GROUP 4
The stages in the
UK history
BRITAIN’S PREHISTORIC
(BEFORE AD 43)
To deal with the massive spans of time in this period, archaeologists traditionally divide prehistory
into three main periods: the Stone, Bronze and Iron ages, named after the main technologies used at
the time
THE STONE AGE
The prehistory of the UK unfolds as a fascinating
journey through various epochs, beginning with the
Paleolithic era (Old Stone Age). around 3.3 million
years ago, down to roughly around 11,650 years ago.
During this time, early humans, such as Homo
heidelbergensis, occupied the region, leaving behind
evidence of their existence in the form of tools and
artifacts.
Paleolithic weapons and tools
Following the Palaeolithic Age ('Old-Stone Age'), the
Mesolithic ( 'Middle-Stone Age') roughly spanning
from about 9000-4300 years ago, witnessed a shift
towards more sophisticated hunting and gathering
practices. Communities in this era were adept at
utilizing the natural resources around them, and
evidence suggests a nomadic lifestyle as well as the
creation of tools from bone, antler, and microliths.
Mesolithic worked flint from the Ness of Brodgar ( 📷
Hugo Anderson-Whymark)
The Neolithic period (New Stone Age) lasted from
around 4300 BC down to 2000 BC, so some 6000 years
before present. The Neolithic period brought about a
transformative phase with the advent of agriculture.
Communities began cultivating crops like wheat and
barley and domesticating animals. This shift from a
hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled farming
communities had profound implications for social
structures and marked the construction of megalithic
structures, including the iconic Stonehenge. These
structures, with their intricate design and alignment,
hint at ceremonial or religious significance.
The inside of the Neolithic houses constructed at Skara Brae
in Orkney, northern Scotland, 3180–2500 BC
The Neolithic era gave way to the Bronze Age in
Britain lasted from around 2500 to 700 BC. This
period can be sub-divided into an earlier phase (2500
to 1200 BC) and a later one (1200 –700 BC), with the
arrival of the so-called Beaker culture at the start of
the earlier phase heralding the change into the Bronze
Age and metalworking became a prominent skill.
Bronze tools and weapons replaced their stone
counterparts, ushering in a new era of technological
advancement. Communities engaged in trade
networks, exchanging goods over long distances.
The Iron Age in Britain, beginning around 750 BC,
saw the arrival of Celtic cultures in Britain. It was the
arrival of iron working techniques from southern
Europe that brought Britain into the Iron Age. Iron
was stronger and more plentiful than bronze and iron
working revolutionised many aspects of life, most
importantly agriculture. There was a landscape of
arable, pasture, and managed woodland. There were
many enclosed settlements and land ownership was
important. For instance, Hillforts, fortified settlements
situated on elevated terrain, became a distinctive
feature of this period, reflecting both defensive needs
and social organization.
Bronze Age and Iron Age artefacts from East Anglia
Gold Celtic coins from the Farmborough Hoard Warwickshire Bronze Age axe ca.2500-800BC Herbert
Gallery and Museum
Anglo-Saxon
England
The period of Anglo-Saxon (Early
Medieval England)
When the Anglo-Saxon tribes migrated
from northern Europe to the islands of
England around the 5th century, they
probably found the remnants of towns
and some roads that the Romans had
left behind when they withdrew from
England about 50 years earlier. During
their three hundred years of occupation,
the Romans gradually exploited the
forests, marshes, and lakes. Before their
arrival, the native Celts had settled on
this island, and their civilization
coexisted with the civilization brought
by the Romans. Because the Celts did
not have a writing system, their myths
and legends were passed down orally
for centuries and were not recorded.
English literature truly began with the
settlers who came after the Romans –
the Anglo-Saxons.
Painting from 1130, showing armed Angles, Saxons, and Jutes crossing the
sea to England
The Germanic invasions:
They may be called by many different names, but the Jutes, the Angles, and the Saxons all belong to the same
Germanic tribe (German we often translate as German, but this word does not refer to modern Germans but rather
encompasses a type of people who lived in central Europe in ancient times). They came to England to conquer and
settle. In a short period of time, they faced resistance from the native Britons (Celts) under the leadership of the
legendary King Arthur. Eventually, the native tribe fled to Wales and Ireland. The Angles and Saxons turned this
place into their new home. They gave birth to many kingdoms, the largest of which was Mercia, and divided the
land in the central region of England. The names of the Saxon kingdoms are still preserved in the names of the
counties Essex, Sussex, and Middlesex.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Danes threatened to overthrow the Saxon rule as they raided villages, seized
plunder, and demanded tributes. They arrived by boats, carried out raids, and set fire to wherever they went before
departing. However, later on, they conquered, settled, and controlled a significant portion of the northeastern
territories. In this region, known as the Danelaw, Danish invasions became part of the ethnic blending that would
later shape England.
The Medieval Period
The Medieval Period in the history of the United Kingdom spans roughly from the 5th century to the late 15th
century. It is characterized by significant social, political, and cultural developments.
1. Early Medieval Period (5th-11th centuries):
Anglo-Saxon England: The period begins with the Anglo-Saxon migrations and the establishment of several
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Key events include the Battle of Hastings in 1066, leading to the Norman Conquest
and the ascension of William the Conqueror as King of England.
2. Norman Conquest and Feudalism (11th-12th centuries):
William the Conqueror: William's rule brought about the introduction of feudalism, centralized governance,
and the compilation of the Domesday Book in 1086.
Henry II and Common Law: Henry II's reign saw the development of common law, strengthening the royal
legal system and establishing the basis for the English legal tradition.
3. Plantagenet Dynasty (12th-15th centuries):
Magna Carta (1215): King John's reign witnessed the sealing of the Magna Carta, a foundational document
that limited the power of the monarchy and laid the groundwork for constitutional principles.
Hundred Years' War (1337-1453): The conflict between England and France saw notable figures like Edward
III and Henry V. The war had significant implications for English society and the emergence of a national
identity.
The Black Death (1348-1350): The bubonic plague swept through Europe, causing widespread death and
social upheaval. Its impact influenced labor relations and economic structures.
4. Wars of the Roses (1455-1487):
Dynastic Conflict: The Wars of the Roses were a series of civil wars fought between the rival houses of
Lancaster and York for control of the English throne.
Richard III and Battle of Bosworth Field: The conflict culminated in the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485,
where Henry Tudor (Henry VII) defeated Richard III, marking the end of the Wars of the Roses and the
beginning of the Tudor dynasty.
The Medieval Period in the UK was characterized by feudal structures, the development of common law, significant
battles, and the emergence of foundational documents such as the Magna Carta. It laid the groundwork for the
evolving political and social structures that would shape the nation's history in the centuries to come.
THE WARS OF THE ROSES
The War of the Roses was a series of civil wars fought in England from 1455 to 1487, the series of dynastic civil wars
whose violence and civil strife preceded the strong government of the Tudors. These wars were fought between two
rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York for the English throne. The
conflict was characterized by a complex web of dynastic, political, and economic factors.
Nomenclature and symbolism
The term "Wars of the Roses" was coined by later historians to describe the conflict between the House of Lancaster
and the House of York. The name is derived from the badges associated with each house, the Red Rose for Lancaster
and the White Rose for York.
Red and White Roses Merged: The ultimate resolution of the conflict occurred at the Battle of Bosworth Field in
1485. Henry Tudor, who represented the Lancastrians, married Elizabeth of York, symbolically merging the red and
white roses. This union is often depicted as the creation of the Tudor Rose, which became a symbol of the Tudor
dynasty's claim to the throne.
The Tudor Rose, a combination of the red and white roses, represented the union of the Lancastrian and Yorkist
claims. It symbolized the end of the Wars of the Roses and the beginning of the Tudor dynasty under Henry VII.
The White Rose of the House of York
The Red Rose of the House of Lancaster
The unified Tudor Rose of the
House of Tudor
CAUSES
The Wars of the Roses, fought between the House of Lancaster and the House of York for control of
the English throne, were complex and multifaceted, arising from a combination of political, dynastic,
and social factors. Here are some key causes of the Wars of the Roses:
Dynastic Rivalry:
Weakness of Henry VI: The reign of King Henry VI was marked by weakness, mental
instability, and ineffective governance, creating a power vacuum. The question of succession
became crucial.
Yorkist Claim: The House of York, led by Richard, Duke of York, contested the Lancastrian
claim to the throne, arguing that their lineage had a stronger legitimate right.
Noble Ambitions and Factionalism:
Noble Power Struggles: Ambitious noble families sought to enhance their influence and power.
The struggle for control over key positions in government and the military intensified as nobles
vied for supremacy.
Role of the Neville and Percy Families: The rivalries between powerful families like the Nevilles
and Percies contributed to factionalism, as they aligned themselves with either the Yorkists or
Lancastrians at different times.
Economic Challenges and Social Unrest:
Taxation and Discontent: Economic difficulties, including heavy taxation to fund military
campaigns, led to discontent among various segments of society. The burden of financing the
war effort contributed to social unrest.
Impact on Commons: Economic challenges affected commoners, exacerbating grievances and
contributing to an environment conducive to political and social upheaval.
Disputed Succession:
Questionable Legitimacy: The legitimacy of Henry VI's heir, Edward of Westminster, was
questioned by those favoring the Yorkist claim. Uncertainty over succession fueled the conflict,
as competing factions sought to secure their preferred candidate.
Foreign Involvement:
French Support for Lancastrians: The Lancastrians sought support from France, leading to an
international dimension to the conflict. The Treaty of Tours solidified a French alliance with the
Lancastrians.
Burgundian Support for Yorkists: The Yorkists received support from the powerful Burgundian
duchy, further internationalizing the conflict.
Role of Queen Margaret:
Margaret of Anjou: Queen Margaret, known for her assertiveness, played a pivotal role in
advancing Lancastrian interests. Her efforts to consolidate power and secure the position of her
son, Edward of Westminster, intensified hostilities.
Battlefield Dynamics:
Battlefield Successes and Losses: The outcome of key battles, such as the Lancastrian victory at
Wakefield (1460) and the Yorkist triumph at Towton (1461), influenced the trajectory of the
conflict. Successes bolstered the confidence of the winning faction, while losses fueled the
determination of the losing side.
.
A GENERAL OVERVIEW OF
THE PROGRESS OF THE WAR
First Phase (1455-1461):
First Battle of St Albans (1455): The conflict began with a Lancastrian victory. Richard, Duke of York,
sought to assert his claim to the throne.
Yorkist Ascendancy: Yorkist successes at battles like Blore Heath (1459) and Northampton (1460) led to
Richard, Duke of York, pressing his claim more forcefully.
Battle of Wakefield (1460): Despite earlier successes, the Yorkists suffered a setback when Richard, Duke
of York, was killed at Wakefield. The Lancastrians, led by Queen Margaret, displayed Richard's head on
a spike in York.
Second Phase (1461-1471):
Towton (1461): Towton was a decisive battle where Edward IV, son of Richard, Duke of York, defeated
the Lancastrians. It was the bloodiest battle of the conflict, solidifying Edward's claim and forcing Henry
VI into exile.
Edward IV's Rule: Edward IV's reign brought a period of relative stability, marked by economic growth
and military success. However, internal strife and external threats, including conflicts with the Earl of
Warwick, emerged.
Third Phase (1470-1471):
Readeption (1470): Henry VI was briefly restored to
the throne in the Readeption period, orchestrated by
the Earl of Warwick, who had turned against Edward
IV. However, the alliance proved short-lived.
Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury (1471): The
Yorkists, under Edward IV and his brothers, faced the
Lancastrians at Barnet and Tewkesbury. The death of
Edward of Westminster at Tewkesbury marked a
significant Lancastrian defeat.
Fourth Phase (1483-1487):
Edward IV's Death (1483): Edward IV's death in 1483
led to a power struggle. His young sons, including the
future Edward V, were placed in the Tower of London.
Richard III's Rule: Richard, Duke of Gloucester,
became Richard III and assumed the throne. His reign
faced challenges to his legitimacy, including the
mysterious disappearance of the Princes in the Tower.
Bosworth Field (1485): The final battle saw Henry
Tudor (Henry VII), a Lancastrian claimant, defeating
Richard III. Richard was killed in the battle, and
Henry VII became the first monarch of the Tudor Miniature of the Battle of Tewkesbury, late 15th century
dynasty.
The Wars of the Roses concluded with the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, marking the beginning of the
Tudor era. The conflict had far-reaching consequences, including the end of the Plantagenet dynasty and
the establishment of the Tudor dynasty under Henry VII.
THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR
(1642-1651)
The English Civil War (1642-1651) was a series of
conflicts between supporters of the monarchy
(Royalists or Cavaliers) and those supporting
Parliament (Parliamentarians or Roundheads). The
war was fueled by political tensions, religious
differences, and conflicts over royal authority. Key
events leading to the war included Charles I's attempt
to rule without Parliament, the convening of the Long
Parliament, and the outbreak of the Irish Rebellion.m
The English Civil War (1642-1651) was a series of
conflicts between supporters of the monarchy
(Royalists or Cavaliers) and those supporting
Parliament (Parliamentarians or Roundheads). The
war was fueled by political tensions, religious
differences, and conflicts over royal authority. Key
events leading to the war included Charles I's attempt
to rule without Parliament, the convening of the Long
Parliament, and the outbreak of the Irish Rebellion.
Military campaigns such as the battles of Edgehill,
Marston Moor, and Naseby shaped the course of the
war. The decisive Naseby battle in 1645 effectively
sealed the fate of Charles I. His capture, trial, and
execution in 1649 marked a turning point, leading to
the establishment of the Commonwealth of England
under Oliver Cromwell's leadership.
The Battle of Naseby, 14 June 1645; Parliamentarian
victory marked the decisive turning point in the English
Civil War.
The Interregnum (1649-1660) saw England as a republic, experimenting with different forms of government like
the Commonwealth and Protectorate. The monarchy was eventually restored in 1660 with the return of Charles II,
ending the Interregnum. The English Civil War had long-term consequences, influencing constitutional changes,
religious diversity, and shaping political thought in England.
THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR
(1642-1651)
Battle of Naseby
Battle of Naseby, by an unknown artist. The victory of the Parliamentarian New Model
Army, under Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, over the Royalist army,
commanded by Prince Rupert, at the Battle of Naseby (June 14, 1645) marked the
decisive turning point in the English Civil War
The English Civil War (1642-1651) was a series of conflicts between supporters of the monarchy (Royalists or
Cavaliers) and those supporting Parliament (Parliamentarians or Roundheads). The war was fueled by political
tensions, religious differences, and conflicts over royal authority. Key events leading to the war included Charles I's
attempt to rule without Parliament, the convening of the Long Parliament, and the outbreak of the Irish Rebellion.
Military campaigns such as the battles of Edgehill, Marston Moor, and Naseby shaped the course of the war. The
decisive Naseby battle in 1645 effectively sealed the fate of Charles I. His capture, trial, and execution in 1649
marked a turning point, leading to the establishment of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell's
leadership.
The Interregnum (1649-1660) saw England as a republic, experimenting with different forms of government like the
Commonwealth and Protectorate. The monarchy was eventually restored in 1660 with the return of Charles II,
ending the Interregnum. The English Civil War had long-term consequences, influencing constitutional changes,
religious diversity, and shaping political thought in England.
