TURKEY
Social and Economic
Background of Turkey Post-
WWII:
• - Predominantly agricultural society with
centuries-old methods
• - Cities and towns reliant on local agriculture
• - Coastal regions had the only quality transport
• - Railways built for strategic/political reasons
• - In 1949, only 600 of 15,000 miles of roads were
hard surfaced.
• - Max Thornburg: "A hundred 'little Turkeys,' each
economically isolated"
• - Economic integration needed to realize potential
and raise living standards
• - No landed aristocracy; two-thirds of peasantry
owned land by 1945
• - Redistribution of Osmanli properties increased
land ownership
Turkish Nationalism and the Fall of the Ottoman Empire
• Young Turks failed to achieve national homogeneity, leading to Ottoman fragmentation.
• Balkan and Arab nationalist movements fragmented the Empire; Allies' defeat in 1918
separated Turkish Anatolia from non-Turkish parts.
• Genuine mass nationalism emerged during the Turko-Greek war (1919-1922).
• Post-WWI nationalism became Turkey's most potent force, replacing Ottoman past.
• Conservatives used nationalism to uphold traditional values against modern changes.
• Ataturk's 1922 victory over Allies sparked strong national solidarity, enabling comprehensive
reforms.
• Treaty of Lausanne (1923) confirmed Turkish independence, shocking minorities and
creating population homogeneity.
• New Turkish Republic: Over 95% Muslim, three-quarters Turkish-speaking.
ZIYA GOKALP:
• Gokalp emphasized culture in
nationalism, advocating modernizing
and separating Islam.
• Influenced by Durkheim and German
Romanticism, he promoted
collectivist and mixed economy
principles.
• Ataturk implemented Gokalp's ideas,
but nationalism remained linked with
Islam despite secularism.
Turkish Nationalist Ideology: Historical and Contemporary Trends
• - Secularism Pre-WWII: Intellectual elite viewed nationalism secularly.
• - Post-1945 Shift: Nationalism increasingly expressed in religious terms.
• - Ottoman Era: Ethnically diverse elite, minimal Turkish racialism.
• - Young Turk Era: Brief pan-Turanism and racialism, later rejected by Ataturk.
• - Post-WWII: Decline of pan-Turanism, suppression of racialists.
• - 1970s Onwards: No special Islamic bond with other Muslim states.
• - Conservative Nationalists: Emphasis on Turanism and Turkish unity.
• Revived Pan-Turkish Sentiment: Engagement with Central Asia.
• - Economic and Cultural Ties: Significant investment and collaboration.
• -1960s: Labor Party formation and dissolution.
The Kurdish Minority Problem in Modern
Turkey
• Kurds, 20-25% of Turkey's population, share Sunni Islam with Turks yet differ
linguistically.
• Military suppressed Kurdish revolts resisting Ataturk's reforms; civil rule
restored post-1946.
• Limited local autonomy granted in 1950s; tighter controls post-1960 coup.
• Military regimes suppressed Kurdish insurgents in the 1980s; language
restrictions eased, Kurds politically active.
• Development programs lifted Kurdish restrictions, but government escalated
PKK attacks.
• Gulf War brought further complications.
CYPRUS PROBLEM
• Cyprus Problem: Ignited nationalist fervor in Turkey during the late 1950s and 1960s.
• Independence Struggle: Turkish minority viewed as disloyal by Greek majority post-1960
independence.
• Ethnic Tensions: Religion, language, and socioeconomic differences fueled conflict
between communities.
• Military Threats: Both Greece and Turkey threatened intervention, risking NATO stability.
• UN Intervention: Temporary peace efforts in 1964 failed to quell nationalist sentiments.
• 1974 Conflict: Greek coup led to Turkish military intervention, resulting in ethnic
partition.
• Political Fallout: Cyprus issue dominated Turkish politics, affecting domestic and
international relations.
• Impact: Renewed nationalism, strained Greek-Turkish relations, and cooling of Turkish-
American ties ensued.
Secularization
• Ataturk's 3 elements
1) Religion separated from politics
2)Religion separated from social life
3)Reform religion
• Abolition of Sharia law and take over of secular
courts
• 1925 Fez hat ban and western wear promotion
• Discouragement of veiling women
Legal Changes
• European legal system and European trained
legal workers
• Revolutionized women role in society
• 1928 new phonetic alphabets and new
system of writing
• New script combated illiteracy and dropped
it from 80% to 50% in a decade
• Ataturk personally gave classes and on the
country side worked with the
popullation with a board and chalk
• 1932 'Turkish linguistic society' was ordered
to devise Turkish from the simple language
of Anatolian peaseantry.
Effects of Secularization
• Intellectuals acceptance of secularization whilist emotional
attachment of peseantry with Islam
• 1946 debates leading to altering of restrictive reforms on Islam
• 1950 The democratic party replacing the Peoples Republic party
and modifying restrictions
• 1980 Military coup reforms follows suit and brings more progress.
President Kamal Ataturk
• His reforms
• Abolition of the office of the Ottoman Sultan.
• Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey.
• Abolition of the office of Caliphate held by the Ottoman Caliphate.
• Change of headgear and dress.
One • Closure of religious convents and dervish lodges.
• Introduction of the new penal law.
party period • Introduction of the new civil code.
1923-1938
• Adoption of the new Turkish alphabet.
• Introduction of the law on family names.
• Abolition of titles and by-names.
• Full political rights, to vote and be elected, to women.
• Closure of the Masonic lodges.
• The inclusion of the principle of secularism in the constitution.
Atatürk epostra (1938–1945)
• Ismet Inonu was Second president of Turkey
• internal fights between power groups and external events like the World War
II
• Turkey's goal was to maintain neutrality during the war.
• İnönü signed a non-aggression treaty with Nazi Germany
• It sold chrome—an important war material—to both sides. It was clear by
1944 that Germany would be defeated and the chrome sales to Germany
stopped.
• By August 1944, the Axis was clearly losing the war and Turkey broke off
relations. Only in February 1945, Turkey declared war on Germany and Japan,
a symbolic move that allowed Turkey to join the future United Nations
Administrative Court re-established:
• Allowed citizens to sue the government.
National Assembly:
• Emergence of critical speeches, popular
sovereignty, and democracy.
Trends Toward • The "Proposal of the Four": Called for
Liberalism ending war restrictions, restoring National
Assembly powers, individual liberties,
and a multiparty system.
• Formation of the Democratic Party (1946):
Led by Celal Bayar, Adnan Menderes,
Fuad Köprülü, and Refik Koraltan after
breaking from PRP.
• Canceled laws imposing price
restrictions-
• Canceled emergency work levies-
Policies of PRP • Transferred authority to close newspapers
from civil to judicial officials-
• Granted universities greater autonomy-
Eased ban on forming associations
• 1946 and 1950 Elections
• Democratic Party Gains:
• 62 out of 465 seats despite PRP’s
interference practices.
Democratic • Election Law of 1950:
• Secret ballot, public vote counting, and
party judicial supervision.
• 1950 Election:
• Democratic Party won a landslide victory,
marking the end of PRP dominance
• Lifting bans on criticism,
• press freedom,
• and curbing police authority.
• Public Accountability:
Democratic Party Refor • Bureaucrats held accountable,
mist Reforms: • public encouraged to report misconduct
• .Shift to Authoritarianism: By 1953,
restrictions on opposition,
• suspension of Nation Party,
• and suppression of dissent
• 954 and 1957 Elections Continued Success:
• Democratic Party's overwhelming victories.
• Totalitarian Tendencies:
• Suppression of political criticism and opposition, particularly
affecting intellectuals and professionals.
• 1960 Military Intervention
• Crisis and Protests: Student and cadet protests against Menderes
Coup d'État: General Cemal Gürsel deposed Menderes; trials and
executions followed New Constitution (1961): Established
bicameral legislature, Constitutional Court, and social security
priorities.
• Coalition government led by Inönü; political
instability.Justice Party (JP): Appeal to lower-class
voters, rural improvements, and religious
sentiment.
Post-Coup • 1965 and 1969 Elections: JP's growing majority,
strong rural support, and urbanization trends.
Political • political Instability in the 1970sEconomic and
Social Unrest:
Landscape1961 • Student clashes, trade union strikes, and anti-
Elections: American sentiment.
• Fragmentation: Emergence of new parties like the
National Order Party and Democratic Party
splits.1971 Military Intervention: Martial law,
sweeping government powers, and return to
authoritarianism.
12 September 1980 military regime
On September 12, 1980, a
In 1983, under strict Ozal became president in
military junta led by
conditions, new political 1989, but economic
General Kenan Evren
parties emerged, with issues weakened his
seized control of Turkey to
Turgut Ozal's Motherland party. The 1991 elections
combat anarchy and
Party winning the resulted in a coalition
terrorism. They
elections. Despite ongoing government led by
suspended parliament,
suppression of extremists Demirel's True Path Party
arrested political leaders,
and controls on freedoms, and the Social Democrats.
and imposed strict
gradual political Following Ozal's death in
censorship. The junta
normalization occurred. 1993, Demirel became
drafted a new
By 1987, a referendum president, and Tansu
constitution, centralizing
lifted bans on former Ciller became Turkey's
power in a strong
leaders, leading to early first female prime
presidency, which was
elections and a minister, marking key
approved by voters in
conservative shift. democratic transitions.
1982.
Economic Changes
• Late Ottoman Turkey faced economic challenges, with rising
unemployment and dependence on foreign capital. Ataturk's
post-1924 policies emphasized self-sufficiency through state-
directed economic development. Key initiatives included the
establishment of banks and support for local industry. Despite
efforts, progress was slow, and the 1929 depression worsened
conditions. In the 1930s, Turkey intensified state intervention with
Soviet and Nazi German support, aiming to boost exports and
develop key sectors. However, agricultural reforms had limited
success, reaching only a small portion of the population.
Industries
• Turkey's economic trajectory underwent significant changes, transitioning from state control to
liberalization. Historically, state dominance prevailed until the post-World War II era, with industry,
commerce, and finance largely under government purview. However, dissatisfaction grew,
especially among farmers and low-income groups, leading to calls for economic independence and
a shift towards free-market policies. Efforts to encourage private initiative faced hurdles, including
skepticism from local investors and challenges in decentralizing large state industries.
• The 1980 military coup marked a turning point, prompting economic decentralization initiatives and
the rise of Turgut Ozal's pro-free enterprise approach. His tenure saw easing of government
restrictions, privatization of state enterprises, and increased engagement with foreign investors.
This period witnessed the emergence of indigenous multimillionaire businessmen and a surge in
exports, particularly to neighboring Middle Eastern countries.
• However, economic challenges persisted, including high inflation rates and regional disparities.
Efforts such as the Southeast Anatolia Program aimed to address infrastructure deficits,
exemplified by the ambitious Ataturk Dam project. Despite its economic aspirations, Turkey
grappled with internal divisions and external disputes, reflecting the complexities of its economic
evolution.
