title Kaviraja (king among poets) because of his ability in composing verses.
 His image depicting him with veena (lyre) is found in the coins issued by him. He is also credited
with promoting Sanskrit literature and learning, characteristic of his dynasty.
 He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other religions. He showed a keen
interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu.
 Legends on his coins include epithets such as Apratirathah (invincible), Vyaghra-Parakramah
(brave as a tiger), Parakramah (brave).

Gupta Empire – Chandragupta II (c. 376 – 413/415 CE)

 Samudragupta was succeeded by his son – Chandragupta Ⅱ. But according to some scholars, the
immediate successor was Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta Ⅱ. But there is little
historical proof for this.
 During Chandragupta Ⅱ’s reign, the Gupta dynasty reached its peak by expanding territories
through conquests as well as by marriage alliances. He married Kuberananga, a Naga princess
and had a daughter, Prabhavati with her. He married Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince, Rudrasena
Ⅱ (Deccan). After the death of her husband, Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to her
minor sons with the help of her father. Thus Chandragupta Ⅱ indirectly controlled the Vakataka
kingdom.
 Chandragupta Ⅱ’s control over the Vakataka kingdom in central India proved quite
advantageous for him. It helped him to conquer Gujarat and western Malwa, which was under
the rule of Shakas for about four centuries by that time. The Guptas reached the western sea
coast which was famous for trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa
and its main city Ujjain, which was also Chandragupta Ⅱ’s second capital.
 An Iron Pillar inscription at Mehrauli in Delhi indicates that his empire included even north-
western India and Bengal. He adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’ (powerful as the sun) and
Simhavikrama.
 He issued gold coins (Dinara), silver coins and copper coins. On his coins, he is mentioned as
Chandra.
 During his reign, a Chinese traveller, Fa-Hien visited India and wrote a detailed account about the
life of its people.
 The Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to his digvijaya, that is, his conquest of the whole world.
 His court at Ujjain was adorned by nine famous scholars known as the Navratnas (nine gems).
o Kalidasa – He wrote Abhijnashakuntalam, one of the best hundred literary works in the
world and also the earliest Indian work to be translated to European languages.
o Amarasimha – His work Amarakosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and
synonyms. It has three parts containing around ten thousand words and is also known as
Trikanda.
o Varahamihira – He wrote three important books-
 He composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems.
 His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in the Sanskrit language. It deals with a
variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather,
animals, marriage and omens.
 His Brihat Jataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
o Dhanvantri – He is considered to be the father of Ayurveda.
o Ghatakarapara – An expert in sculpture and architecture.
o Shanku – An architect who wrote the Shilpa Shastra.
o Kahapanaka – An astrologer who wrote Jyotishya Shastra.
o Vararuchi – Author of Prakrit Prakasha, the first grammar of the Prakrit language.
o Vetala Bhatta – Author of Mantrashastra and was a magician.

Kumaragupta Ⅰ (c. 415 – 455 CE)

 Kumaragupta Ⅰ was the son and successor of Chandragupta Ⅱ.

  Adopted the titles of ‘Shakraditya’ and ‘Mahendraditya’.
 Performed ‘asvamedha’ sacrifices.
 Most importantly, he laid the foundation of Nalanda University which emerged as an institution
of international reputation.
 At the end of his reign, peace did not prevail on the north-west frontier due to the invasion of
the Huns of Central Asia. After occupying Bactria, the Huns crossed the Hindukush mountains,
occupied Gandhara and entered India. Their first attack, during Kumaragupta Ⅰ’s reign, was
made unsuccessful by prince Skandagupta.
 The inscriptions of Kumaragupta Ⅰ’s reign are – Karandanda, Mandsor, Bilsad inscription (oldest
record of his reign) and Damodar Copper Plate inscription.

Skandagupta (c. 455 – 467 CE)

 Adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’.

 Junagarh/Girnar inscription of his reign reveals that his governor Parnadatta repaired the
Sudarshan lake.
 After Skandagupta’s death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Kumaragupta Ⅱ,
Buddhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta Ⅲ and Vishnugupta could not save the Gupta
empire from the Huns. Ultimately, the Gupta power totally disappeared due to a variety of
reasons.

The Golden Age of India

Legacy and Decline of Gupta Empire (UPSC Notes):- Download PDF Here

The Gupta age in ancient India has been called the ‘Golden Age of India’ because of the many
achievements in the field of arts, science, and literature that Indians made under the Guptas. The
prosperity under the Guptas initiated a period of splendid accomplishments in arts and sciences. The
Gupta Empire lasted from 320 CE to 550 CE.

Gupta Empire Literature

 Sanskrit literature flourished under the Guptas. Kalidasa, the great poet, and playwright were in
the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He composed great epics such as
Abhijnanashaakuntalam, Kumarasambhavam, Malavikagnimitram, Ritusamharam,
Meghadootam, Vikramorvashiyam, and Raghuvamsham.
 The celebrated Sanskrit drama Mṛcchakatika was composed during this time. It is attributed to
Shudraka.
 Poet Harisena also adorned the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He wrote the Allahabad
Prashasti (inscription).
 Vishnu Sharma of Panchatantra fame lived during this era.
 Amarasimha (grammarian and poet) composed a lexicon of Sanskrit, Amarakosha.
 Vishakhadatta composed Mudrarakshasa. Other grammarians who contributed to the Sanskrit
language include Vararuchi and Bhartrihari.

Legacy of Gupta Empire – Sciences

 In the fields of science, mathematics and astronomy also, the Gupta age saw a lot of interesting
advancements.
 Aryabhatta, the great Indian mathematician and astronomer wrote Surya Siddhanta and
Aryabhattiya. Aryabhatta is believed to have conceptualised ‘zero’. He also gave the value of Pi.
He postulated that the earth is not flat and it rotated around its own axis and also that it
 revolved around the sun. He also gave the distance between earth and sun which is remarkably
close to the actual value. He wrote on geometry, astronomy, mathematics and trigonometry.
 The Indian number system with a base of 10 which is the present numeral system evolved from
scholars of this era.
 Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. He was an astronomer and an astrologer.
 The Nalanda University, a centre of Buddhist and other learning attracted students from abroad.
The Guptas patronised this ancient seat of learning.

Learn about Buddhist and Jain architecture in India from the linked article.

Legacy of Gupta Empire – Art & Architecture

 Many magnificent temples, palaces, paintings and sculptures were created.

 Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh UP is one of the earliest surviving Hindu temples. It is a fine
example of Gupta architecture.
 Mural paintings of Ajanta depicting the life of the Buddha as told in the Jataka tales were created
in this period. Places like Ajanta, Ellora, Mathura, Sarnath; and Anuradhapura and Sigiriya in Sri
Lanka bear examples of Gupta art and architecture. (Know about Mural Painting in India in the
linked article.)
 Classical Indian music and dance took shape at this time.
 The Gupta legacy in arts can be seen in Southeast Asia also today.
 The Bronze Buddha which is 7.5 feet high and found at Sultanganj is a product of the Gupta age.
 The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi is a marvellous creation of this period. It is a 7 m long pillar and
it is made up of a composition of metals such that it is rust-free. This is a testimony to the
metallurgical skills of Indians of that time.

Legacy of Gupta Empire – Social Culture & Religion

 The Hindu epics were given their final touches during this time. The Hindu religion also received
an impetus under the Guptas and it flourished and expanded throughout India.
 Although the Gupta kings were Vaishnavas they were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism. They
patronized Buddhist art. (Learn the difference between Buddhism and Jainism from the linked
article.)
 The Shakti cult rose up around this time.
 Sacrifice was being replaced by Bhakti and Pooja.
 Occult practices like tantrism also emerged during this time.
 The game of chess is said to have originated from this time. It was called Chaturanga meaning
the four divisions (of the military such as infantry (pawn), cavalry (knight), elephantry (bishop),
and chariots (rook).

Mauryan Empire

 Founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Kautilya or Chanakya who overthrew the
Nandas and established the rule of Maurya dynasty
 The dynasty, who seems to have belonged to an ordinary family
 According to Brahmanical tradition, Chandragupta was born of Mura, a shudra woman in the
court of the Nandas
 However, Budhist tradition speaks of the Mauryas as the ruling clan
 Chandragupta thus built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and substantial parts of
Orissa and Bengal but also western and north-western India, and the Deccan. Aside from Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, and parts of North-Eastern India, the Mauryas ruled over virtually the entire
subcontinent
 Pataliputra was their capital and Kaushambi, Ujjain and Taxila were the most important cities
 The Mauryas organized a very elaborate system of administration. We know about this from the
account of Indica of Megasthenes and Arthashastra of Kautilya
 the empire was centralized
 the empire was divided into a number of provinces, the provinces were divided into smaller units
and arrangements were made for both rural and urban administration
 The most striking feature of Chandragupta’s administration was its maintenance of a huge army
 Chandragupta maintained 600000 foot soldiers, 30000 cavalrymen and 9000 elephants
 Mauryas also maintained a navy
 Taxes collected from the peasants varied from one fourth to one sixth of the produce
 The Mauryan empire came to an end by 180BCE and the last ruler of the dynasty was
Brihadratha.

Ashoka (273-32 BC)

 Ashoka, is the greatest of the Maurya rulers

 According to the Budhdhist tradition, he was so cruel that he killed his 99 brothers to win the
throne
 However, as this statement is based on a legend, it may be mythical
 He was the first ruler who took messages to the people through his inscriptions.
 After his accession to the throne, the Kalinga war was the only war that he fought.
 As he was moved by the massacre of the Kalinga war, he gave up the idea of conquest by war
and followed conquest by dhamma. With this, he was noted to be the first emperor who gave up
war.
 Ashoka was converted to Buddhism. The third Buddhist council was held by him and he also sent
missionaries to south India, Sri Lanka, Burma and many other countries.

Ashokan Inscriptions

 The history of Ashoka was built with these inscriptions as the basis.
 The inscriptions were the proclamations of Ashoka to the public at large, which shows his effort
to propagate Dhamma.
 There are about 39 inscriptions which are broadly classified into four categories.
o Major rock edicts
o Minor rock edicts
o Major pillar edicts
o Minor pillar edicts
 The name Ashoka appears only in the copies of Minor rock edict I, which are found at one place
in Maharashtra and three places in Karnataka. All the other inscriptions have the name
Devanampiya piyadasi which means dear to gods.
 His inscriptions were found in Afghanistan,Pakistan, Nepal and Indian. They were mostly placed
on the ancient highways.
 Inscriptions of Ashoka were 1st deciphered by James Princep in 1837
 Brahmi scripts were used for writing edicts, particularly Pali & Prakrit.
 In N-W India Ashoka’s inscriptions were also found in Kharosti script
 Famous Sanchi Stupa & Sarnath Pillar constitutes to Ashoka’s rein

Ashoka’s dhamma

 After Kalinga [current coastal Odisha] he gave up war.

 He started to execute Dhamma [prakrit term for Dharma]
 Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt its his
duty to instruct his subjects through teachings of Budhha.
  He appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place
teaching people about dhamma.
 Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read
his message to those who could not read it themselves.
 Also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece
and Sri Lanka.

Causes of the fall of the Maurya Empire

 Brahmanical Reaction: The tolerance policy of Ashoka developed some kind of antipathy
because animals and birds sacrifice, and women derided superfluous ritual performed affected
the income of the brahmanas. New Kingdoms like Shungas, Kanvas etc ruled by Brahmanas arose
to ruined the empire.
 Financial Crisis: The enormous expenditure on the army and payment to bureaucracy created a
financial crisis for the empire.
 Oppressive Rule in the province was an important cause of the break-up of the empire.
 New Knowledge in the Outlying Areas: Maurya rule owned its expansion to certain basic
material advantages and this causes the rise of new kingdoms like Shungas, Kanvas, Chetis and
Satvahanas.
 Neglected the North-West Frontier and the Great Wall of China: Maurya ruler could not pay
attention to the passage on the north-west frontier. This is the only reason, Scythians made a
push towards India they forced the Parthians, the Shakas and the Greeks to move towards India.
The Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti (247-210 BC) constructed wall i.e. Great Wall of China to shield
his empire from alien attack especially from Scythians.

Kushan Empire
Origin

 Kushanas are considered to be one of the five branches of the Yuezhi tribe who lived in the
Chinese frontier or central Asia.
 They are known as Guishuang in Chinese sources.
 They eventually acquired dominance over the other Yuezhi tribes.
 They moved eastward towards India defeating the Parthians and the Sakas in the 1st century AD.

Kushan Empire – Ruler Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I [AD 30-AD 80)

 Kujula Kadphises was the first Yuezhi chief to lay the foundation of the Kushana Empire in India.
 He established his supremacy over Kabul, Kandahar and Afghanistan.
 He was succeeded by his son Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95) who expanded the
empire into northwest India.

Kushan Empire – Ruler Vima Kadphises [AD 95-AD 127]

 An inscription found at Rabatak in Afghanistan mentions that he was the son of Vima Taktu and
the father of Kanishka.
 He has issued a large number of gold coins.
 He was a Shiva devotee as is clear from coins issued by him.
 A large number of Roman gold coins found from this era indicate the prosperity of India at that
time and also the growing trade with the Romans.

Kanishka of Kushan Dynasty [127 AD – 150 AD]

 Considered the greatest Kushana king and also a great king of ancient India.
  Son of Vima Kadphises.
 His kingdom included Afghanistan, parts of Sindhu, parts of Parthia, Punjab, Kashmir, parts of
Magadha (including Pataliputra), Malwa, Benaras, perhaps parts of Bengal, Khotan, Kashgar,
Yarkhand (last three in modern China). His empire covered Gandhara, Peshawar, Oudh,
Pataliputra, Kashmir and Mathura. His kingdom also included parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
 His main capital was Peshawar, then known as Purushpura.
 After the capture of Pataliputra, he is said to have taken away the Buddhist monk Ashvaghosha
with him to Peshawar.
 The scholars in his court included Parsva, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna, Charaka and
Mathara. He also patronised the Greek engineer Agesilaus.
 Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
 He patronised Buddhism although he was very tolerant in his religious views. His coins contain a
mix of Indian, Greek and Zoroastrian deities.
 He was also a patron of art and architecture. The Gandhara School of art flourished under him.
 He also propagated the Mahayana form of Buddhism and he was largely responsible for
propagating it in China.
 It is not known how he died.

Achievements of Kushanas – Significance of the Kushana Empire

 Sanskrit literature began to be developed during this time. The fourth Buddhist council was held
in Sanskrit.
 Ashvoghosha is considered to be the first Sanskrit dramatist.
 During this time, three distinct schools of art flourished: Gandhara School in northwest India,
Amaravati School in Andhra and the Mathura School in the Ganges valley.
 Trade prospered between India and China, and India and the Roman Empire.
 The Kushanas controlled large parts of the Silk Route which led to the propagation of Buddhism
into China. It was during this time that Buddhism began to spread to Korea and Japan also.
 Many towers, Chaityas, towns and beautiful sculptures were built under the patronage of the
Kushana kings.
 Kushanas were foreign invaders, to begin with, but they were completely Indianised in ways and
culture.
 It is said that the Kushana period in Indian history was a perfect forerunner to the golden age of
the Guptas.

The decline of the Kushana Empire

 Kanishka was succeeded by his son Vasishka.

 Vasishka was followed by Huvishka and Kanishka II (son of Vasishka).
 Kanishka II was followed by Vasudeva I.
 Vasudeva I was the last great king of the Kushanas. After his death, the empire disintegrated
away. He probably died in 232 AD.

Satavahana Dynasty

The Sunga dynasty came to an end around 73 BCE when their ruler Devabhuti was killed by Vasudeva
Kanva. The Kanva dynasty then ruled over Magadha for about 45 years. Around this time, another
powerful dynasty, the Satavahanas came to power in the Deccan area.

The term “Satvahana” originated from the Prakrit which means ” driven by seven” which is an
implication of the Sun God’s chariot that is driven by seven horses as per Hindu mythology.

The first king of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka.

Important Rulers of the Satavahana dynasty
Simuka

 Considered to be the founder of the Satavahana dynasty and was immediately active after
Ashoka’s death.
 Built Jain and Buddhist temples.

Satakarni I (70- 60 BC)

 Satakarni I was the 3rd king of the Satavahanas.

 Satakarni I was the first Satavahana king to expand his empire by military conquests.
 He conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharavela.
 He also pushed back the Sungas in Pataliputra.
 He also ruled over Madhya Pradesh.
 After annexing the Godavari Valley, he assumed the title of ‘Lord of Dakshinapatha’.
 His queen Nayanika wrote the Naneghat inscription which describes the king as
Dakshinapathapati.
 He performed Ashvamedha and revived Vedic Brahmanism in the Deccan.

Hala

 King Hala compiled the Gatha Saptashati. Called Gaha Sattasai in Prakrit, it is a collection of
poems with mostly love as the theme. Around forty of the poems are attributed to Hala himself.
 Hala’s minister Gunadhya composed Brihatkatha.

Gautamiputra Satakarni of Satavahana Dynasty (106 – 130 AD or 86 – 110 AD)

 He is considered the greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty.

 It is believed that at one stage, the Satavahanas were dispossessed of their dominions in
the upper Deccan and western India. The fortunes of the Satavahanas were restored by
Gautamiputra Satkarni. He called himself the only Brahmana who defeated the Shakas and
destroyed many Kshatriya rulers.
 He is believed to have destroyed the Kshaharata lineage to which his adversary
Nahapana belonged. More than 800 silver coins of Nahapana (found near Nasik) bears marks of
being restruck by the Satavahana king. Nahapana was an important king of the Western Satraps.
 His kingdom ran from Krishna in the south to Malwa and Saurashtra in the north and from Berar
in the east to the Konkan in the west.
 In a Nasik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri, he is described as the destroyer of
the Shakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas (Greeks); as the uprooter of the Kshaharatas and the
restorer of the glory of the Satavahanas. He is also described as Ekabrahmana (a peerless
Brahmana) and Khatiya-dapa-manamada (destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas).
 He was given the titles Rajaraja and Maharaja.
 He donated land to the Buddhist monks. The Karle inscription mentions the grant of
Karajika village, near Pune, Maharashtra.
 In the later part of his reign, he probably lost some of the conquered Kshaharata territories to
the Kardamaka line of the Shaka Kshatrapas of western India, as is mentioned in the Junagadh
inscription of Rudradaman Ⅰ.
 His mother was Gautami Balasri and hence his name Gautamiputra (son of Gautami).
 He was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi/Pulumavi or Pulamavi II. (Alternatively
spelt Pulumayi.)
 Gandhara and Mathura School of Art

India has a rich and varied culture as characterized in the later art forms of the subcontinent, dating
from the 14th through the 19th century. Art and culture is an important topic in the IAS Exam. A
substantial number of questions can be asked from the art and culture segment in UPSC Prelims as well
as Mains examination. Here we are giving the major difference between the Gandhara School of Art and
the Mathura school of Art.

During the Kushana Empire’s rule, the Gandhara art prospered in India. Above all, Kanishka, the greatest
of the Kushanas was a famous backer of art and architecture. The Gandhara School of art flourished in
his reign. Gandhara School was profoundly influenced by Greek methodologies.

The figures of Buddha were more spiritual and carved mainly in grey and bluish-grey colour with the
finest details.

The Mathura School of Art

The Mathura School of Art was entirely influenced by Indianism. The stone used in the Mathura school
of arts was red sandstone. The sculptures were less spiritual.

They mostly used the spotted red sandstone for making sculptures and statues. The initial images of the
Buddha and the Bodhisattva are happy and fleshy figures with little spirituality about them. The Mathura
School of arts prided themselves on creating images of Buddha and they also made statues of many
gods and goddesses such as Jain Tirthankaras.

Difference between Mathura and Gandhara School of Art

Although both the Mathura and Gandhara schools of Art share some rudimentary similarities between
themselves, there are some fundamental differences between the two: which is highlighted in the table
given below:

Areas of differences Gandhara School of art Mathura School of Art

Reign Kushana Dynasty Kushana Dynasty
Area Gandhara (Now located in the Mathura
Peshawar Valley of Modern-day
Pakistan)
Outside influences Greek and possibly Macedonian  Entirely indigenous
influence  No external influence

Religious influence Buddhism  Hinduism

 Buddhism
 Jainism

Material Used Bluish- Grey sandstone Spotted red sandstone

Grey sandstone
Features of Buddha Spiritual Buddha Smiling Buddha
sculptures
Sad Buddha Less emphasis on spiritual aspects

Bearded Buddha Shaven head and face

Less ornamentation Muscular Physique

 Great detailing Graceful posture of Buddha

Buddha in Yogi postures Seated in Padmasana

Greek factors like wavy hair, large Buddha surrounded by two monks:
forehead, long ears Padmapani (holding Lotus) and
Vajrapani( Holding Vajra)

Halo around the head of Buddha

decorated with geometrical motifs

The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasti,

Sarnath, and Kausambhi
Various Mudras of Abhayamudra- Don’t fear
Buddha in Gandhara
Art Bhumisparshamudra -Touching the
earth

Dhyana mudra- Meditation

Dharmachakramudra- A preaching
mudra

Feudalism

Feudalism was a dominant social system in the medieval times. In this system the nobility held lands
from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while
the peasants were obliged to live on their lord’s land and give him homage, labour, and a share of the
produce, in exchange for military protection.

Body

 Origin of feudalism in the post-Mauryan period

o From the Post Mauryan period and especially from Gupta times, certain political and
administrative developments tended to feudalise the state apparatus.
o The most striking development was the practice of making land grants to Brahmanas and
Buddhist monks and later to officials for their military and administrative services.
o These grants meant the transfer of all sources of revenue and surrender of police and
administrative functions thus giving rise to feudalism.
 Features of Feudalism in the post-Mauryan period
o Vassalage: Vassalage expressed the relation of personal dependence and loyalty between
the lord and his vassals.
o Hierarchy of feudal lords: Different titles signified the position and powers within the
rank of feudal lords.
o Hereditary administrative positions: Weak enforcement of power led to the resumption
of independence and some high administrative positions became hereditary.
o Decentralisation of Power: Samantas were granted lands instead of salary and
proceeded to seize ownership of the area while continuing to refer to themselves as
vassals of their rulers.
o Oppressive tax system: Imposition of proper and improper taxes, fixed and unfixed taxes
along with rent exploited the labour class.
 oProsperity was not shared equally: It was believed that some people were meant for
cultivation of land and some for enjoying the fruits of production and hence, prosperity
was not shared equally.
o Fragmentation of social formation: Castes were split up into thousands of other castes
and subcastes.
o Manorial system: Under the manorial system, the landlord granted lands to persons who
would render different services including labour on the lands of the lords in exchange of
land.
 Difference between post-Mauryan feudalism and European feudalism
o The post-Mauryan feudalism was based on a caste system which divided the society into
4 parts- Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras, whereas the European feudalism
divided the society into church, nobility and the commoners.
o Unlike the European system, most of the power structures within the state did not have
to pay taxes
o Western European Feudal lords granted lands to their serfs in order to get their own land
cultivated but Indian Kings made grants to collect taxes and surplus.

Conclusion

 Feudalism in India was characterized by a class of landlords and by a class of subject peasantry,
both living in a predominantly agrarian economy marked by a decline in trade and urbanism and
by a drastic reduction in metal currency.
 Different ecological factors contributed to the nature of social structure and dynamics and hence
the difference in European and post-Mauryan feudalism.

Harsha's Administration, Society

Harsha's Administration

The administration of Harsha was organized on the same lines as the Guptas did. Hiuen Tsang gives a
detailed picture about this. The king was just in his administration and punctual in discharging his duties.
He made frequent visits of inspection throughout his dominion. The day was too short for him. Taxation
was also light and forced labour was also rare. One sixth of the produce was collected as land tax. Cruel
punishments of the Mauryan period continued in the times of Harsha. Hiuen Tsang condemned the trials
as barbarous and superstitious. Harsha's army consisted of the traditional four divisions - foot, horse,
chariot and elephant. The number of cavalry was more than one lakh and the elephants more than sixty
thousands. This was much more than that of the Mauryan army. The maintenance of public records was
the salient feature of Harsha's administration. The archive of the Harsha period was known as nilopitu and
it was under the control of special officers. Both good and bad events happened during his time had been
recorded.

Society and Economy under Harsha

Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang portray the social life in the times of Harsha. The fourfold division of the
society - Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vysya and Sudra - was prevalent. The Brahmins were the privileged section
of the society and they were given land grants by the kings. The Kshatriyas were the ruling class. The
Vysyas were mainly traders. Hiuen Tsang mentions that the Sudras practiced agriculture. There existed
many sub castes. The position of women was not satisfactory. The institution of Swyamvara (the choice
of choosing her husband) had declined. Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly among the
higher castes. The system of dowry had also become common. The practice of sati was also prevalent.
Hiuen Tsang mentions three ways of disposal of the dead - cremation, water burial and exposure in the
woods.

The trade and commerce had declined during Harsha's period. This is evident from the decline of trade
centres, less number of coins, and slow activities of merchant guilds. The decline of trade in turn affected
the handicrafts industry and agriculture. Since there was no large scale demand for goods, the farmers
began to produce only in a limited way. This led to the rise of self-sufficient village economy. In short,
there was a sharp economic decline as compared to the economy of the Gupta period.

Facts about King Harshavardhana (Reign: 606 A.D to 647 A.D.)

 Harshavardhana was born in 590 AD to King Prabhakaravardhana of Sthaneshvara (Thanesar,

Haryana).
 He belonged to the Pushyabhuti also called the Vardhana dynasty.
 He was a Hindu who later embraced Mahayana Buddhism.
 He was married to Durgavati.
 He had a daughter and two sons. His daughter married a king of Vallabhi whereas his sons were
killed by his own minister.
 King Harshavardhana deeds were praised by Chinese Buddhist traveller Xuanzang in his writings.

King Harshavardhana – Administration

 The administration of King Harshavardhana was more feudal and decentralised.

 He frequently made inspections throughout his empire.
 The law and order was not maintained well during his reign.
 The land tax collected from the people was one sixth of their produce
 The important feature of his administration was the maintenance of public records.
 He made land grants to priests and officers. This practise seems to have begun for Harsha’s time.
 King Harshavardhana divided his revenue into four parts
1. To meet the expenditure of the king
2. For scholars
3. For the endowment of public servants and officials
4. For religious purposes.
 Huge army was maintained by him. His army consisted of four divisions – Cavalry, chariot,
elephant and horse.
 Harsh punishments continued to exist. However under the influence of Buddhism, it was
mitigated to some extent.

King Harshavardhana – Society

Position of women

 The position of women under King Harshavardhana’s reign was not acceptable.
 The choice of choosing her husband (Swayamvara ) declined.
 Dowry became a very common practise.
 The practise of sati too existed.
 Remarriages of widows were not permitted.

Varna System

 Four fold division of society existed during the reign of King Harshavardhana
1. Brahmanas – the privileged section of the society
2. Kshatriyas – the ruling class
3. Vysyas – the traders
4. Sudras – the agriculturists