Millet Seed Technology

Proso Millet

P roso millet (Panicum miliaceum) is a common and

important minor millet belonging to the family
Gramineae. This short duration millet variety is widely
grown in India. It is specially adapted to hot summers
in tropics and high altitudes, where the growing season
is short and the soil it marginal and poor in fertility.
Among grain crops, the common millet has the lowest
water requirement; it grows on any kind of soil except
coarse sand. It is well adapted to plateau lands and high
elevations, and is cultivated in the Himalayan region
upto an altitude of 2700 metres.The crop is able to evade
drought by its quick maturity. The husked grain (about 70% of the whole grain) is nutritious and is
eaten whole, boiled and cooked like rice. Sometimes, it is ground to make roti and eaten. Seed is also
parched and consumed. Starch is the main carbohydrate in the grain and is similar to corn starch;
suitable as a sizing agent in the textile industry. Green plants are excellent fodder for cattle and horses,
also used as hay. The crop is ready for harvest in 70-80 days. The grain yield varies from 500 to 700 kg
per hectare in dry lands and 1500 to 2000 kg per hectare under irrigated/ favorable conditions. Straw
yield is normally three times higher than grain yield and is used as cattle feed. In some parts of India,
immature crop is used as green fodder. The dry straw is regarded comparable to rice straw. In South
India, generally it is the last crop of the year, preceding rice or grain legumes. Otherwise, common
millet may be the only crop, to be rotated with horse gram every alternate year.

Origin Adaptation
Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) is also Proso millet is well adapted to many soil and
known as common millet. It is believed to have climatic conditions. Being a short-season crop with
been domesticated in central and eastern Asia and, a low water requirement, it grows further north (up
because of its ability to mature quickly, was often to 54deg.N latitude) than the other millets and also
grown by nomads. This type of millet is of ancient adapts well to plateau conditions and high elevations.
cultivation and is known to be grown in China Proso is found high in the mountains; in the former
since 3000 BC. It is the milium of the Romans USSR up to 1200 m and in India up to 3500 m.
and the true millet of history in the Old Testament. The proso plant is considered a short-day plant
It was cultivated by the early Lake Dwellers in and usually an erect annual, 30 to 100 cm tall
Europe. Proso millet is widely grown in northern with few tillers and an adventitious root system.
China, Mongolia, Korea, south-eastern Russia, The proso millet development can be related to
Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and southern Europe. temperature by using growing degree days (GDD).
It was also introduced to North America. For proso, base temperature of 10°C is apt.

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Botany slightly hairy, with hollow internodes, branching

Proso stems and leaves are covered with slight occasionally and tillering weakly. But, the Indian
hairs. The leaves may be up to 30 cm long with a cultivars are strongly hairy with profuse branching
short ligule but no auricles. The stem is terminated and tillering. The plant has long, soft, narrow,
by a drooping panicle 10 to 45 cm long that may pointed leaves, sparsely hairy on the upper surface,
be open or compact. Proso (2n = 36) is considered expanded from leaf sheaths which are open and
a self-pollinated crop, but natural cross-pollination strongly hairy at the junction of blade and sheath.
may exceed by 10% . The inflorescence is a drooping panicle varying in
the degree of compactness, and often one-sided,
Growth with more or less naked branches hearing the ovate,
Growth and development characteristics of proso pointed spikelets. The main rachis of the panicle is
millet have been explained in detail in three phases; glabrous, the laterals being ridged and hairy and
vegetative, reproductive, and ripening, which may swollen at the tip where the spikelets are borne.
be further sub-divided into physiologically distinct The spikelets are about half a centimetre long
stages. The vegetative phase covers the period from and contain two flowers, partially enclosed by the
germination to panicle initiation, depending on plumes. The outer glume is short and broad and
the cultivar used and climate in the area, may be five--nerved; the inner glume is almost as long as
completed 16 to 20 days after planting. An increase the spikelet, and is a broad, pointed, many-nerved
in number of leaves, tiller buds, and plant height are structure. The lower flower of the spikelet is sterile,
characteristics of this phase. The period, about 20 to consisting of a lemma and a very much reduced
25 days, from panicle differentiation to flowering of palea only, while the upper flower is perfect with
the main culm is the reproduction phase. This phase a stiff, broad, shining lemma and an equally stiff,
initiates when the panicle primordium is greater broad palea, which also becomes shining as the
than 0.5 mm. Rapid elongation of stem internodes grain matures.
and an increase in leaf area accompanied by more The perfect flower contains two lodicules, three
tillers are noticed in this phase. The ripening phase stamens and an ovary with two long styles and
starts at flowering or blooming and continues to feathery stigmas. The flowers are almost completely
the end of physiological maturity, which covers a self-fertilized, and produce a nearly globular grain,
period of 20 to 30 days. Throughout this period, the enclosed tightly in the persistent lemma and palea.
plant actively accumulates dry matter, particularly
in the grains. Anthesis and Pollination
Physiological maturity proceeds from top to Flowers open between 10 AM and 12 noon, as
bottom of the panicle. The ripening of the seed is the day temperature rises. The spikelets open and
not uniform throughout the panicle and delay in close within about seven minutes and hence self-
harvesting may cause losses due to shattering. The pollination is predominant, though a very small
grains from the main panicle reach maximum dry amount of cross pollination cannot be ruled out.
weight and a small dark layer at the hilar region of Anthesis is basipetallic.
the seed is formed. At maturity, the grain generally
includes about 20% or less moisture. Crop specific issues
Proso plants generally mature between 60-90
Morphology and Anatomy days after planting and can be grown successfully
Common millet is an annual reaching to a in poor soil and hot dry weather. Proso is an easy
height of 90 to 120 cm. with a shallow adventitious crop to grow and it seems to be better adapted
rooting system. The stems are slender, glabrous or than most crops to primitive agricultural practices.

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Under high-input conditions, however, it may be a Uttar Pradesh, it is sown in March utilizing receding
poor choice because of low response to high fertility moisture as well as residual fertility especially
and abundant water. in fields vacated by potato, peas, mustard and
Proso millet requires very little water, possibly wheat. Seed rate of 8 to 10 kg per hectare is either
the lowest water requirement of any cereal, and broadcast or sown through seed drills in rows about
converts water most efficiently to dry matter/grain, 22 cm apart and covered with a brush harrow. The
because of its drought-resistance but because of crop is mostly rainfed, but in some parts of Tamil
its short growing season. Proso has a very low Nadu, it is grown under well irrigation (Hegde and
transpiration ratio, which may be attributed in part Linge Gowda, 1989). Moderately warm weather is
to the C4 photosynthetic mechanism. The low straw necessary for germination of the seed and growth
grain ratio of proso also contributes to its water use of the plant. Proso germinates well at temperatures
efficiency and adaptation to moisture-limited areas. of 10deg. to 45°C, but does not germinate at 5° or
Proso is very shallow rooted and does not grow 50°C. The highest rate of germinations is between
well under water stress, nor under excess moisture. 35° and 40°C.
Plants seem to tolerate more cold than most other
C4 crops, especially sorghum, but will not tolerate Field standards
frosts. Proso millet is a self-pollinated crop and
should be raised in isolation. The isolation distance
Seed production maintained between the varieties is 3 metres for
The common millet responds to good both foundation and certified seed production to
cultivation. It is sown as a cold weather crop in maintain the varietal purity.
October-November in the states of Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu, and is practically the last crop to Seed standards
be sown in the year. In Maharashtra, the crop is The percentage of minimum physical purity of
transplanted in July. In North Bihar and Eastern certified and foundation seeds should be 97% with a

Crop improvement and varieties released

Grain yield
Variety Year Duration State Salient features
(kg/ha)
CO-2 1985 70-75 1600 Central Shining yellow bold grain; densely pubescent
Shining golden yellow grain drought tolerant,
Co-3 1985 - 1280 Central
leaf pubescent
Co 4 1989 70-75 1200-1500 Tamil Nadu -
Nagarjuna 1989 60-65 1500-1800 Andhra Pradesh Early Maturity
Sagar 1989 80-87 1800-2000 Andhra Pradesh High seed yield
Bhawna 1992 70-75 1200-1500 Uttar Pradesh Early Maturity
Plants remain stout, erect and semi dwarf. All
Bhawna 1992 70-75 1200-1500 Central
productive tiller come out
GPUP 8 2001 70-75 1500-1600 Karnataka Resistant to brown spot
Karnataka, Tamil
GPUP 21 2003 67-75 1500-1800 High yield, moderately tolerant to shoot fly
Nadu
Pratap Recommended for cultivation in sub-marginal/
Chenna- 2006 75-85 1500-1700 Central shallow, undulating and hilly agro-ecological
1(PR-18) situations in Rajasthan State

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 Millet Seed Technology

Resistant to brown spot & tolerant to rust and

CO (PV) 5 2007 2300-2400 Tamilnadu
grain smut
PRC-1 2008 90 1125 Uttarakhand Resistant to helminthosporium
TNAU 145 2009 88 1800-1900 Central Tolerant to rust and shoot fly
TNAU 151 2009 72 1800 Central Tolerant to rust and shoot fly
Resistant to rust and grain smut disease
TNAU 164 2010 72 1890 Central
incidence
Recommended for cultivation in dry lands of
TNAU 202 2011 75 1800-2000 Central
India

Field standards for seed certification in proso millet

Field standards Foundation seed Certified seed

Minimum field inspection (number) 2 3
Minimum isolation distance (metres) 3 3
Maximum off-type* (%) 0.05 0.10
Maximum objectionable weeds (%) - -
Maximum different crop plants (%) - -
Maximum objectionable diseases (%) - -
*Maximum permitted at final inspection.

minimum of 75% of germination capacity and 12% coincide with rain for quality and effective seed
of moisture content. The presence of inert matter setting. Seeds without melanopathy (blackening
should not exceed 2.0%. due to infection by a seed pathogen) is an important
grain quality parameters. In general, dry climate
Seed agronomy & crop management with clear sky and high temperature help attaining
Best season for seed production is June - July good seed quality.
and February – March. The pollination should not

Seed standards for seed certification in proso millet

Seed standards Foundation seed Certified seed

Minimum physical purity (%) 97 97
Maximum inert matter (%) 2 2
Maximum other distinguishing varieties (number/kg) - -
Maximum other crop seed (number/kg) 10 20
Maximum other weed seed (number/kg) 10 20
Maximum objectionable weeds (number/kg) - -
Maximum objectionable diseases (percentage by - -
number)
Minimum germination (%) 75 75
Maximum moisture (%)
Ordinary container 12 12
Vapour proof container 8 8

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 Millet Seed Technology

Land selection Azospirillum, 2 kg Phosphobacterium and 2 litres

Proso millet can be cultivated in both rich and Panchagavya mixed with 250 kg vermicompost
poor soils. Well drained loam or sandy loam soils and kept covered for a week and then used) @ 250
rich in organic matter are ideal for cultivation. The kg/acre (600 kg/ha). During flower initiation stage
selected land should be free from volunteer plants. 10% tender coconut solution (1 litre tender coconut
The land should not be cultivated with same crop in water + 9 litres of water) should be sprayed. All the
the previous season. above mentioned inputs should be applied to the
rainfed crop only when the soil is wet.
Seed selection and sowing
Seeds used for seed production should be of Weed management
good quality certified seeds from an authentic The seed production field should be maintained
source. Seeds should be healthy with required weed free at least upto 35 days after sowing for
germination percentage. Recommended seed rate retaining the soil moisture and nutrients. Subsequent
is 4 kg/acre (10 kg/ha). Selected seeds should be weeding should be done at an interval of 15 – 20
treated with Azospirillum @ 60 gms/kg of seeds. days. Weeding can be done with a handhoe or wheel
Treated seeds should be sown with a spacing of 30 x hoe.
10 cm. Seeds should be sown in June – July onset of
monsoon rains. Summer crop should be sown in the Irrigation
month of February – March. Seeds are broadcast Kharif season crop does not require any
manually or by seed driller in furrows at a depth of irrigation. However, if the dry spell prevails for
3 – 4 cm. longer period 1 - 2 irrigations should be given at
the tillering stage to boost the yield. First irrigation
Main field preparation should be given 25 - 30 days after sowing followed
The main field should be harrowed for 2 – 3 by the second one at 40 – 45 days after sowing.
times to make it a fine tilth and levelled. The levelled Summer crop requires 2 - 4 irrigations depending
field is formed into ridges and furrows. During final upon soil type and climatic conditions. During
plough apply compost or farmyard manure @ 5 heavy rains the excess water from the field should
tonnes/acre (12.5 tonnes/ha) and incorporate into be drained out.
the soil. Seeds can be sown in the ridges at a depth
3 - 4 cm with a spacing of 30× 10 cm. Roguing: Roguing should be done often to
remove the offtypes, volunteer plants and diseased
Nutrient management plants from the seed production field to avoid the
Before final ploughing compost or farmyard genetic contamination. Roguing should be done
manure @ 5 tonnes/acre (12.5 tonnes/ha) should be upto the flowering stage. Maximum percentage
applied and ploughed into the soil. Instead of this of offtypes permitted at the final inspection is
cattle penning can also be practiced. 50 kg neem 0.05% for foundation and 0.10% for certified seed
cake and 500 kg vermicompost per acre (125 kg production.
neem cake and 1250 kg vermicompost per hectare)
should be applied as basal manure. For rainfed crop, Field inspection
apply 50 kg/acre (125 kg/ hectare) of pungam cake A minimum of two inspections should be done
and 250 kg/acre (600 kg/hectare) of vermicompost between flowering and maturity stages by the Seed
as basal manure just before sowing. After first Certification Officer. The first inspection is done
weeding at 20 – 25 days after sowing top dressing at the time of flowering to check the isolation and
should be done using enriched vermicompost (2 kg off-types and the second inspection is done during

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the maturity stage prior to harvest to check the off- be delayed until the grain is below 13% moisture
types and to estimate the yield. (Baltensperger et al. 1995a). Foxtail heads ripen
more uniformly and are less subject to shatter, but
Harvesting and processing frequently have tillers that are significantly different
Harvest is done once the earheads are in maturity. Foliage is still green at maturity so it is
physiologically mature. Normally crop is ready generally swathed prior to combining.
for harvest in 65 - 75 days after sowing. The crop
should be harvested when two thirds of the seeds Drying and storage
are ripe. The harvested earheads are threshed by The cleaned seeds should be sun dried to attain
hand or trampling under the feet of bullocks. The a safe moisture level of 12%. Seeds can be stored
threshed grains are further cleaned by winnowing. upto 13 months under proper storage conditions.
Ripening is not uniform throughout the panicle
in proso. Frequently the seeds in the upper portion Crop diseases and pests management
of the panicle are ripe while the lower seeds are still Shootfly is a major pest on the crop. Varietal
green (Matz 1986). A delay in harvesting until the differences exist for shootfly damage and hairy
grain has dried sufficiently for threshing will cause varieties are less susceptible to shootfly than the
considerable losses due to shattering. It is generally glabrous varieties. Carbofuran 3G @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha
recommended that swathing be done when most of as soil application is effective in reducing shootfly
the panicle has lost its green color. Threshing can incidence in proso millet.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Barnyard Millet

B arnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea (Roxb.)

Link) is an oldest crop, which is known as sawan
and cultivated for fodder and food grains in particular
pockets (Hilly areas) of many states in India. It has
been cultivated in Asia including China, Korea, Japan,
erstwhile USSR as well as India. It is also grown in USA
and Central African countries. Barnyard millet grains
are nutritious and cooked as rice after shelling. It is
one of the quickest growing short duration crop, some
cultivars come to harvest at 6-8 weeks. Barnyard millet
is an important minor millet grown in India. This millet
crop belongs to the family Gramineae. The crop is able to evade drought by its quick maturity. Barnyard
millet is the fastest growing of all millets; it produces a crop in six weeks. This type of annual crop is
cultivated in India, Japan and China as a substitute for rice when the paddy fails. It is grown as a forage
crop and wild life feed in the United States and can produce as many as eight harvests per year. The
plant has attracted some attention as a fodder crop in the United States and Japan. The grain is also
used to feed birds.

Origin Adaptation
Barnyard millet belongs to genus Echinochloa This millet is widely grown as a cereal in India,
of the family Poaceae. Different Echinlochloa Pakistan, and Nepal and for fodder and as bird
species particularly E. frumentacea (L.), E. colona food elsewhere. This crop prefers lighter and drier
(L.), E. crusgalli (L.) Beauv. And E. utilis (Ohwi ex soils well supplied with micro and macronutrients.
Yabuno) are cultivated. The earliest archeological Generally barnyard millet can be grown under
record of the crop is from china, where it was different conditions in warmer regions but the
cultivated earlier to 4150 BC. Different species of highest yields (50 times higher than in poor growing
this crop are being domesticated in different regions conditions) are reached on good fertile soils, which
of the world like E. frumentacea (L.) in China, E. shows its certain adaptability.
colona (L.) in India and E. crusgalli (L.) in Japan.
E. crusgalli domesticated in Japan 4000 years Botany
ago and E.colona domesticated in India. Barnyard The height of the plant varies between 50 and
millet is the fastest growing of all millets and 100 cm. The inflorescence is 15cm long, densely
produces a crop in six weeks. It is grown in India, branched, and usually has purple-ting with awnless
Japan and China as a substitute for rice when the scabrous spikelets. It can mature in less than 40
paddy crop fails. The plant has attracted some days, and yields about 700-800 kg grain, and 1000-
attention as a fodder in the United States and Japan. 2000 kg of straw per hectare.

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It has coarse leaves and varies from one to five nutritious. Barnyard millet can produce ripe grain
feet in height depending on available moisture and in 45 days from the sowing time under optimal
fertility. The seed - head is a compact panicle - type weather conditions. Barnyard millet does not suffer
infloresence four to eight inches long, purplish in from major fungal disease and is valuable fodder
color, with awnless seed. Conversely, wild barnyard plant.
grass has seed w ith conspicuous awns and a more
open - branched panicle. Seed production
The crop is able to evade drought by its
Crop specific issues quick maturity. Best season for seed production
As every kind of millet, barnyard millet is an is September – October and February – March.
appropriate food for patients intolerant to gluten The pollination should not coincide with rains for
causing celiac disease. Seeds of the crop are quality and effective seed setting.

Crop improvement and varieties released

Barnyard millet released varieties in India

Name of Year Maturity Av. Yield Area of Special features

variety (days) (kg/ha) adaptation
K-1 1970 90-110 1000 Tamilnadu Panicles loose and spear shaped. Grains
dull. White in colour
Kudiraivali K2 1978 90 2300-3000 Tamilnadu -
(Kovilpatty-2)
VL Madira-8 1978 90-120 1800 Uttar Pradesh Grains light grey, smooth with white
endosperm
Anurag 1983 75 1700-2000 Uttar Pradesh Resistant to pink borer and shoot fly
Gujarat banti-1 1984 85-90 2000 Gujarat The grain colour of this variety is yellowish
white and preferred by
Rau-3 1985 80-50 1800 Bihar Moderately resistant to helminthosporium
frumentace
VL Madira-21 1988 85-100 2500-2600 Central Very low incidence of smut and leaf spot
diseases
VL Madira-29 1988 88 2500 Central except Very low incidence of smut disease
Tamilnadu
Chandan 1989 75-85 1200-1600 Central Plants remain erect with thick and strong
stem synchrony in tillering spike
Kanchan 1993 85-90 1500-1800 Uttar Pradesh
VL Madira 172 2000 90-95 2100-2300 Uttar Pradesh, Tolerant to grain smut
Gujarat and
Karnataka
Sushrutha 2000 90-95 2000-2200 Karnataka
(RAU 11)
VL Madira 181 2001 90-95 1600-1700 Bihar,
Karnataka,
Madhya
Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu
Prj-1 2003 118 2500 Uttarakhand Resistant to grain smut disease

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Praptap 2004 85-91 1500-1700 Rajasthan Moderately resistant to the diseases like
sanwa- grain smut and brown Spot.
1(ER-64)
VL Madira 207 2008 85-100 1800-1900 All the states Tolerant to grain smut
except Gujarat
and Tamil
Nadu
Co(KV)2 2009 2100
Co-1 2009 105-110 1600 Tamil Nadu

Field standards both foundation and certified seed production to

Barnyard millet is a self-pollinated crop and maintain the varietal purity. Land to be used for
should be raised in isolation. The isolation distance seed production of barnyard millet shall be free of
maintained between the varieties is 3 metres for volunteer plants.

Field standards for seed certification in barnyard millet

Field standards Foundation seed Certified seed

Minimum field inspection (number) 3 2
Minimum isolation distance (metres) 3 3
Maximum off-type (%) 0.05 0.10
Maximum objectionable weeds (%) - -
Maximum different crop plants (%) - -
Maximum objectionable diseases (%) - -

Seed standards minimum of 75% of germination capacity and 12%

The percentage of minimum physical purity of of moisture content. The presence of inert matter
certified and foundation seeds should be 97% with a should not exceed 2.0%.

Seed standards for seed certification in barnyard millet

Seed standards Foundation seed Certified seed

Minimum physical purity (%) 97 97
Maximum inert matter (%) 2 2
Maximum other distinguishing varieties (number/kg) - -
Maximum other crop seed (number/kg) 10 20
Maximum other weed seed (number/kg) 10 20
Maximum objectionable weeds (number/kg) - -
Maximum objectionable diseases (percentage by - -
number)
Minimum germination (%) 75 75
Maximum moisture (%)
Ordinary container 12 12
Vapour proof container 8 8

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 Millet Seed Technology

Seed agronomy & crop management after sowing top dressing should be done using
Land selection: Barnyard millet can be enriched vermicompost (2 kg Azospirillum, 2 kg
cultivated in both rich and poor soils with variable Phosphobacterium and 2 litres Panchagavya mixed
texture. Well drained loam or sandy loam soils with 250 kg vermicompost and kept covered for a
rich in organic matter are ideal for cultivation. The week and then used) @ 250 kg/acre (600 kg/ha).
selected land should be free from volunteer plants. During flower initiation stage 10% tender coconut
The land should not be cultivated with same crop in solution (1 litre tender coconut water + 9 litres of
the previous season. water) should be sprayed. All the above mentioned
inputs should be applied to the rainfed crop only
Seed selection and sowing: Seeds used for seed when the soil is wet.
production should be of good quality certified
seeds from an authentic source. Seeds should be Weed management: The seed production field
healthy with required germination percentage. should be maintained weed free at least upto 35
Recommended seed rate is 4 kg/acre (10 kg/ha). days after sowing for retaining the soil moisture and
Selected seeds should be treated with Azospirillum to get high yields. Subsequent weeding should be
@ 60 gms/kg of seeds. Treated seeds should be done at an interval of 15 – 20 days. Weeding can be
sown with a spacing of 30 x 10 cm. Seeds should done with a handhoe or wheel hoe.
be sown in September - October at the onset of
monsoon rains. Summer crop should be sown in the Irrigation: Kharif season crop does not require
month of February – March. Seeds are broadcast any irrigation. However, if the dry spell prevails
manually or by seed driller in furrows at a depth of for longer period at least one irrigation should be
3 – 4 cm. given at the tillering stage to boost the yield. First
irrigation should be given 25 - 30 days after sowing
Main field preparation: The main field should be followed by the second one at 40 – 45 days after
harrowed for 2 – 3 times to make it a fine tilth and sowing. Summer crop requires 2 – 4 irrigations
levelled. The levelled field is formed into ridges depending upon soil type and climatic conditions.
and furrows. During final plough apply compost or During heavy rains the excess water from the field
farmyard manure @ 5 tonnes/acre (12.5 tonnes/ha) should be drained out.
and incorporate into the soil. Seeds can be sown in
the ridges at a depth 3 - 4 cm with a spacing of 30× Roguing
10 cm. Roguing should be done often to remove the
offtypes, volunteer plants and diseased plants
Nutrient management from the seed production field to avoid the genetic
Before final ploughing compost or farmyard contamination. Roguing should be completed
manure @ 5 tonnes/acre (12.5 tonnes/ha) should be within the flowering stage of the crop. Maximum
applied and ploughed into the soil. Instead of this percentage of off-types permitted at the final
cattle penning can also be practiced. 50 kg neem inspection is 0.05% for foundation and 0.10% for
cake and 500 kg vermicompost per acre (125 kg certified seed production.
neem cake and 1250 kg vermicompost per hectare)
should be applied as basal manure. Field inspection: A minimum of two inspections
For rainfed crop, apply 50 kg/acre (125 kg/ should be done between flowering and maturity
hectare) of pungam cake and 250 kg/acre (600 stages by the Seed Certification Officer. The first
kg/hectare) of vermicompost as basal manure just inspection is done at the time of flowering to check
before sowing. After first weeding at 20 – 25 days the isolation and off-types and the second inspection

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 Millet Seed Technology

is done during the maturity stage prior to harvest to Crop diseases and pests management
check the off-types and to estimate the yield. Barnyard millet is commonly affected by shoot
fly and three types of smut diseases at different
Harvesting and processing: Harvest is done growth stages. The crop is affected by head smut,
once the earheads are physiologically mature. grain smut and kernel smut. Seed treatment with
Normally crop is ready for harvest in 75 - 90 days carbendazim 2 g/kg seed reduces the risk for
after sowing. The crop should be harvested when infestation.
two thirds of the seeds are ripe. The harvested Grain smut: Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/l of water or
earheads are threshed by hand or trampling under Tricyclazole @ 0.6 g/l of water
the feet of bullocks. The threshed grains are further Helminthosporium leaf spot:Mancozeb@2.5g/l
cleaned by winnowing. of water
Organic control: Seed treatment with
Drying and storage: The cleaned seeds should Trichodermaharzianum (5g/kg seed) and two sprays
be sun dried to attain a safe moisture level of 12%. of Pseudomonas fluoscens (0.5%)
Seeds can be stored upto 13 months under proper
storage conditions.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Seed systems, supply and

quality assurance

S eed is a crucial and basic input to increase crop productivity and to improve agricultural economy
of a country. In fact, good quality seeds are “seeds of green revolution”. Seed plays a critical role
in increasing agricultural productivity: it determines the upper limit of crop yields and the productivity
of all other agricultural inputs to the farming system. Given the critical role that improved varieties
play in increasing agricultural production, a key question is how to facilitate the development of a seed
system that is capable of generating, producing and distributing new seed varieties that meet the needs
of all farmers, in a cost-effective manner.

A well-functioning seed system is defined as need to be explored. A second issue involves the
one that uses the appropriate combination of formal, regulatory role of the government in an increasingly
informal, market and non-market channels to decentralized seed system to ensure food safety and
efficiently meet farmers' demand for quality seeds. welfare of all.
Different types of seeds flow from organizations The rules, regulations, and infrastructure
and individuals in one stage of the seed chain to coordinating the components of the seed system
the next through separate informal and formal evolve to allow organizations to specialize in
seed supply channels. Rules and regulations such different functions of the seed system. The public
as variety release procedures, intellectual property sector may specialize in basic research and
rights, certification programs, seed standards, and research on subsistence crops, and in regulating
contract laws influence the structure, coordination the seed system. The national and international
and performance of the seed system. Given private sectors increasingly focus on research,
the critical role that improved varieties play in production and marketing of seed for hybrids,
increasing agricultural production, a key question specialty crops, vegetable crops, and commercial
is how to facilitate the development of a seed food and fiber crops. NGOs try to fill the gap by
system that is capable of generating, producing and concentrating on multiplication and distribution
distributing new seed varieties that meet the needs of seed for crops and farmers who neither can nor
of all farmers, at an affordable price. Developing a afford to buy costly seeds being sold by the private
seed system based on greater integration, broader sector. Key to reducing the cost of producing and
participation, and decentralization is an ideal idea distributing seed is the improvement of transport
and a technically interesting strategy, but raises and information infrastructure, and the revision
several issues. The first concern is the potential or enforcement of laws and regulations to lower
risk posed to small-scale seed entrepreneurs if the risks and transactions costs of doing business
seed stocks go unsold. Mechanisms for assessing in the seed sector, especially for smaller firms and
the potential demand for seed and protecting the farmer groups. For example, extension programs
seed seller against the liability for unsold stocks and labeling and quality regulations reduce the cost

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 Millet Seed Technology

of getting reliable information about new varieties. significantly from access to varieties with improved
Market information systems can also reduce drought and disease resistance. For crops/regions
seed suppliers' costs by discovering farmers' where there is currently no commercial seed
preferences, and the costs of inventory, storage, market, disseminating seed directly to farmers so
and waste are reduced if suppliers can anticipate that they are absorbed into the traditional system of
farmer demands on time. Inappropriate laws and seed supply may be a more effective strategy than
regulations may inhibit the emergence of private trying to supply it through the higher-cost market
initiatives in seed production and marketing, e.g., channels, if potential users are unlikely to be able
agreements that award monopoly rights for all to afford them.
varieties developed by the public sector to one Indian Agriculture contributes nearly 30
parastatal or private firm. One challenge ahead will percent of the GDP, and with the concentrated
be to revise seed regulations in a way that facilitates efforts of agriculture scientists, planners and
the development of a heterogeneous, competitive farmers, the total production level has reached up
group of seed producers, while protecting the to 200 million tones. At the same time, in spite
rights of all seed producers and consumers. Many of the implementation of many population control
regulations on the books today were fashioned schemes, Indian human population has crossed the
for formal sector seed enterprises and discourage one billion mark and is projected to reach 1.3 billion
farmer-based seed production, e.g., stringent variety by the year 2030. There will be a need of nearly
release procedures, plant breeder's rights and plant 260-264 million tones of food grain, excluding the
variety protection laws. For example, compulsory requirements for seed and export which is a great
certification constrains the multiplication and task before the agricultural scientists to achieve. In
distribution of seed of commodities, e.g., open- order to achieve the projected demands, the average
pollinated maize and sorghum, whose low seed yield of food grains will need to be increased by
yields and profit margins cannot absorb the costs about 1.0 tonne per ha between now and the year
of stringent and frequent inspections needed to 2030. This gap can be bridged by: (i) increasing
comply with certification standards. Removing the land under cultivation, and (ii) increasing the
compulsory seed certification and restrictive trade yield per ha. The first option is not feasible due
licensing requirements would permit the production to the increased demand for land under road,
of quality seed by smallholders and sale among houses and factories. Moreover, the arable earth
neighboring farmers. In addition, seed companies surface is deteriorating and decreasing as a result
would be able to involve smallholders in contract of soil erosion, salinization and acidification. It
seed production more easily. is possible to increase gross sown area, to some
Now the government has a critical but extent, through increasing the cropping intensity.
different role to play in (1) providing public goods Second option may be achieved and is possible
that promote efficient seed sector performance; by: (i) ensuring availability and efficient use of
(2) developing and enforcing regulations for a water, fertilizer and plant protection measures,
heterogeneous seed sector; (3) in the short- and (ii) timely planting of quality seeds and ensuring
medium-term, facilitating linkages between desired plant population and (iii) development and
formal and informal sector seed suppliers as the release of more productive varieties. basically two
seed system matures; and (4) direct distribution components; (i) seed of improved variety and (ii)
of seed or seed vouchers following disasters. seed quality parameters.
Public research and extension agencies also need The process of modernization of Indian
to consider how farmers who may be unable to agriculture was initiated in the year 1960 with
purchase seed through the market but could benefit the formation of All India Crop Improvement

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 Millet Seed Technology

Programmes (AICRP’s) with the vision that high Standards for genetic purity
yielding varieties will help to increase production
Class Minimum genetic
in the high potential areas of the irrigated and more purity
fertile lands so that the serious food shortage that Breeder seed 100.00 %
was prevalent could be wiped out. The challenge Foundation seed (Stage- I 99.50 %
has been successfully met and will continue to & II)
be met, thanks to the good work done by the Certified seed 99.00 %
agricultural scientists in many parts of the country.
Concepts of seed quality assurance
More than 2300 high yielding varieties and hybrids
1. Pedigree of al certified seeds should be based
have been released for commercial cultivation in
on lineage;
different crops, out of which about 600 varieties
2. Integrity of certified seed growers must be
are in active seed production chain. However,
recognized;
these high yielding varieties could not spread up
3. Field inspection must be made by qualified
to desired level due to many reasons, among which
inspectors;
adoption and spread of high yielding varieties by
4. Verification trials that establish and maintain
more farmers, through extension activities and
pedigree of stocks must be conducted;
availability of quality seeds is the foremost task.
5. There should be standards established for purity
and germination;
Seed quality assurance
6. The principle of sealing seeds to protect both
grower and purchaser must be approved;
“Seed certification is a legally sanctioned
7. Species of farm weeds which would be included
system for quality control of seed multiplication
within the meaning of noxious weeds must be
and production” consisting of measures like:
defined.
1. An administrative check on origin of seed
source / propagation material;
Steps involved in seed quality control
2. Field inspection;
1. Examination of application;
3. Supervision of harvesting, processing, transport
2. Inspection of seed fields;
and storage;
3. Rejection of fields;
4. Sample inspection;
4. Seed sampling;
5. Bulk inspection;
5. Tagging and sealing;
6. Control plot testing.
6. Control plot testing;
7. Revocation of certificate.
The main objectives and concepts of seed
certification are:
Minimum seed certification standards are
necessary for ensuring the quality of seed. For
1. The systematic increase of superior varieties;
various activities, corresponding factor for which
2. The identification of new varieties and their
standard is required is as follows. The certification
rapid increase under appropriate and generally
standards in force in India can be categorized into:
accepted names;
3. Provision of a continuing supply of comparable
1. General seed certification standards;
material by careful maintenance and by adopting
2. Specific crop standards.
“GENERATION SYSTEM” of multiplication
The important factors responsible for apparent
involving three stages:

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 Millet Seed Technology

and real deterioration of genetic purity are: Minimum seed certification standards
1. Developmental variations; In a seed quality control programme through
2. Mechanical mixtures; seed certification, the minimum seed certification
3. Mutations; standards, in fact, are the minimum standard
4. Natural out crossing; conditions which must be met. The minimum seed
5. Minor genetic variations; certification standards are the standards required
6. Selective influence of diseases and pests; for the certification of seeds by the certification
7. The technique of plant breeder. agencies. The certification standards in force
in India are called the ‘Indian Minimum Seed
To maintain the standards of purity and quality Certification Standards’. These were published by
of seeds that are to be certified the following the Central Seed Certification Board. As a general
conditions are enforced by seed certification principle, these standards have been kept at the
agencies. level, which demand scrupulous attention of the
1. Only the fields that have not been planted certified seed growers but at the same time practical
during the preceding season to other varieties / enough that these can be met also.
hybrids of the particular crop should be chosen;
2. Only one variety / hybrid of a particular crop The minimum seed certification standards can
can be grown for seed production on a farm; be broadly grouped into two groups.
3. The field chosen for seed production should be A. General Seed Certification Standards
sufficiently isolated from other varieties of the B. Specific Crop Standards
same crop;
4. The field should be free from noxious weeds; The two combined sets of standards constitute
5. Off-types should be removed before they set the minimum seed certification standards for seed
seed; certification.
6. Strict field inspection at crop growing period A. General seed certification standards: The
(2-3), harvest and processing by certifying general seed certification standard aims at outlining
agency is must; the general requirements for the production of
7. Seed bags should be treated, sealed and tagged genetically pure good quality seed. These standards
for authentication. prescribed the procedure for certified seed
production so that maximum genetic purity and
Minimum seed certification standards good quality of the seed this ensured.
B. Specific crop standards: Specific crop
S.No. Activity Standard standard consists of Field Standards and Seed
1 Field inspection Varietal purity, isolation, Standards Field standards consist of: -
seed borne diseases,
weeds 1. The minimum preceding crop requirements
have been specified to minimize genetic
2 Pre and post Varietal purity, seed- contamination from the disease, volunteer
control tests borne diseases plants.
2. The minimum isolation requirement has
been specified to minimize seed born disease
3 Seed quality test Varietal purity (in
in the laboratory so far as is possible) contamination.
analytical purity, seed 3. The number of feed inflection and specified stage
health, germination and of crop have been described to ensure verification
moisture content
of genetic purity and other quality factors.

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Seed standard consists of: the provisions of the Act or Rules.

1. The minimum percentage of pure seeds and
maximum permissible limits for inert matter, Statutory requirements for sale of seed
other crop seeds have been prescribed. The seed container shall be labeled in the
2. The maximum permissible limits for following manner. The colour of the tag shall be
objectionable weeds, seeds infected by seed yellow for breeder seeds, blue for foundation seeds
borne diseases have been prescribed to ensure and white for certified seeds. The labels should
goods seed health. contain following essential information on seeds
3. The maximum permissible limits for moisture that are packed in bags or containers.
content have been prescribed for the safe 1. Kind
storage of seeds. 2. Variety
3. Lot number
Seed legislation 4. Date of test
The basic purpose of seed legislation and its 5. Inert matter percentage
subsequent enforcement is to regulate the quality 6. Pure seed percentage
of seed sold to farmers. The rapid development 7. Other crop seed percentage
of agricultural production with the introduction 8. Weed seeds percentage
of hybrid varieties of maize, jowar and bajra, and 9. Germination percentage
dwarf varieties of wheat and paddy, however, 10. Net content
necessitated the enactment of seed legislation. On 11. Seller’s name and address
29th December 1966, the Seeds Act was passed. 12. If treated, then name of the chemical and
It came into force throughout the country on 2nd concentration of the chemical used should also
October 1969. The revised seeds act (Draft seeds appear.
bill, 2002) is about to be passed by Government of
India. Seed legislation can broadly be divided into Other requirements
two groups: 1. No person can sell, keep for sale, and offer to
sell, barter or otherwise supply any seed of
1. Sanctioning legislation: The Act provides for the any notified or registered kind/variety after the
formation of an apex advisory body, namely, validity period recorded on the container, mark
the Central Seed Committee; the Central Seed or label has expired.
Certification Board; establishment of Seed 2. No person can alter obliterate or deface any
Certification Agencies; and Central and State mark or label attached to the container of any
Seed Testing Laboratories, etc. seed.
3. Every person selling, keeping for sale, offering
2. Regulatory legislation: The Act provides for the to sell, bartering or otherwise supplying any
provisions for notification/registration of kinds/ seed of notified kind or variety under Section
varieties to be brought under the purview of 7 shall keep over a period of three years a
the Seeds Act; regulation regarding the sale of complete record of each lot of seed sold, except
seed; and the establishment of a suitable seed for this, any seed sample may be discarded
law enforcement machinery. Under the Act the one year after the entire lot represent by such
Central Govt. is empowered to make rules to sample has been disposed of.
carry out the purposes of the Act and to give
directions to State Govt. It necessary, for Sale of seed: The seed inspectors, possessing
carrying into execution, in the state concerned prescribed qualification, appointed by the State

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Governments through notification in the official Forfeiture of property: Any person convicted
Gazette are responsible for Seed Law Enforcement under seeds act, for the contravention of any of the
in their respective areas. The State Governments provisions of this Act or the Rules made thereunder,
will also notify State Seed Laboratories and State the seed in respect of which the contravention
Analysts where the samples drawn by seed in has been committed may be forfeited to the
drawn by seed inspectors can be tested under the Government.
supervision of the State Seed Analyst. Offences by companies: Where an offence
Penalties for offenders: The person who under seeds act has been committed by a company,
contravenes any provision of the Seeds Act or any every person who, at the time the offence was
rule there under, or prevents a seed inspector from committed, was in charge of, and was responsible to
taking a sample under this Act, or prevents a seed the company for the conduct of the business of the
inspector from excising any other power conferred company as well as the company, shall be deemed
on him by, or under, the Seeds Act, on conviction the to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be
person contravening the provisions of the seeds act proceeded against and punished accordingly.
is punishable as per the provisions made in the act.

Standards in seed legislation / testing - Sample sizes

Crop Minimum working Crop Minimum working

sampleweight (gm) sampleweight (gm)
Physical Genetical Physical Genetical
purity purity purity purity
CEREALS: OILS & FATS:
Barnyard millet 8 80 Castor 500 1000
Common millet 15 150 Groundnut 1000 1000
Italian millet 9 90 Safflower 90 900
Barley 120 1000 Sesame 7 70
Maize 900 1000 Sunflower 200 1000
Paddy 40 400 Rape & Mustard 4 40
Pearl millet 15 150 Linseed 15 150
Oats 120 1000 SUGAR & STARCHES:
Sorghum 90 900 Buckwheat 60 600
Wheat 900 1000 Sugar beet 50 500
FORAGE CROPS:
Berseem 6 60
PULSES: Blue panic 2 20
Black gram 700 1000 Buffelo grass 2 20
Chick pea 1000 1000 Canary grass 4 40
Cowpea 400 1000 Carpet grass 1 10
Field bean 500 1000 Clovers 0.5-25 5 to 250
French bean 700 1000 Dallies grass 5 50
Green gram 120 1000 Guinea grass 2 20
Lentil 60 600 Lucerne 5 50
Lablab bean 500 1000 Lupines 450 1000
Lima bean 1000 1000 Napier grass 5 50
Pea 900 1000 Orchard grass 3 30
Pigeon pea 300 1000 Tall fescue 5 50
Soybean 500 1000 Vetches 120-1000 1000
Weeping love grass 1 10

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 Millet Seed Technology

Crop Minimum working Crop Minimum working

sampleweight (gm) sampleweight (gm)
Physical Genetical Physical Genetical
purity purity purity purity
GREEN MANURES: CUCURBITS:
Cluster beans 80 800 Long melon 70 150
Sunnhemp 70 700 Cucumber 70 150
Indian squash 250 1000
BEVERAGES:
Muskmelon 70 150
Chicory 5 50
Pumpkin 180 350
Tobacco 0.5 5
Summer squash 180 350
Water melon 250 1000
LEGUME VEGETABLES: Winter squash 700 1000
Broad bean 1000 1000
Cluster bean 80 800 LEAFY VEGETABLES:
Cowpea 400 1000 Celery 1 10
Dolichos bean 500 1000 Lettuce 3 30
French bean 700 1000 New Zealand spinach 200 1000
Garden pea 900 1000 Spinach 25 250
Lima bean 1000 1000 ROOT VEGETABLE:
Scarlet runner bean 1000 1000 Beet 50 500
Carrot 3 30
BULBS: Parsnip 10 100
Leek 7 70 Radish 30 300
Onion 8 80 Turnip 7 70

Seed standard for physical purity percentage

Inert matter Other crop seed Weed seeds

Pure crop seed (minimum)
Crops (maximum) (maximum); (maximum).
F C TL F C F C F C
Barley, Oats, Wheat, Paddy 98 98 97 2 2 10/kg 0.1 10/kg 0.1
Sorghum 98 98 97 2 2 5/kg 0.1 5/kg 0.1
Pearl millet 98 98 96 2 2 10/kg 0.1 10/kg 0.1
Maize (hybrid) - 98 97 - 2 - 0.2 - none
Gram 98 98 97 2 2 none 0.05 none none
Cluster bean 98 98 - 2 2 0.0 0.2 none none
Soybean 97 97 96 3 3 none 0.05 5/kg 0.1
Cowpea 98 98 97 2 2 none 0.05 none 0.1
Dolichos bean, French bean 98 98 - 2 2 none none none 0.1
Peas 98 98 96 2 2 none 0.05 none none
Cabbage, Cauliflower 98 98 97 2 2 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.2
Knolkhol 95 95 - 5 5 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.2
Amaranthus 98 98 - 2 2 none none 0.05 0.2
Lettuce 98 98 96 2 2 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.2
Methi 96 96 94 4 4 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2
Beet 96 96 93 4 4 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2
Spinach 95 95 94 5 5 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.2
Carrot 98 98 97 2 2 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.2
Onion, Radish, Turnip, Chilli, 98 98 - 2 2 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1
Capsicum 98 98 97 2 2 none none none none
Brinjal 99 99 98 1 1 none 0.05 none none
Okra 98 98 97 2 2 0.05 0.1 none none
Tomato 99 99 98 1 1 0.05 0.1 none none

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Inert matter Other crop seed Weed seeds

Pure crop seed (minimum)
Crops (maximum) (maximum); (maximum).
F C TL F C F C F C
Muskmelon,Watermelon 99 99 98 1 1 0.05 0.1 none none
Cucumber, Bitter gourd, -
Bottle Gourd, Ridge gourd,
Snake gourd, Sponge gourd,
Indian squash, Long melon,
Pumpkin, Summer squash,
Winter squash.
Groundnut 96 96 4 4 none none none none
Castor 98 98 95 2 2 none none none none
Sesame, Rape & Mustard 97 97 98 3 3 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.5
Sunflower 98 98 - 2 2 none none none none
Jute 97 97 - 3 3 20/kg 0.1 20/kg 0.1
Mesta 98 98 - 2 2 20/kg 0.1 20/kg 0.1
Sunnhempt 97 97 - 3 3 5/kg 0.1 0.1 0.2
Cotton 98 98 - 2 2 5/kg 0.1 5/kg 0.1
Berseem, Lucern 98 98 95 2 2 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.5
Sugar beet 97 97 - 3 3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2
-

Number of objectionable weed seed/kg

Crops Objectionable weed F C
Oats Wild oat (Avena fatua L.) 2 5
Paddy Wild rice (Oryza sativa L. var. fatua) 2 5
Rape & mustard Prickly poppy (Argemone maxicana L.) 5 10
Taramira Do 5 10
Wheat Wild morning glory (Convolvulus arvensis L.) 2 5
Triticale Phalaris (Phalaris minor L.) 2 5
Berseem Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) 5 10
Lucern Dodder (Cuscuta spp.L ) 5 10
Safflower Wild safflower (Carthamus oxyacanthus L.) nil nil
Sunflower Wild Heliantha nil nil
Amaranthus Wild amaranthus (Amaranthus spinosus L.) 5 10
Bitter Gourd Balsam apple (Momordica balsamina L.) nil nil
Wild Karela (M. dioica L.) nil nil
Bhat karela (M. cochinchinensis L.) nil nil

Cucumber (Cucumis hardwickii L.) nil nil

Fenugreek Senji (Melilotus spp.) 2 5
Lettuce Wild lettuce (Lactuca scariola L.) 2 5
Muskmelon (Cucumis prophetarum L.); (C. melo L.) nil nil
Okra Wild okra (Abelmoschus ficulneus L.; Abelmoschus manihot L.; nil nil
Snake gourd Abelmoschus moschatus L.) nil nil
Water melon (Trichosanthes palmate L.), (T. lobata L.),(T. cucumerina L.) nil nil
Wild water melon (Citrullus colocynthis L.)

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Specifications of drying duration and temperature for seed moisture test (ISTA)

Crop Oven Drying time Remarks: Pre-drying Grinding

Temp. °C (Hours) (% moisture more than)
Cereals: Millet,Wheat,Barley,Triticale 130 2 17 Obligatory
Paddy 130 2 13 Obligatory
Maize 130 4 17 Obligatory
Sorghum 130 2 17 Obligatory
Pearl millet 130 1 17 Obligatory
Common millet, Little millet 130 2 --- ---
Barnyard millet,finger millet, Italian millet, 103 17 --- ---
kodo millet
Pulses: Bengal gram, black gram, Chickling 130 1 17 Obligatory
vetch, cow pea, French bean, Green gram,
horse gram, Indian bean, Kidney bean,
lentil, pea, pigeon pea
Oil seeds: Soybean 103 17 10 Obligatory
Castor, groundnut (Including kernels) 103 17 17 Obligatory
Linseed, niger, rapeseed and mustard, 103 17 --
taramira, safflower, sesame, Sunflower
Fibre crops: Cotton 103 17 17 Obligatory
Jute 103 17 -- --
Mesta 130 1 17 Obligatory
Sunhemp 130 1 -- Obligatory
Forage crops: Oats, Sudan grass, Blue 130 1 -- --
Panic, doob, berseem, guinea grass, senji,
lucerne,

rice bean, shaftal.

Birdwood grass,cluster bean, dharaf 103 17 -- --

grass, fenugreek, marvel grass, para grass,
setaria, stylo, teosinte, velvet green,
Venezuela grass
Green manure & misc. crops: Dhaincha, 130 1 -- Obligatory
indigo, tobacco
Hemp, poppy, sugarbeat 130 1 -- --
Vegetables: Ash gourd, okra, legume 130 1 17 Obligatory
vegetables,
Cucurbataceous: Vegetables(Other than 130 1 -- --
Ash goard), Tomato, asparagus, celery,
coriander, lettuce, parsley, parnsnip,
spinach, spinach beet, true potato
Brinjal, chilli, rat tail radish, sweet pepper, 103 17 -- --
Onion, amaranth, methi, garden rhubarb,
globe, artichoke, Jerusalem artichoke,
radish, turnip, cole vegetables
Sweet Potato 130 1 -- Obligatory

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Types of seeds required for grinding & size of sieve mesh for action

Crops Grinding Sieve mesh size

Pass through Remain on
Black gram, cowpea, green gram, Coarse 50% ground material is
castor, red gram, chickpea, pea, passed through 4 mm
groundnut, soybean, bhindi, ashgourd, mesh size 10% ground material
sugarbeet, arhar, khesary, lentil, broad will remain on 1.00
bean mm mesh.
Paddy, wheat, maize, rye, sorghum, Fine 50% ground material is
cotton, cucumber, oats, barley passed through 0.5 mm
mesh

Seed standards for maximum moisture content (Percent)

Crops Foundation Certified
Open container Vapour proof Open VP
container
Barley, Oats, Pearl millet, Ragi, Maize, Sorghum, Wheat, 12.0 8.0 12.0 8
Paddy 13 8 13 8
Dolichos bean, French bean 9 7 9 7
Peas, 9 8 9 8
Cluster bean, gram 9 - 9 -
Soybean 12 - 12 -
Cabbage, Cauliflower, Knol khol 7 5 7 5
Amaranthus, Lettuce 8 6 8 6
Methi 8 - 8 -
Beet, Spinach 9 8 9 9
Carrot 8 7 8 7
Onoin 8 5 8 5
Radish, Turnip 6 5 6 5
Brinjal, capsicum, Chilli, Tomato. 8 6 8 6
Okra, Sugar beet 10 8 10 8
Cucurbits, cucumbers, Bitter gourds, Bottle gourds, Ridge 7 6 7 6
gourds, Sponge gourds, Snake gourds, Indian squash,
Long melon, Musk melon, water melon, Pumpkin,
Summer squash, Winter squash,
Ground nut, Sesame
Castor, rape, and mustard 9 5 9 5
Jute, Safflower 8 5 8 5
Cotton 9 7 9 7
Berseem, Lucern 10 6 10 6
Cowpea, Lentil, Black gram, Green gram, Lathyrus, 10 7 10 7
Sunflower, - 9 -
Sunnhemp 9
Mesta 10 - 10 -
8 - 8 -

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Germination testing procedures (ISTA)

S . Common Name/ Latin Name Substrata Tempera- First Final Addl. treatment, if
No ture (oC) Count Count required
(days) (days)
A Cereals and millets
1. Barnyard millet (Echinochloa T.P 20-30 4 7 Pre-drying at 40oC
calona)
2. Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) T.P, B.P 20-30 3 7
syn. P. millare
3. Maize (Zea mays) B.P, S. 20-30 4 7 -
4. Paddy (Oryza sativa) T.P., B.P’. S 20-30 5 14
5. Pearl millet (Pennisetum B.P 25-30 3 7
americanum); (P. typhoides)
6. Finger millet (Elucine coracana) T.P, BP. 20-30 5 8
7. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) B.P, S 30 4 10
8. Jowar (Sorghum vulgare) T.P., B.P 20-30 4 10 -
B. Pulses
1. Black gram (Vigna mungo) B.P, S 20-30 5 8 Pre-dry (40oC), GA3
2. Chickling Vetch (Khesari) (Lathyrus B.P, S. 20-30, 25 5 14 *Hot water
sativus) treatment (80oC)
for 1-2 minutes
3. Chick pea (Cicer arietinum) B.P, S 20 5 8
4. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) B.P,S 20-30 5 7
5 Green gram (Vigna radiata) B.P, S 20-30 3 7
6. Horse gram (Dolichos biflorus) B.P, S 20-30 4 10
7. Indian bean (Lablab Purpureus) B.P, S 20-30 5 10
8. Lentil (Lens esculenta), (L.culinaris) B.P, S 25 5 10
9. Mothbean (Vigna aconitifolia) B.P, S 20 5 10
10. Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) B.P, S 20, 30 4 10
11. Faba bean (Vicia faba) B.P, S 20-30 4 14 *Hot water
treatment (80oC),
for 1-2 minutes
12. Rice bean (Vigna umbellate) B.P. 20 5 8
C. Oil seeds
1. Castor (Ricinus communis) B.P, S 25, 30 7 14
2. Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) B.P 20-30 5 10
3. Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) T.P, B.P 20-30 3 7
4. Mustard and rape (Brassica T.P 20-30 4 7 *Hot water
campestris, B. Juncea) treatment (80oC),
for 1 minutes
5. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) B.P, S 20-30 4 14
6. Seasame (Seasamum indicum) T.P 20-30 3 6 *Hot water
treatment (80oC),
for 1 minutes
7. Sunflower (Helianthus annus) B.P, S 20-30 4 10

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 Millet Seed Technology

S . Common Name/ Latin Name Substrata Tempera- First Final Addl. treatment, if
No ture (oC) Count Count required
(days) (days)
D. Fibre crops
1. Cotton (Gossypium species) B.P, S 20-30 4 12 *Hot water
treatment (80oC),
for 1 minutes
2. Jute (Corchorus capsularis), T.P; B.P 20-30 4 8
(Corchorus olitorius)
3 6
E. Forage crops * Hot water
treatment (80oC),
for 1 minutes
1. Birdwood grass (Cenchrus T.P; B.P 30 3 14 i.
setigerus)
2. Cluster bean (Cyamopsis T.P. 30 5 14 ii.
tetragonoloba), Methi
3. Forage sorghum (Sorghum B.P. 20-30 4 10 iii.
sudanense)
4. Marvel grass (Dichanthium B.P. 20-30 7 21 Predry (40oC)
annulatum)
5. Setaria grass (Setaria anceps) T.P. 20-30 7 21 KNO3
6. Stylo (Stylosathes spp.) T.P.,B.P. 20-30 4 10 Predry (40oC)
*Hot water
treatment (800C)
F. Medicinal plants for 5-10 minutes
1. Isabgol (Plantago sps.) T.P.,B.P 20-30 3 7 Light
Low moisture
G. Vegetable and root crops GA3
1. Amaranth (chauli) (Amaranthus B.P. 20-30 4 8
tricolor)
2. Ash gourd (Petha) (Benincasa T.P. 25 5 10
cerifera)
3. Asparagus (Asparagus-officinalis) B.P. 20,25 7 28
4. Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) T.P., B.P.,S. 25-30 4 14
5. Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) B.P.,S. 20-30 4 14
6. Brinjal (Solanum melongena) B.P.,S. 20-30 7 14
7. Cabbage (B. Oleracea var. capitata) T.P. 20-30 3 10
8. Capsicum (Capsicum annum) T.P. 20-30 7 14
9. Carrot (Daucus carota) T.P. 20,25 7 14
10. Cauliflower (B.oleracea var. T.P. 20-30 3 10
botrytis)
11. Celery (Apium graveolens) T.P. 20,25 10 21
12. Chinese cabbage (B. pekinensis) T.P. 20,25 3 10
13. Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) T.P.,S 20-30 4 8
14. Knolkhol (B. oleracea var. B.P.,S. 20,25 4 8
gongylodes)

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 Millet Seed Technology

S . Common Name/ Latin Name Substrata Tempera- First Final Addl. treatment, if
No ture (oC) Count Count required
(days) (days)
15. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) T.P. 25,30 4 21
16. Pointed gourd (Trichosanthes B.P.,S. 25 5 10
dioica)
Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) B.P.,S. 20-30
Radish (Raphanus sativus) B.P.,S. 25,30
Rat tail Radish (Raphanus caudatus)
Ridge gourd (Luffa cylindrical)
Snake gourd (Trichosanthes
anguina)
Snap melon (Cucumis melo var
momordica)
Sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrical)
Summer squash (Cucurbita pepo)
Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum)
Turnip ( Brassica rapa)
Water melon (Citrullus lanatus)
Winter squash (Cucurbita maxima)

Minimum seed standard for germination percentage

Foundation & certified Truthful label Crops

90 80 Maize
85 80 Wheat, True Potato Seed
85 75 Oats, Rape & Mustard
85 75 Barley, Gram
80 70 Paddy, Sorghum, Ragi, Linseed, Safflower
80 80 Sesame, Jute, Mesta, Sunnhemp, Berseem, Lucerne, Sorghum
75 70 Pearl millet (bajra), Cowpea, Peas,
75 70 Dolichos Bean, French Bean, Pigeon Pea, Lentil, Lathyrus, Black
Gram, Green Gram

70 70 Soybean, Ground Nut, Castor

70 70 Cluster Bean, Amaranthus, Lettuce, Sunflower.
70 65 Cabbage, Knolkhol, Methi, Onion, Radish, Turnip, Brinjal, Tomato.
65 60 Cauliflower, melon, Okra.
60 55 Spinach, Beet, Carrot, Capsicum, Chilli, Cotton, Watermelon.
60 - Cucumber, Bitter Gourd, Bottle gourd, ridge Gourd, Sponge Gourd,
Snake Gourd, Indian Squash, Long melon, Pumpkin, Summer
Squash, Winter Squash, Sugar beet.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Basic principles and

concepts of seed
quality control

S eed is a basic input in agriculture and it plays a crucial role in boosting up the productivity
and economy of the country. Without the use of good quality seed, the investments, incurred on
fertilizers, pesticides and water will not play dividend which ought to be realized. Therefore, the
pace and progress in food production of a country, will greatly depend on the availability of required
quantities of seeds of superior genotype and hybrids. A break-through in this direction has already
been made in most parts of the world. However, still more need to be done in making available the
seeds of high-yielding varieties of hybrids in most of the developing countries. It is of paramount
importance that the seeds of the improved genotypes should be multiplied and marketed in such a way
that its genetic purity is maintained to the desired level. In addition, to the genetic purity, maintenance
of the physical and physiological seed quality during the seed multiplication and marketing operations
is also equally important. This is not an easy task. It requires lot of planning and efforts on the part
of the government. The production and marketing agencies are also equally responsible to maintain
and preserve the seed quality to the highest possible standard.

Seed quality concepts expanded throughout the world.

Though the importance of good seed was Seed quality is the sum of all those attributes
realized with the inception of agriculture; however, which differentiate the seed from the grain. The
the concept of seed quality on scientific lines, important seed quality attributes are: genetic purity,
gained importance during 1989, when Professor physical purity, germination moisture, health and
Friedrich Nobbe in Germany advocated that the vigour. In addition to above quality seed should be
seeds must be tested before sowing. This gave birth of uniform size and should possess good luster.
of the establishment of seed testing laboratories in Genetic purity: This is the most important seed
European countries, USA and CANADA during quality attribute. The genetic purity of the seed
late eighties and early nineties. The establishment lot governs the yield potential for the variety. It is,
and development of seed testing laboratories in therefore, very important that the genetic (cultivar)
the developed world generated tremendous impact purity status of the seed lot should be high. In a seed
in the seed trade and the development of seed certification scheme, the genetic purity standards
testing procedures. The International Seed Testing have been prescribed. The breeder seed should be
Association (ISTA) was established in 1921 and of the highest genetic purity. In the foundation and
the first set of International Rules of Seed Testing certified seed classes, the genetic purity standards
were framed and published by ISTA during 1931. are lower to those of breeder seed. The Genetic
Since then, the seed testing programme has been purity of the breeder seed should be maintained

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through maintenance breeding programme. The Moisture: The life processes of the seeds
responsibility of the maintaining genetic purity of revolve around the seed moisture content. The
breeder seed, lies with the plant breeder who has moisture content of the seeds should not be too high
evolved the variety; while the genetic purity of or too low. Moisture seeds are difficult to thresh
foundation and certified seed classes is ensured and will deteriorate at the faster rate. Similarly, if
through seed certification. the sees are to dry, it may shatter in the field and
Physical purity: The physical purity of the seed thereby reduces the yields. Seed moisture content
lot should also be high. The seed which is obtained should be brought to the desirable level, through
after harvesting and threshing the seed lot, is not drying (nature or artificial) enabling to preserve
fit for immediate sowing or planting purposes. It their viability in storage and avoiding the spoilage
contains certain admixtures, such as soil, stone by insects and pathogens. The moisture content also
pieces, flower stalks, broken seeds and pieces of determines the choice of the packing material for
leaves, barks, chaff and other foreign material marketing or storage purposes.
together with seeds of other crops and weeds. The moisture content of the seeds varies
These admixtures makes the harvested seed unfit according to its chemical composition. It is less
for sowing or storage. The occurrence of these in case of oily seeds while it is high in case of
admixtures reduces the planting value of the seed those seeds where reserved food material is either
lot because these admixtures are undesirable as predominantly carbohydrate or proteins.
these may reduce the yielding ability of the seed Seed health: Seed health is also an important
lot. During storage, the extraneous matter present seed quality attribute, especially under tropical and
in the seed lot serves as the places for harboring sub-tropical conditions. Quality seed should be
the spores of saprophytic fungi which may cause free from pests and pathogens. Infection of seed
the loss of seed viability. Therefore, the harvested by pests and pathogens may affect germination and
seed must be cleaned and processed to remove the vigour and thereby reduces the yields. It has been
admixture. The physical purity status of the seed found that a large number of microorganisms cause
lots is judged by the pure seed, weed seed, other considerable damage to the seed quality either by
crop seeds and inert matter contents. The pure seed discolouration of the seeds, reducing the seed size
content in a seed lot should be high and those of and weight or causing the seedling or adult plant
other crop, weed seed and inert matter should be diseases. Infected seed lots are also responsible for
minimum for obvious reasons. the spread of the disease in the disease-free areas. It
Germination: Germination capacity of the is, therefore, essential to test the seed lots to measure
quality seed lot should be high for obtaining the the status of its health in order to avoid problems
desired crop stand in the field. Using seeds of low in seed production and quality control. In a seed
germination will reduce the field establishment or certification scheme, the tolerance limits for the
stand and thus the yields will be lowered. Seed designated seed-borne diseases of the vegetable and
germination is affected by a variety of factors field crops have been provided to avoid economic
which are imposed to the seed during its formation, losses. In addition, seed treatment with fungicide
maturation, ripening, such as, infection with the or insecticide and fumigation is a regular practice
pests and pathogen, sub-optimal conditions of for controlling the disease organisms and pests.
nutrients and water supply and untimely rains for Seed vigour: The performance potential of
frost at the maturity stage. In addition, post-harvest a seed lot with reference to field establishment is
operations and handling of the seed lots during very such dependent on the capacity of the seed to
marketing or distribution are also responsible for germinate, emerge and establish under sub-optimal
affecting the seed quality. field conditions. This performance potential or

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‘hidden stamina’ of the seed makes it fit to perform Ecological factors: The growth of the plant
well upon sowing. This is called seed vigour. It and the seed quality are strongly influenced not
has been found that the field establishment of only by the genetic factors alone but also by the
two seed lots of the same cultivar having same environment prevailing during the seed formation,
germination percentage, may not necessarily be the maturation and growth. The important ecological
same upon planting. One seed lot may give rise to factors which govern the seed quality include: soil,
good emergence and establishment while the other adaptability, wind velocity and rains; light intensities
may fail to do so in the same field. This differential and temperature conditions; insect activities during
behaviour in the performance of the two seed lots is flowering; pests and pathogens. These factors may
mainly due to their vigour status. One seed lot may favourably or unfavourably affect the seed quality
be more vigorous in comparison to the other seed depending upon the situation.
lot. Vigorous seed usually provide higher yields Agronomic packages and production technology:
in comparison to less vigorous seed. According, Application of the prescribed agronomical packages
the measurement of seed vigour is of considerable is of utmost importance for raising a good seed
importance in assessing the seed quality. In addition, crop. The recommended practices may slightly vary
the storability of the seed is influenced by its vigour according to the location or the season. Personal
status. Vigorous seed lots will store well for longer experiences, in this regard are very important in order
periods without appreciable loss in the germination to suitably modify a particular cultural practice. The
in comparison to the less vigorous seeds which cultural practices required for raising the seed crop are
deteriorate at a faster rate. different to those of raising the general crop. Timely
operations during the crop management is essential
Factors affecting seed quality aspect for ensuring a rich harvest and to produce the
Seed quality is influenced by a variety of quality seed of desired genetic purity and to avoid
factors imposed to the seed during its formation, deterioration of seed quality by insects, pests and
development, maturation, growth, harvesting, pathogens and the occurrence of undesirable weeds
threshing or extraction, drying, cleaning, grading, and other crop seeds. Seed source; isolation and
packing, storage and marketing. The factors which plant protection; land preparation, time and method
govern the seed quality can be broadly grouped into of sowing; weed control; rouging of off-types and
4 categories, namely. diseases plants; irrigation & nutrition and control of
I. Genetical Factors pests and pathogens contributes in affecting the seed
II. Ecological Factors quality.
III. Agronomic Packages and Production Harvest and post-harvest handling: Supervised
Technology harvesting and after care of post-harvest handling
IV. Harvesting and Post-harvest Handling of the seed crop is an essential component for
Genetical factors: Genetic purity or ‘cultivar obtaining the quality seed. This is an integral part
purity’ may decline as a result of genetic drift of a seed certification programme. The time, energy
occurring during the seed production of stages and money spend in growing genetically pure and
due to the combined effect of ecological and other disease-free seed crop may go waste, if harvested
factors. This is, especially true in situations where seed crop is left to the vagaries of the weather. Seed
same sources of the seeds is continuously used over quality is very much affected during threshing or
the years. In addition, chromosomal aberrations extraction of the seed; processing-drying, cleaning
and mutations resulted during the unfavourable and grading; seed treatments; seed packing, labeling
storage may cause the genetic deterioration of the and sealing, storage, fumigation and transportation
variety. of seed lots if adequate technology and care is not

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 Millet Seed Technology

provided to the harvested produce. seed should be of the highest possible standards. In
Choice of appropriate technology for the other words, it may be inferred that the seed handled
above-mentioned post-harvest operations will vary within the seed programme should be monitored
according to the location and the kind of the seed; to ensure that its quality is maintained during the
however, the basic principles for these operations production processes in such a way that the seed
are the same throughout. For example, it is an below certain acceptable standards is rejected.
established fact that threshing should not be done, There are two aspects of quality control. Firstly, the
if the seeds are too moist or dry. At high initial genetic purity of the seed is maintained during the
moisture content, if threshing is attempted, it would production and marketing operations. Secondly, it
be difficult to thresh the seed; or the seeds will be should be ascertained that the seed lot itself is of
injured. At such moisture levels (18 percent of adequate quality. It should be free from weeds,
above), ‘bruising’ injuries may occur. It would be other crop seeds, extraneous materials, disease,
difficult to find out the ‘bruised’ seed with the naked organisms and posses high germination capacity
eye. The immediate impact of ‘brushing’ injuries and optimum moisture to avoid its deterioration
may not be serious however; there would be sudden during storage and marketing.
decline in viability and vigour in the storage. The Quality management: The responsibility of
‘bruised’ areas respire heavily and are the centers maintaining the quality of the seed lies with the
for infection by the microorganisms. This combined producer (public or private) who is producing and
effect of high respiration rate and infection with marketing the seed. Seed production is a highly
pathogen will impair the seed viability within no specialized and systematic job. It encompasses
time. Similarly, harvesting or threshing the seed at the production of nucleus seed, breeder seed,
a very low moisture levels (below 9%) will induce foundation, certified and labeled seed classes. The
the fracturing or cracking injuries, thereby very process occurs in a systematic manner. The breeder
essential to dry the seed properly. The choice of seed is produced from the nucleus seed; foundation
drying method (natural or artificial) depends upon seed from the breeder seed or foundation stage I and
the kind of seed and the locality. The safe levels of the certified seed from foundation seed or certified
moisture content for seed packing and storage have stage I classes. If, there is some missing links in
also been investigated for important vegetables and this chain, quality maintenance programme suffers
field crops. Adequate supervision during all the and consequently the quality assurance and quality
post-harvest operations is also required to avoid control components will get the set-backs. It is,
contamination of the seed lots of different varieties therefore, imperative that adequate care needs to
on the threshing floor or in the processing plant. It be exercised in the quality maintenance or internal
must be ensured that the labeling of the seed lots quality control programme. If this is achieved
has been made correctly and in proper manner. adequately well, the problems in the quality control
will be minimized and the assurance of seed quality
Seed quality control provided by the producer will not face any problem
Quality control is an important component during marketing or distribution.
of the seed progrmme. In fact, the essence of any The first and foremost aspect of quality
seed programme lies in the quality control. A seed maintenance is the quality of the breeder seed with
programme without the provisions of regulating the special reference to the genetic purity. The breeder
seed quality control measures may collapse. Seed seed should be of the highest genetic purity. The
quality control is a system which ensures to govern genetic purity of breeder seed should be above the
the quality of the seed through checks, certification genetic purity status of the foundation seed class. In
and official regulations (legislation). For seed India, the breeder seed does not fails under the PUT
production, it is necessary that the quality of the view of seed certification. However, its quality

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 Millet Seed Technology

must be monitored by the breeder himself or by a tested in the seed testing laboratory.
joint team or any other authority which has been System of quality control: Seed quality control
identified in the rules and regulations. In addition, in itself is a system which ensures the interest of the
it is also equally important that the post-harvest farmers and to avoid hazards in the crop production.
operations should also be supervised to avoid It is the responsibility of the government to enforce
genetic contamination during harvesting, threshing, the measures for controlling the quality of the seed
drying, cleaning, grading and packing operations of being marketed in the country. This is usually
the breeder of seed. In case of vegetable seed crops, accomplished through the legislation in the form of
seed certification is opted mainly by the public a law or Act of parliament. Essentially, there are
organizations, whereas huge quantities of vegetable two components in a seed quality control system
seed is being marketed throughout the world by namely; the Seed Certification and Labeling.
the private seed companies who seldom opt for Seed certification may not be compulsory but
certification. It would, therefore, be essential that labeling is usually a compulsory provision of any
the private seed companies should have their own seed legislation. To accomplish the task of seed
research and developmental wing for ensuring the legislation or Seed Act, framing the rules and
quality of their produce so as to serve the farmers in regulations pertaining the legislation and their scope
a better way. If, this is not achieved by them, they is the pre-requisite. In addition, certain basic infra-
will loose faith of the farming community and they structural facilities are also required. This includes,
will be out from the seed business within no time. the notification of the seed standards, kind or
To avoid the problems in the seed trade, it is the varieties expected to be governed by the legislation,
responsibility of the government to enforce certain establishment of Seed Certification Authority or
measures for controlling the seed quality. Agency, Seed Testing Laboratories, processing
Quality assurance: This is the responsibility plants and notification or authorization of seed
of the seed corporation/organization and the seed inspectors and Seed Analysis. The following are
companies to provide assurance about the quality the essential components of a seed quality control
of the seed offered by them for marketing or programme:
distribution. There would not be any problem to 1. Quality Control of Breeder Seed
the seed producing organizations in providing the 2. Seed Certification
assurance of the seed quality, if they are conscious 3. Seed Legislation
about the maintenance of the quality of their 4. Seed Standards
produce. In the absence of the system of quality 5. Seed Testing
maintenance, it would be rather impossible to In India, seed quality control programme was
provide the assurance of the seed quality. Without initiated during 1953 with the establishment of the
observing the quality maintenance, if quality National Seeds Corporation, which was the single
assurance is provided by an organization in the agency for production, certification and marketing
form of a declaration or label containing the details of the seed throughout the country. However, at a
of the physical purity and germination of seed, later stage, during 1970’s and 1980’s State Seed
the organization may face heavy penalties under Certification Agencies were established in most of
the provisions of the seed legislation of ‘Seed the states, which are responsible to carry forward
Act’ or else will loose the faith of the consumer. the seed certification programme in the respective
Accordingly, it would be desirable on the part of an state. Seeds Act was passed in India during 1966
organization or seed company involved in the seed and amended in 1974. The promulgation of the Act
trade that before providing the assurance relating to was made effective during 1969. Indian Seeds Act
the identity of the variety and the quality of the seed is essentially a ‘truthful’ labeling act. The seed
offered by them, they must ensure to get the seed certification in India is voluntary. At present, the

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Seeds Act as well as Seed Certification in India is agency should lay down standard for processing
applicable to the Notified’ kind/varieties. For the plants. In addition, field and seed standards,
regulation of the Seeds Act and the Seed Certification such as isolation distances, inseparable other
Programme in the Country, two separate sets of the crop seeds, weeds, plants affected by seed-borne
standard namely, Minimum Labeling Standards diseases, genetic purity, percentage of pure seed,
and Minimum Seed Certification Standards were other crop and weed seeds, inert matter, moisture
prescribed during 1970 which have now been content, germination and insect damage should be
revised. The statutory provisions of the Indian prescribed for successful accomplishment of the
Seeds Act have got strong linkages with the various certification. For the purpose of labeling the seed
components of the seed programme, such as variety under the seed law enforcement programme, the
and notification, seed production, seed certification standard for pure seed and germination is usually
and seed marketing. It would be desirable that required. These standards will vary accordingly to
initially the seed quality control measures should the kind of seed. The standards should be reviewed
not be very rigid. Otherwise, the seed programme at timely intervals in order to make them realistic.
will suffer. However, when the seed certification Measurement of seed quality: It is absolutely
is becoming more popular and adequate infra- important that the estimation of the quality of
structural facilities have been developed, the the seed lot should be made accurately. Wrong
quality control measures should be applied rigidly evaluation in seed quality measurement may
at a later stage. cause problems in labeling, marketing and quality
Seed standards: Seed quality control measures control operations. This may amount of large scale
also stipulated to provide the standards for labeling rejections of the quality seed lots or approving a sub-
and for seed certification. The standard should be standard seed lot for seed certification or seed law
realistic and achievable. The standards should enforcement. This will cause irreparable damage to
be based on the analytical data generated by the the seed programme of the country. Accordingly, it
seed testing laboratories and collected through is essential that the measurement of the seed quality
surveys. In laying down the standards, the should be made in accordance with the prescribed
standards of the other countries having similar procedure.
socio-economic conditions may be consulted. It It is not possible to measure the genetic purity
would be desirable that before obtaining the final status of the seed lot accurately in a seed testing
approval of the standard by the competent authority, laboratory. The laboratory methods which have
the standards should be discussed thoroughly been recommended for the measurement of genetic
by a committee which is represented by the seed purity are not the official methods. The official
producers, certification and seed law enforcement method for cultivar purity (Genetic Purity) is
officials. It would be desirable to prescribed two the ‘Grow-out-Test’. The important laboratory
sets of standards namely, standards for labeling and methods for genetic purity testing includes the
standards for seed certification. examination of the seed and seedlings, fluorescence
Seed certification standards may refer to the test, phenol test, NaOH test, cotyledon colour
field condition or may refer to the procedures in test and electrophoresis. These tests serve
inspection of the harvested produce as well s the as complimentary methods for genetic purity
manner of harvesting, transporting, processing and determination. The physical and physiological
packing. Unless, a seed certification agency keeps seed quality viz., physical purity, moisture content
track of harvested produce until it is packed and germination and vigour is usually measured by
sealed, the identity of the lots cannot be assured. employing the standardized procedures provided in
It is, therefore, necessary that the seed certification the Rules for Seed Testing.

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Generation system of seed

multiplication: The key to
seed quality assurance
S eed has been a basic resource for humanity since origin. It is a basic commodity for human life and
development of science, agricultural production and trade. Good quality seed acts as catalyst for
realizing the potential of all other inputs in agriculture. Hence, high quality seed is as important as an
improved variety. Currently there is virtual a revolution in the area of seed quality and seed industry. It
is not enough to have a desirable cultivar, quality seed must accompany cultivar improvement otherwise
the cultivar will never succeed in the commercial agriculture. Today’s seed consumer is well aware of
the implications of seed quality on crop establishment, yield, productivity and cost.

Importance of quality seed scheme, the genetic purity standards have been
•• Reduces losses during storage prescribed. The breeder seed should be of the
•• Improvise handling during sowing highest genetic purity. Genetic purity of the breeder
•• Better crop establishment seed should be maintained through maintenance
•• Better uniformity and purity breeding programme. The responsibility of
•• Enhances production and productivity maintaining the genetic purity of breeder seed, lies
•• Elimination of weeds, pests & diseases with the plant breeder who has evolved the variety;
•• Improves quality of produce while the genetic purity of foundation and certified
seed classes is ensured through seed certification.
Parameters of quality seed: Following are the Important factors affecting the genetic purity:
parameters of quality seed Following are the major factor which affects the
•• Improved Variety / Hybrid genetic purity of the seed crop and therefore, need to
•• High Genetic Purity: The most important factor be taken care of during seed production particularly
for realizing the potential of variety and quality for the new varieties.
of produce •• Developmental variations: May arise when
•• High Physical Purity the seed crop is grown under different
•• High Germination environments, soil fertility, photoperiod,
•• High Vigour elevations etc for several generations.
•• Free from Seed-borne Pathogens •• Mechanical mixtures
•• Value-addition •• Mutations
•• Safe Moisture Content •• Out-crossing
•• Minor genetic variations: May still exist at the
Genetic purity time of release of a variety, though the variety
The genetic purity of the seed lot governs may look morphologically uniform.
the yield potential of the variety. Thus, it is very •• Selective influence of diseases: Similarly, if
important that the genetic (cultivar) purity status of the seed crop is grown for several generations
the seed lot should be high. In a seed certification under disease prone areas.

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•• The technique used by the breeder: Cyto- standards of genetic purity.

genetical irregularities may be present in the Foundation seed: The foundation seed should
variety at the time of release or premature be the progeny of breeder seed or be produced from
release of a variety still segregating. foundation seed, which can be clearly traced to the
breeder seed. The production of foundation seed
Hartmann and Kester (1968) suggested the shall be supervised and approved by the Certification
following steps for maintaining genetic purity: Agency and be so handled as to maintain specific
a) Providing adequate isolation to prevent genetic identify and genetic purity and shall be
contamination by natural crossing or mechanical required to confirm certification standards specified
mixtures. for the crop during variety being certified.
b) Roguing of seed plots prior to the stage at which Registered seed: Registered seed is the progeny
they could contaminate the seed crop. of foundation or registered seed that is so handled
c) Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity. as to maintain satisfactory genetic identity and
d) Avoiding genetic shifts by growing crops in purity, and that has been approved and certified by
areas of their adaptation only. a certifying agency. This class of seed should be of
e) Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic a quality suitable for production of certified seed. In
purity and quality of seed. India, we don’t have this class (Registered) of seed.
f) Adoption of the generation system: The most
important key, not only for maintenance of Certified seed: Certified seed should be the
genetic purity but also for seed health (Seed progeny of foundation seed and its production
Borne Disease). should be so handled as to maintain specific
Broadly, there are four classes of seed namely genetic identity and purity according to standards
breeder, foundation, registered and certified seed as prescribed for the crop being certified. Certified
detailed below: seed may be the progeny of certified seed provided
Nucleus seed: The nucleus seed is the initial its reproduction does not exceed three generations
seed obtained from selected individual plants of beyond foundation seed stage 1 and it is determined
a particular variety/parental line for the purpose by the Certification Agency that genetic identity and
of purifying and maintaining that variety/parental purity is not altered significantly and Certification
lines by the originating breeder and its further Agency is satisfied that there is genuine shortage of
multiplication under his own supervision or the foundation seed.
supervision of a qualified plant breeder. It is used
to produce breeder seed and forms the basis of the Seed generation system
total seed production chain. In India, we follow 3-generation system:

Breeder seed: Breeder seed is the seed or Breeder Seed Foundation Seed

vegetative propagating material directly controlled

by the originating or sponsored plant breeder Certified Seed Commercial Cultivation
or institution and/or seed whose production is
personally supervised by a qualified plant breeder The production of breeder seed is the mandate
and which provides the source for the initial and of the ICAR along with State Agricultural
recurring increase of foundation seed. Breeder Universities while the production of foundation and
seed shall be genetically so pure as to guarantee certified seed is the mandate of the seed industry
that in the subsequent generations i.e. foundation (Fig. 1 & 2).
and certified classes shall confirm to the prescribed

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Fig. 1: Generations / steps in seed multiplication programme

RELEASE & NOTIFICATION NUCLEUS SEED

OF VARIETY

BREEDER SEED

FOUNDATION SEED STAGE-I

MAXIMUM THREE FOUNDATION SEED STAGE-II

GENERATIONS

CERTIFIED SEED STAGE-I

COMMERCIAL
CULTIVATION
CERTIFIED SEED STAGE-II

Fig. 2: Seed production system in India

New Varieties

About 3500 improved varieties of crops have been released /notified.

Breeder Seed Production (As per State indents)

ICAR-SAU System Other Components of NARS

Foundation Seed Production

State Seed Corporations, NSC, SFCI, Pvt

Quality / Truthfully Labeled Seed

All formal and informal System Farmer to farmer exchange Farm–saved seed

Certfied Seed Production

State Seed Corporations, NSC, SFCI, Pvt

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 Millet Seed Technology

Indian Seed Act 1966 buyers of seed or a third party guarantee between
To control the quality of seed during production the seed men and buyers. Seed certification ensures:
and marketing, Govt. of India enacted Seed •• High Genetic Purity
Act in 1966 and framed the Seed Rules in 1968. •• High degree of physical purity
For effective implementation of the act, major •• High germinablity
provisions are: •• Freedom from all designated seed-borne
•• Central Seed Committee disease, weeds and other crop seeds.
•• Minimum Seed Certification Standards •• Safe moisture content.
•• Certification voluntary but labeling is •• High vigour
compulsory Seed-to-seed cycle: ‘Seed-to-seed’ cycle
•• Label should contain necessary informations followed in India during seed production is given
•• Central Seed Testing Laboratory in Fig.3
•• State Seed Testing Laboratories Minimum seed certifications standards: There
•• Central Seed Certification Board is need of minimum standards for:
•• State Seed Certification Agencies 1. Different seed quality parameters
•• Seed Inspectors 2. Different generations of seed
•• Seed Analysts 3. Field and seed level
In India the field and seed standards were
Seed certification adopted in 1971.
International Crop Improvement Associations •• These include standards both field level and
(1968) defined the purpose of seeds certification as seed level
“to maintain and make available to the farmers high •• These standards were revised in 1988 along
quality seeds and propagating material of superior with inclusion of more crops
crop varieties, so grown and distributed as to ensure •• In India,
genetic identity and purity”. In addition to genetic •• A Breeder Seed does not come under
purity and identity, factors affecting physical certification but it is monitored in a precise
purity such as fraction from obnoxious weeds and and well-defined manner by a qualified team
seed borne diseases, high germination, vigour and constituted by ICAR.
uniformity of seed etc. are also important. Seed •• The foundation and certified seed come under
Certification is a system that provides assurance to certification.

Fig. 3: Seed-to-seed cycle followed in India during seed production

PROCUREMENT OF

A CLASS OF

SEED PRODUCTION IN THE

FIELD

CYCLE REPEATED FOR

NEXT CLASS OF IMPROVED NEXT CLASS
SEED PROCESSING
SEED

STORAGE

DISTRIBUTION OF A CLASS OF
IMPROVED SEED

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 Millet Seed Technology

•• There is also a provision of Truthfully Labeled •• Production System

Seed (TL). This is the seed which is not put for •• Breeder - Foundation - Certified
certification but labeling is compulsory. •• Maintenance breeding
Maintenance breeding: The process for •• Efficient agronomic management including
maintaining genetic purity being followed in India hybrid seed production technology
is given in Fig.4; seed quality system in Fig. 5; seed •• Isolation / land requirement
certification and quality testing in India in Fig. 6; •• Roguing
and testing of genetic purity at seed level in Fig.7. •• Certification
Fig.7: Testing of genetic purity at seed level •• Grow-out –test (GOT)
Road map of activities to be followed in seed •• Seed testing
generations for quality seed production: •• Law enforcement

Fig 4: Schematic diagram for maintenance breeding

RELEASE &
SELECT 200-300
NOTIFICATION
TRUE-TO-TYPE PLANTS.
OF VARIETY

TABLE EXAMINE

SEED SEPARATELY. HARVEST & THRESH

REJECT ROWS OF INDIVIDUAL

ROW/PAIR

BULK THE SEED

NUCLEUS SEED BREEDER SEED
OF SELECTED

ROWS/PAIRS

Fig.5: Seed quality control system in India

SEED
PRODUCTION

UNIVERSITY/ ICAR SEED CORPORATIONS/

INSTITUTES
PVT. AGENCIES

NUCLEUS/ BREEDER FOUNDATION/

QUALITY
SEED CONTROL CERTIFIED

MONITORING CERTIFICATION

FIELD SEED FIELD SEED

LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL

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 Millet Seed Technology

Fig. 6: Seed certification and quality testing in India

Certification at Field level Testing at Seed level

• Source of seed
• Preceding crop requirement • Physical purity analysis
• Isolation to avoid cross-  By number
pollination • Other crop seed
 From same species • Total weed seed
 From other species • Objectionable weed seed
 Disease  By weight
• Inseparable other crop • Germination
plants • Viability
• Objectionable weed plants • Moisture
• Plants infected with • Seed health
o Disease
objectionable diseases
o Insect pest
Processing o Parasite
• Genetic purity
o ODV
 Pre conditioning
 Basic cleaning

Processing
Seed lot
 Pre conditioning
Seed lot  Basic cleaning


Fig.7: Testing of genetic purity at seed level

Road map of activities to be followed in seed hybrid seed production technology

generations for quality seed production: • Isolation / land requirement
• Roguing
• Production System • Certification
• Breeder - Foundation - Certified • Grow-out –test (GOT)
• Maintenance breeding • Seed testing
• Efficient agronomic management including • Law enforcement

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 Millet Seed Technology

Seed sampling principles &

procedures

T he reliability of the inference made about the quality of the seed lot depends primarily on two
components: the accuracy with which the sample represents the lot and the accuracy and precision
of the laboratory test. It is observed in many cases that the variations in test results are due to the
variation in the sampling. Hence, seed sampling is one of the basic components responsible for the
accurate Seed Testing results. Therefore utmost care is required for drawing the sample No matter how
accurately the laboratory tests are done, the results can only show the quality of the sample submitted
for analysis; consequently the sample should accurately represent the composition of the seed lot.

Objective Composite sample: Is formed by combining and

The object of sampling is to obtain a mixing all primary samples taken from the lot.
representative sample of a size suitable for test. Submitted sample: Sample submitted to seed testing
When the sample originates from a seed lot, it is laboratory. The size of the submitted sample is
expected that the test results reflect the average specified in the Seed Testing Rules.
quality of the seed lot. Working sample: It is a sub sample taken from
submitted sample in the laboratory, on which one of
Sampling: A sample is obtained from the seed lot the quality tests will be done.
by taking small portions at random from different
position of the lot and combining them. General principles of sampling
Seed lot: It is a specified quantity of seed, Under seed law enforcement programme only
physically identifiable, in respect of which a seed trained and experienced officials are authorized to
test certificate can be issued. undertake sampling and he has to ive notice to such
Primary sample: Small portion of seed sample intention to the person from whom he intends to
taken from one point in a lot. take sample. Take three representative samples in
the prescribed manner and mark & seal.
•• One sample to be deliver to the person from
whom it has been taken
•• Second to be sent for analysis to the Seed
Analyst of the area.
•• Third to be retained for any legal proceedings.
•• At least 2 persons should be present and obtain
signature of both witnesses on Form VIII of
the Seed Rules.
•• Sampler must verify the information provided
on the label as per the requirements of the Seed
Act:

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 Millet Seed Technology

Following information should be checked on For seed lots in containers smaller than 15 kg
label: Kind; Variety; Lot Number; Date of Test; capacity, containers shall be combined to sampling
Seller’s name & address. In case of certified units not exceeding 100kg and sampling units shall
lots sampler should check Information on seed be regarding as containers in the sampling scheme
certification tag: Name & Address of certification above.
agency; Kind & Variety; Lot No.; Name a&
Address of certified seed producer; Date of issue of Equipments for sampling
the certificate & its validity; Class & Designation Sleeve or stick: The tube and sleeve have open
of seed; Period during which the seed shall be used slots in their walls So that when the tube is turned
for sowing. until the slots in tube and sleeve are in line. Seed
The seed lot should be so arranged that each can flow into the cavity of the tube, and when the
individual Or part of the lot is conveniently tube is given half turn the opening are close.
accessible. Upon the request of the sampler, the
owner shall provide full information regarding
bulking and mixing of the lot. When there is
definite evidence of heterogeneity sampling shall be
refused. If the nature of the presentation of the seed Sleeve or stick (diameter 12.7 mm & length 762 mm having 9 slots)
lot or container makes it impossible to adequately
apply these procedures, then the sampling shall Bin trier: It is larger than sleeve trier constructed
not be undertaken, and alternative presentation on the same principle. It is used for sampling from
of the seed lot should be sought. The size of the heaps and godowns
seed lot should not exceed to the maximum size as It consist of hollow tube inside, closely fitting
prescribed in the rules subject to 5% of tolerance. outer sleeve has solid pointed end.

Minimum sampling intensity for seed lots

Bin trier (diameter 38 mm & length 1600 mm having 9 slots)
when seed in bulk:
Up to 500 At least 5 primary samples
501 -3,000 One primary sample for each Nobe trier: Pointed tube long enough to reach
300kg but not less than 5 the center of the bag with an oval hole near the
3,001 - 20,000 One primary sample for each pointed end.
500 kg but not less than 10
20,001 or more One primary sample for each
700 kg but not less than 40
Nobe trier for small seeds (hole diameter 10 mm)

Minimum sampling intensity for seed lots in 310 mm

100 mm
containers:
Containers No. of primary samples
1–4 3 samples from each container
Hole diameter 14 mm
5 –8 2 samples from each container 60 mm

9 – 15 1 samples from each container Large trier for sampling from heaps and godowns
16 – 30 15 samples in total
31 – 59 20 samples in total
60 or more 30 samples in total

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 Millet Seed Technology

Large trier for sampling from heaps and godowns

Address label to be attached

HDPE bag with the bag
Bucket or pan for collecting Label on which detailed
individual trier samples (150 gms cap.)
information

Method of obtaining primary samples

Steps to follow:

2. Take sample at random

1. Check lot 2. Count bags

3. Empty trier & repeat as 4. Empty sample into bag

required

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 Millet Seed Technology

Methods for obtaining working principle as the conical divider, is the soil divider.
samples The channels are here arranged in a straight row
Sampling in seed testing laboratory: Seed instead of a circle as in the conical divider. The soil
samples received in the Seed Testing Laboratory divider consists of a hopper with attached channels
(submitted sample) are required to be reduced to or ducts, a frame to hold the hopper, two receiving
obtain working samples for carrying out various test. pans and a pouring pan. The dimensions found
suitable are: Ducts or channels, 12.7 mm wide,
lead from the hopper to the collecting pans. There
are 18 of these channels, alternate ones leading to
opposite sides. The maximum dimensions are: 35.6
cm long; 25.4 cm wide; and 27.9 cm high. In using
the divider the seed is scattered fairly evenly in a
pouring pan the length of the hopper and poured in
at approximately equal rates along the entire length
of the hopper. This divider is suitable for large-
seeded and chaffy species, but suitable type for
Soil divider: It is simpler divider, built on the same small seeded species can also be made.

A. The soil divider. schematic drawing

of the construction principle of the soil
divider. 12.7 mm wide 18 channels

35.6 cm long
25.4 cm wide

C. Soil divider
without a pouring

B. The collection pans have

a bended edge that can be hang on
the bar above the channels.

Soil divider

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 Millet Seed Technology

Conical divider - suitable dimensions: Large mm wide; The overall dimensions of the dividers
divider, designed for large seeds and grains, there are: large divider, 81.28 cm high and 36.83 cm in
are 19 channels and 19 spaces, each 25.4 mm wide; diameter; small divider, 40.64 cm high and 15.24
Small divider designed for small free-flowing cm in diameter.
seeds there are 22 channels and 22 spaces, each 7.9

Height 81.28 cm Diameter 36.83

cm 25.4 mm wide 19 channel
Height 40.64 cm
diameter 15.24 cm

7.9 mm wide 22
channel

For small
seeded For big
species seeded
species

Conical divider or Boerner

Conical type or
divider seed dividertype seed divider
Boerner

Centrifugal divider: The centrifugal divider i. Leveled by means of the adjustable feet.
(Gamete type) makes use of centrifugal force to ii. Divider & four containers are checked for
mix and scatter the seeds over the dividing surface. cleanliness.
In this divider the seed flows downward through a iii. A container is placed under each spout.
hopper onto a shallow rubber cup or spinner. Upon iv. The whole sample is fed into the hopper; when
rotation of the spinner by an electric motor the filling the hopper, seed must always be poured
seeds are thrown out by centrifugal force and fall centrally.
downward. The circle or area where the seeds fall is v. The spinner is operated and the seed passes into
equally divided into two parts by a stationary baffle the containers.
so that approximately half the seeds fall in one spout vi. Full containers are replaced by empty containers.
and half in the other spout. The centrifugal divider The contents of the two full containers are fed
tends to give variable results when not carefully into the hopper together, the seed being allowed
operated. To avoid variability in the results the to blend as it flows in. The spinner is operated.
divider is operated vii. The procedure described in (vi) above is
repeated at least once more.

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 Millet Seed Technology

A. Schematic drawing B & C. Centrifugal Divider or Gamet Type Divider

Spoon method: Useful for samples of a single With the spoon in one hand, the spatula in the other,
small-seeded species and for sample reduction for and using both, remove small portions of seed from
moisture determination or seed health testing. A not less than five random places. Sufficient portions
tray, a spatula and a spoon with a straight edge are of seed are taken to constitute a sub-sample of
required. After preliminary mixing, pour the seed approximately, but not less than, the required size.
evenly over the tray; do not shake the tray thereafter.

A. Sample to be reduced; B. Two Spoon; C. Distributing the seed over the pan; D. A spoon is pushed vertically
A. Sample
into to be
the seed reduced;
layer B. Two Spoon;
(as a substitute); C.the
E. With Distributing the seed
second spoon pan;ofD.theA spoon
over inthefront
the seed verticalisspoon
pushedis vertically
E. With
into the seed layer (as a substitute); Two the secondasspoon
sub-samples the seed in front of the vertical spoon is collected;
collected; F. Both spoons are removed from the seed and the seed sample is transferred to a collection pan; G.
the result.
F. Both spoons are removed from the seed and the seed sample is transferred to a collection pan; G. Two sub-
Hand halving method: In the International Rules 2. Thoroughly mix the seed into a mound with a
this method is the most satisfactory method samples
for as the result. spatula
flat-edged
chaffy and genera of tree and shrub seed. The 3. The mound is divided into half and each half
technique is as follows: is halved again, giving four portions. Each of
1. The seed is poured evenly onto a smooth clean the four portions is halved again giving eight
surface.

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 Millet Seed Technology

portions which should be arranged in two rows

of four.
4. Combine and retain alternate portions: e.g.
combine the first and third portions in the first
row with the second and fourth in the second
row. Remove the remaining four portions.
5. Steps two, three and four are repeated using the
retained portions from step four until the weight
of sample required is obtained.
A.A.Sample;
Sample; B. Mount; C. Halves withC.
B. Mount; D. Two halves;
Halves
ruler; with E. Four
ruler; D.
fourths;

Two halves; E. Four F. Finalfourths; F. Final

Random cups method

A.A.Schematic
Schematic drawing
drawing of theoftray,
thethe
tray,
cupsthe cups
and howand how tothe
to distribute distribute
seed overthe
the seed
tray; B.over the
A tray tray;
with cups
andB.distributing
A tray with cups and
a sample overdistributing a sample
the tray; C. The tray withover thesample
the total tray; C. The trayover
distributed with thethe
tray;total
D. The
sample distributed over the tray; D. The cups removed from the tray and emptied into a
cups removed from the tray and emptied into a glass vessel; E. Cups of different size in one set.
glass vessel; E. Cups of different size in one set.

Lot & sample weights of important cereal crops Lot & sample weights of important pulse crops
Crop Max. wt. of Minimum wt. of sample (g) Crop Max. wt. of Minimum wt. of sample (g)
Submitted Working Submitted Working
seed lot (kg) seed lot (kg)
Paddy 20,000 400 40 Black Gram 20,000 1,000 150
Wheat 20,000 1,000 120 Horse Gram 20,000 500 500
Barley 20,000 1,000 120 Lentil 10,000 600 60
Pearl millet 10,000 150 15 Pea 20,000 1,000 900
Sorghum 10,000 900 90 Pigeon pea 20,000 1,000 300
Maize 40,000 1,000 900 Green gram 20,000 1,000 120
Oats 20,000 1,000 120

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 Millet Seed Technology

Lot & sample weights of important oil seed Lot & sample weights of important
& fiber crops vegetable crops

Crop Max. Minimum wt. of Crop Max. wt. of Minimum wt. of

wt. of sample (g) sample (gms)
Submitted Working seed lot (kg) Submitted Working
seed lot
French bean 20,000 1,000 700
(kg)
Bottle gourd 20,000 700 70
Groundnut (pods) 20,000 1,000 1,000
Cucumber 10,000 150 70
Groundnut kernels 20,000 1,000 600 Tomato 10,000 70 07
Tomato 10,000 07 07
Mustard 10,000 160 16 (hybrid)
Soybean 20,000 1,000 500 Onion 10,000 80 80
Lettuce 10,000 30 03
Sunflower 20,000 1,000 250 Carrot 10,000 30 03
Cabbage 10,000 100 10
Sunflower Hybrid 20,000 250 125
Okra 20,000 100 140
Safflower 10,000 160 16 Brinjal 10,000 150 15
Cauliflower 10,000 100 10
Cotton 20,000 1,000 350 Reddish 10,000 300 30
Jute 10,000 150 15 Spinach 10,000 500 50
Methi 10,000 40 4

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 Millet Seed Technology

Physical Purity Testing

P hysical purity analysis tells us the proportion of pure seed component in the seed lot as well as the
proportion of other crop seed, weed seed and inert matter by weight in percentage for which Seed
Standards have been prescribed.

Introduction inert particles constituting the sample.

Physical purity analysis tells us the proportion The definition of the various physical purity
of pure seed component in the seed lot as well as components in the ISTA Rules are as follows:
the proportion of other crop seed, weed seed and
Pure seed
inert matter by weight in percentage for which Seed
The pure seed shall refer to the species stated by
Standards have been prescribed. Thus, it helps in:
the sender, or found to predominate in the test, and
•• Improving the plant stand (by increasing the shall include all botanical varieties and cultivars
pure seed component). of that species (even if immature, undersized,
•• Raising a pure crop (by eliminating other crop shriveled, diseased or germinated, providing they
seed and weed seeds). can be definitely identified as of that species) unless
•• Raising a disease free-crop (by eliminating transformed into visible fungal-sclerotia, smut balls
inert matter). or nematode galls. Pure seed shall include a) intact
•• In the use of seed drill (by selecting uniform seed units (commonly found as dispersal units i.e.
particles). achenes and similar fruits, schizocarp, florets etc.)
•• as defined for each genus or species; b) pieces of
There is a need for physical purity analysis for: seed units larger than one half their original size.
From the above main principles certain exceptions
•• Seed Certification or Seed Law Enforcement are made for particular genera or species as follows:
Agencies to judge that the seed lot conforms to
the prescribed standards. •• Seed units of families Leguminaceae,
•• Seed processing plants for using right kind of Cruciferae, Cupressaceae, Pinaceae and
processing equipment. Taxodiaceae with the seed coat entirely removed
•• Physical purity analysis is a pre-requisite for shall be regarded as inert matter. Separated
germination test because ‘pure seed’ component cotyledons of leguminaceae are regarded as
is used for germination testing. inert matter, irrespective of whether or not the
radicle-plumule axis and/or more than half of
Objective the testa may be attached.
The primary objective of physical purity •• In certain genera of family gramineae.
analysis is to determine: a) A minimum size of caryopsis is required i.e.
in Lolium, Festuca and Elytrigia repens a
•• The percentage composition by weight of
floret with a caryopsis one third or more of
the sample being tested and by inference the
the length of palea measured from the base
composition of seed lot; and
of rachilla is regarded as pure seed, but a
•• The identity of various species of seeds and
caryopsis less than 1/3 the length of the

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 Millet Seed Technology

palea is regarded as inert matter. percentage by weight shall be determined.

b) The presence of caryopsis in spikelets and
florets is not always obligatory. Equipment
c) The separation of pure seed and inert matter Aids such as transmitted light, sieves and
is done by uniform blowing procedure. blowers may be used in separating the component
This method is obligatory for Poa protensis parts of the working sample. The blower is to be
and Dactylis glomerata. used, for the uniform blowing method, for species
d) Multiple seed unit is (MSU) are left intact of family Gramineae. Other equipments required
in the pure seed fraction e.g. Doctylis and are:
Festuca. •• Dividers
e) Attached sterile florets are not removed, •• a. Soil type
but left attached and included in the pure •• b. Boerner (work on gravitational force)
seed fraction e.g. Arrhenatherium, Avena, •• c. Gamete (works on centrifugal force and
Chloris, Dactylis, Festuca, Holens, Poa, electrically operated)
Sorghum and Triticum spelta. •• Balance: Electric or electronic balance are
f) For certain genera appendages are left better due to their accuracy and quickness
on the seed but reported if found to the •• Blowers
extent of 1% or more, the percentage of •• Diaphnoscope using reflected light are used to
such material must be shown on Analysis separate inert matter such as empty florets of
Certificate (example – paddy). grasses.
•• Sieves
Other crop seed •• Sample pans, dishes, forceps, spatula and hand
Other crop seed shall include seed units of any lens
plant species other than of pure seed grown as crops. •• Seed herbarium of crop and weed seed
Multiple structures, capsules, pods are opened and
the seeds are taken out and the non-seed material is Procedure
placed in the inert matter. Obtaining working sample: Since the size of the
working sample is minute as compared with the size
Weed seeds: Seeds bulblets or tuber of plants of the seed lot to which it represent, it is therefore,
recognized by laws, official regulations or by very essential that the working sample should be
general usage shall be considered as weed seeds. obtained in accordance with the procedures. The
working sample shall be either a weight estimated
Inert matter: Inert matter shall include seed units to contain atleast 2,500 seed units or not less
and all other matter and structures not defined as than weight indicated i.e. 40 g for Oryza sativa.
pure seed excluding other crop seed and weed Boerner or soil type seed divider should be used to
seeds. homogenize the submitted sample before reducing
it to the size of working sample. The following
General principles guidelines need to be followed:
As per ISTA Rules, the working sample is •• Check the cleanliness of the divider and the
separated into three components i.e. pure seeds, container.
other seed, and inert matter. The percentage of each •• Pour the entire contents of the submitted sample
part is determined by weight. All species of seed and into the hopper of the divider.
each kind of inert matter present shall be identified •• Allow the content of the submitted sample
as far as possible and if required for reporting, its to pass through the main body of the divider.

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 Millet Seed Technology

In case of ‘Soil type’ seed divider this can be •• After separation, identify the other crop seed,
accomplished by tilting the hopper over the weed seed and record their names on the
body of the divider while in case of ‘Boerner’ analysis card. The kind of inert matter present
divider, by opening the gate-valve situated at in the sample should also be identified and
the base of the hopper. recorded.
•• Recombine the contents of both sample •• Weight each component, pure seed, other crop
receiving pans and again pass it through the seed, weed seed and inert matter in grams to the
divider. number of decimal places shown below:
•• Repeat this process twice in order to homogenize ••
the submitted sample. •• S. Wt. of working No. of decimal Example
No. sample (g) place required
•• Divide the submitted sample. ••
1. Less than 1 4 0.9025
•• Set aside the contents of one container. ••
2. 1 to 9.990 3 9.025
•• Divide the contents of the other container ••
3. 10 to 99.99 2 90.25
subsequently till the weight of working sample ••
4. 100 to 999.9 1 902.5
is obtained. ••
5. 1000 or more 0 1025
••
Separation
•• Clean the work board, sample and purity dishes •• Calculate the percentage by weight of each
before starting the separation component to one decimal place only, basing
•• Examine the working sample to determine the the percentage on the sum of the weight of all
use of particular aid such as blower or sieves for the four components. If any component is less
making separation. than 0.05% record it as ‘Trace’. Component of
•• After preliminary separation with the help of 0.05% to 0.1% are reported as 0.1%.
sieves or blower, place and spread the retained
or heavier portion (A) on the purity work board. Reporting results: The results of purity test be
•• With the help of spatula or forcep, draw given to one decimal place only and the percentage
working sample into thin line and examine each of all component must be total 100. If the result for
particle individually. The criteria used being a component is nil, this must be shown as 0.0% in
the external appearance (shape, size, colour, the appropriate space of the report form. The report
gloss, surface texture) and/on appearance in should also include the kind of inert matter and the
transmitter light. Latin names of the crop seed and weed seed found
•• Separate out impurities such as other crop in the sample.
seeds, weed seeds and inert matter and place the
impurities separately in purity dishes, leaving Definition of pure seed
only the pure seed on the purity board.
•• Seed enclosed in fruits other than those GRAMINEAE
indicated in pure seed should be separated and Oryza (Paddy)
the detached empty fruit/appendages classed as •• Spikelet, with glumes, lemma and palea
inert matter. enclosing a caryopsis including the awn
•• Collect the pure seed in the sample pan. irrespective of its size.
•• Put the lighter portion (B) of the work board •• Floret, with or without lemmas, with lemma
and examine under magnification for further and palea enclosing a caryopsis, including the
separating into the requisite classes (other crop awn irrespective of its size.
seed, weed seed and inert matter). •• Caryopsis

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 Millet Seed Technology

•• Piece of caryopsis larger than one-half the bristles.

original size. •• Floret with lemma and palea enclosing a
•• N.B: Seeds with awns longer than length of caryopsis.
floret are reported according Rule 3.7. •• Caryopsis.
Hordeum (Barley) •• Piece of caryopsis larger than one-half the
•• Floret, with lemma and palea enclosing a original size.
caryopsis, with or without awn or with or Sorghum (Jowar)
without rachis segment irrespective of their •• Spikelet, with glumes, lemma and palea
length. enclosing a caryopsis with or without hyaline
•• Piece of floret containing a caryopsis larger palea or lemmas, rachis segments, padicle(s),
than one-half the original size. awn(s), attached sterile or fertile floret(s).
•• Caryopsis •• Floret, with lemma and palea, with or without
•• Piece of caryopsis larger than one-half the awn.
original size. •• Caryopsis.
•• N.B. Florets with awn or rachis segment longer •• Piece of caryopsis larger than one-half the
than length of floret are reported according to original size.
Rule 3.7 Leguminaceae (Gram, Pea, Mung, Urd, Bean,
Avena (Oat) Cluster bean, Soybean, Lupins, Crotolaria
•• Spikelet with lemma and palea enclosing a (Sunhemp), Medicago, Arachis, Trifolium);
caryopsis, with or without awn plus attached Cruciferae (Radish, Mustard, Cabbage and
sterile floret. Cauliflower)
•• Floret with lemma and palea enclosing a •• Piece of seed larger than one-half the original
caryopsis, with or without awn. size with testa.
•• Caryopsis •• Seeds and pieces of seed without testa is
•• Piece of caryopsis larger than one-half the regarded as inert matter.
original size. •• Separated cotyledons are regarded as inert
Triticum, Zea, Secale (Wheat, Maize, Triticale) matter irrespective of whether or not the
•• Caryopsis radicle-plumule axis or more than half of the
•• Piece of caryopsis larger than one-half the testa may be attached.
original size. Solanaceae (Chillies, Brinjal, Tomato, Tobacco);
Panicum (Sawa) Linaceae (Linum); Liliaceae (Onion, Garlic);
•• Spikelet, with glumes, lemma and palea Amaranthaceae (Amaranthus); Cucurbitaceae
enclosing a caryopsis, plus attached sterile (Watermelon, Longmelon, Muskmelon,
lemma. Cucumber, Pumpkin, Squash, Bottle guard);
•• Floret with lemma and palea enclosing a Pedaliaceae (Sesamum)
caryopsis. •• Seed with or without testa.
•• Caryopsis •• Piece of seed larger than one-half the original
•• Piece of caryopsis larger than one one-half the size with or without testa.
original size. Umbelliferae (Carum, Coriander, Cumin,
•• No need to check the presence of caryopsis. Carrot, Fennel)
Pennisetum (Pearlmillet) •• Schizocarp is a dry fruit which separates into
•• Fascicle of 1-5 spikelets (spikelets with glumes, two or more units (mericarps) at maturity.
lemma and palea enclosing a caryopsis, plus •• Piece of mericarp larger than one-half the original
attached sterile lemma) with involucre of size unless it is obvious that no seed is present.

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 Millet Seed Technology

•• Seed with the pericarp partially or entirely •• Piece of seed larger than one-half the original
removed. size, with or without testa.
•• Piece of seed larger than one-half the original Chenopodiaceae (Spinach, Beet, Sugar beet, Red
size, with the pericarp partially or entirely beet)
removed. •• Cluster, or piece of cluster, with or without stalk
•• N.B. Fruits with pieces of pedicel longer than unless it is obvious that no seed is present.
the length of schizocarp/mericarp are reported •• Seed, with pericarp/testa partially or entirely
according to Rule 3.7 removed.
Malvaceae (Cotton) •• Piece of seed larger than one-half the original
•• Seed with or without testa (testa with or without size with the pericarp/testa partially or entirely
fuzz). removed.
•• Piece of seed larger than one-half the original •• Seeds with pieces of stalk protruding more than
size with or without testa. the width of cluster are reported according to
Compositeae (Sunflower, lettuce, chicory) Rule 3.7. When a particular kind of inert matter,
•• Achene, with or without beak, or with or species of other seed, multiple seed unit (MSU)
without pappus, unless it is obvious that no seed or seeds with appendages attached is found to
is present. the extent of 1% of more, the percentage of
•• Piece of achene larger than one-half the original such material must be shown on the analysis
size, unless it is obvious that no seed is present. certificate.
•• Seed with the pericarp/testa partially or entirely •• In certain genera seeds/fruits may have various
removed. appendages (awns/stalks etc.) attached. Such
•• Piece of seed larger than one-half the original appendages shall be left attached to the seeds,
size, with the pericarp/testa partially or entirely but the content of seeds with appendages longer
removed. than the greatest dimensions must be reported
Euphorbiaceae (Ricinus) on the certificate.
•• Seed with or without testa, with or without
caruncle.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Seed Germination Testing

T he purpose of laboratory testing of seed germination is to assess seed quality or viability and to
predict performance of the seed and seedling in the field. A NOTIFIED laboratory under SEEDS
ACT or qualified laboratory of ISTA for testing seeds must test seed processed for sale. The ultimate
aim of testing the germination in seed testing laboratory is to obtain information about the planting
value of the seed sample and by inference the quality of the seed lot. In addition, the laboratory
germination results are also required for comparing the performance potential or superiority of the
different seed lots. In general, the farmers, seeds men and public agencies use the germination results
for the following purposes:
•• Sowing purposes, with a view to decide the seed rate to achieve desired field establishment.
•• Labeling purposes.
•• Seed certification purposes.
•• Seed Act and Law Enforcement purposes.

In seed testing germination has been defined Germination testing

as "the emergence and development from the seed The most common test is a warm germination
embryo of those essential structures which, for the test because it is required by seed laws to appear
kind of seed tested indicate its ability to develop on the label. The percentage of germinating seed
into a normal plant under favourable, conditions in in a warm germination test must be printed on
soil". The seedlings devoid of an essential structure; the label of the seed if it is to be sold as seed. The
showing weak or unbalanced development; decay warm germination test reflects the field emergence
or damage affecting the normal development of potential of a seed lot under ideal planting
seedling are not considered in calculating the conditions. Usually 400 seed from each seed lot
germination percentage. Factors that can affect are placed under moist conditions on blotters,
the performance of seed in germination tests rolled towels, or sand and maintained at about 75
include; diseased seed, old seed, mechanically to 85 degrees F for about seven days in most of the
damaged seed, seed stored under high moisture, cases. At the end of this period the seedlings are
and excessive heating of seed during storage or categorized as normal, abnormal, or diseased, and
drying. In most cases a seed treatment will improve dead or hard seeds. The percentage germination is
germination of seed only if the poor quality is calculated from the number of normal seedlings
due to seed-borne disease. Several different kinds from the total number of seeds evaluated. The
of testing are available depending on the type of method of testing germination is discussed below.
seed to be tested, the conditions of the test, and the The first and foremost step is to draw a true
potential uses of the seed. The most common tests representative sample from the seed lot. To obtain
are the cold germination test, accelerated aging a random sample for testing it is always best to
test, the tetrazolium test and warm germination take samples from different parts of the bag or
test. Each test is designed to evaluate various container. If the seed to be tested is from a seed lot
qualities of the seed. that contains more than one bag, samples must be

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 Millet Seed Technology

taken from several bags. A good rule of thumb for for small sized seeds. In the absence of counting
determining how many bags to sample is to take devices, the work may be accomplished manually.
samples from a number of bags that represents the
square root of the lot size. For example if the lot Other equipments: The other equipments required
contains nine bags, then sample at least three bags. for germination testing include the refrigerators,
If the lot contains 100 bags, then sample at least scarifier, hot water bath, incubator, forceps, spatula,
10 bags. The sample thus drawn is further divided germination, boxes, plastic plates, roll- towel stands
and the required numbers of seeds are the taken to and plastic or surgical trays, etc. A large oven
perform the actual test. with temp. Range 100 -200 C is also required for
sterilizing the sand.
Essential equipments and supplies for
germination test Miscellaneous supplies, glassware and chemicals:
The following pieces of equipments and supplies Germination paper (Creppe Kraft paper or towel
are essential to carry forward the germination tests paper, sunlit filter paper and blotters) and sand are
in the seed testing laboratories. the basic supplies required for germination tests.
In addition, the laboratory may also require some
Seed germinator: The seed germinators are the glassware, such as Petri dishes, beakers, funnel,
essential requirement for germination testing for measuring cylinders, muslin cloth, rubber bands
maintaining the specific conditions of temperature, and tubes etc. and certain chemicals like Potassium
relative humidity and light. The seed germinators nitrate, Thiourea, Gibrellic acid, and Tetrazolium
are generally of two types, namely: Cabinet chloride for specific purposes. Voltage stabilizers
germinator and walk in germinator. The cabinet seed are required for the supply of the constant electric
germinators are essential under the situations, where current. The voltage stabilizers are essential
various kinds of seeds that require different sets of for costly germinators, air-conditioners and
conditions, are being handled in the laboratory. The refrigerators. Under the situations of erratic power
number of the pieces of the germinators required supplies and breakdowns, electricity generators are
by the laboratory will depend on the number of also required.
seed samples and the species being analysed by
the laboratory. The seed testing laboratories that Care of equipments: The seed analyst must
handle large number of seed samples and require ensure that:
maintaining only fewer (2-3) sets of temperature •• All the equipments are in proper working
conditions, the walk-in-germinators are preferred. condition
Such germinators are more useful for conducting •• The germinators are maintaining correct
the germination tests in sand media, which require temperature
large germination space. •• The relative humidity inside the germinator is
maintained 90--98%
Counting devices: The counting devices include •• The phytosanitary conditions of the germinators
the counting boards, automatic seed counter and and germination trolleys are adequate
vacuum seed counter. These devices are required •• The germinators are disinfected periodically by
to aid germination testing by minimizing the time flushing with hot water; solution of Potassium
spent on planning the seeds as well as to provide permanganate or chlorine water
proper spacing of the seed on germination substrata. •• The temperature and the R.H. of the walk-in-
Counting boards are suitable for medium and bold germinators are recorded daily and displayed
sized seeds, while vacuum counter can be, used on a chart and

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 Millet Seed Technology

•• The floor, ceiling and walls of the walk-in- Testing of substrata

germinator are devoid of cracks, crevices;
•• Evenly plastered and duly painted to avoid Phytotoxicity: The substrata should be tested for
contamination by fungus, bacteria or insects. its phytotoxicity, capillary rise, moisture holding
capacity and bursting strength, etc., before
Handling of substrata: The accuracy and accepting the supplies in the laboratory. Periodic
reproducibility of the germination result are very checks of the quality of the substrata should also be
much dependent on the quality of the substrata made in the laboratory. By germinating the seeds of
(paper and sand) used for germination testing. The Brassica, Onion, Chillies or Berseem and studying
germination substrata must meet the following the phytotoxic symptoms on the germinating
basic requirements: seedlings can check the phytotoxicity of the paper
•• It should be non-toxic to the germinating or sand substrata.
seedlings. •• The paper should be cut into circles and
•• It should be free from moulds and other rectangles or squares of the desired size
microorganisms. according to the size and shape of the
•• It should provide adequate, aeration and, containers.
moisture to the germinating seeds. •• Place 2-4 circles/rectangles of the paper to be
•• It should be easy to handle and use. tested in the petridishes or plastic containers.
•• It should make good contrast for judging the •• Moisten the paper with tap water using only
seedlings enough water to saturate the paper. Excess
•• It should be less expensive. water should not be used.
•• Paper substrata: The paper substrata are •• Arrange 25 seeds of Brassica, Onion, Chillies or
used in the form of top of paper (TP) or Berseem properly spread over the moist paper.
between paper (BP) tests. In most of the •• Cover the dishes with lids.
laboratories, paper-toweling method (Roll •• Conduct a control test as outlined above (step
towel test) is most commonly used for l-4) using paper of accepted quality such as
medium sized and bold seeds. The paper 'Waterman' or 'Sunlit' brand filter paper.
substrata are not reusable. •• Transfer the test to the prescribed temperature
•• Sand substrata: The sand substrata have conditions of the species used at test crop.
advantage of being relatively less expensive •• Evaluate the test 1-2 days before the date of the
and reusable. The results in sand media first count of the crop specified
are more accurate and reproducible in •• Check the phytotoxic symptoms on the
comparison with 'roll towel' tests especially seedlings.
in case of seed lots that are aged or heavily •• Compare the seedlings with those grown on the
treated with chemicals. The sand should non-toxic paper (control test).
be reasonably uniform and free from very
small and large particles. It should not The phytotoxic symptoms include shortened
contain toxic substances and its pH should roots; discolored root tips; root raised from the
be within the range of 6.0- 7.5. The sand paper; inhibition of root hairs development and root
should be washed, sterilized and graded hairs bunched. The symptoms are more pronounced
with a sieve set having holes of 0.8 mm at an early stage of root growth. The phytotoxic
diameter (upper sieve) and 0.05 mm symptoms are also evident in the plumular areas
diameter (bottom sieve). The sand retained in the form of thickened or flattened plumules or,
on the bottom sieve should only be used.

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 Millet Seed Technology

coleoptiles. The phytotoxicity of the sand substrata its kind. Large seeded species require more water
can also be measured by the procedure outlined than the small seeded species. It is essential that
as above. However, care need to be exercised that the substratum must be kept moist throughout the
the sand substrata should be moistened with the germination period. Care need to be taken that the
measured quantity of the water and the seeds are sub-stratum should not be, too moist. The excessive
planted on the top of sand (TS). The pH of the moisture will restrict the aeration and may cause
substrata can be measured with the help of pH paper the rotting of the seedlings or development of
or pH meter as follow: watery seedlings. Except the situations, where a
•• Soak the paper or sand in water for 16-18 hrs. high moisture level is recommended (e.g. Paddy
•• Decant the water. and jute), the substratum should not be so wet that
•• Measure the pH with litmus paper or pH meter. a film of water forms around the seeds. In situations
If the, sand substrata are found to be acidic or where low level of moisture is recommended (e.g.
alkaline, wash it thoroughly with the water and Cucurbitaceous seeds), the moist substratum should
sterilize before use. be pressed against the
Dry blotters or towel paper, to remove excess
Capillary rise: moisture. The water used for moistening the
•• Cut four strips of germination paper 10 mm substratum must be free from organic and inorganic
wide; two in machine direction and the other impurities. Normally the tap water is used. However,
two in cross machine direction. it is essential to measure the pH .of water before its
•• Take distilled water in small glass beakers. use. The pH of the water should be in the range of
•• Immerse one end of each strip in the water to a 6.5- 7.5. Under the situations where pH of the water
depth of 20 mm. is not satisfactory, distilled water or deionized water
•• Wait for 2 minutes and then measure the height may be used. Under such situation care need to be
to which water has risen in the strip to the exercised to aerate the tests frequently to provide
nearest mm. oxygen supply to the germinating seedlings because
•• Commute the average for the two strips cut in oxygen level in distilled water is very low.
machine direction or cross machine direction The initial quantity of water to be added to
separately. the substratum will also depend on its nature and
•• The lower value of the two averages should be dimensions. Subsequent watering, if, any may be
considered as capillary rise. left to the discretion of the analyst but it should
be avoided as far as possible because it may cause
Bursting strength: The bursting strength of the the variation in germination results. In order to
paper is measured with equipment; however, it can reduce the need for additional watering during the
be checked as follows: germination period, the relative humidity of the air
•• Hold the two ends of the germination paper and surrounding the seeds should be kept at 90-95 % to
exert the pressure by stretching the paper with prevent loss of water by evaporation.
mid force. Special measures for aeration are not usually
•• Soak the paper in water for 1-2 hours. necessary in case of top of paper (TP) tests.
•• The paper of desired bursting strength would However, in case of 'Roll towel' tests (BP) care
not tear off easily. should be taken that the rolls should be loose enough
to allow the presence of sufficient air around the
Test conditions seeds. In case of sand media, the sand should not be
Moisture and aeration: The moisture compressed while covering the seeds.
requirements of the seed will vary according to

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Temperature: The temperature is one of the most least 8 hours in every 24 hours cycle. Under the
important and critical factors for the laboratory situation where testing of the seed is required to be
germination tests. The temperature requirement for undertaken at alternating" temperatures together
germination is specific according to the kind of crop with light, the tests should be illuminated during
or species. This can vary within the species and with high temperature period.
the age of seeds. At very low or high temperatures,
the germination is prevented to a larger extent. Laboratory procedures
The temperature should be uniform through out The working sample for germination test
the germinator and the germination period. The consists of 400 pure seeds randomly drawn either
variation in temperature inside the germinator manually or with the help of counting devices. The
should not be more than 1°C. The prescribed seed for germination test must be drawn as follows
temperature for germination of agricultural, in accordance with the following two situations:
vegetable or horticultural seeds, provided in the
Rules for Seed Testing can be broadly is classified a) When both purity and germination tests are
into two groups, viz. constant temperatures and required.
alternate temperatures. • Seeds for germination tests must be taken
from the pure seed fraction after conducting
Constant temperature: Wherever, the constant the physical purity analysis.
temperatures are prescribed or recommended for • The counting of the seed must be made
the germination tests, the tests must be held at the without discrimination as to the size and
specific temperature during the entire germination appearance.
period.
b) Only germination test is required.
Alternate temperature: Wherever, the alternating- • If, the percentage of pure seed is estimated
temperatures are prescribed, the lower temperature or determined to be above 98 per cent, the
should be maintained for 16 hours and the higher pure seed for germination test shall be taken
for 8 hours; a gradual changeover lasting 3 hours indiscriminately from a representative
is usually satisfactory for non-dormant seeds. portion of the submitted sample;
However, a sharp change over lasting 1 hour or less, • If, the pure seed is found to be less than 98
or transfer of test to another germinator at lower percent, the seeds for germination test must
temperature, may be necessary for seeds, which are be obtained by separating the sample into
likely to be dormant. two components, namely
Light: Seeds of most of the species can a) The pure seed and
germinate, in light or darkness. It is always better b) Seeds of other species and inert matter.
to illuminate the tests for the proper growth of For this purpose, at least one-fourth of the quantity
the seedlings. Under the situations where light required for regular purity analysis must be used after
is essential for germination, tests should be proper mixing and dividing the submitted sample.
exposed to the natural or "artificial source of light.
However" care must be made to ensure that an even Number of replications: Four replication of 100
intensity is obtained over the entire substrate, and seeds, A minimum of 3 replication of l00 seeds
that any heating from the source does not affect the may be used under unavoidable situations or Eight
prescribed temperature. or six replications of 50 seeds or Sixteen/twelve
Seeds that require light for germination must replication of 25 seeds according to the kind of and
be illuminated with cool fluorescent light for at size of containers.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Paper substrata: squares or rectangles according to the size and

•• Check the quality of germination paper before shape of Petridish/container.
accepting the supplies. •• Put 2-3 layer of filter paper in the petridish/
•• Measure the pH, capillary rise, bursting strength germination box having airtight lids.
and phytotoxicity of the germination paper. •• Put enough water to moisten the filter paper.
•• Store the germination paper under hygienic •• Hold the petridish / germination box in slanting
conditions and protect it from dust and micro position in order to drain out the extra moisture.
flora. •• Record the test number and date of putting on
•• Very old stock should not be used as they often the lid of the container or on die paper slip.
get contaminated. Such paper usually shows •• Space the counted seeds on the moist blotter/
phytotoxic symptoms. filter paper.
•• Cover the lid
Between paper (BP) media (roll towel test): •• Transfer the test in the germinator maintained at
•• Soak the towel paper in water. the desired temperature.
•• Remove the water.
•• Wash the paper with running water. Sand substrata(s):
•• Remove extra moisture by pressing the soaked •• Properly graded and sterilized sand free from
paper by hand and holding it in plastic/surgical impurities and toxic chemicals should be used.
trays placed on the tabletop in slanting position. •• Sand should not be stored in the stores where
•• Place two layers of wet paper toweling as fertilizers and chemicals are stored.
substratum. •• Grade, the sand with a sieve set of 0.8 mm x
•• Check Test number provided on the Analysis 0.05 mm (mesh).
Card sample and label tally each other. •• Sand retained over Q05 mm sieve should only
•• Record the test number, crop and date of putting be used.
on the wax paper or tag. •• After each test, the sand should b~ dried and
•• Arrange seeds spaced properly. sterilized.
•• Place one layer of wet towel paper over the •• If required, the sand may be washed before
seed. sterilization.
•• Turn up two inches of the bottom edge. •• If the sand found to be heavily contaminated or
•• Roll firmly from left to right and secure with changed in colour after repeated use it should
rubber band in the center. be replaced with fresh stocks.
•• Place the prepared roll towel in roll towel stand •• The pH of the sand should be within the range
or baskets. of 6.0- 7.5.
•• Transfer the basket or roll towel stand in •• The sand should also be checked if its
the germinator maintained at the desired phytotoxicity
temperature. •• Determine the, moisture holding capacity of the
sand.
Top of paper (TP) media: •• Put required quantity of water to moisten the
•• Paper of known quality such as 'Sunlit' or sand.
'Whatman' filter paper should be used. •• The moisture level of the sand will vary
•• Crepe Kraft (towel) paper or blotter paper of according to the kind of seed.
unknown quality should not be used for top of •• Place moist sand in plastic germination boxes. The
paper tests. depth of sand bed should be approximately 2".
•• The paper should be cut in the form of circles/ •• Space the counted seed on the sand bed

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 Millet Seed Technology

contained in the germination boxes. coat may be sufficient to break the dormancy
•• Cover the seed with moist sand layer, condition. Care must be taken to scarify the
approximately 1/4" in thickness. seed coat at a suitable part in order to avoid
•• Put the cover on the germination boxes and damaging the embryo. The best site for
place them under prescribed controlled mechanical scarification is that part of the
temperature conditions. seed coat immediately above the tips of the
cotyledons.
Germination environment •• Acid scarification: Treating with in
After placing the seeds on the prescribed concentrated Sulphuric acid (H2S04) is effective
substrata, the test should be transferred to the with some species (e.g. Macroptilium sp.,
controlled temperature condition maintained in Brachiaria sp., Sesbania sp.). The seeds are
the cabinet or walk-in-germinator for prescribed moistened with in the acid until the seed coat
period, which varies according to the species becomes pitted. Digestion may be rapid or take
(ISTA Seed Testing Rules). In the Rules for Seed more than one hour, but the seeds should be
Testing, two kinds of temperature conditions are examined every few minutes. After digestion,
provided. A single numerical indicate the constant seeds must be thoroughly washed in running
temperature and numerical separated by a dash (-) water before the germination test is commenced.
indicate an alternating temperature. If temperatures In the case of Oryza sativa scarification may be
cannot be conveniently altered over weekends performed by soaking the seed in one normal
or holidays, the tests must be kept at the lower nitric acid (HNO3) for 24 hrs. (after preheating
temperature. The daily alternation of temperature at 50 °C).
either brought out manually by transferring the •• Inhibitory substances: Naturally occurring
test from one germinator to another or by changing substances in the pericarp or seed coat, which
the temperature of the chamber (Automatic Seed act as inhibitors of germination may be
Germinator). removed by washing the seeds in running water
at a temperature of 250C before the germination
Methods to improve germination test is made. After washing, the seeds should
Hard seeds: For many species where hard be dried back at a maximum temperature of
seeds occur, some special treatment is essential. 25°C (e.g. Beta vulgaris). Germination of
This treatment may be applied prior to the certain species is promoted by removing outer
commencement of the germination test or, if it is structures such as involucre of bristles or lemma
suspected that the treatment may adversely affect and palea of certain Poaceae (Gramineae).
non-hard seeds, it should be carried out on the hard •• Disinfection of the seed: For samples of
seeds remaining after the prescribed test period. Arachis hypoagea and Beta vulgaris only, a
The treatments are as below: fungicide treatment may be applied before
•• Soaking: Seeds with hard seed coats may planting the seed for germination, when the
germinate more readily after soaking for up seed lot is known not to have received such a
to 24-48 hours in water or for Acacia spp. treatment. When a fungicide pretreatment is
after plunging seeds in about three times their used, the name of the chemical, the percentage
volume of near boiling water until it cools. The of active ingredients and the method of
germination test is commenced immediately treatment shall be reported on the certificate.
after soaking. •• Prechilling: In some seeds having physiological
•• Mechanical scarification: Careful piercing, dormancy pre chilling is required for inducing
chipping, filing or sand papering of the seed germination. Replicates for germination are

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 Millet Seed Technology

placed in contact with the moist substratum and the prepared solution,(0.2%)-one at a time.
kept at a low temperature for an initial period b. Turn blotters over in one movement, but
before they are removed to the temperature as ensuring that they are still free moving in the
shown in (ISTA Seed Testing Rules - Table 2). solution. c. Remove one at a time, in order of
Agricultural and vegetable seeds are kept at placing in solution and place on tray.
a temperature between 5°C and 10°C for an
initial period up to 7 days. Tree seeds are kept Gibberellic acid (GA3): Moisten the germination
it a temperature between 3°C and 5°C, for a substratum with 50 ppm solution of GA, which can
period, varying with the species, from 7 days to be prepared by dissolving 500 mg of GA3 in 1000
12 months. In some, cases it may be necessary ml of water. Place the seed for germination under
to extend the prechilling period or to rechill. prescribed temperature conditions.
The prechilling period is not included in the
germination test period but both the duration Duration of testing
and the temperature should be reported on the The duration of the test is determined by the
analysis card time prescribed for the, final count (ISTA Seed
•• Pre-drying: The replicates for germination Testing Rules, Table 2) but the chilling, periods
should be heated at a temperature not exceeding before or during the test, which is required
400C with free air circulation for a period of to break dormancy, is not included in the test
up to 7 days before they are placed under the period. If at the end of the prescribed test period
prescribed germination conditions. In some some seeds have just started to germinate, the
cases it may be necessary to extend the pre- test may be extended for an additional period
drying period. Both the duration and the up to 7 days. A test may be terminated prior to
temperature should be reported on the Analysis the prescribed time when the analyst is satisfied
Certificate. that the maximum germination of the sample
has been obtained. The time for the, first count
Chemical treatments is approximate and a deviation of 1-3 days is
Potassium nitrate (KNO3): The germination permitted. The First count may be delayed to
substratum may be moistened with a 0.2% solution permit the development of root hairs in order
of KNO3, as indicated in (ISTA Seed Testing to be certain that root development is normal,
Rules - Table 2). The substratum is saturated or may be omitted. Intermediate counts may
at the beginning of the test but water is used for be at the discretion of the analyst to remove
moistening it thereafter. The use of this treatment seedlings, which have reached a sufficient
should be noted on the analysis certificate. state of development for evaluation, to prevent
The procedure for preparing solutions and them becoming entangled. But the number of
soaking blotters is as follows: intermediate counts should be kept to a mini-
•• Preparation of stock KNO3, solution (2%): mum to reduce the risk of damaging any seedlings
Place 20 Gms KNO3 crystals in 1000 ml water that are not sufficiently developed. Seedlings
shake until dissolved. This must be diluted may have to be removed and counted at more
before being used to soak blotters. frequent intervals during the prescribed period of
•• Preparation of 0.2% KNO3 solution for soaking the test when a sample contains is infected with
blotters: Add 90 ml water to 10 ml of stock 'fungi or bacteria. Seeds that are obviously dead
solution and decayed, and may, therefore, be a source of
•• Procedure for soaking blotters: a. Take the contamination for healthy seedlings, should be
blotters representing the sample and place into removed at each count and the number recorded.

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Evaluation of germination test •• A well-developed and intact hypocotyl

The germination tests need to be evaluated on without damage to the conducting tissues.
the expiry of the germination period, which varies •• An intact plumule with a well-developed
according to the kind of seed. However, the seed green leaf, within or emerging through
analyst may terminate the gern1ination test on or the coleoptile, or an intact epicotyl with a
before the final count day or extend the test beyond normal plumular bud.
the period de- pending on the situation. First and •• One cotyledon for seedlings of
second counts are usually taken in case of Top monocotyledons and two cotyledons and
of Paper (TP) and Between Paper (BP) media; seedlings of dicotyledons.
however, a single final count is made in case of •• Seedlings with the following slight defects
sand tests. At the first and subsequent counts, provided they show vigorous and balanced
only normal and dead seeds (which are source of development of the other essential structures:
infection) are removed and recorded. •• Seedlings of Pisum, Vicia, Phaseolus,
In evaluating the, germination test, the, Lupinus, Vigna, Glycine, Arachis,
seedlings and seeds are categorized into normal Gossypium, Zea and all species of
seedlings, abnormal seedlings, dead seeds, Cucurbitaceae, with a damaged primary
fresh ungerminated and hard seeds. The fresh root but with several secondary roots of
ungerminated or hard seeds and abnormal seedlings sufficient length and vigour to support the
should be evaluated at the end of germination. The seedlings in soil.
stage of development of the essential structures •• Seedlings with superficial damage or decay
must be sufficient to permit detection of any to the hypocotyl, epicotyl or cotyledons,
abnormal seedlings. It may also be necessary to which is limited in area and does not affect
remove the seed coat and separate the cotyledons the conducting tissues.
In order to examine the plumule in species where •• Seedlings of dicotyledons with only one
essential structures are still enclosed at the end of cotyledon.
the test. •• Seedlings of tree species having epigeal
Normal seedlings: It is necessity to separate germination when the radicle is four times the
the normal seedlings, which are counted in the length of the seed provided all structures that
percentage germination, from any abnormal have developed appear normal.
seedlings. To achieve uniformity in evaluating •• Seedlings which are seriously decayed by fungi
normal seedlings, they must conform to one of the or bacteria, but only when it is clearly evident
following definitions: that the parent seed is not source of infection
•• Seedlings, which show the capacity for and it can be determined that all the essential
continued development into normal, plants structures were present.
when grown in good quality soil and under
favourable conditions of water supply, Abnormal seedlings: Abnormal seedlings are those,
temperature and light. which do not show the capacity for continued
•• Seedlings that possess all the following essential development into normal plants when grown in
structures when tested on artificial substrata: good quality soil and under favorable conditions of
•• A well-developed root system including a water supply, temperature and light.
primary root-, except for those plants (e.g.
ceftt1in species of Gramineae) normally Seedlings with the following defects shall be classed
producing seminal roots of which there still as abnormal:
are at least two. •• Damaged seedlings; seedlings with no

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 Millet Seed Technology

cotyledons; seedlings with constrictions, splits, •• Primary root split longitudinally, or damaged
cracks or lesions which affect the conducting with secondary roots weak,
tissues of the epicotyl, hypocotyl or root; •• Radicle with no root hairs.
seedlings without a primary root of those •• Radical or primary root brown in colour.
species where a primary root is an essential ••
structure, except for Pisum, Vicia, Lupinus, Hypocotyls and epicotyl:
Vigna, Glycine, Arachis, Gossypium, Zea and •• Hypocotyl short and thick, or twisted, or curled
all species' of Cucurbitaceae, when several over or watery.
vigorous secondary roots have developed to •• Epicotyl or stem with constriction, grainy
support the seedlings, in soil. lesion, or open split likely to interfere with the
•• Deformed seedlings: Seedlings with weak conducting, tissues.
or unbalanced development of the essential •• Hypocotyl with constriction, grainy lesions or
structures such as spirally twisted or stunted open split likely to interfere with the conducting
plumules, hypocotyls or epicotyls; swollen tissues.
shoots and stunted roots; split plumules •• Epicotyl or stem short and thick, or twisted
or coleoptiles without a green leaf; watery around the main axis, e. No terminal bud.
and glassy seedlings, or without further •• Two shoots which are short and weak, or
development after emergence of the cotyledons. spindly.
•• Decayed seedlings: seedlings with any of the •• No primary leaves, with or without terminal
essential structures so diseased or decayed that or auxiliary buds, or with more than half the
normal development is prevented, except when total area of the primary leaves missing or not
there is clear evidence to show that the cause of capable of functioning normally, or with one
injection is not the seed itself. primary leaf and evidence of damage to the
•• Seedlings showing cotyledon development shoot apex.
from the micropyle, or radicle development ••
from a part of the seed other than the micropyle. Coleoptile (Gramineae):
Special categories of abnormal seedlings The 3 •• No green leaves
main categories of abnormality, damage, deformity •• Short leaves extending less than half the length
and decay, outlined in the previous section, can be of coleoptile
further classified into categories as follows: •• Leaves shattered or split longitudinally and/or
coleoptile with a split easily visible to the naked
Roots: eye or abnormal coleoptile development due to
•• No roots, in Avena, Hordeum, Secale and damage.
Triticum or one seminal root only. •• Plumule short and thick, usually with short or
•• Primary root (or seminal roots in Gramineae) stunted seminal roots.
short and stunted. ••
•• Primary root thin and weak, too short or too Cotyledons (Dicotyledonous species):
long. •• None
•• Primary root short and stunted, or short and •• One, with evidence of damage to the shoot
weak, or spindly, secondary roots weak. apex.
•• No primary root or no well developed secondary •• Poorly developed leaf-like cotyledon in Allium,
roots. without a definite bend, or "knee".
•• Seminal roots short and weak, or spindly, or •• Enlarged, with short hypocotyl. e. Physiological
watery. necrosis

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 Millet Seed Technology

•• Grey in colour on the Analysis Certificate. The average percentage

•• Swollen and blackened is calculated to the nearest whole number. The total
•• More than half the total area broken off, or % of all the category of seeds (normal, abnormal.
covered with spots or darkened areas, or with dead hard, fresh un germinated) should be 100.
open splits if development as a whole is out
of proportion compared with that of a normal Retesting
seedlings germinated at the same time. The result of a test shall be considered
•• unsatisfactory and shall not be reported and a second
Decay: test shall be made by the same or an alternative
•• Decayed cotyledons. method, under the following circumstances:
•• Decayed hypocotyl. •• When dormancy is suspected (fresh
•• Decayed epicotyl or stem. ungerminated seeds).
•• Decayed plumule, or decay at point of •• When the result may not be reliable because of
attachment between seedlings and endosperm phytotoxicity or spread of fungi or bacteria
or discoloration of the coleoptile which has •• When there is difficulty in deciding the correct
penetrated to the leaves. evaluation of a number of seedlings.
•• Decayed primary root (except secondary •• When there is evidence of errors in test
infection by Phoma betae) or seminal roots in conditions, seedling evaluation or counting.
the Gramineae. •• When the range for the 100-seed replicates
•• Decay or discoloration at point of attachment exceeds the maximum tolerated range
between cotyledons and seed- lings axis, or
adjacent to the shoot apex. Reporting of result
•• Completely delayed seedling. The following items shall be entered in the
•• Other abnormalities: appropriate space of the analysis certificate when
•• Seedlings short and weak, or spindly, or watery. reporting the result of a germination test:
•• Frost damaged seedlings with grainy coleoptile •• Kind of variety
or a plumule, which is weak and spirally •• Date of testing
twisted. •• Duration of test
•• Entirely white seedling in the Gramineae and •• Percentage of normal seedlings, abnormal
Liliaceae. seedlings, hard seeds, fresh seeds and dead
•• Completely shattered seedling. seeds. If the result for any of these categories is
found to be nil, it shall be entered as 0
Calculation and expression of result
Results are expressed as percentage by number. The following additional information shall also
Germination rate is the average number of seeds be reported:
that germinate over the five-day and 10-day time (a) In all cases
period. •• Substrate and temperature used.
•• Any special treatment or method used for
Number seeds germinated promoting germination.
Germination (%) = x 100
Number seeds on tray •• The germination percentage obtained within
the prescribed time, if the germination
When four l00-seed replicates of a test are period has been extended beyond the period
within the maximum tolerated range, the average indicated.
represents the percentage germination to be reported •• The second result obtained when duplicate

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tests are indicated in Table SA. The variation in germination test results may be
(b) Upon request minimized by taking the following precautions:
•• The result of any additional test, Sampling: A representative sample (working
•• The viability of ungerminated seeds and method sample) of seed lot should be drawn by following
used to determine it. prescribed sampling techniques.400 seeds should
•• Categories of ungerminated seeds and methods be taken from pure seed fraction for undertaking
used to determine them. germination test.
•• With multigerm seed units: number of normal
seedling produced by 100 units; proportion Substrata: Depending on the purpose of undertaking
of units producing one, two or more than two germination test substrata should be selected. If
normal seedlings. germination test results are required for assessment
of seed quality paper should be used and for
Reasons of variation in the evaluation of seed vigour sand should be used.
germination test results
Germination test provides information about Paper:
planting value of the seed under ideal conditions Between paper: Conduct of germination test
of temperature, moisture, light and substrata. In between paper rolled towel paper (crepe Kraft paper)
addition, germination test results are utilized for : is extensively used for undertaking germination
•• Labeling purposes test which contains toxins and affects germination
•• Seed certification results. The paper before use should be tested for
•• Seed law enforcement toxicity and toxicity should be removed by soaking
•• Adjusting the seed rate for achievement of the paper overnight in water and washing for one
desired field establishment. hour in running tap water or by soaking the paper in
water and changing the water frequently.
Reasons for Variation in germination test results
•• Chance alone Top of paper method: Filter paper circles of Sonar/
•• Poor sampling i.e. non uniform representative Whatmann/Sunlit make is primarily used which are
sample, random sampling error non-toxic. If other brand filter paper are used they
•• Poor equipment, including variation in should be tested for quality i.e. toxicity. Roll towels
temperature, light and humidity in germinator should neither be very tight to allow rotting due to
•• Substrata quality: Toxicity or impurities in poor aeration not very loose that the seeds move
Paper or sand from place. Tight rolling has been reported to result
•• Use of stored or old germination papers in development of abnormal seedlings. Wax paper/
•• Incidence of fungi or bacteria or others in the polythene should be folded from lower end to retain
seed moisture. If germination test is conducted in Petri
•• Improper phyto-sanitary conditions of plates then should be washed thoroughly after use
laboratory, containers and germinators and dried. Detergents used for cleaning should be
•• Effect of seed treatment removed thoroughly by washing.
•• Untrained or inexperienced analysts
•• Inaccurate counting of seed or seedling Sand:
•• Observation before or after prescribed time Sand used for test should be of recommended
•• Interpretation of seedling performance: Normal/ grade and size and should be washed and sterilised
abnormal and dead and fresh ungerminated. to remove impurities and microbes or spores. In top
of paper and sand method lid should be tightly fixed

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 Millet Seed Technology

to prevent moisture loss from the substratum. The Power supply: Uninterrupted power supply should
use of cracked/broken lids leads to complete loss of be available during conduct of germination test.
moisture, thus affecting germination results.
Placement: The placement of seeds should be with
Moisture: Excess moisture in substrata causes counting board. If it is done with hand, seeds should
poor aeration of seeds and rotting and insufficient be placed vertically as the roots get entangled and
moisture hampers germination test by development evaluation becomes difficult. Germination test
of abnormal seedlings. Thus optimum moisture in roll towels, seeds should not be placed near
should be provided to substrata. Tap water is proximal end of paper as toxins gets accumulated
generally used but if distilled water is used which at the base of paper and causes abnormal seedlings.
is devoid of oxygen it should be supplemented with
oxygen. Extra moisture should be drained off the Evaluation: Faulty evaluation may lead to faulty
towel by keeping in slanting position. In between results and causes variation in germination results.
top of paper method, individual paper circles after Germination evaluation should be done as per seed
dipping in tap water with help of forceps should be testing rules. The variation can be minimized if the
dried to drain extra water. analyst is familiar with seed testing rules.

Temperature: The germination test should be Thus germination test results generated
conducted under recommended temperature i.e. at following above precautions under recommended
20oC, 250 C or alternating temperature but never conditions will be accurate and reproducible.
under room temperature.

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Seed Moisture Testing

T he seed moisture content (mc) is the amount of water in the seed. It is usually expresses as a
percentage on wet weight basis in any seed-testing laboratory. The seed moisture is the most
vital parameter, which influences the seed quality and storage life of the seed. Seed moisture content
is closely associated with several aspects of physiological seed quality. For example, it is related to
seed maturity, optimum harvest time, mechanical damage, economics of artificial seed drying, seed
longevity and insect & pathogen infestation.

Objective Determination of seed moisture content

The objective is to determine the moisture As seed moisture and its management
content of seed by methods suitable for routine use. influences so many physiological seed quality
Definition: The moisture content of seed sample is parameters essential to seed quality. Seed moisture
the loss in weight when it is dried in accordance measurement appropriate to the purpose is needed
with ISTA rules. It is expresses as a percentage of in commerce and research. The optimum method
the weight of the original sample. for moisture testing depends upon:
Principle: The methods prescribed are designed to •• Chemical composition of seed
reduce oxidation, decomposition or the loss of other •• Seed structure
volatile substances while ensuring the removal of as •• Moisture content level
much moisture as possible. •• Degree of accuracy and precision required
•• Constraints of time
Seed ageing and loss of seed •• Technical expertise and cost
germination The ideal could be that is adopted to all seeds,
Seed ageing and loss of germination cannot measures moisture content from 0 to 100 per cent,
be stopped, but can be minimized by proper seed reproducible, require less training and low in cost.
storage conditions. The important environmental It is impossible to combine all these. However, in
factor influencing germination loss are relative order to measure the moisture content of seeds,
humidity (RH) governs the seed moisture, and methods can be broadly grouped in two categories:
temperature, higher are these; the more rapid is •• Direct method
the seed deterioration. The effects of seed moisture •• Indirect method
and temperatures are summarized succinctly in Direct method: Under this category, the seed
Harrington’s rules, as under: moisture content is measured directly by loss or
•• For every decrease of 1 per cent in seed moisture gain in seed weight. These are:
content the life of seed is doubled. •• Desiccation method
•• Phosphorus pentaoxide method
•• For every decrease of 50 C in storage
•• Oven-drying method
temperature the life of the seed is doubled.
•• Vacuum drying method
Rule 1 hold’s good, when the seed moisture •• Distillation method
content is between 14 and 5 per cent. When •• Karl Fisher’s method
these two simple rules are applied, the effects are •• Direct weighing balance
geometric. •• Microwave oven method

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 Millet Seed Technology

Indirect method: These are no so accurate; estimation •• Weighing bottles/Moisture containers

is approximate, but convenient and quick in use. These •• Desiccator with silica gel
are frequently used at seed processing plants. These •• Analytical balance capable of weighing up to
measure other physical parameters like electrical 1 mg
conductivity or electrical resistance of the moisture •• Seed grinder/An adjustable grinding mill
present in the seed. Values are transformed into seed •• Tong
moisture content with the help of calibration charts, •• Heat resistant gloves
for each species, against standard air-oven method •• A brush/A steel brush
or basic reference method. Above all Karl-Fisher’s
method has been considered as the most accurate Period of seed drying
and the basic reference method for standardizing The prescribed period of seed drying shall be
other methods of seed moisture determination. The 17± 1 hrs under low constant temperature. Seed
constant temperature oven drying method is the only drying period begins from the time oven returns to
practical method, approved by International Seed maintain the desired temperatures.
Testing Association (ISTA) and other organization to Sample size: The ISTA rules recommend that
be used for routine seed moisture determination in a two replicates, each with 4 gm of seed be used for
seed –testing laboratory. determination of seed moisture content. This seed
Constant temperature oven drying method:The sample weight may be modified to 0.2 to 0.5 gm
constant temperature oven drying method is broadly per replicate, with precise weighing, for use in
grouped into two categories: seed genebanks, to avoid unnecessary depletion of
•• Low Constant Temperature Oven Method precious biological resources.
•• High Constant Temperature Oven Method
Low constant temperature oven method: This Procedure
method has been recommended for seed of the •• Seed moisture determination be carried out in
species rich in oil content or volatile substances duplicate on two independently drawn working
(Table 1). In this method, the pre-weighed moisture samples.
bottles along with seed material are placed in an •• Weigh each bottle with an accuracy of 1 mg or
oven maintaining a temperature of 1030 C. Seeds 0.1 mg.
are dried at this temperature for 17±1 hr. The •• First weigh the empty bottle/container with its
relative humidity of the ambient air in the laboratory cover.
must be less than 70 per cent when the moisture •• Grind the seed material (if need be, in seed
determination is carried out. species listed in Table 3), evenly using any
High constant temperature oven method: The grinder/grinding mill that does not cause
procedure is the same as above except that the oven heating and/or loss of moisture content.
is maintained at a temperature of 1300 -1330 C. The •• Mix thoroughly the submitted sample, using
sample is dried to a period of four hours for Zea spoon, and transfer small portions (4 to 5 gm)
mays, two hours for other cereals and one hour for of seed samples directly into weighing bottles/
other species (see also Table 2). In this method, there containers, by even distribution on bottom of
is no special requirement pertaining to the relative the containers.
humidity of the ambient air in the laboratory during •• Place the weighing bottles/containers in an
moisture determination. oven, already heated to or maintaining the
desired temperature, for the recommended
Essential equipments and supplies period.
•• Constant temperature precision hot-air electric oven •• At the end of seed drying period, weighing

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 Millet Seed Technology

bottles/containers be closed with its lid/cover. two replicates exceeds 0.2%, the seed moisture
•• Transfer the weighing bottles/containers to the determination in duplicate be repeated. As it is very
desiccators having silica gel (self indicating- difficult, rather impossible, to meet the replicated
blue), to cool down for 40- 45 min. difference of seed moisture up to 0.2% in tree or
•• Weigh again the cooled weighing bottles/ shrub species, a maximal limit of 0.3 to 2.5% is
containers recommended between two replicates for seed
•• Calculate the seed moisture content. moisture in tree or shrub species under ISTA rules.

Calculation of results Reporting of results

The moisture content as a percentage by weight Seed moisture content is reported to the nearest
(fresh weight basis) is calculated to one decimal 0.1% on ISTA analysis certificate. If the seed
place, by using of the formulae: moisture content is determined using any moisture
M2- M3 meter, the brand name and type of the equipment be
% Seed moisture content (mc) = ------------ x 100 mention on the analysis certificate, under column
M2- M1 of other “other determinations”. Reporting of range
Where, for which the moisture meter is calibrated is another
M1 = Weight of the weighing bottle/container requirement, on seed analysis certificate.
with cover in gm
M2 = Weight of the weighing bottle/container Table 1: Species for which the low constant
with cover and seeds before drying temperature (1030 C) oven method be used
M3 = Weight of the weighing bottle/container Allium Spp Linum ustatissimum
with cover and seeds after drying Arachis hypogea Raphanus sativus
(Note: The seed moisture determination must Brassica spp Ricinus communis
be done in two replicates, with precise weighing Camelina sativa Sesamum indicum
i.e. up to three decimal palces, using lightweight Capsicum spp Sesamum orientale
weighing bottles/containers.) Glycine max Sinapsis spp
If the seed is pre-dried or dried in two steps: Gossypium spp Solanum melongene
The seed moisture content is calculated from the
results obtained in the first (pre-dried) and second
Table 2: Species for which high constant
stages of seed drying, using the following formula,
temperature (1300 to 1330C) oven method be used
and expresses as percentage, as under :
(S1 + S2) - ((S1 x S2) Asparagus Sorghum spp
% Seed moisture content (mc) =----------------------- Avena spp Triticum spp
100 Beta vulgaris Zea mays
Where, Cicer arietinum Cucurbita spp
S1 = is the moisture loss in the first stage, and Oryza sativa Medicago spp
S2 = is the moisture loss in the second stage
Table 3: Species for which grinding is obligatory
Use of tolerances Arachis hypogaea Glycine max Phaseolus spp
Result is the arithmetic mean of the duplicate
Avena spp Gossypium spp. Pisum sativum
determination of seed moisture content, for a given
Cicer arietinum Hordeum Sorghum spp.
seed sample. The maximal difference of 0.2% is vulgare
recommended between two replicates, for crop seed Fagopyron Lathyrus spp. Zea mays
species under ISTA rules. If the difference between esculantum

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 Millet Seed Technology

Testing of Coated and

Pelleted Seeds

M odern agriculture is in a transitional stage. Yield barriers of major crops were broken down
and quality of produce improved; all these are achieved by judicious and complementary
combinations of various advanced technologies such as transgenic. But the overall performance of a
crop is vested on the quality of the seed sown. And here comes the importance of seed enhancement.
This is particularly relevant in the case of high value seeds. Seed enhancements are the post-harvest
treatments that improve germination and seedling growth to facilitate the delivery of seeds and to
her materials required at the time of sowing. The methods of seed enhancement include physical
grading, seed coating, pelleting, priming and pre-germination. Seed coating refers to the direct
application of a material to the seed. The term ‘pelleted seeds’ refers to the addition of inert filler
materials to increase the apparent seed size and weight. Seed pelleting may obscure the original
shape and size of the seed.

Seed coating is one of the most useful areas of changed to a greater or less extent. The
seed enhancements and an economical approach for encrusting material may contain pesticides,
improving the seed performance. Seed placement fungicides, dyes or other additives.
and performance can be greatly enhanced by altering •• Seed granules: Units more or less cylindrical,
the shape of seeds or placing the chemicals on seed including types with more than one seed
coat, which regulate and improve germination. A joined together. The granule, in addition to the
wide range of materials are used to coat seeds as granulating material, may contain pesticides,
individuals in discrete units as in case of pellets or dyes or other additives.
spaced in strips or sheets. However, seed treated •• Seed tapes: Narrow bands of material, such
in traditional ways with pesticides alone should as paper or other degradable material, with
be tested according to the methods prescribed for seeds spaced randomly, in groups or at random
normal uncoated seeds. Where reference is made throughout the sheets.
to seed pellets, encrusted seed, seed granules, seed •• Seed mats: Broad sheets of material, such as
tapes and seed mats, in these cases the methodology paper or other degradable material, with seeds
given in this chapter need to be followed. placed in rows, groups or at random throughout
the sheets.
Definitions
•• Seed pellets: These are more or less spherical Sampling
units developed for precision sowing, usually Size of lot: If the lot is reasonably homogenous,
incorporating a single seed with the size and the maximum weight a lot may be as great as
shape of the seed no longer readily evident. the maximum weight of lot for which sampling
The pellet, in addition to the pelleting material, procedures are prescribed as in case of uncoated
may contain pesticides, dyes or other additives. seeds subject to the tolerance of 5% and subject to
•• Encrusted seed: Units more or less retaining the seed number limitation prescribed below:
the shape of the seed with the size and weight The maximum number of seeds that a lot of

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 Millet Seed Technology

seed pellets, encrusted seeds, seed granules, seed submitted contained only pellets (seeds) and is not
tapes or seed mats may contain is 1,000,000,000 in accordance with the International Rules for Seed
(10,000 units of 100,000) except that the weight of Testing”.
lot, including the coating material may not exceed Drawing and disposal of submitted sample:
42, 000 kg (40,000 kg plus 5%). When lot size is As submitted samples of coated seeds normally
expresses in units the total weight of the lot must be contain fewer seeds than corresponding samples of
given on the certificate. uncoated seeds special care is necessary in drawing
Size of submitted sample: Submitted samples the sample to ensure that it is representative of the
shall contain not less than the number of pellets or lot. Precautions are necessary to avoid damage or
seeds indicated in column 2 of Table 1, Part 1 and change in the pellets or seed tape during drawing,
Part 2. If a smaller is used the following statement handling and transport, and samples must be
must be inserted on the certificate: “ The sample submitted in suitable containers.
Size of working sample: Working samples shall
Table 1 - Part 1: Sample sizes of pelleted seeds in contain not less than the number of pellets of seeds
number of pellets indicated in column 3 of Table 1, Part 1 and 2. If a
smaller sample is used the actual number of pellets
Determinations Submitted Working or seeds in the sample shall be reported on the ISTA
samples not samples not International Seed Analysis Certificate.
less than less than
Purity analysis
(including verification 7500 2500 Purity analysis
of species) Purity analysis in the strict sense (i.e. of the
Pure pellet seeds inside the pellets and tapes) is not obligatory
Weight determination 7500
fraction though, if requested by the applicant, a purity
analysis on depelleted seeds or seed removed from
Germination 7500 400
tape may be carried out in accordance with the
Determination of other method prescribed for the uncoated seeds. When a
10000 7500
seeds purity test on depelleted seeds is to be undertaken t
Determination of other the request of the applicant the working sample of
seeds (encrusted seeds 25000 25000 not less than 2500 pellets is depelleted by shaking in
and seed granules) fine mesh sieves immersed in water. The component
Size grading 10000 200 parts (pure seed, other seeds and inert matter) shall
be reported as percentages of their total weight,
ignoring the pelleting material. The percentage of
Table 1, Part 2: Sample sizes of seed tapes
pelleting material shall be reported separately only
Determinations Submitted Working samples on request. When a purity test on seeds removed
samples not not less than from tapes is requested, the tape material of the
less than working with paper tapes is cautiously separated
Verification of 2500 seeds 100 seeds and stripped off.
species
Germination 2500 seeds 400 seeds
Pure pellets: Pure pellets shall include:
Purity analysis 2500 seeds 2500 seeds
•• Entire pellets regardless of whether or not they
(if required) contain seed,
Determination 10000 seeds 7500 seeds •• Broken and damaged pellets in which more
than half the surface of the seed is covered by

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 Millet Seed Technology

pelleting material, except when it is obvious Determination of number of other seeds: The
that either the seed is not of the species stated determination to estimate the number of seeds of
by the applicant, or there is no seed present. other species is carried out only at the request of
the applicant. In determining the number of other
Unpelleted seed: Unpelleted seed shall include seeds, the definition prescribed in case of normal
•• Free seeds of any species. seeds shall be observed. Other seeds refer to species
•• Broken pellets containing a seed that is other than that of the pure seed. The determination
recognizably not of the species stated by the is made by a count of seeds of the species (or
applicant groups of species) designated by the applicant, and
•• Broken pellets containing a seed recognizable a the result is expressed as a number of seed found
s being other species stated by the applicant but in the weight and approximate numbers of pellets
not included in the pure pellets fraction. examined or for tapes in the length of tape (or area
of mat) examined.
Inert matter: Inert matter shall include:
•• Loose pelleting material The germination test
•• Broken pellets in which it is obvious that there To determine the percentage by number of
is no seed, normal seedlings as defined in case of uncoated
•• Any other material defined as inert matter in seeds, using pellets from the pure pellet fraction
case of uncoated seeds. or tape without removing the seeds from the tape
material. An additional germination test on pure
Verification of species seed taken out of the pellets or tape may be carried
In order to check that the seed in the pellets is out at the request of the sender or as a check on a
largely of the species stated by the applicant, it is test of pellets or tapes, but care must be taken that
obligatory to remove the pelleting material from the covering material is removed in such a way as
100 pellets taken from the pure pellet fraction of not to affect the germination capacity of the seeds.
the purity test and to determine the species of each
seed. The pelleting material may be washed off or General principles: Germination tests on pelleted
removed in the dry state. Similarly 100 seeds must seeds shall be made with pellets from the pure pellet
be removed from tapes and the identity of each seed fraction of a purity test. The pellets shall be placed
determined. on the substrate in condition in which they are
Calculation and expression of results: The received (e.g. without rinsing or soaking).
percentage by weight of each of the component
parts shall be calculated to one decimal place. Materials: Paper, sand and in certain situations soil
are permissible as substrates. For pelleted seed the
Reporting results use o pleated paper and for seed tapes a between
The result of a purity analysis shall be given paper method of which the upright rolled towel has
to one decimal place and the percentage of all proved satisfactory in many cases, is recommended.
components must total 100. Components of less
than 0.05% shall be reported as trace. The name Procedure
and number of seeds of each species found in Working sample: The pure pellets shall be
the examination of the 100 seeds removed from well mixed and 400 pellets counted at random in
pellets or tapes shall be reported on the ISTA replicates of 100. The working sample from seed
International Seed Analysis Certificate under’ other tapes consist of randomly taken pieces of tape to
Determinations’. make up four replicates of at least 100 seeds each.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Test conditions: Methods, substrates, structures may occur in pellets or in tapes or more
temperatures, light conditions and special treatments than one seed may be found in a pellet. In either
will remain the same as In case of normal seeds. case these shall be tested as single seeds. The result
Where substrates prescribed for uncoated seeds of the test indicates the percentage of structures or
are found not to give satisfactory results, pleated pellets which have produced at least one normal
paper should be used for pellets and between paper seedling. Pellets or seeds in tapes producing two or
methods for tapes. more such seedlings are counted and their number
Test conditions: Methods, substrates, recorded. When pellets are tested for monogermity
temperatures, light conditions and special treatments the numbers of pellets which have produced either
will remain the same as In case of normal seeds. one, two or more than two normal seedlings are
Where substrates prescribed for uncoated seeds determined in the germination test and each is
are found not to give satisfactory results, pleated expressed as a percentage of the total number of
paper should be used for pellets and between paper pellets producing at least one normal seedling.
methods for tapes. Calculation and expression of results: Results
Duration of test: Extension beyond the are expressed as percentage by number. In addition,
period prescribed for uncoated seeds may be for taped seeds the total length of tape (or area of
necessary. However, slow germination may be an mat) used in the germination test is measured and
indication that test conditions are not optimum the total number of normal seedlings is noted.
and a germination test of seeds removed from the From these data the number of normal seedlings per
covering material may be made as a check. meter (or square meter) is calculated.

Evaluation Reporting results

Evaluation of seedlings as normal or abnormal The percentage of pellets or seed in tapes with
shall be in accordance with criteria laid down for normal seedlings, which abnormal seedlings and
uncoated seeds. Abnormality may on occasion be without seedlings shall be reported on the ISTA
due to the pelleting or tape material and when this International Seed Analysis Certificate. The method
is suspected a retest shall be carried out in soil of used for the germination test and the duration of the
good quality. test must be indicated. In addition, for seed tapes
Multiple seed structures: Multiple seed the number of normal seedlings per meter of tape
(or square meter of mat) shall be reported.

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 Millet Seed Technology

The quick viability test

G ermination test is the standard test to adjudge the potential of a given seed lot for emergence
under field conditions. It takes from days to weeks, and in some cases even months to complete.
Therefore, for quick assessment of seed viability, tests based on vital parameters, viz., respiration or
membrane permeability (e.g. Seed analyzer or electrical conductance) have been developed over the
years). Tetrazolium test is commonly known as the TZ test. Synonymously it is termed as Topographic
Tetrazolium Chloride Test (TTC) or Excised Embryo Test (EET). The TZ test is a biochemical test,
has been developed to furnish quick estimates of seeds’ germinability based on its respiratory activity.
There have been approaches since long for the search of biochemical methods for assessing viability
of seeds (planting value) without standard germination test. Lakon (1942) for the first time reported
that tetrazolium salt can be used to assess the viability of seeds. Since then the method has been used
in a number of crops. TZ test is suitability modified and improved to assess the seed quality in terms
of this viability.

Objectives seed deterioration. It can also be used, to determine

The objectives of biochemical tests are: the viability of individual seeds at the end of a
•• To make a quick estimate of the viability of a germination test, where dormancy is suspected and
given seed lot in general, and those showing to solve problems encountered in a germination
dormancy in particular. test, e.g,. when reasons for abnormal are not clear,
•• In the case of a particular sample, which at the treatment with pesticides is suspected, etc. If the
end of a standard germination test registered a result is to be reported on an International Seed
high percentage of dormant seeds, to determine Testing Association (ISTA) International Seed
the viability of individual dormant seeds or the Analysis Certificate, the test must be carried out
viability of a working sample strictly in accordance with the methods described
in the ISTA Rules.
Fields of application
The immense significance and practical Principles: The test is based on the principles
utility test was realized by the seed scientists and that living tissues, which respire, can reduce the
technologist world over. The TZ test is reliable and colourless solution of 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium
widely utilized. TZ test may be used to make a rapid chloride or bromide into a non-diffusable red
assessment of seed viability, when seeds have to be coloured compound, known as formazan. The
shown shortly after harvest or in cases, where a very reduction of the chemical is achieved in the seed
quick estimate of germination potential is required. by the action of a group of enzymes known as
The test is very useful in processing, handling, dehydrogenases. These enzymes are involved in
storing and marketing large quantities of seed in a H-transfer during respiratory activity of biological
short time, testing dormant seed lots or seed with system. Since the reaction takes place within the
deep dormancy, vigour rating of the seed lots or in respiring (living) cells and the formazan is non-
seeds showing slow germination, supplementing diffusable, a clear topography of living (red) and
germination test result and diagnosing the cause of non-living areas (white) within the seed is being

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 Millet Seed Technology

developed by using proper procedure. In addition within a seed could be at different states of viability
to completely stained viable seeds and completely they would be stained differently. Moore (1973)
unstained non-viable seeds, particularly stained described the use of TZ more efficiently on the basis
seeds may developed varying proportions of of the topographic pattern of the seed. Accuracy of
necrotic tissues. The positions and size of necrotic the tetrazolium test requires:
areas determine whether such seeds are classified as •• A sound knowledge of seed and seedling
viable or non-viable. structures.
•• An understanding of the mechanisms of the
Reagent: An aqueous solution of 2,3,5-triphenyl reactions leading to the staining of the seed.
tetrazolium chloride or bromide within a pH range •• Ability to interpret the staining pattern by
of 6.5-7.5 is used. The concentration normally critically examining the seed turbid topography
used is 1.0 per cent. Sometimes lower or higher and by keeping other visible seed qualities
percentages are more appropriate. such as tissues turbidity, abnormal or missing
structures etc. in view and
Chemical reaction: The colourless solution •• Experience gained through keen interest and
of 2,3,5-tri-phenyl tetrazolium chloride/bromide natural skill.
(a cream or light yellow soluble powder) in the
presence of certain dehydrogenase enzymes Essential seed structures for TZ test
(released during respiration by living tissue) evaluation
changes into an insoluble red (stained) formazon. Seeds can be grouped into monocots, dicots and
polycots on the basis of the presence of one, two
or more than two cotyledons. Embryo structures
Mechanism of the reaction or structure primordial are, relatively similar for
All living tissues, which respire, are capable embryos within each group though they may differ
of reducing a colourless chemical 2,3,5 triphenyl in shape, size and differentiation/development of
tetrazolium chloride or bromide into a red embryo structures. The critical features of the seeds
coloured compound formazan by H+ transfer. of these groups are described below.
The reaction catalyzed by the group of enzyme is
dehydrogenases. Formazan being non-diffusable Monocotyledons: Seeds of gramineae family
stains the living tissues red. Thus, the living parts are classical example of this group. The most critical
of a viable seed are stained red when incubated features are the growing root and shoot tips and the
in the solution of this chemical. Since the tissues scutellum. The root region comprises mainly of

N-N-C6H5
N-NH-C6H5
C6H5-C + 2e + 2H
N=N+-C6H5 C6H5-C +H+Cl-
N=N-C6H5
Cl-
2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride Triphenyl formazan

Colourless Red, Non-diffusible

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 Millet Seed Technology

the radicle, which may be the only root primordial twice as fast at 400 C as that of 300 C. Temperatures
in some cases e.g. small seeded grasses or it may between 200 C and 400 C have no effect on accuracy
have several seminal root primordial besides the of tetrazolium test, but staining proceeds faster at
radicle e.g., wheat, maize, barley etc. The radicle the higher temperature. The test can be performed
lies below the mesocotyl region covered under a satisfactorily at room temperatures.
sheath termed as coleorhiza. The shoot region or the Pre-conditioning: In order to ensure the contact
plumule consist of the shoot meristem along with of the tetrazolium solution with the embryo,
one or more leaf primordial near the base, enclosed some conditioning and preparatory steps may be
within the coleoptile. Msocotyl separates plumule essential. These depend on the type of the seed, its
from the point of attachment to the scutellum. permeability and thickness of the seed coat, location
of the embryo etc. It is done to:
Dicotyledons: In the dicot seeds with a low •• Allow complete hydration of all the tissues
degree of differentiation, the embryo is embedded •• Prevent damages to cotyledons and embryo
in nutritive tissue and consists of a radicle and two axes, during cutting of seeds
cotyledons. In the seeds with a higher degree of •• Initiate and activate the germination process
differentiation, embryo occupies a larger portion of •• Have proper penetration of tetrazolium solution.
the seed. The radicle is well recognizable part of the Some seeds can directly be placed in water,
embryo, while the shoot meristem with the primary whereas, others must be moistened slowly. Slow
leaf primordial generally lies compressed between moistening is generally practiced for large seeded
the two cotyledons. legumes or for the seed samples, which are dry
Polycotyledons: Polycotyledons are not very enough, brittle or are aged to avoid tissues damage
common. This type of seed is found in Pinaceae (due to rapid intake of water). Seeds are conditioned
and other conifers. The embryo is not very well either by placing the seed on top of or in between
differentiated except for a radicle and more than the moist blotter or paper towels.
two cotyledons. Living nutritive storage tissues
encircle the embryo, whereas, the shoot meristem is Preparation for staining: In addition to
encircled by the base of the cotyledons. moistening, most kinds of seed require some
preparatory steps before staining, to (1) assure the
Methodology: The regular germination tests are adequate penetration of the staining solution into
easy to do and interpret. The tetrazolium tests and the seed; (2) accelerate the rate of staining; (3)
the interpretation of results are more difficult. For facilitate the evaluation. Thus, depending upon the
a quick estimate of seed viability, the following be kind of the seed, time available, degree of accuracy
considered, as given below. desired and the experience of the analyst, one the
following methods may be adopted:
Working sample: At set of 100 seeds be tested •• No moistening or preparation (small seeded
in replicates of 50 each or less. For an accurate legumes with soft coats)
assessment, the test is conducted in 4 x 10 seeds. •• Slow moistening without any preparation (large
The seeds should be randomly drawn from the pure seeded with soft coats)
seed component and counted in replicates before •• Piercing, puncturing or cutting of the seed coat
conditioning. (small seeded grasses)
•• Cutting the seeds longitudinally through the
Temperature of staining: Temperature midsection of the embryo and through part of
influences the staining reaction. Staining will take the endosperm, leaving the two halves attached
place twice as fast at 300 C as that of 200 C, and at the base or slitting the seed completely,

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keeping only half for the staining, discard the or the other of these staining patterns as the guide.
other However, for some crops, it may be necessary to first
•• Cutting the seeds longitudinally slightly off- standardize the staining. The standardization of the
center to avoid cutting into the embryo TZ methods for ragi (Eleusine coracane) and khesari
•• Removing the seed coat (with forceps/needle/ (Lathyrus sativus) has been reported (Agarwal and
razor blade etc.) with minimum injury to the Kaur 1975; Agarwal and Negi 1977). If properly
tissues. Sometimes, a thin membrane adheres to conducted, TZ test’s result is in close agreement
the cotyledons even after removal of the seed with the germination percentage (Agrawal et al
coat (e.g., sunflower, cotton), this be removed 1973). However, discrepancies between the two
by a sliding motion, after an additional 30 min results might arise due to several factors:
of soaking (dicots with hard seed coats). •• Sample difference
•• Improper germination testing
Staining: Seeds can be stained in watch glass, •• Improper TZ testing
Petri dishes or beakers. Sufficient solution be used •• Seed dormancy
to cover the seeds and to allow its absorption. As a •• Presence of hard seeds
rule of thumb, a concentrated (1.0%) solution can •• Presence of seed-borne organism.
be use for legumes, cotton and grasses that are not •• Chemical injury (such as fumigation injury and
bisected through the embryo and a dilute (0.25% excess treatment with mercurial fungicides etc.,
or 0.50%) solution for grasses and cereals that are which may not inhibit the TZ staining but could
bisected through the embryo. affect normal germination).
In general, seeds are placed in the solution and
held at 300 C for complete colouration. After a Some practical consideration
period in the solution, the length of which varies To interpret the staining pattern of seed
according to the condition of the seed, species, correctly, as viable or non-viable (dead), the seed
temperature and concentration of the solution, analyst must understand correctly the essential
seeds are rinsed 2-3 times in water and then structures of the embryo and their role in the growth
evaluated. During evaluation, the seeds should be of seedling.
left in a little water to prevent these from drying. a. Essential structures of an embryo
If seeds are not to be evaluated immediately, (i) In dicotyledonous
the seeds in a little water should be kept in the (ii) Main root
refrigerator (5o to 10o C). Whenever required, 2-3 • Cotyledons
drops of lactophenol (clearing solution) be added • Plumule
to 100 seeds of small seeded grass, after completely (iii) In monocotyledonous crop seeds
removing the tetrazolium solution. Small seeds are • Seminal roots (secondary roots)
examined under a stereomicroscope, while large • Joining region of scutellum, behind
seeds may be examined with magnifying lenses. the embryonic axis against the
Seed coats of legumes must usually be removed endosperm (acts as single cotyledon
before examination. to bring the starchy food reserves to
the young seedling)
Interpretation of TZ test results: The Seed • Plumule
Technology laboratory, Mississippi State University b. Viable seed characteristics for evaluation
developed detailed staining patterns of some of the • Completely stained
major crop species for interpreting the TZ test result. • Completely stained and filling at least ½
Most of the other crops can be evaluated taking one of embryo cavity

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 Millet Seed Technology

• Completely stained, except for (vi) 10.2.6. Coleoptile: Distal ½

position and nature of necrosis (vii) 10.2.7. Nutritive storage tissue
listed for individual structures of • Completely stained
combination of structures. • Stained except for small surface
(i) 10.2.1. Radicle necrosis that is not in contact with
• Distal tip embryo cavity.
• Distal 1/3 • The term stained refers to viable
• Distal ½ (functional) tissues as established by
• Distal 2/3 progress of staining characteristics
• Entire of stain, and/or appearance and
(ii) 10.2.2. Root initial area: Primary root turgidly moist stained or non-stained
initial and/or surrounding tissues of root initial area tissues. The term necrosis refers to
provided that atleast two root initials are stained non-viable (non-functional) tissues
and are adjacent to a functional plumule. as determined by abnormal staining
(iii) 10.2.3. Cotyledons and lack of turgidly moist stained
• Superficial or non-stained tissues. Evaluation
• Distal ¼ codes provide only partial guidance
• Distal 1/3 for deterioration of seed viability.
• Distal 1/3, if pervading The projected influence upon normal
• Distal 1/3; or on sides up to 1/3 total seedling development of fractures,
area abnormalities, missing tissues, etc.
• Distal ½ must also be considered. A few
• Distal ½ of external and internal seeds, fully stained (with tetrazolium
surface chloride), do not germinate; require
• Distal ½ and/or side opposite to the comparison against standard
radicle germination tests.
• Distal ½. Small isolated necrosis Advantages and disadvantages of TZ test
permitted on basal ½
• Distal ½, if superficial Advantage
• Distal ½, if superficial - distal 1/3, if •• Quick and fairly accurate
pervading •• Can also determine the viability of a dormant
• Necrosis on inner side of cotyledon, seed lot in a short time
provided the diameter of necrosis •• Seeds are not damages (in dicots) and can be
does not exceed radius of inner germinated.
surface of cotyledon
• Isolated superficial necrosis, other Disadvantages
than at juncture with embryonic axis •• Distinction between normal and abnormal
and at center of back of outermost seedlings difficult
cotyledon are permitted, if they do •• Cannot differentiate between dormant and non-
not penetrate the entire cotyledon dormant seeds
thickness or lobes of both cotyledons •• Correct evaluation is possible only after
(iv) 10.2.4. Scutellum: Necrosis involving no prolonged experience
more than 1/3 of upper and lower ends •• Microorganisms harmful for seedling
(v) 10.2.5. Plumule: Distal ¼ emergence remain undetected.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Tetrazolium test for vigor assessment: A better distilled water

estimate of vigour can be obtained by colorimetric •• Soak the embryonic axes in 10 ml of methyl
determination of formazan; Kittock and Law (1968) cellosove for 4 to 6 hrs with occasional stirring
described a method of estimating the seed vigour on until the extraction of red coloured formazan is
the basis of colour intensity of the stained embryo complete. i.e., the axes become colourless
or seed. The method is described below: •• Decant the extract and read the intensity of the
•• Prepare tetrazolium solution as described earlier colour at 480 nm in a spectronic 20 colorimeter
•• Put 100 seeds in a Petri dish lined with moist using methyl cellosove as the blank.
filter papers and keep at 20o±1oC for overnight
•• Excise the embryonic axes and add 1 ml of After differentiating viable seeds from the non-
tetrazolium solution to 25 axes in quadruplicate viable ones, the viable seed group can be reclassified
•• Incubate in dark at 30o C for 4 hrs. The into several vigour groups on the basis of intensity
incubation time varies with the crop species. of stain and staining pattern of different seed parts.
However, for maintaining uniformity, duration The simplest classification is to divide viable seeds
should be kept constant for a crop under study lot having larger number of sound seeds considered
•• Drain out the excess solution and wash in to be more vigorous.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Seed vigour test:

concept and application
T he importance of high seed vigour and viability, to ensure a satisfactory stand establishment
and subsequent crop growth is well established. Though the standard germination test is the
most useful and commonly performed test to assess the ability of seeds to germinate, the fact that
such tests are conducted under most favourable (optimum) conditions ensures that any seed that
is capable of germination does so (Powell and Matthews, 1992). Thus, the ability of a seed lot to
produce normal seedlings under sub-optimal field conditions do not always match the germinability
observed in a laboratory test. There are several reports of seed lots having similar laboratory
germination which differed significantly in their ability to emerge under field conditions. Thus, the
concept of seed vigour emerged with the need to assess the field potential of the “Planting value”
of a seed lot in a more realistic manner.

Vigour can be assessed on the basis of different precedes loss in germination, hence two lots having
physiological parameters hence, it has been defined similar germination could exhibit difference in
in several ways by different workers. However, vigour. The one with lower vigour is likely to result
the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) in poor field emergence. Therefore, there is a need
in 1977 adopted a broad definition of vigour, to distinguish between the seed lots of high and low
that “Seed vigour” is the sum of those properties vigour, in addition to its germinability. Vigour tests
which determine the potential level of activity can thus supplement germination test to indicate
and performance of the seed or seed lot during the true field potential of a seed lot. A good vigour
germination and seedling performance” (Perry, test should be: Reproducible; Theoretically sound;
1978). Easy to perform (not too complicated); and Well
It is generally accepted that seed attains highest correlated with field emergence. Vigour tests can
levels of vigour at physiological maturity. This is broadly be classified into three groups
followed by a gradual dehydration of the seed till it •• Performance based tests
reaches field maturity, when the seed is harvested. •• Biochemical tests
Under favourable conditions (i.e. cool and dry) •• Stress tests
there is no measurable decline in vigour from It must be noted that there are no strict norms
physiological maturity slope to field maturity. In for classification, and vigour tests can be grouped
fact, storability of the seed is found to improve with in several different ways. Some of the commonly
field maturity in a number of crops. used vigour tests are detailed below:
However, the fluctuating weather conditions
at the time of seed maturation can affect the seed Performance tests
vigour significantly. Various other factors, such These tests are based on the assessment of
as genotype, mechanical injury to seed during germination and seedling growth and are generally
harvesting and processing, seed size and grain an extension of germination tests. Vigour is
filling, incidence of pathogens and seed ageing measured by recording some additional parameter
greatly influence seed vigour. Loss in vigour over the standard germination data.

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 Millet Seed Technology

crops. The conductivity test is commonly performed

Rate of germination: This can be determined by on pooled (bulk) sample of a fixed number (or
(a) First count (b) Speed of germination (c) Mean weight) of seeds soaked in a constant volume of
germination time (d) Coefficient of velocity of deionized (or distilled) water for a fixed duration
germination etc. (4-24 h) at a constant temperature (25-300C). In
most cases, two weighed replicates of 50 seeds are
Seedling growth: These tests are based on soaked in 250 ml of deionized water for 17 to 24 hrs
recording the growth of the entire seedling (grown at 200C. The contents are stirred and the leachate is
in dark) or plumule (shoot) and radicle (root) either poured in another beaker or used as such in
separately. Measurement can be made in terms of measuring the electrical conductance (EC). While
seedling length or dry weight. In some cases fresh taking samples from a processed seed lot it is not
weights are also reported but dry weights are found advisable to discard all damaged seed, because the
more reliable. After recording the final germination same is going to be used for sowing. Hence, an
count cotyledons/ endosperm are removed and unbiased sample should be drawn from the seed
seedlings are either used for linear measurements lot which is to be used for planting. In soybean, a
or dried in a oven at 800C for 17 hr for taking dry better correlation between the conductance reading
weight. Seedling dry weight is a good indicator for and field emergence was obtained by including
seed vigour in brassicas, soybean, maize etc. (Powell all seeds (sound and cracked) than by only taking
and Matthews, 1992), whereas seedlings length is sound seeds (Yaklich et al., 1979; Oliveira et al.,
more reliable in cereals, maize, sugar beet etc. 1984). Conductivity test reveals both vigour status
as well as the incidence of imbibition damage
Biochemical tests (which is more in damaged seed). ISTA (2004) has
Certain cellular and biochemical changes are recommended EC test for assessing seed vigour in
closely associated with the extent of loss of seed peas. An alternative method of simple seed analysis
vigour, many of which become evident prior to for EC of seed leachate can also be adopted using
the loss in germination. These are often useful as on Automatic Seed Analyser, which measures
vigour indices. conductivity of the leachates of 100 single seeds
and also indicates number of seeds falling below
Electrical conductivity test: When seeds and above the threshold values.
are imbibed in water, an array of water soluble
substances, leak out of the seed. The extent of Tetrazolium test: Though this test is more
solute leakage is a function of the seed kind and routinely used for a quick estimation of seed
its physiological state. Enhanced permeability of viability (or potential of germination), more critical
cellular membranes is one of the primary symptoms evaluation of the intensity and pattern of staining
seed ageing. Thus, seed lots low in vigour and can also provide additional information regarding
viability leach out greater quantity of solutes, the vigour level of a seed lot.
which include inorganic ions, water soluble sugars,
amino acids, organic acids etc. Degree of leakage Stress tests
can be detected, among other methods, by simple Accelerated ageing: This test was originally
measurement of electrical conductance of seed developed at Mississippi State University,
leachate, which is directly proportional to the ionic USA (Delouche & Baskin, 1972) to predict the
concentration. High solute leakage, an indicator storability of seed in which seeds are held at a
of membrane permeability, is associated with low near saturated (100% RH) humidity level and high
vigour and poor field emergence in a number of temperature (40-450C) for a constant period of time

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 Millet Seed Technology

(generally 48 to 96 hrs). This is followed by a

standard germination test. Different combinations Hiltner or Brick gravel test: A porous brick
of humidity and temperature are found appropriate gravel of 2-3 mm particle size is watered and
for different species. For example many small equilibrated overnight. Seeds are placed on wet
seeded species give better results when exposed gravel and covered with another layer of wet gravel
to relative humidities less than 100% (by using of 2-4 cm depending on the species to be tested. The
saturated salt solution), whereas for large seeded box is covered with a lid and kept in dark at 200C
species exposure to 100% RH gives good result. for 10-14 days, normal seedlings emerged at the
To conduct this test a desired level of RH can be end of the test period are counted and germination
maintained in a ageing chamber or created in a (%) is calculated.
closed chamber, such as a desiccator or trays with
lids. Temperature can either be set in a ageing Significance of vigour tests
chamber or the containers are placed inside an Though at present we do not have recommended
incubator set at a desired temperature. Seeds are procedure for testing seed vigour in many crops,
kept inside the chamber either in wire mesh trays
its importance in ascertaining the planting value
or in net bags in single layers. After the required
of a seed lot is well accepted. By ensuring high
duration samples are drawn for germination test.
viogur, success of a seed lot in the field can be
ISTA (2004) has recommended Accelerated Ageing
assured. Thus, a seed lot having high vigour rating,
test at 95% RH and 41+10C for 96 hr for soybean.
in addition to meeting the germination requirement
will be preferred by the farmers, especially if
Low temperature test: Cold and cool tests are most
the growing conditions are less than optimum.
commonly used for low temperature vigour tests.
Similarly, for high value seeds success of every
single seed is important, which can be assured by a
Cold test: Cold test is routinely performed for
corn in the North America, though it is also useful high vigour rating. Thus, the lable of “vigour tested
for cotton, sorghum and soybean. Soil from the provides an assurance of seed quality.
corn field is used as the substratum in this test, Secondly, for the seed companies in the years
where 4 replicates of 50 seeds are placed. Water is of excess production, vigour test results can help in
added to 70% of the WHC of the soil and the boxes deciding which lots should be marketed first (high
are covered. Containers are incubated for 7 days vigour lots can be stored for later use). Moreover,
at 100C followed by 4 days at 250C. Percentage by conducting vigour tests along with germination
of normal seedlings is calculated. However, poor test seed companies can anticipate reliably whether
reproducibility due to variation of soil type from the lots will retain desired level of germination
test to test poses certain difficulties. till sold or not (since there is always a time gap
. between the conduct of germination test and actual
Cool test: Normally performed for cotton, this sale of the seed). Vigour tests may be particularly
test is performed by incubating seeds at 180oC for 8 important in revalidation of certified seed lots. It
days and taking the normal seedling count. is expected that a revalidated lot may be lower in
vigour than a fresh lot. By conducting the vigour
Mechanical stress: By using a one can actually assess its quality more reliably
substratum which exerts a mechanical pressure than germination data alone. Thus, the vigour level
on germination seeds, high vigour seeds can be of a seed lot may be indicated to enable the buyer
differentiated from low vigour ones. take a correct decision.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Classification of
seed dormancy
F ollowing seed dissemination from the plant, orthodox seeds exhibit one of three conditions. A
seed may be non-dormant and germinate immediately; it may be non-dormant and quiescent;
or the seed may be dormant. Quiescent seeds are inhibited from germinating because the
environment is unsuitable (i.e., the seed is dry or the temperature is outside the range that permits
germination). Dormancy differs from quiescence because dormant seeds fail to germinate even when
environmental conditions (water, temperature, and aeration) are suitable for germination. Seed
dormancy is a common condition found in many species. It is an adaptation that allows a species
to determine the timing of germination for seeds in a population. Some species use environmental
cues (such as drought vs. rainfall, or winter temperatures) to synchronize germination for most
seeds at a particular time of the year. Other species are adapted for asynchronous germination
over an extended time. This allows periodic germination and the establishment of a persistent seed
bank. Domestication of crop plants has led to the reduction or elimination of seed dormancy to fit
cropping schedules.

Categories of seed dormancy coat or pericarp) or mechanical resistance imposed

Numerous attempts at defining the different on the radicle from the endosperm. Endogenous
kinds of seed dormancy have been attempted. An dormancy is related to dormancy factors within
early system of classification was formulated by the embryo. Combinational dormancy includes
Crocker (1916), who described seven dormancy a combination of exogenous and/or endogenous
types based on treatments used to overcome them. dormancy. These dormancy factors must be relieved
Subsequently, Nikolaeva (1977) defined dormancy sequentially to allow germination. Secondary
based primarily upon physiological controls. dormancy is induced in certain non-dormant seeds
Lang (1987) used the terms eco-, para-, and endo- when the germination environment is unfavorable
dormancy to refer to dormancy factors related to for germination.
the environment (eco), physical or biochemical
signals originating external to the affected structure Exogenous dormancy
(para), and physiological factors inside the affected The tissues enclosing the embryo can impact
structure (endo). germination by (1) inhibiting water uptake;
(2) providing mechanical restraint to embryo
Major categories are primary and expansion and radicle emergence; (3) modifying
secondary dormancy gas exchange (i.e. limit oxygen to the embryo); (4)
Within primary dormancy there are three preventing leaching of inhibitors from the embryo;
recognized groups. These include: (1) exogenous; and (5) supplying inhibitors to the embryo. Seed
(2) endogenous; and (3) combinational dormancy. coverings that impose exogenous dormancy are the
Exogenous dormancy is imposed by factors outside endosperm, perisperm, outer 3 integuments of the
the embryo. These include maternal tissues (seed seed coat or the remnant of the fruit pericarp. These

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 Millet Seed Technology

may become hard, fibrous, or mucilaginous during gibberellic acid. Physiological dormancy includes
dehydration and ripening. The most common form non-deep, intermediate and deep categories. By
of exogenous dormancy occurs in seeds with “hard” far, endogenous, non-deep physiological dormancy
seed coats that become suberized and impervious is the most common form of dormancy found in
to water. Hard seeds are characteristic of members seeds. This type of dormancy includes species that
of the Cannaceae, Convolvulaceae, Fabaceae, require light or darkness to germinate and species
Geraniaceae, and Malvaceae. Germination in hard that must undergo an “after-ripening” period of
seeds can be increased by any method that can dry storage to lose dormancy. Seeds that either
soften or “scarify” the covering. Hardseededness requires light or dark conditions for germination
can be variable in a population of seeds. It is are termed photodormant. The basic mechanism
increased by environmental (dry) conditions during of light sensitivity in seeds involves phytochrome.
seed maturation, and environmental conditions Exposure of the imbibed seed to red light (660 to
during seed storage (Parihar 2004, Parihar & 760 nm) usually stimulates germination, while
Sharma 2005). far-red light (760 to 800 nm) or darkness causes a
physiological change that inhibits germination.
The most common commercial treatments
are mechanical abrasion for large seed lots and Seeds with intermediate and deep physiological
concentrated sulfuric acid (15 to 60 min.) for smaller dormancy are characterized by a requirement for
seed lots. For a number of species, the embryo can a one to three (sometimes more) month period of
be removed from the seed coat of a dormant seed and chilling, while in an imbibed and aerated state. This
germinate normally. Chemicals that accumulate in is a common dormancy type tree and shrub seeds
fruit and seed covering tissues during development and some herbaceous plants of the temperate
and remain with the seed after harvest can also act
as germination inhibitors. Proving their function as Combinational dormancy
germination controls does not necessarily follow, The third category of dormancy is
however. Fleshy fruits, or juices from them, can combinational (also called double) dormancy.
strongly inhibit seed germination as in Cucumis, This dormancy condition combines two (or
and Lycopersicon species. more) types of primary dormancy. Examples
include exoendodormancy (seed coat dormancy
Endogenous dormancy and intermediate physiological dormancy), or
Seeds with endogenous dormancy fail to morpho-physiological dormancy (an rudimentary
germinate because of factors associated with embryo combined with physiological dormancy).
the embryo. There are two types of endogenous To induce germination, all blocking conditions
dormancy, morphological and physiological. must be eliminated in proper sequence. The most
Morphological dormancy is where the embryo common form of combinational dormancy in
has not completed development at the time the flower and vegetable crops is morpho-physiological
seed is shed from the plant. The embryo must dormancy. This includes epicotyl dormancy, one
complete development prior to germination. of the most fascinating dormancy patterns found
Seeds with morphological dormancy can have in seeds. Seeds with epicotyl dormancy have
either rudimentary or undeveloped embryos. separate dormancy conditions for the radicle and
Effective aids for inducing germination include (a) epicotyl. These species fall into two subgroups.
exposure to temperatures of <15oC, (b) exposure In one group, only the epicotyl is dormant. Seeds
to alternating temperatures, and (c) treatment with initially germinate during a warm period of one to
chemical additives such as potassium nitrate or three months to produce root and hypocotyl growth

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but then require one to three months of chilling to seed when environmental conditions are not
enable the epicotyl to grow. favorable for seedling growth. These conditions
Secondary dormancy can include unfavorable temperatures, prolonged
In nature, primary dormancy is an adaptation light or darkness, water stress, or anoxia. These
to control the time and conditions for seed are involved in the seasonal rhythms (conditional
germination. Secondary dormancy is a further dormancy) and prolonged survival of weed seeds
adaptation to prevent germination of an imbibed in soil banks.

Categories of seed dormancy

Causes of dormancy Conditions to break dormancy

Exogenous dormancy
Physical Impermeable seed coat Scarification
Chemical Inhibitors in seed coverings Removal of seed coverings (fruits),
Leaching seeds
Mechanical Seed coverings restrict radicle growth Removal of seed covering; Cold
stratification
Endogenous dormancy
Morphological The embryo is not fully developed at the time the Warm or cold stratification; Cold
stratification and potassium nitrate; Warm
Rudimentary Seed sheds from the plant; Small undifferentiated stratification and gibberellic acid
embryo; Small differentiated embryo less than ½
Undeveloped size of seed
Physiological
Factors within embryo inhibits germination
Nondeep Positively photodormant; Negatively Red light, Darkness; After-ripening Short
photodormant period of dry storage
Intermediate Embryo germinates if separated from the seed Moderate periods (up to 8 weeks) of cold
coat stratification
Deep Embryo does not germinate when removed from Long periods (> 8 weeks) of cold
seed coat or will form a physiological dwarf Stratification

Combinational dormancy
Combinations of different dormancy conditions.
Morphophysi- Combination of underdeveloped embryo and Cycles of warm and cold stratification
ological physiological dormancy
Epicotyl Radicle is non-dormant and growth begins when Warm followed by cold stratification
temperature and water permit, but epicotyl is
dormant
Epicotyl and Radicle is dormant and growth begins after Cold stratification followed by warm
radicle chilling followed by a second cold stratification

Stratification treatment, but epicotyl is dormant

Exo-endodor- Combinations of exogenous and endogenous Sequential combinations of dormancy
mancy dormancy conditions. Example: physical (hard releasing treatments. Example:
seed coat) plus intermediate physiological scarification followed by cold stratification
dormancy.
Secondary dormancy
Thermodor- After primary dormancy is relieved, high Growth regulators or cold stratification
mancy temperature induces dormancy
Conditional Dormancy change in ability to germinate related Chilling stratification
to time of the year

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Seed Processing

S eed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level; remove or reduce to
the extent possible the various undesirable material, weed seeds, other crop seeds, deteriorated
or damaged seeds; uniform size grading and seed treatment to upgrade the overall seed quality.
In its common usage in India, seed processing refers to all the steps necessary for preparation of
harvested seed for marketing, namely, handling, drying, shelling, preconditioning, cleaning, size
grading, treating and packaging, etc.

Seed drying Seeds are highly hygroscopic living material

Drying of seed lots, i.e., lowering down the and their moisture content depends upon
seed moisture content to safe moisture limits is temperature and relative humidity of surrounding
very important in order to maintain seed viability air. The determining factor in this relationship is
and vigour, which may otherwise deteriorate fast the water-vapour pressure in the seeds and the air
due to mold growth, heating and increased micro- surrounding it. Whenever, the vapour pressure in
organism activity. the seed is greater than that of the surrounding
air, vapour will move out of the seeds, that is, the
Methods of seed drying: The drying of seeds is seed will lose moisture. If, however, the vapour
done by the following methods: pressure gradient is reversed, the movement of
•• Sun drying moisture is also reversed-that is, the seed will
•• Forced air drying gain the moisture. When the two vapour pressure
Sun drying: In the absence of forced air drying is equal, there is no net movement of vapour.
facilities, the moisture content of seeds have to be At this point, the moisture content of the seed
reduced in the field before harvest, and later by sun is in a state of equilibrium with the surrounding
drying on the threshing floor. If sun drying is to be atmosphere, Seed drying takes place when there
done, the following precautions should be taken to is a net movement of water from the seed into
insure seed quality: surrounding air.
• Do not spread the produce on wet, dirty The rate at which the seed will dry depends
and kuchha threshing floors. upon the rate of moisture migration from the
• Only one crop variety, and produce centre to the surface of the seeds, and by the
from one plot, should be handled on a threshing speed at which surface moisture is evaporated
floor, in order to maintain lot identity and to avoid in the surrounding air. The rate of moisture
mechanical admixtures. migration from the centre to the surface of a
Forced air drying: In this system air (natural or seed is influenced by the temperature of the seed,
heated) is forced into seeds. The air passing through physical structure and chemical composition of
damp seeds picks up water. The evaporation the seed, and seed coat permeability. The rate of
cools the air and the seed. The heat necessary for moisture removal from the surface of the seed
evaporating the water comes from the temperature is influenced by the degree of surface saturation
drop of the air. This is the most fundamental and the relative humidity and temperature of the
principle of forced air seed drying. drying air.

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Seed cleaning and upgrading not be required, basic seed cleaning is an essential
Principle of cleaning seeds: In the cleaning process in the seed cleaning operations. Many
process, the separation of undesirable material, kinds of seeds can be completely cleaned and
namely, inert matter, weed seeds, other crop made into a finished product by; basic cleaning.
seeds, light and chaffy seeds, off-size, damaged or In other instances, however, further separations to
deteriorated seed from desirable material is done remove specific contaminants may be necessary,
on the basis of differences in physical properties or desirable. Regardless of whether further specific
of desirable seed and undesirable matter. The separations are made, or not made, basic seed
principal differences found in seeds are seed size cleaning for every lot is invariably done.
(length, width and thickness); density, shape,
surface texture, colour, affinity for liquids, and seed Equipment for basic seed cleaning
conductivity. If the differences between desirable Basic seed cleaning is done over an air screen
and undesirable material in regard to any of these machine, commonly referred to as an air screen
properties exist, separation of undesirable material cleaner. It is also the basic equipment in seed
could be done with the help of suitable machine/ processing plants.
machines designed for the purpose.
Principles of cleaning: The separation of
Seeds of different species and inert matter undesirable material and seeds from desirable
widely differ in regard to the physical properties. seeds in an air screen machine is done on the basis
Length, width, shape, weight, and surface texture of difference in seed size and weight. In some
differences are quite common in crop species and separations, seed shape could also be used. The air
form the basis of seed cleaning operations. screen machine uses three cleaning elements.
•• Aspiration. The light seeds and chaffy material
Method of cleaning seeds: Cleaning of seeds is removed from the seed mass through
can be conveniently discussed in the following aspiration
groups: •• Scalping. In this operation, the good seeds are
•• Preparing seeds for basic seed cleaning (pre- dropped through screen openings, but the larger
conditioning and pre-cleaning operations). material (trash, clods, etc.) is carried over the
•• Basic seed cleaning operation. screen into a separate spout.
•• Upgrading the quality of cleaned seed. •• Grading. In this operation, the good seeds ride
over screen opening, while smaller particles
Pre-conditioning and pre-cleaning: Pre- (undersized, cut, shriveled, broken seeds drop
conditioning refers to operations such as shelling, through.
debearding, etc., that prepare seed lots for basic seed Upgrading the quality of cleaned seed: We
cleaning; and also to the removal of particles such have mentioned earlier that in certain instances
as pieces of trash, stones, clods, etc., larger in size it is necessary and in others rather desirable to
than desirable crop seed, from threshed seed lots. further upgrade the seed quality by removing
Some pre-cleaners, in addition to removing larger either specific contaminants, or by very precise
sized particles, also remove particles that are lighter size grading. The various processing operations
in weight and smaller in size than the crop seed. conducted after basic cleaning to further improve
seed quality are regarded as upgrading operations.
Basic seed cleaning: Basic seed cleaning refers The choice of upgrading operation, however, shall
to actual cleaning and grading of seeds. Unlike depend upon the type of contaminants and crop
pre-cleaning/pre-conditioning, which may or may seed.

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Seed Storage
S eeds are considered to be in storage from the moment seed reach to physiological maturity
until they germinate or thrown away because they are dead. Proper storage of seeds helps in
preserving the viability from harvest to sales and intern protects the producer’s investment, profit
and reputation. The entire storage can be conveniently divided into following stages:

•• Storage on plant (physiological maturity until harvest)

•• Harvest, until processed and stored in a warehouse
•• In storages (warehouses)
•• In transit
•• In retail stores
•• On the user’s farm

The seed quality can be considerably affected at morphology, seed anatomy and also chemical
any stages mentioned above, unless sound principles constitution of seeds which intern influence the
involved in seed storage are practiced and the seeds seed longevity.
properly handled. Based on the storability and •• Pre-harvest rains: Seed quality will be adversely
ability to withstand low moisture levels, seeds of affected by pre-harvest rains, thus results in
crop species are classified into following two types: poor storability.
•• Provenance: Weather factors of the seed
Orthodox seeds: Species where seeds can be dried production location such as temperature,
to low moisture content and longevity increases at relative humidity, photoperiod etc and soil
low moisture and low temperature. E.g. Rice factors such as fertility and productivity, soil
Recalcitrant seeds: Species where seeds can health and water availability etc, during seed
not be dried below a fairly high threshold moisture crop growth period directly influence the seed
content. These are short lived and their viability storability.
declines faster at low moisture and low temperature.
(Mostly large fleshy seeds) Post harvest factors
Seed factors:
Factors affecting the storability of seed •• Initial seed quality: the seed lots having
Factors affecting the longevity or seed vigours, undeteriorated seeds store longer than
storability can be broadly grouped as below: deteriorated lots.
•• Pre harvest factors •• Moisture content: seeds should be dried
•• Post harvest factors properly to safer moisture levels before storage.
•• Seed health: seeds should be free from seed
Pre-harvest factors: born diseases and storage pest infestation.
•• Genetic: The seed storability is considerably Storage factors: Three main factors affecting
influenced by the genetic factors. Some crops quality of seed during storage are:
are naturally short lived, e.g. Onion, Soybean, •• Moisture
etc, where as some are long lived, e.g most of •• Temperature
the cereals, Seeds of some species are very long •• Pests and Pathogens
lived such as Lotus. The genetic make-up of the Moisture / humidity: Seed longevity is
lines/varieties in the same kind also influences significantly increased by lowering the seed
the storability. Genetic factors influence seed moisture content or RH of the seed store. There is

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a direct relationship between RH of the ambient air pests and pathogens leads to seed deterioration
and the moisture content attained by the seed stored. affect seed quality as below:
Recommended limits of seed moisture content for •• Lowers the physical purity
packing are given below: •• Lowers the physical appearance and hence
marketability
1. Moisture vapour : 5-6 % in •• Reduces vigour and planting value
impervious vegetables; 8-9% in field •• Causes seedling abnormality
crops •• Reduces germination
2. Moisture vapour : 8% in vegetables; However, the incidence, multiplication of pests
pervious 11-13% in field crops and pathogens and their deleterious effect on seed
quality can be minimized and by following proper
Temperature: management method at both pre-harvest and post-
Seed loses vigour and viability faster at higher harvest levels. They are listed below,
temperature: Safe range of storage temperature •• Proper pest control of the seed crop
should not exceed 300 for more than 3-4 months. •• Adequate cleaning and processing of the seed
However storage temperature needs to be decided •• Proper drying
in combination with seed moisture content and •• Use of clean and proper packaging material
duration of storage required. For long term storage, •• Cleanliness of the seed store
viz, storage of breeding materials and germplasm •• Fumigation and pest control of the store
both moisture content/RH and temperature should •• Seed treatment with pesticides, coating etc.
be maintained very low. For different duration of •• Control of RH and Temperature of the seed store
storage, safer moisture content and temperature is •• Reduction of oxygen and increasing carbon
given below: dioxide levels
1. Short term : nearly 5 % m.c. and 100 C
2. Medium term : 5% m. c. and - 100 C Good storage practices
3. Long term : 4-5 % m.c. and -200 C Before storage
•• Check leakage in rain water or sufficiency of
Thumb rule for seed storage drainage facilities
Harrington’s thumb rule •• Cleanliness of the facility and environment
•• One % decrease in moisture content nearly around processing plant
doubles the storage potential of the seed •• Pesticide treatment
•• 10 degree F decrease in storage temperature •• Security and fire fighting arrangements
nearly doubles the storage life. •• Repairs of the equipments
•• Good seed storage is achieved when the •• After receipt of seed/grain
percentage of the relative humidity in storage •• Inspect for variety, soundness and quality
environment and the storage temperature in •• Inspect for infestation-type and extent
degree Fahrenheit add up to one hundred. •• Check whether seed/grain has excess moisture,
whether it had been heated up in earlier storage
Pests and pathogen and has any musty or rancid odour
Incidence of pests and pathogens affect •• Any grain rendered wet/damaged
the quality of the seed both before and after •• During storage
harvest. High humidity (more than 70%), warmer •• Maintaining cleanliness inside the processing
temperatures (above 280 C) and mechanical damage plant/warehouse
of seed favour higher incidence and multiplication •• Ensuring aeration wherever necessary
of pests and pathogens. In addition, presence of •• Monitor increase in seed moisture/insect
contaminants and roughage also provide congenial infestation through regular checking and taking
conditions for faster multiplication. Incidence of necessary control measures

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Seed Deterioration
T he process of seed deterioration is complex, therefore, the conclusions from seed deterioration
studies are often difficult to evaluate. There are mainly two reasons for this.
1. Most seed deterioration studies have focused on while seed germination or enzyme analysis
without considering the fact that seed deterioration probably does not occur uniformly
through the seed. Thus, it should be recognized that the seed parts vary in their chemistry and
susceptibility to seed deterioration. Studies examining this differential susceptibility of seed
parts which collectively influence the whole seed response should be useful in understanding
the mechanisms of seed deterioration.
2. All seed lots are composed of individual seeds, each possessing its own unique capability
to perform in the field. Thus, total population studies of seed deterioration based on the
performance of the sub sample do not represent what is occurring at the individual seed level

Despite these difficulties, the most visible 1986). A free radicle is an atom or a group of atoms
symptoms of seed deterioration are observed first with unpaired electron. They can be produced
at the whole seed morphological level and then either through autoxidation or enzymatically by
during germination and seedling growth. However, lipooxygenase which is present in many seeds.
these are preceded by numerous ultra structural The auto oxidation mechanism is often initiated
and physiological changes whose symptoms are by oxygen around unsaturated or polysaturated
not as rapidly apparent but can be detected by fatty acids such as oleic and linoliec acids which
sophisticated monitoring techniques that attempt are most common on seed membranes. The result
to identify changes in the deteriorating seed at the is the release of the free radical often hydrogen
physiological level. from the methylene group of the fatty acid that is
adjacent to a double bond. In other cases, the free
Seed symptoms radical hydrogen may combine with other free
1. Morphological changes : e.g. seed coat radicals from carboxylic groups leaving a peroxy
colour free radical. Once these free radicals are initiated,
2. Ultra structural changes : e.g. coalescence of they create profound damage to the membranes,
lipid bodies withdrawal of plasmalemma particularly those where electron transport is
3. Cell membrane integrity : enhanced seed frequent, and continue to propagate other free
leachate radicals until they combine with free radicals which
Loss of enzyme activity : ROS enzymes, terminate the reaction. The result is the loss of
respiratory enzymes membrane integrated in the case of phospholipids.
4. Reduced respiration It has been noted that lipid auto oxidation occurs
5. Increase in free fatty acids in all cells; but in fully imbibed cells, water act as a
Performance symptoms: Low germination, delayed buffer between the reactive compounds and macro
seedling emergence, slower rate of seedling growth etc. molecules, those preventing enzyme inactivation.
Lipid Autoxidation is accelerated at high temperature
Possible causes of seed deterioration and increased concentration .Harrington considered
Lipid peroxidation: Of all the models this to be a cause of seed deterioration only at
represented to explain seed deterioration, the lipoid moisture content below 6%, since moisture contents
peroxidation model has stimulated the greatest from 6% to 12% maintain seed viability, and above
interest (Wilson and McDonald 1986b; Bewley 12% other factors for deterioration.

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Lipoxygenase enzymes also generate free are an increase in ATPase and a decline in oxidative
radicals .However, their activity is greatest when phosphorylation ability necessary to complete its
the seed moisture content exceeds 14%, while auto respiratory function which leads to low level of ATP
oxidation is believed to occur primarily at low seed formation. Since ATPase catalyses the breakdown
moisture contents. Thus, the mechanism of lipid of ATP and ADP, it depletes energy available in the
peroxidation may be differing under accelerated mitochondria.
ageing (lipoxygenese).Compared to long term Inability of ribosomes to dissociate: Associated
ageing (autoxidation) conditions. It should also with the degradation of function in deteriorating
be noted that oxygen is deleterious to seed storage seeds is the dissociation of ribosomes. Recent
based on this proposal, which is consistent with evidences indicates that the dissociation of
the success of hermetic seed storage and that lipid polyribosomes must occur before attatchment
peroxidation causes loss of membrane integrated. of preformed mRNA occurs, leading to protein
Free radicals also attack compounds other than synthesis in germinating seedlings. In nonviable
fatty acids. Changes in protein structure of seeds seeds, the ribosomes fail to dissociate and protein
have also been observed and attributed to free synthesis is retarded.
radicals. Free radicals of lipid peroxidase damage Enzyme degradation and inactivation:
cytochromesC by changing its physical and Decreased activity of enzymes such as catalase,
catalytic properties.Sulfhydryl levels decreases dehydrogenase and glutamic acid decorboxylase
in wheat flour with increasing oxygen content. in deteriorating seeds is well documented. The
the “sick wheat syndrome” which results in a general decrease in enzyme activity in the seed
discoloration of the embryo with increasing storage lowers its respiratory potential, which in turn
time has been attributed to a condensation reaction lowers both the energy (ATP) and food supply
between lysine oe methionine protein residues and to the germinating seed. Several changes in the
reducing sugars. Many of this mutations can be enzyme macromolecular structure may contribute
detected as chromosomal aberrations which delay to their lowered effectiveness. They may undergo
the onset of mitosis for germination while this compositional changes by losing or gaining certain
chromosomal aberrations delay seedling growth, functional groups. The enzymes may also undergo
continued development of the seedling results configurational changes such as 1. partial folding or
in fewer cells with chromosomal irregularities, unfolding of ultrastructure, 2. condensation to form
Presumely because abnormal cells are not able polymers or 3. degradation of subunits.
to compete with normal ones. As, a result, it is Breakdown in mechanisms for triggering
argued that mitotic lesions are unlikely to affect germination: Harrington (1973) has made a
the genetic integrity of stored Germplasm. strong case for the idea that the breakdown of
Degradation of functional structures: As various triggering mechanisms also causes seed
seed deterioration progress, cellular membranes deterioration. Role of gibberellins and cytokinins
lose their selective permeability, permitting in triggering the enzyme activity leading to
the cytoplasmic metabolites to leach into the germination is well known. Further evidence for
intercellular spaces. Mitochondrial degradation this theory is the improved germination in ageing
and functional changes appear to play a major role seeds after exposing to growth hormones.
in seed deterioration. Such changes decrease in
number as deterioration procedes; mitochondria Other causes are:
becomes permanently swollen and lose their 1. Formation and Activation of Hydrolytic
natural swelling-contracting ability, later they enzymes
become pigmented and fragmented. Degradation of 2. Genetic degradation
mitochondrial membrane also occur, leading to the 3. Depletion of Food Reserves
loss of function and eventual fragmentation. Two 4. Starvation of Meristematic Cells
important aspects of mitochondrial deterioration 5. Accumulation of Toxic Compounds

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Seed quality enhancement:

principles and procedures
S eed enhancements deals with post–harvest treatments that improve germination and seedling
growth that facilitate the delivery of seeds and other materials required at the time of sowing.
They are performed on the seeds after harvest, but prior to sowing. Enhancements are ‘value added’
techniques performed on a given seed lot.

Objectives of seed enhancement •• Improve crop quality by removing other crop

•• Improvement in seed quality seeds from pure seeds
•• Improvement in reliability of stand •• Seed treatment with chemical protect ants
establishment during processing protects the crop from pest
•• Increase in uniformity of plant stand and diseases in the field and during storage
•• Reduction in seeding rates and thinning costs •• Reduce seed loss by removing high moisture
•• Facilitate precision planting foreign material and drying the seed. Facilitate
•• Overcome dormancy or stressful conditions better marketing

The methods of seed enhancement include seed Different steps of processing are:
processing, priming, pre-germination , seed coating •• Drying: Seeds usually have high moisture at
and pelleting, seed fortification and infusion. time of harvest and requires drying before
allowing the processing.
Seed processing •• Conditioning and precleaning: Scalping,
Seed lots received from the fields often have debearding, hulling, shelling any other
high moisture content and contain trash, inert operation to allow seed flow readily through
material, weed seeds etc. Seed processing upgrades cleaners and elevators.
the seed quality by removing foreign material, •• Cleaning: Removal of inert material, weed
undesirable seed, other crop seed, diseased and weed seed, other crop seed and broken seed that are
seeds, uniform size grading and seed treatment with larger or smaller than the crop seed.
chemical protectants during processing improves •• Upgrading: After cleaning specific size grading
planting value and protects the crop from pest and to remove undersized, other crop seeds weed
diseases in the field and during storage. seeds is done to upgrade the processed seed.
•• Seed Treatment: Seed treatment is done with
Seed processing ensures the following: chemical protectants to prevent damage of pest
•• Uniform planting rates due to proper sizing and and diseases during storage and in the field.
by removing seed appendages which hinder
planting. Seed priming
•• Improve seed crop marketing by improving Seeds are soaked in water/ osmotic solution
seed quality that allows them to imbibe water, go through
•• Prevents spread of weeds by removing weed initial stages of germination, but does not permit
seeds. the radicle protrusion through seed coat .There

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is triphasic uptake of water during imbibition •• Soaking –drying

wherein there is uptake of water followed by ATP •• Dipping-drying
production, mobilization of reserves ,initiation of •• Spraying-drying
RNA and DNA synthesis ,protein synthesis and in •• Stepwise hydration
the last phase cell expansion and radicle protrution. •• Moisture Equilibration-drying
•• Moist sand conditioning-drying
Methods of priming
Hydropriming : Soaking in water Dry seed treatments
Osmopriming : Soaking in an osmotic solution •• Solvent infusion
{(PEG 6000), Mannitol} •• Vapour treatment
Halopriming : Soaking in salt solution (mono / •• Dry dressing with inert carriers
dihydro salts of K, Na, Mg nitrate, phosphate)
Matrix priming : Mixing seeds with organic Pre-germinated seeds
or inorganic carrier and water (sand, strach, Seeds are pre-germinated and sown in a
vermiculite) protective fluid carrier/gel i.e. creating a stable
Seed invigoration: An improvement in seed 'packaged' environment. Nutrients, fungicides
performance by any post harvest treatment which and insecticides may be incorporated into the
involve controlled hydration of seed in high osmotic carrier gel. The uncontrollable factors in the field
solution resulting in improved germinability, greater environment which affect seed germination can be
storability and better field performance. These can eliminated by the sowing of pre-germinated seeds
be classified in the following: in a protective fluid carrier. Used for Turf grass,
vegetables, flower seeds.
Pre-sowing treatments Seed treatments given
before sowing to improve seed germination, speed Seed treatment
of emergence, seedling growth, field emergence, Seed treatment is a physical, mechanical,
crop stand and early vegetative growth. chemical or biological process designed to improve
and enhance the quality of seed so that the emerging
Pre-storage treatments: Seed treatments of freshly seedling could be healthy and vigorous.
harvested seeds aimed towards protection against
deteriorative senescence during storage. Objectives of seed treatment
•• Solvent infusion: Infusion of organic solvents •• Protection against seedborne and soilborne
(hydro benzoic acid, potassium iodide, p-amino pathogens
benzoic acid) •• Protection of emerging seedlings from damage
•• Vapour treatment: Infusion of chemical through by herbicides
vapour (2-3 g calcium carbonate , 2-10 g Iodine •• Physical treatments to control deep-seated
and seeds) pathogens including viruses.
•• Stimulation of germination and/or enhancement
Mid- storage treatments: Treatments given to of growth during seedling stage by application
medium and low vigour seeds during storage wherein of nutrients.
stored seeds are allowed top take up 20-30% water •• Speedy establishment of beneficial microorgan-
for initiation of restoration and corrective action isms on the roots for fixing nitrogen, enhancing
followed by drying back to restoration. These may nutrient uptake or stimulating growth by bacteria.
be dry or wet seed treatments: •• Making the seeds uniform for sowing by drill.
Wet seed treatments eg. Pelleting

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Seed coating per hour have been developed, making it feasible to

Seed coating includes any process for the treat high-volume agronomic crops by this method.
addition of materials to the seed. The term ‘coated Film coating products contain polymers, dyes
seed’ has been defined as a seed that has been and surfactants and form a fine, air- and water-
‘pelleted’, ‘tableted’ or ‘taped’. Seed coating is one permeable film that improves the distribution
of the most useful areas of seed enhancements and and retention of crop protection agents on the
an economical approach for improving the seed seed surface. The coating products contribute to
performance. Seed placement and performance significant reduction in the amount of dust released
can be greatly enhanced by altering the shape of during the application of the crop protection agents
seeds or placing the chemicals on seed coat which to the seed and during handling and use of the
regulate and improve germination. treated seed on the farm
Seed coatings can be done in different ways, •• The film coating improves the flowability of the
namely; Chemical protectants (Captan, Apron, seed.
Vitavax, etc.), microorganisms (Rhizobium, •• Film coating allows sowing rates to be managed
Trichoderma), Slurry coating, Film coating and accurately.
Temperature-sensitive polymers (Intellicoat). •• The coloration of the coating gives the seed
In case of slurry coating, a wettable powder is an attractive, glossy appearance, but also has
suspended in water to make slurry and a known the practical use of allowing differentiation
quantity of slurry and the seeds are dumped in between varieties and between different types
mixing chamber where they are blended. The of treatment.
treatment fluid is directly applied to the seeds in •• Film coatings do not significantly modify the
the form of mist in a mist-o-matic seed treater. Film shape and weight of the seed.
coating is the application of a thin, durable and There are two types of polymers used, namely;
water permeable coat which can be used to contain Hydrophilic polymer, which absorbs water
pesticides and other products securely, so that they uniformly and facilitate early emergence and
may have maximum effect at the time of sowing. hydrophobic polymer, which repel water and cause
The seed shape is not changed and increase in seed delayed germination. Some novel applications
weight is by 1-10 %. have also been developed using the film coating
method. For example, artificial polymers have
Film coating been developed that exhibit temperature-sensitive
Film coating is one of the primary way of permeability to water (Landec Corporation, Menlo
enhancing seed performance through the addition of Park, California). These Intelimers are permeable
chemicals to protect the seed from pathogens. These to water at warm temperatures, but not at cool
are generally fungicides, although insecticides and temperatures. Modifying the composition of the
other protectants can also be applied in this way. In polymer can set the temperature at which the
film coating, the chemicals are applied in a polymer permeability changes. Seeds coated with these
that is sprayed on the seeds as they fall though a polymers will not imbibe water if the temperature
specialized machine. The polymer is rapidly dried, is below the set point of the polymer, potentially
so that the seeds emerge with a complete, dry protecting the seed from imbibitional chilling
polymeric coating. This coating does not rub off the injury. The coatings are also being used to delay
seeds, greatly reducing worker exposure and waste. germination after planting, such as for timing the
In addition, colors can be added to the polymers to emergence of male parent lines at different times for
code different varieties or seed lots. Large-scale hybrid seed production. A starch-based biopolymer
units capable of treating large quantities of seeds is also being used in film coating to slow water

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uptake and alleviate chilling injury (SeedBiotics Synthetic : Turquoise blue, Congo red, Sky
SB2000™) dyes blue, Jade green
Polymers : Pink polykote, Green polykote,Red
Seed pelleting polykote
Seed pelleting is a process of enclosing the seed Adhesive material: Gum arabica, methyl cellulose,
with a small quantity of inert material just large gelatin, casein salts, Plastic rexins, polyvinyl
enough to produce a globular unit of standard size acetate, methyl ethyl cellulose, Polyurethane
to facilitate precision planting. The inert material polyvinyl alcohol, dextran and poly ethylene oxide.
creates a natural water holding media and provides
small amount of nutrients to young seedlings. Seed Properties of adhesives
pelleting also serve as mechanism of applying •• Should posess the required degree of water
needed material in such a way that they affect the seed solubility for easy emergence
or soil at the seed soil interface. The term ‘pelleted •• Should have affinity for both seed coat and the
seeds’ refers to the addition of inert filler materials filler material
to increase the apparent seed size and weight. Seed •• Should have appropriate viscosity
pelleting may obscure the original shape and size of •• Should have required strength and plasticity to
the seed. The pellet contains chemicals, fungicides, prevent breakage
polymers ,dyes, filler material and adhesive.The Filler material: Lime, gypsum, dolomite, rock
seeds of many horticultural species are either small phosphate, clay minerals like montmorillonite,
or irregularly shaped, making it difficult to singulate vermiculite. Besides blood, peat, poultry manure,
them for planting. Seed pelleting addresses both of moss and mucilage. Selection criteria for a filler
these problems by coating seeds with clay or other material
materials to give them a uniform shape and size •• Must be porous to allow movement of air to the
and increasing their size and density to allow more seed
precise placement in the soil. •• Coating must weaken or break down easily
when it comes in contact with soil moisture to
Advantages of pelleting prevent any physical impedance
•• Singling of seed is achieved, helpful in precision •• Should not be toxic to the seed
planting in mechanized farming •• Economical to apply on commercial basis
•• Small and irregular seeds are made easy to
handle Seed fortification
•• Accurate dosing of seed with chemical is It is impregnation of required substances for
possible and the wastage of chemical is invigorating the seed for improved production
prevented where the seeds are soaked either in water or
•• Pelleting acts as innoculant, protectant, nutrient dilute solutions of bioactive chemicals such as
and are conditionally hydrophillic micronutrients, growth regulators, vitamins and
•• Stress condition can be overcome by pelleting seed protectants. Seeds are soaked in solutions
even in low water holding capacity of equal volume for a duration of 6-24 hours
depending upon the crop to raise the moisture
Dyes content of the seed to 20-25 % just enough for
Botanicals : Jamun fruit extract, Beta endogenous impregnation of the chemicals by
dyes vulgaris tuber extract, exogenous application. The choice of chemicals, its
Curcuma longa rhizome powder, concentration and duration of soaking vary with the
Hibiscus rosasinensis flower extract species and decide the success of the treatments.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Seed infusion then transplant these very fragile plants into

This seed treatment technique is a method larger pots or plots. This method is very labor-
which directly incorporates bioactive chemicals intensive and results in considerable mortality
into seeds by using organic solvents such as from transplant shock or root loss. With the use of
acetone or dichloromethane. It has been known modern technologies of nursery growing in seed
for years that ethyl alcohol and acetone can make mats, seed tapes and seed plugs, it has given new
the hard coats of some seeds permeable. Dry seeds dimensions to the nursery growing of high value
are immersed for 1-4 hours in solvents such as seeds of vegetables and flowers.
acetone or dichloromethane containing desired Seed tapes: These are narrow bands of material,
solutes. During this period the desired chemical is such as paper or other degradable material, with
incorporated into the seeds. Following infusion, the seeds spaced randomly, in groups or in a single row.
seeds are removed from the organic solution and the Seed tapes are an easy way to plant a row of seeds
solvent is evaporated by air or vaccum dessication with precision spacing. This is a valuable technique
for 1-2 hours. The treated seeds can be stored for when you have a short supply of seeds, or each is
extended periods or sown directly into the soil, with very expensive. It provides for uniform spacing
the additional benefit of bioactive compound. and avoids the need to thin out sprouting seedlings.
Many commercial seed companies manufacture
Organic solvent infusion provides many seed tapes. Easy to use, these seed tapes are just
advantages over conventional seed treatment seeds fastened to some sort of thin biodegradable
methods viz.: paper by an adhesive that itself is biodegradable.
•• Many seed protectants are only slightly This allows for the plant roots to grow through the
soluble in water but are highly soluble in paper as the adhesive dissolves around the seed
organic solvents. This approach allows the so as not to obstruct growth. These tapes are well
incorporation of nonwater soluble compounds suited for small seeds that need to be thinned after
directly into the seeds. germination, such as carrots, beets, and lettuce.
•• Several compounds can be added simultaneously Seed mats: These are broad sheets of material,
to the seed to provide a range of seed response such as paper or other degradable material,
from release of dormancy to protection against with seeds placed in rows, groups or at random
soil microorganisms. throughout the sheets. Pre-seeded mats come with
•• Seeds can be safely treated in organic solvents attractive flower seed mixes often chosen around
for long periods of time without altering a theme and are a good if you don't mind your
viability- a common problem associated with choice of flowers being somewhat limited. A unique
aqueous solutions of seed protectants. combination of Annual, Biennial and Perennial
•• Compared to conventional methods, only small plants ensures instant colour and a long term
amount of bioactive chemicals are needed for garden. The Seed Mat aids initial growth by acting
organic solvent infusion, which minimizes the as a mulch mat to allow the seedling a head start
danger of toxic residue accumulation in the soil. over other competing plants and also helps to retain
•• After the chemicals are infused into the seed, vital moisture while the seeds germinate. The Seed
they offer little or no danger to the personnel is distributed evenly throughout the mat allowing
handling them. correct spacing for germination. After seeds have
germinated, some seedlings may be thinned out and
Seed tapes, mats and plugs transplanted to other areas of the garden.
The traditional way to raise numerous seedlings The Seed Mat consists of two sheets of special
is to place seeds in rows in trays or nursery bed, paper in-between the seed grains are placed at exact

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 Millet Seed Technology

distances. For Seed Mats, only quality seed pre- •• seed mixtures are available for wild flowers,
tested laboratory should be used. The spacement fragrant flowers, tall bedding, borders,
between the single seed grains is adapted to seed Sunflowers, Hollyhocks and other favourite
species and quality thus guaranteeing the optimal flowers
number of plants in each cultivating pot or bed.
For pots, cultivating trays and hotbeds: Seed Heated seed mats: These are large heated rubber
Mats are available in several sizes for young plants mats that provide the perfect amount of gentle heat
cultivation in pots, cultivating trays and hotbeds. in the initial stages of germination thus allowing
early seeding in the winter season also. They
Kind of Seed mat Sizes are pre-tested and set to the correct germination
cultivation
temperatures. The mat and rack are together so
Pots Round 8 cm; 9 cm; 10 cm; 11
cm; 13 cm warmth travels upward through the open space
Trays Rolls, 12.5 cm x 17 cm; 12.5 between the flat and the mat. Heat circulates into
perforated cm x 20 cm; 30 cm x and through the soil. It contains an electric heating
40 cm; 40 cm x 60 cm element to produce and maintain a uniform radiant
Hotbeds Rolls, not 10, 25, 50 and 100 m heat. This heated rubber mat is thermostatically
perforated controlled: the heating mat is maintained at a
constant temperature.
Advantages of seed mats
•• saves you the time and effort of preparing a Seed plugs: A plug is a containerized transplant
proper seed bed with a self-enclosed root system The advantages to
•• useful over some difficult soils growing seedlings from plugs are numerous: less
•• with a seed mat you only need to remove time and labor to transplant, reduced root loss, more
obstructions like growing weeds, and loosen uniform growth, faster crop time, and increased
up the soil if it is compacted - then 'roll out the production.
flowers'
•• seed mats control weeds by acting as a barrier Plugs are produced in multi-cell plastic trays,
mulch also called flats. The trays are available in a wide
•• the seeds get off to a good start - you simply range of cell sizes and depths—anywhere from 50
water the mat to 800 cells in a single tray. The type of flat chosen
•• flowers are spaced out correctly to avoid need will depend on the species being grown and the
for thinning length of time spent growing it. Rigid foam cell
•• use a seeded mat if the weather or the soil has trays are an alternative to plastic trays. Though
been unsuitable for cultivating a proper seed more expensive per unit, they have the advantage
bed - or if you haven't had the time of greater durability and “stand-alone” ability—
•• easy and simple for children to use particularly important when using automated
•• mats can be cut to any size or shape equipment. They are quite bulky, however, and
•• most pre-seeded mats contain a mix of will not nest for storage. Lightweight plastic trays,
flowers, making them more economical than in contrast, are easy to store in the off-season and
several packets of seed. But you also get ideal cost less, but are less durable and usually require
conditions for germination and seedling growth an under tray to maintain sufficient rigidity for
often giving a better return in flowers convenient handling.
•• the mats are all natural and biodegradable

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 Millet Seed Technology

Seed certification system in

India for seed quality assurance

S eed is one of the most critical inputs for agriculture. A sustained increase in agriculture
production and productivity has become dependent upon the development of new and improved
varieties and the supply of quality seed of such varieties to farmers. The supply of quality seeds of
improved varieties is important not only for realizing the full potential of new varieties but also for
retaining the faith of farmers in high yielding technology.
Even at the turn of century, it was realized that a new variety could degenerate and get polluted
in 4 to 5 years after its release to farmers if it was not properly maintained. This lead to field
verification of varieties and approved system of seed production which ultimately gave birth to
system of seed certification.

The process of seed certification in India began 1985 Publication of "Handbook of Cultivars"
to take share with the establishment of the All India 1988 Publication of 2nd revised Minimum Seed
Coordinated Maize Improvement Project in 1957. Certification Standards
The Government of India established the National 1993 Publication of Handbook of Seed Testing
Seeds Corporation in 1963 as foundation seed 1995 Publication of National Catalogue of
producing and stocking agency for the nation and to Varieties Notified and Denotified under
take up certification till State Government prepared Section 5 of the Seeds Act
themselves to conduct certification. This was the 1997 Publication of Compendium of
beginning of organized seed industry in India. Proceedings of Central Sub-Committee
on Crop Standards, Notification &
Milestone in seed certification Release of Varieties (Volume-I & II)
1963-64
Beginning of seed certification
1966 Enactment of Seed Act Seed certification in Indian context
1967 Seed Review Team Seed certification has been recognized as an
1968 Enforcement of Seeds Act, 1966 in part integral part of seed quality control. The purpose of
1969 Enforcement of the remaining parts of seed certification is to maintain and make available
Seeds Act, 1966 to farmers through certification high quality seeds
1969 Publication of minimum Seed and planting material of notified/kind and varieties
Certification Standards so grown and distributed as to ensure genetic
1971 Setting up of National Commission on identity and true to type.
Agriculture Seed certification is also designated to achieve
1972 Setting up of Central Seed Certification the prescribed Indian Minimum Seed Certification
Board under section 8A of Seeds Act, Standards. The system of labelling the seed and
1966 certification has legal sanction under Section 6 (a)
1980 Publication of Seed Certification Hand and clause 17 (a) of Seed Rules of Seeds Act, 1966,
Book which provides that seed producers/traders have

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 Millet Seed Technology

the option either to produce and sell labelled seed popularly known as Initial Yield Evolution Trials
or certified seed respectively. In other words, seed (IET). The entries, which qualify in IET, are tested
certification has been made voluntary and is not for two more years under uniform regional trials for
compulsory. The Act further provides that only a yield, disease and other quality factors.
variety notified under Section 5 of Seeds Act can After trial, these varieties are discussed in crop
be certified. The authority of notification of kind/ workshop held by different projects of ICAR. The
variety vests with the Central Government. Seeds varieties identified in the workshop are put up for
covered under the Seeds Act for regulation of official release to Central Sub-Committee on Crop
quality. Followings are the agricultural (including Standards, Notification & Release of Varieties
horticulture) crops covered under Section 2 (11) (CSC on CSN&RV) for consideration. Therefore,
of the Seeds Act, 1966 for regulation of quality of at least minimum 4 to 5 years are required for
seed. testing and official release of varieties. The release
•• Seeds of food crops including edible oil seeds and notification of variety is done by the Central
of fruits and vegetables. Sub-Committee on Crop Standards, Notification &
•• Cotton seeds Release of Varieties. Up to December 2001, 2800
•• Seeds of cattle fodder. varieties have been notified. Notification of variety
•• Jute seeds and includes seedlings and tubers, is essential for the production of certified seed.
bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings all types However, the private sector has also developed
of grafts and other vegetatively propagated more than 150 crop varieties, 70% of them for
material of food crops or cattle fodder. hybrids and most of these have not been tested
under All India Coordinated Improvement Projects
Varietal development and hence have been neither release and notified.
Until 1966 there was no central legislation on
seeds. The Seeds Act was enacted in 1966 to ensure Establishment of seed certification
that farmers get good quality seeds. Quality is agencies
ensured through release and notification of varieties, Systematic arrangements for large scale seed
seed certification, labeling of seeds, seed testing and certification began to take shape with the launching
seed law enforcement by Seed Inspectors. The crop of seed production programmes for hybrids of
varieties are developed by both public and private Maize, Sorghum and Pearl Millet in early 1960's.
sector plant breeding programmes under the Indian The National Seeds Corporation set up in 1963,
Council of Agriculture Research's (ICAR) various became the first official seed certification agency
All India Coordinated Crop Improvement Projects. even before enactment of Seeds Act. The Seeds
The coordinated projects have several cooperators Act was passed in 1966 and for the first time in
including the Central Government/ICAR Institutes, the country's history, statutory support for quality
State Agricultural Universities, State Government control of seed was provided.
and Private Seed Companies Research Stations, Section 8 of the Seeds Act provides that the
etc. providing a wide national network for variety State Government and the Central Government in
evolution. At present there are 32 All India consultation with the State Government may by
Coordinated Crop Improvement Projects for notification in the Official Gazette established a
different crops. Before release, the varieties are certification agency for a State to carry out functions
tested thoroughly under project coordinated trials of entrusted to it under the Act. The functions of the
ICAR. These varieties are tested at least for three seed certification agency have been specified in
years for various quality factors. In the first year the clause 6 of Seed Rules, 1968.
variety is tested for yield trials and these trials are Twenty-two State Seed Certification Agencies/

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 Millet Seed Technology

Departments of Seed Certification are functioning S. Name of the Seed Year of Status
in the country. The remaining 13 States/Union No Certification Agency estab-
Territories are still to establish certification lish-
ment
agencies. 14 seed certification agencies are
Rajasthan 1977 Autonomous
registered as autonomous bodies under the
Sikkim 1982 Within the
Society Registration Act and 8 seed certification
Department
agencies are functioning within the Department
Tamil Nadu 1979 Within the
of Agriculture. These agencies levy certification Department
charges on producers of certified seed for difference Tripura 2002 Within the
services such as registration, field inspection, Department
grow-out (control plot) test, inspection of seed Uttar Pradesh 1976 Autonomous
processing plants, revalidation of seeds, bagging, Uttaranchal 2000 Autonomous
tagging, sealing, etc. Within the autonomous Seed West Bengal 1982 Within the
Certification Agencies, the power is vested in their Department
governing board.
The Central Government has been empowered The Board is the apex body to regulate the
to constitute Central Seed Certification Board certification process in the country. The particulars
under Section 8A of the Act to advise the Central about year of establishment of certification agencies
Government on matters related to seed certification. are as follows:
•• Grow-out (control plot) tests to ascertain
S. Name of the Seed Year of Status genetic purity. These are essential for the
No Certification Agency estab- hybrids produced through hand emasculation
lish- and pollination before certification is permitted.
ment
The seed lots, which meet the field and lab
Assam 1985 Autonomous
standards, are certified by the certification agency
A.P. 1977 Autonomous
and a certificate is issued with 9 months validity
Bihar 1979 Autonomous
Delhi 1982 Within the Area (in hectares) Quantity (in Qtls.)
Department Founda Certified Founda- Certified
Gujarat 1980 Autonomous Year tion tion
Haryana 1976 Autonomous 1989-1990 41784 371584 506862 3684935
Himachal Pradesh 1978 Autonomous 1990-1991 39451 288213 262267 3019689
Jammu & Kashmir 1976 Within the 1991-1992 33925 289056 316206 3892718
Department 1992-1993 36035 372278 300209 3795908
Karnataka 1974 Autonomous 1993-1994 39463 370635 482837 4310810
Kerala 1973 Within the 1994-1995 49891 977824 639392 5981104
Department
1995-1996 50366 471071 662570 5833860
Madhya Pradesh 1980 Autonomous
1996-1997 59074 479870 761737 6601783
Maharashtra 1970 Autonomous
1997-1998 60213 483241 744120 6153869
Mizoram 1994 Within the 1998-1999 56692 507439 635729 6965068
Department
2001-02 43042 367037 1151631 3651624
Orissa 1977 Autonomous
2002-03 547756 476045 566464 6580140
Pondicherry 1999 Within the 2003-04 43790 461920 706740 6152748
Department 2004-05 44380 350450 1375474 3481749
Punjab 1976 Autonomous 2005-06 10016 173158 925448 9867146

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 Millet Seed Technology

period. The certification tag is affixed on each •• Asia: Seed certification is carried out in almost
container of the seed indicating that the seed in all countries except Bhutan and Laos. Legal
question confirms to the prescribed standards. The sanction for seed certification is available
progress of seed certification is given below. in India (1966), Japan (1948), Bangladesh
(1977), Pakistan (1976) and Thailand (1975).
Progress of seed certification
Excepting Japan, none of Asian countries is a
In 1965-66, the Government decided to import
member of OECD certification.
large quantities of high yielding varieties of Wheat
•• Africa: Seed certification is not prevalent
from CIMMYT, Mexico. Since then the systematic
in a majority of African countries. Instead,
procedure for certification was initiated. In
seed production is done on the principles of
accordance with the provisions of the Seeds Act,
limited generation system by plant breeding
the Central Seed Committee was established. This
institutes of the Departments of Agriculture
Committee has Central Sub-Committee on Crop
concerned. Seed legislation has been enacted in
Standards, Notification & Release of Varieties
Benin, Morocco, Niger, Swaziland, Tanzania,
for Agricultural and Horticultural crops. The
Tunisia and Zambia. Tunisia, Morocco, South
Central Seed Certification Board has specified
Africa and Kenya are the members of OECD
general seed certification standards and minimum
certification schemes.
seed certification standards to carry out uniform
•• Central and North America: Seed
certification. Seed certification involves the
certification is prevalent in all the countries of
following steps:
Central and North America. The system has
•• Inspection of the seed crop.
legal sanction in all the countries except Costa
•• Analysis of harvested seed for quality in seed
Rica, Haiti, Jamaica and El Salvador. USA and
testing laboratories
Canada are the members of OECD. Canada has
made certification of seed compulsory under
Strengthening of seed certification
law. Costa Rica has applied for the membership
agencies
of OECD certification schemes.
The first attempt to strengthen the Seed
•• South America: Seed certification system is
Certification Agencies was made during the 8th Five
prevalent in all the countries of South America
Year Plan. A financial outlay of Rs. 150 lakh was
and it has legal sanction also.
provided @ Rs. 15 lakh each to the certification
•• Europe: Seed certification system is prevalent
agencies of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh,
in all the countries. It has legal sanction also.
Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
20 countries of Europe have joined OECD. UK
Rajasthan, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and National
has made certification compulsory under law.
Seeds Corporation (NSC) to strengthen their seed
•• Oceania: Seed certification is not practiced in
certification lab into elite labs. Besides, an amount
its fullest measures except in Australia and New
of Rs. 150 lakh has been provided to strengthen the
Zealand. Solomon Island, Vanuatu and Western
information technology @ Rs. 15 lakh each to Seed
Samoa do not have seed legislation. Australia
Certification Agencies of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,
and New Zealand are members of OECD.
Karnataka, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Pondicherry, during
the 9th Five Year Plan Period.
Merits and demerits of seed
certification
Merits
Global experience of seed certification
•• Certified seeds perform better than farm saved
The Organization for Economic Co-operation
seeds.
and Development (OECD) operates a number of
•• The variety being certified is easily
seed certification schemes. 39 countries participate
distinguishable to others.
in OECD certification schemes. India has not yet
•• It has capable to retain its distinguishing feature
opted for OECD schemes. The continent-wise
under the process of multiplication.
status of seed certification is given below:
•• It helps the systematic increase of superior

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 Millet Seed Technology

variety. crops and forest seeds are under consideration

•• It ensures availability of quality seeds with true of seed certification.
to type. •• Large quantity of seed is produced and
•• It ensures availability of disease free seeds, as distributed as labelled seed for which only
standards for diseases are the integral part of germination, physical and genetic purity
seed certification procedure. are required. This leaves enough scope for
•• This system helps the identification of new production and distribution of spurious seeds.
varieties and their rapid increase under •• Non-compliance of inter State Seed Certification
appropriate and generally accepted names. procedures.
•• Certification is voluntary however labelling is •• Insisting grow-out test for all the crops
compulsory. and varieties, which is inconsistent with
•• Quality parameters for certification standards the procedure of Indian Minimum Seed
have been prescribed. Certification Standard.
•• It maintains uniformity of seed standards •• Heavy charges being levied by the Seed
throughout the country. Certification Agency for the sake of their
•• Known characters of the crops/variety are survival.
certified thus ensures genetic purity. •• At present, breeder, foundation and certified
•• Maintain list of recognized breeders of seeds. seed chain is very week.
•• Verifies the seed source use for planting. •• Delay in conveying the results of tests
•• Ensures field and lab standards before conducted on the lots of seeds.
certification. •• International tests for varietal identification
•• Carry out educational programmes. such as electrophoresis, machine vision,
•• Maintain records to verify for the production of chromatographic test, etc. are not used in India
certified seed. at present.
•• Monitor the breeder seed production.
•• Issuance of certificate for export of seeds as Conclusion
"Certified that the seeds to be exported are not •• Compulsory seed certification may help to
of wild species and do not belong to foundation curtail the supply of spurious seed.
or breeder seeds". •• Need for changes in policies and procedures
Demerits with regards to seed certification.
•• Quality parameters for certification were •• Autonomous Seed Certification Agency may be
borrowed from the developed countries and on subsumed with the Department of Agriculture
the available literature. No systematic scientific so as to strengthen the seed certification.
data has been generated for fixation of such •• Self-certification may be considered.
standards. •• Seed certification charges are to be nationalized.
•• Lack of infrastructure facilities for seed •• Require policy for encouragement of certified
certification programme. seed production of vegetables.
•• Lack of human resource development in the •• Dynamic interface should be organised between
field of seed certification. Seed Certification Agency and Seed Company.
•• Non-provision of self-certification. •• Require periodic review on seed certification
•• Seed certification programme doesn't specify standards.
uniform service charges. •• Signing MOU by some of the Seed Companies
•• Time frame was not specified for the with State Governments is to be discouraged as
certification activities. this may lead to non-implementation of legal
•• No standards available for establishing seed provisions on seeds.
processing plant. •• Adequate financial assistance is to be extended
to meet the recurring expenditure of Seed
Constraints Certification Agencies.
•• Presently, horticultural, fruit crops, plantation

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 Millet Seed Technology

Comparative assessment of Indian and

International standards (ISTA & OECD)
for seed quality assurance enabling
International seed trade

I n this era of rapidly changing global conditions, improved varieties and good quality seeds are
inevitable to confront the challenges of ever increasing population and food insecurity. Improved
seed is the carrier of technological innovations and serves as an engine for agricultural advancement
when available in the required quantities and of the right quality. Seed being a commodity of trade,
seed production supply activities and seed quality constitutes a more serious source of concern than
seed quantity. As the first input in the cropping process, high-quality seed brings high genetic yield
potential resulting in higher productivity and crop production.

Introduction: Standards. Trade in seed is subject to bilateral and/

Seed quality assurance is a systematic and or multilateral agreements at local, regional, and
planned procedure for ensuring the genetic, physical international levels. In general, the seed trade is one
and physiological integrity of the seed delivered to of the most regulated sectors in all countries, with
farmers. The term “seed quality assurance” implies a plethora of seed laws, testing and certification
that agencies charged with seed quality cooperate procedures. The simplification and harmonization
with and support stakeholders in other areas of the of testing and certification procedures helps to
seed industry to assure quality products. Overall, improve farmers’ access to high-quality seed in all
elements covered by seed quality assurance include regions of the world. Several international bodies
variety release, proper land selection, field crop were created for setting standards and regulations
inspection, seed testing and control (pre- and post- that provided an enabling environment for the seed
control). In these elements, four important seed industry: the International Seed Testing Association
quality parameters – genetic purity, physical purity, (ISTA) in 1924; the International Plant Protection
physiological condition and seed health status - are Convention (IPPC) in 1951; the OECD Seed
the focus. Seed quality assurance is a mechanism Schemes in 1953, and the International Union for
put in place to guarantee the quality of seed from the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV)
production, harvesting, and post-harvest handling in 1961.
through sales. In India, certification is voluntary
and labeling is compulsory. Seed certification is National and Global Seed Scenario
subject to the Seeds Act 1966 and the procedures The estimated value of the World seed
are regulated by the 1968 rules for certification market is 42 billion USD of which USA stands
and subsequent amendments. Certified seed first with 12000 million USD. Indian domestic
must satisfy the standards as outlined in the 1988 seed sector ranks fifth in the World with a
edition of the Indian Minimum Seed Certification turnover of 3000 million USD, next only to USA,

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 Millet Seed Technology

China, France and Brazil. India's rank in the world present, new legislation is under discussion and once
seed market in terms of value has increased from approved will enhance seed exports and facilitate
10th position with value of 600 million USD in 2002 seed imports. Since 2009, small amounts of maize,
to fifth position with 3000 million USD in 2011. jute and millet seed were exported to neighboring
However, India's share in global seed export is less countries, while substantial amounts of pulse seeds
than 2%. As per the International Seed Federation's were imported from countries in South America. It
estimate of 2011, India exports the seeds of field is prime time that we identify the disparities in the
crops worth of 19 million USD. Hence, in order to present quality regulation requirements to truly go
enhance the seed export potential, India has become global in order to enhance the share in international
the member of OECD Seed schemes since October seed business. An attempt is made to present major
2008. This will facilitate for all the stakeholders disparities that exits in the present seed quality
to participate in multiplication of seeds abroad as standards and regulatory requirements and to
well as increase the International Seed Trade. The harmonize these standards and regulations with
varieties and hybrids of different crops including international organizations like International Seed
vegetables, developed and produced in India can Testing Association [ISTA] and Organization for
be marketed in Asian and African countries falling Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD].
within the same Agro- Eco- Zones of 30 degrees
N-S latitudes. The hybrids seeds particularly Comparison in maximum seed lot,
of maize and paddy can be marketed in Nepal, submitted sample and working sample
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, size
Cambodia, Philippines, Indonesia and Sri Lanka Sampling is aimed obtaining a sample of a
and seeds of paddy, sorghum, pearl millet and size suitable for tests, in which the probability of
vegetables can be exported to African countries. a constituent being present is determined only by
This will help for increasing the rural employment its level of occurrence in the seed lot. Proposal for
in the seeds sector, in addition to improving the maximum seed lot size is to achieve reasonably
economic conditions of the seed-producing farmers homogenous seed lot. Seed size is generally the
in the State. Concerning trade, imports and exports significant factor in determining the maximum
of seed are governed by the Export and Import seed lot size and the submitted sample is largely in
(EXIM) Policy 2002-2007. While most of the relation to the purity working sample, based on the
seed traded internationally today is vegetable seed, weight of 2500 seeds. It is very important to note
nevertheless, there is growing interest in exporting here is that the seed lot is rejected or accepted for
seed of field crops, in particular, hybrid seed. At sale, only on the basis of the tests conducted on the

About International Seed Testing Association [ISTA]

The International Seed Testing Association [ISTA] established in 1924 work towards a vision of uniformity
in seed testing internationally. ISTA is based in Zurich, Switzerland and is truly a global network with
member laboratories in over 75 countries worldwide. ISTA’s concurrent mission is to develop, adapt
and publish standard procedures for sampling and testing seeds, and to promote uniform application
of these procedures for evaluation of seeds moving through international trade. ISTA’s seed sampling
and testing methods have been developed by its members since its formation. Methods have gone
through appropriate validation studies to ensure that test procedures give reliable and reproducible
results. The test methods is based on scientific knowledge and the accumulated experience of those
working in seed testing and quality control. The test results are reported on the ISTA International Seed
Analysis Certificate, which are accepted by many authorities and consumers.

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 Millet Seed Technology

representative sample submitted to the seed testing Standards are being developed and adopted in
laboratory. However, there exists a large variation India for the Domestic certification systems. This
in maximum seed lot size, minimum submitted is designed and being adopted as per the need
sample and working sample size between IMSCS, and requirements of Indian conditions to satisfy
1988 and ISTA’s International Rules for Seed the domestic Seed Industry and farmers demand.
Testing, 2011 [Table-1 & 2]. Whereas the OECD Seed certification Rules and
Directions are mainly meant for the requirements
Comparison of Genetic purity and of 59 member countries following harmonized
ODVs in Indian Minimum Seed rules for the International Trading purposes. Indian
Certification Standards Minimum Seed Certification Standards exceeds the
Conventionally, genetic purity of hybrids is minimum requirements as set out in the OECD
assessed by a grow-out test (GOT), which involves Rules and Directions. Whenever a seed crop is
scoring distinct morphological traits for a given being offered for OECD certification, OECD Rules
hybrid till maturity. There exists a compromise and Directions will be applied for field inspection
between minimum genetic purity [%] and Maximum to ensure varietal identity and purity. The Central
permissible ODVs. GOT is not mandatory for all Seed Certification Board prescribes the standards
crops, however, for hybrids the genetic purity for certification of seed and this is applied across
standard is 95% (i.e., 5 in 100). If we calculated all States. India operates a very rigorous and
the numbers permissible off-type seeds to achieve complete systems approach for the provision of
95 % genetic purity, it works out to be 2143 seeds OECD certification. This process is well monitored
per Kg of paddy seeds, where as permissible through a comprehensive system of checks and
ODVs are 20 per Kg [Table-3] that is distinguished balances. India is a net importer of high quality
only based on morphological markers, which is seed due to the rapidly increasing demand from
practically very difficult. Therefore, it is a time to farmers. Seed certification is voluntary and the vast
fix the higher level of standards for genetic purity. bulk of seed currently produced in India is absorbed
Further, we could also go for alternate methods of in domestic market.
genetic purity testing [Isozymes, DNA markers
etc.] to minimize time and cost mainly as a measure Exports of certified seed of field crops are
of quality control. limited. Currently, 61 seed varieties, covering 19
crops, are listed in the 2010 OECD List of Varieties,
Comparison in Indian Minimum Seed all of which are from the public sector. The
Certification Standards and OECD private sector has been involved in and has gained
Seed Scheme familiarity with the OECD Schemes, and there is
To-date, over 6500 high yielding varieties of growing interest from private companies, especially
field crops adapted to different cropping systems for the high value seeds. The process of involving
and quality standards have been developed. In the private varieties in the OECD official list and
OECD Seed certification, currently, 61 varieties private stakeholders in the OECD certification will
of 19 crops are listed in the OECD List of be worked out at ministry level. Since the success
Varieties, all of which are from public research of the seed schemes mainly depends on the active
institutions. However, with better coordination of participation of the Private stakeholders. Even
both public and private through greater awareness though we found certain commonalities, there
of the OECD Certification Schemes, the private are wide difference in the modus operandi and
sector is expected to take a bigger role in future standards between Indian certification system and
years. The Indian Minimum Seed Certification OECD certification system [Table-4].

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About OECD Seed Scheme

The Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) is an intergovernmental
Organization founded in 1961 based in Paris. The OECD helps governments to foster prosperity
and fight poverty through economic growth, financial stability, trade and investment, technology,
innovation, entrepreneurship and development cooperation. The OECD Seed Schemes provide an
international framework for the certification of seed with the aim of facilitating the growth in trade
of seed by reducing technical barriers [providing ‘Seed Passport’]. The Schemes were established in
1958 in response to a combination of factors including the rapidly growing seed trade, the increase
in regulatory requirements in some countries, the development of off-season production, the large
breeding and production potential of exporting countries. The purpose of the OECD Seed Schemes is
to encourage the use of “quality-guaranteed” seed in participating countries. The Schemes authorize
the use of labels and certificates for seed produced and processed for international trade according to
agreed principles. The OECD Seed Certification Schemes are based on two key criteria; varietal identity
and varietal purity. The OECD certification is applied to varieties satisfying DUS tests (Distinction,
Uniformity and Stability), and the Schemes aim to ensure varietal identity and purity through seed
multiplication, processing and labeling. They also provide specifications for seed multiplication outside
of the country, which is becoming an ever-increasing practice. In 2008, over 500 000 metric tons of
seed were OECD-certified, traded and used by farmers. In addition, the main OECD principles can also
be applied to seed that is used on the domestic market. There are seven distinct and independent
Seed Schemes and admission to each Scheme is voluntary. India became full members of the scheme
in 2009. Presently, India participates in 5 schemes namely, Cereal seed; Maize and sorghum seed;
Vegetable seed; Grass and legume seed and Crucifer seed and other oil or fiber species seed.

Table 1: Comparison of maximum seed lot size [kg] in different crops where discrepancies observed in
requirements as in Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards, 1988 and ISTA’s International Rules
for Seed Testing, 2011

Indian requirements ISTA requirements

Crop and botanical name
Maximum weight of seed Maximum weight of seed
lot [Kg] lot [Kg]
(1) (2) (3)
Field Crops and Millets
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) 20,000 30,000
Paddy (Oryza sativa L.) 20,000 30,000
Triticale (X. Triticosecale) 20,000 30,000
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 20,000 30,000
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) 10,000 30,000
Pulses
Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum L.) 20,000 30,000
Black gram (Vigna mungo L.) 20,000 30,000
Green gram (Vigna radiata L.) 20,000 30,000
Lentil (Lens culinaris L.) 10,000 30,000
Pea (Pisum sativum L.) 20,000 30,000

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Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Pods 20,000 30,000
Kernels

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) 10,000 25,000

Soybean (Glycine max L.) 20,000 30,000
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) 20,000 25,000
Fiber Crops
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) 20,000 25,000
Oat (Avena sativa L.) 20,000 30,000
Green Leafy Vegetables
Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) 10,000 5,000
Legume Vegetables
Broad bean (Vicia faba L.) 20,000 30,000
Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) 20,000 30,000
Scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus L.) 20,000 30,000

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Table 2: Comparison of minimum submitted and working sample size [kg] in

different crops where discrepancies observed in Indian Minimum Seed Certification
Standards, 1988 and ISTA’s International Rules for Seed Testing, 2011

Indian requirements ISTA requirements

Minimum working Mini- Minimum working
samples [g] mum samples [g]
Crop and botanical name Minimum
submit-
submitted Other Other
Purity ted Purity
sample [g] species
analysis sample analysis seeds by
seed [g] number

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Field Crops
Paddy (Oryza sativa L.) 400 40 400 700 70 700
Pulses
Black gram (Vigna mungo L.) 1000 150 1000 1000 700 1000
Indian bean (Lablab purpureus L.) 1000 500 1000 1000 600 1000
Oilseeds
Castor (Ricinus communis L.) 1000 1000 1000 1000 500 1000
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Pods 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000

Kernels 1000 600 1000 - - -

Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) 300 30 300 150 15 150
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) 1000 180 1000 900 90 900
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) 250 125 250 1000 200 1000
Fiber Crops
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) 350 35 350 1000 350 1000
Jute (Corchorus spp.) 100 10 100 150 15 150
Forage Crops
Birdwood grass (Cenchrus setigerus L.) 25 3 25 150 15 150
Blue panic (Panicum antidotale L.) 25 2 20 20 2 20
Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris L.) 25 3 25 60 6 60
Doob (Cynodon dactylon L.) 25 1 10 10 1 10
Fenugreek (Trigonella spp.) 40 4 40 450 45 450
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum L.) 25 2 20 20 2 20

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Sweet clover (Melilotus indicus L.) 100 10 100 50 5 50

Shaftal (Trifolium resupinatum L.) 25 2 20 20 2 20
Venezuela grass (Melinis minutiflora L.) 25 5 25 5 0.5 5
Green Manure Crops
Poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) 25 1 10 10 1 10
Tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) 25 0.5 5 5 0.5 5
Vegetable Crops
Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) 1000 450 1000
Bottle gourd (Lagenaria leucantha L.) 700 70 700 1000 500 1000
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) 150 70 150 150 70 -
Long melon (Cucumis melo L.) 150 70 150 150 70 -
Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata L.) 350 180 350 350 180 -
Fruit vegetables
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) 70 7 70 15 7 -
Tomato hybrids 7 7 7 15 7 -
Green Leafy Vegetables
Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) 70 7 70 10 2 -
Celery (Apium graveolens L.) 25 1 10 10 1 10
Cole crops
Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis L.) 40 4 40 70 7 70

Table 3: Differences in permissible off-types and ODVs existing in IMSCS, 1988 in

paddy
Standards Reject number for Permissible
Permissible off-types
for minimum sample size of ODVs
Class of seed
Genetic Purity
800 400 [Maximum]
[%] [Maximum]
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Foundation 99.00 16 8 714 / Kg 10 / Kg
Certified
a. Varieties,
composites,
98.00 24 12 1071 / Kg 20 / Kg
synthetics,
multilines
b. Hybrids 95.00 48 24 2143 / Kg 20 / Kg
Note: Permissible off-types (5) calculated based on the test weight of the seed for paddy varieties and
hybrids. The standards are of IMSCS, 1988.

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Table 4: Comparison of Indian Seed Certification with OECD Seed Schemes for varietal Certification
I. General Standards:
Sl. Indian Minimum Seed Certification OECD Varietal Certification Systems
No.
1. Classes and Stages of Seed Multiplication
Nucleus Seed: Through maintenance Breeders Maintenance Material: Checked against
breeding by the maintainers / breeders. DUS characters. Carries Suppliers Labels. Controlled
Checked for varietal characters. Controlled and maintained by the maintainer / breeder. Used for
and maintained by the maintainers / breeder. pre-basic seed multiplication.
Carries Breeder's certificate. Used for Pre-Basic Seed: Carries White Label with diagonal
Breeder Seed multiplication. Violet Stripe. Controlled by official certification
Breeder Seed: Carries Golden Yellow Tag. authority (DA) + Maintainer. Undertake pre-
Production monitored by expert team. Grow controlled test. Cannot be commercialized and
Out Test is employed for certain crops. Used not for sale. Produced officially by the recognized
for Foundation Seed multiplication. institute/ organization.
Foundation Seed: Carries White Color Tag. Basic Seed: Carries White Label. Controlled
Controlled by official seed certification agency by official certification authority (DA) +
directly and no role of maintainer. GOT test Maintainer. Undertake pre-controlled test.
is not compulsory and only on need based Cannot be commercialized and not for sale.
undertaken. Produced through registered seed Produced officially by the recognized
producers / growers. Can be used for Foundation institute/organization.
Stage-I to Foundation Stage-II multiplication on Certified Seed:
specific cases for the open pollinated varieties Cl : Carries Blue Label
with specific approval from the Director of C2 : Carries Red Label
Seed Certification. Used for Certified Seed Not under Breeder's / Maintainers control however
multiplication. consulted for the number of multiplication. DA's and
Certified Seed: Carries Azure Blue Tag. Controlling Authorities undertake the quality control
Controlled by official seed certification including post control test + provision of Patent
agency directly and no role of maintainer. GOT Royalty to the Maintainers / Breeder's. Used for the
test is not compulsory and only on need based commercial multiplication / sale.
undertaken. Produced through registered seed Not Finally Certified Seed:
producers / growers. Can be used for Certified Carries Grey Label. Seed which is to be exported from
Stage-I to Certified Stage-II multiplication on the country of production after field approval, but
specific cases for the open pollinated varieties before final certification as basic or certified seed,
with approval from the Director of Seed shall be identified in fastened containers by the special
Certification. label.
Labeled Seed: Produced by the producer himself Standard Seed:
and no role of certification agencies. Seed carries Carries Dark Yellow Label. This category mainly exists
producer label of opal green color with all details in vegetable seed scheme. Seed that is declared by the
of seed standards and signed by the producer supplier as being true to the variety and of satisfactory
himself. Producer himself is responsible for varietal purity. It must confirm to the appropriate
varietal purity and seed standards. conditions in the scheme.
2. Eligible Varieties and Parental Constituents
Only the varieties notified under Section (5) of Country shall have national list of varieties under
the Seed Act, 1966 are eligible for certification the OECD Seed Schemes, which include only those
under IMSCS 1988, based on Value for varieties tested and listed to be Distinct, Uniform and
Cultivation and Use (VCU) Systems. Stable following internationally recognized guidelines
and in case of agricultural species, varieties also found
to have acceptable Value for Cultivation and Use
(VCU) in at least one country. Registered in National
Catalogue of Varieties.

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3. Control of the Production of the Seed

Nucleus seed production is purely under The Designated Authority [DA] in the country of
the control of Breeder. Breeder seed is production of the seed is responsible for implementing
produced by breeder and monitoring by a the Scheme in relation to that production. For certified
team comprising of breeder, concerned Asst. seed production in OECD non-official inspectors are also
Director of seed certification and a member allowed. Seed testing is done as per the International
from NSC and a nominated member from Methods of Seed Testing recognized by the DA. The
farming community. Foundation and Certified DA may authorize non-official laboratories to carry out
seeds are certified and labeled /tagged by seed analysis, but under official supervision.
Certification Agencies as per IMSCS. Under
Indian system, for certified seed production
only official inspectors are allowed and seed
analysis is carried out in Notified Seed Testing
Laboratories.
4. Seed Sampling
Shall be made by the officials of Certification
DA is authorized to take seed lot sampling, fastening
Agency only. No provision of authorization of
and labeling of container. He may authorize non-
non-official persons to carry out, under official
official persons to carry out, under official supervision
supervision seed sampling, fastening and
seed sampling, fastening and labeling of containers.
labeling of containers.
5. Seed Analysis
Seed Analysis is conducted in the Notified Carried out in the official laboratory designated by the
Seed Testing Laboratory as per seed standards DA for analytical purity and germination according to
prescribed under IMSCS and procedure adopted current International Methods.
from the Seed Testing Manual.
6. Seed Sample Storage
Guard samples of each seed lot shall be Basic Seed: A third part of each sample shall be stored
preserved for 2 years from the date of grant as long as possible for comparison in control plots with
/ extension of the certificate and 4 years in future test samples of Basic seed.
respect of rejected seed lots. Certified Seed: Third part of each sample shall be
stored for one year.
7. Pre and Post Control Tests
As per IMSCS, Seed Certification Agencies shall Pre control test is compulsory for Pre-Basic and Basic
conduct GOT wherever it is a pre-requisite and seed. A part of every sample of Basic Seed and 5 to
where a doubt has arisen about the Genetic 10% of the Certified seed shall be checked in a post-
Purity. No provision of Pre and Post Control control test conducted immediately or in the season
Tests. following the drawing of the sample.
8. Issue of Certificates
Release order (Form-II) issued by the officers The Designated Authority may issue certificates
of SSCA for Foundation and Certified class and for each lot of Pre-Basic, Basic and Certified seed
for Breeder Seed by the concerned Scientist in- approved under the Scheme.
charge of production.
9. Blending of Lots of Same Variety / Re- packing and Re-labeling in another country
Bulking of unprocessed seed lots stocks are Two or more lots of certified seed of the same
permitted provided the stocks meet certain generation of one variety may be blended before or
requirements. No provision for Re-packing and after export in accordance with the regulations of the
Re-labeling in another place / country. country in which the seed is blended. Provision for Re-
packing and Re-labeling in another country allowed.

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10. Reference Numbers for Certificates and Seed Lots

In Indian system there is no country code. Lot In OECD the lot numbers are assigned
numbers need not be given in uniform digits. based on Three letter country code as per
Continuous lot numbers are given for three ISO-3166-1 followed by initial letters of
years. (MAR09-22-122-12) (harvest month and DA followed by reference number of the lot having
year-state code-unit code-lot number) uniform digits (for ex., 0001 to 9999) and a code letter
used to indicate harvest year. The code number is
given for a year.
11. Specifications for Label or Marking of Seed Containers
Kinds of Indian Seed Certification Tags: Type: Labels may be either adhesive or non-adhesive.
1. Breeder Seed: Golden yellow color The information may be printed on one side only or
2. Foundation Seed: White color on both sides.
3. Certified Seed : Azure Blue color Shape: Labels shall be rectangular. Color: The colors of
4. Labelled Seed: Opal green color the labels shall be:
Breeder seed label - 12cm x 6cm -golden Pre-Basic Seed: White with diagonal violet stripe;
yellow; Label size for foundation and certified is Basic Seed: White;
15 cm x 7.5 cm and the color are both side white Certified Seed, 1st Generation: Blue; Certified Seed, 2nd
and azure blue, respectively. The label shall be Generation or successive generations: Red;
made of durable material such as thick paper, Not Finally Certified Seed: Grey.
paper with cloth lining, wax coated paper, On all red labels and all grey labels for certified seed of
plastic coated paper etc. There are differences 2nd or further generation the appropriate generation
in material, size and particulars furnished in number must be stated. One end of the label shall
the label. This is not followed in Indian system. be overprinted black for a minimum distance of 3 cm
When the information is marked indelibly on leaving the rest of the label colored.
the container the layout of the information Material: The material used must be strong enough
and the area marked shall conform as closely to prevent damage in ordinary usage. Statement of
as possible to a normal label. No such method re-packing and re- labeling is given if applicable. In
is followed in Indian system. OECD all information shall be given in either English
or French except reference to the Scheme which must
be in both English and French. Label no. is not given
in OECD.
12. Specimen Certificate and Analysis Results
In Indian standards no such reference is In OECD, statement of re-packing and re-labeling is
specified. Tag numbers utilized for the lots given additionally. In OECD only number of containers
are given in Indian system, certification tags / and declared weight of the lot is given. In OECD, ISTA
labels are issued. orange certificate is given.
13. Procedure for the Extension of the Scheme
This provision is not available in Indian system Procedure for the extension of the scheme to include,
for the purposes of field inspection, varieties under
examination for registration on a National List.

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II. Specific Crop Standards:

1. Previous Cropping
Land to be used for seed production shall Hybrids: Hybrid seed may not be grown in the same
be free of volunteer plants. The previous field for successive years.
cropping requirements of OECD may not be Varieties: Grower requires furnishing particulars
feasible under Indian conditions where seed concerning the previous cropping in each seed
production is taken up in large scale in suitable field. There shall be minimum time interval
agro-climatic regions. In OECD there shall be at least 2 years between cereal crops of same
a minimum time interval between seed crop species. Successive crops of the same variety
and any other crop of same species i.e., 5 & category of seed may be grown on the same
years for crucifer species, and 2 years for other field without any time interval provided that the
species. It is not the case in Indian system. Only satisfactory varietal purity is maintained. The growers
in the case of Groundnut, the time interval is shall furnish to the DA, particulars regarding, the
2 years, whereas in sunflower it is prescribed previous cropping in each seed field. There shall be a
as one year, for other oilseeds and fibers no minimum time interval between seed crops and any
specification is given except the land shall be other crop of the same species as follows: for crucifer
free from volunteer plants. As off-types of species: five years; for other species: two years.
Cotton are easily identifiable the interval time
may not be considered for cotton.
2. Isolation
Depending upon the pollination behavior of Hybrids: OP variety, Hybrid, Female Parent prescribed
crop, contamination nature, presence of wild distances from other variety of the same species
species the distances vary for Foundation and except from a crop of male parent. Distances can be
Certified Seed. No modified Isolation distance modified where there is sufficient protection from
is permitted. undesirable pollen or where the possibility of cross-
fertilization is eliminated.
Varieties: The seed crops of self-fertilizing species
shall be isolated from other cereal crops by a definite
barrier or a space sufficient to prevent mixture during
harvest.

3. Weeds
Maximum permitted objectionable weed Crops containing an excessive number of weeds shall
plants: Foundation Seed: 0.010%; Certified be rejected.
Seed: 0.020%; Specific permissible limit for
designated diseases and weed seeds not
indicated in OECD standards. No maximum
permissible limits are indicated in case of insect
damage.
4. Number of Harvest Years
No such specification. The Designated Authority shall decide the number of
harvest years to be permitted for a seed field, with
particular attention when multiplying foreign varieties
to the effects of changed ecological conditions on
varietal purity.

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5. Field Inspection
Varieties: Minimum of two to four inspections There shall be at least one field inspection of each
shall be made from the time the crop seed crop after the emergence of the inflorescence.
approaches flowering until it is ready for Control plots wherever possible be available for
harvesting depending upon the crops. detailed examination at the time of field inspection
Hybrids: Four inspections: 1st before flowering, of the seed plot. The DA shall decide whether or
2nd & 3rd during flowering & 4th at maturity. not approval can be given to the field following field
Only one inspection is prescribed at the time of inspections.
emergence of the inflorescence. For hybrids and parental lines three inspections.
5. Varietal Purity in Seed Crop
For all foundation class, the genetic purity is Basic seed 99.9%, Certified 1st generation - 99.7% and
99.0% and for certified class 98.0%. For cotton Certified 2nd generation - 99.7%. Depending upon the
hybrids it is 90.0% and for all other hybrids it species ranges from 99.9 to 95 %.
is 95%.
6.
Field Inspection of Seed Crops by Authorized Inspectors under Official Supervision.
In Indian system there is no non-official Official seed certification officers only
inspector. authorized. Non-official inspectors are also allowed to
conduct field inspection.
7. Seed Sampling (including Fastening and Labeling of containers) and Seed Analysis by Authorized
persons or laboratories under Official Supervision
Seed sampling is done by ‘Seed Certification The Designated Authority may authorize persons who
Officers’ and Seed samples are analyzed by are not under its direct and exclusive authority to
‘Seed Testing Officers’ of Notified Laboratories. draw samples under official supervision is called ‘seed
Under OECD exclusive Seed Samplers are samplers’.
appointed to draw samples of seed lots but Laboratories may also be authorized to carry out seed
there is no seed sampler in Indian system. analysis as required under the Schemes. Sampling,
fastening and labeling of seed containers may be
entrusted to authorized persons.

8. Seed Lot Sampling

Sampling done by Seed Certification Officers Here sampling is done by samplers and supervised
and supervised by supervising authority. by official supervisors. 5% check sampling done by
official seed samplers.
1. DA may authorize non officials person to carry out
seed sampling, fastening & labeling of container
under official supervision (5%) in OECD, which is
not prescribe in IMSCS.
2. DA may authorize Non-official laboratory for seed
analysis. Whereas only notified laboratory are
authorized under IMSCS.
3. Model Label for container & printed information
must be submitted for approval to OECD where as
it is approved by DA under IMSCS.
4. White label for basic seed is not require if it is
to be used in the same country, there is no such
provision under IMSCS.

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9. Seed Analysis
In Indian System, seed samples are analyzed in In OECD Seed analysis is carried out to laboratories
notified laboratories. The seed analysis is done authorized by DA and the laboratories shall carry out
as per the procedures given in Seed Testing seed testing in accordance with current international
Manual approved by Central Seed Committee methods. The laboratory shall be:
as per IMSCS. 1. an independent laboratory, or
2. a laboratory belonging to a seed company.
In the case referred to in point (b), the laboratory may
carry out seed testing only on seed lots produced
on behalf of the seed company to which it belongs,
unless it has been otherwise agreed between the
seed company, the applicant for certification and the
DA.
10. Validity Period
No validity period is prescribed for Breeder No validity period is mentioned for Pre-Basic, Basic
Seed under IMSCS. For Foundation and and Certified Seed.
Certified Seed classes, the validity period shall
be 9 months from the date of test at the time
of initial certification that could be further
extended for 6 months on retesting.
11. Off-types in field
Maximum permitted Off-types: Foundations Maximum number of plants of the same species being
Seed : 0.05%, not true to variety.
Certified Seed : 0.20%, Basic Seed : 1 in 30 Sq.mt.,
This varies depending upon the crops / stages Certified seed: 1 in 10 Sq.mt.
of multiplication. This show the IMSC standards The maximum permitted Off-types as per OECD
are more precise. standards in terms of Foundation: 0.075%; Certified:
0.23%; According to plant geometry 45 cm X 15 cm,
1,48,148 seed crop plants are there in 01 ha. It shows
that in OECD standard following off type plants are
permitted: Basic Seeds- 0.22% and Certified Seeds-
0.67%.
12. Male Sterile Seed Parent
No such specification; follows 6:1 ratio
Male sterile seed parent may be mixed with fully
according to crop. Standards for Male sterile
fertile seed parent in the ratio of 2:1.
seed parent are unique in OECD.
13. Down-Grading Seed Class
If a seed field or seed lot is not found meeting No provision is made to the OECD seed certification
the prescribed standards for the class for which in this aspect.
it has been registered but conforms to the
prescribed standards to the immediate lower
class, the certification agency may accept such
seed fields/seed lots for certification to the
immediate lower class. However downgrading
shall not be applicable in case of hybrids and
their parents.

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14. Field Inspection Count

Crop Crops Indian Seed Standards OECD Seed Standards
Group Foundation Certified Basic Certified
Pulse Pea, Cowpea, Bean 500 plant 500 plant per 100 plant per 100 plant per
vegetables per count count count count
Leafy crop Lettuce, Spinach, Coriander, 1000 plant 1000 plant per 500 plant per 500 plant per
Methi per count count count count
Fiber crop Jute 500 plant 500 plant per 200 plant per 200 plant per
per count count count count
Fruit crop Tomato, Brinjal , Okra, 500 plant 500 plant per 100 plant per 100 plant per
Capsicum, Chilly per count count count count

Developments in India since becoming OECD Official list. A total of 61 varieties of 19

signatory to OECD crops in the varietal list have been published
•• Notification has been issued that Joint Secretary in the OECD Official list during July 2010 for
(Seeds), Ministry of Agriculture, DAC, multiplication abroad and International Trading.
Government of India as NDA for the OECD •• Now the working group is identifying the
Seed Scheme, who will responsible for the varieties of private sector seed Industry for
implementation of the Seed Schemes in India. inclusion in the OECD list.
•• Various Meetings have discussed the issues
related to India’s Participation in the OECD Critical issues and conclusions
Scheme with Officials of Seeds Division, •• The Indian Minimum Certification Standards
ICAR, SAUs, NSC, SSC, PPV&FRA, NSAI, were developed and is being adopted since
State Agriculture & Horticulture Departments, 1974 for the domestic certification systems as
Stake holders of Seed Industry including both per the need and requirement of Indian farmers
public and private sector. and stake holders of seed industry in India.
•• Ten State Seed Certification Agencies covering •• Whereas the OECD Seed Schemes Rules
the all the regions of the country were and Guidelines are being developed for the
nominated as Designated Authorities who will benefit of 58 member countries for their
carry out the varietal certification of the OECD Varietals Certification process to meet out
Seed Schemes in India. the International seed standards and trading
•• Each Designated authority has formed core requirements.
group comprising Officials of State, ICAR, •• As these are two separate streams, we
SAUs, NSC, SSCA, Private seed Industries in cannot harmonize the Indian Minimum Seed
their area of operation, and have organized brain Certification Standards with the OECD
storming sessions to explain OECD schemes Varietals Certification Rules and Guidelines.
and also for identification of the varieties •• Whenever, a variety is being registered / offered
•• Three Trainings, Two workshops with the for the OECD Seed Schemes then the OECD
involvement of OECD expert from UK, one Rules and Guidelines need to be adopted and
exposure visit to Canada have been organized International varietal certification process has
for the benefit of Department of Agriculture on to be carried out.
implementation of OECD Seed Schemes. •• Similarly, the existing domestic seed
•• A list of 73 varieties belonging to 23 crops was certification with Indian minimum seed and
sent to OECD Secretariat for inclusion in the field Standards will continue for the production

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of high quality seeds as per the Seeds Act. Indian Seed Certification and OECD Varietal
•• Both Indian Minimum Seed Certification Certification would move parallel in our
Standards (IMSCS) and OECD Varietal country for the production of high quality seed
Certification Systems, have agreeable level as per the demand at Domestic and International
of general and specific crop standards trading requirements.
requirements to meet the certification systems •• As per the norms of OECD guidelines the
in these streams. Labels and Certificates designed and prepared
•• However, certain variations have been found by India as new member country shall need to
between IMSCS and OECD in general be placed for the discussion and concurrence of
standards in case of: Classes and Stages of OECD Secretariat.
Seed Multiplication, Eligible varieties and •• Multiplication of Indian Varieties in member
Parental constituents, Control of the production countries for enhancing the International trading
of the seed, Seed sampling, Seed analysis, activities need to be explored by discussion
Seed sample storage, Pre- and Post Control with Officials of EU, ISF, ISTA, and AOSA for
tests, Issue of Certificates, Blending of lots of facilitation.
same variety, Provision of Re-packing and Re-
labelling in another country, Reference numbers References:
for certificates and seed lots, Specifications for 1. Tunwar and Singh. 1988. Indian Minimum
the OECD Label or Marking of seed containers, Seed Certification Standards
Specimen certificate and analysis results, 2. International Rules for Seed Testing, Edition
Procedure for the extension of the scheme, 2012. http://www.seedtest.org/en/international-
etc. The Specific crop standards namely: rules-_content---1--1083.html
Previous cropping, Isolation, Off type, Varietal 3. OECD Schemes for the Varietal Certification
identification, Disease, Weed seeds, Number of or the Control of Seed Moving in International
harvest years, Field inspection count, Vareital Trade, OECD SEED SCHEMES “2012”
purity in seed crop, Seed crop inspection, Consolidated version as revised by the
Field inspection of seed crops by Authorized OECD Council on 28 September 2000
Inspectors under Official supervision, Seed [C(2000)146/FINAL] and subsequently
sampling (including Fastening and Labelling amended [C(2007)122, C(2007)123,
of containers) and Seed analysis by Authorized C(2007)128, C(2008)150, C(2008)151,
persons or laboratories under Official C(2008)152, C(2008)153, C(2009)155,
supervision, Validity period, Down-grading C(2010)133 and C(2012)2], ORGANISATION
seed class, etc., are as mentioned in Table 4. FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
•• In summary, we can say that even though DEVELOPMENT PARIS 2012. http://www.
India has become the member of OECD Seed oecd.org/dataoecd/30/11/41977674.pdf
Schemes, the two seed certification systems i.e.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Need for Stewardship

management in seed production
and quality assurance

“S tewardship” in general is referred in all the industries to those who take care of the
responsibility. It is most dynamic and required in every industry to have integrity of the
material we deliver to keep the reputation at high stake. Stewardship management is generally
defined as the act of conducting, supervising, or managing of something; especially: the careful and
responsible management of something entrusted to one’s care (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). This
may, in our seed systems encompass practices, operating procedures and areas consistent with the
respective research, development and seed production systems. Thus, farmer is also practicing the
stewardship in India and the result today is that “we can find a lot of seed varieties in the seed chain
with their original traits intact.

Stewardship is the responsible for ethical national or international compliance requirements.

management of a product from its discovery Stewardship is the one that effectively implements
through to its ultimate use and discontinuation. It the national regulation in the regulatory phase of
is a task for everybody who touches a respective the product or technology may be in the contained
product. It is so designed that all involved need to testing phase or in the trailing phase or seed
be pro-active rather to comply with the reactive like production or at technology discontinuation phases.
Policies, Principles, Plans, Programs and Processes. For most of the government systems or officials
Stewardship is also defined as the responsible involved in monitoring the compliance system
management of a product from its inception regulatory system itself is the Stewardship. That is
through to its ultimate use and discontinuation. In why they combine the Regulatory and Stewardship
plant biotechnology, stewardship includes careful issues. Regulatory rules are thus practically
attention to the responsible introduction and use of implemented by the stewardship. Good stewardship
products (source ETS). practices contribute to the public confidence, which
Most of the time, Government machinery is central to the acceptance and approval of trait
interlinks the regulatory policies and the based agricultural biotechnology.
framework, and stewardship thus means the strict Therefore, the organizations involved in seed
act of compliance by all involved in a defined set of production should consider the needs of the market
activities to ensure the quality and specific nature of place and customer demands so that the appropriate
the end product. In fact Regulatory system we are practices and procedures become a normal part of
talking here is more linked to national environmental the seed business process. In fact the components
and agricultural rules and regulations. Whereas related to tracking, recordkeeping, testing and other
stewardship is primarily associated with the quality measures with appropriate oversight management
Management system that may be part of internal, systems are essential parts of product development

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 Millet Seed Technology

and commercial life cycle for purposes of quality developer, seed producer (both seed industry and
control and seed purity. Since maintaining a seed seed grower) and user. In fact stewardship ensures
variety’s trueness to type is critical for market good way of doing business, supports mutual
acceptance and use, robust quality management trust in collaborations, and improves efficiency
practices are needed for both conventionally and strengthens stakeholder and consumer
derived and non-biotechnology derived crops. confidence. On the other hand, stewardship in plant
Thus these components provide structure and rigor biotechnology is the responsible management of a
to business practices by way of managing key product from its inception through to its use and
process variables, thereby establishing routine and discontinuation. It applies across the life cycle of
consistent output from their processes. In addition, a plant product and includes careful attention to
these systems facilitate coexistence among growers, the responsible introduction and use of products.
meeting customer expectations and mechanisms Thus, stewardship management is a programme
for continually improving the quality management of continuous improvement; a continuous
system. improvement process is a management process
As advances in seed technology occur whereby the processes are constantly evaluated
and developers gain additional insights into and improved in the light of their efficiency,
quality management practices through practical effectiveness and flexibility. In the seed production
implementation, the issues related to trait discovery, process, we need to have standard operating and
product phase-out, product discontinuation quality auditing procedures in the aspects related
or product retrieval also needs to be taken to seed grower’s selection, production contacting,
care, including issues associated with product seed grower training, seed production process
performance after sale. There are general quality and its monitoring, processing, treating, testing,
assurance considerations that are applicable to all of packaging, transport, storing and distribution, apart
the processes involved in seed systems. Compliance from product performance after sale to ensure brand
with regulatory requirements is fundamental to performance.
all the stake holders, including those regulations Quality management is a component of
directly related to seed labeling, to phytosanitary stewardship, which comprises the processes and
requirements and to the use of biotechnology. In systems to establish and maintain quality in each
addition, training of personnel is relevant to all the phase of the product life cycle. Overall aim of the
processes. Establishing a system of documentation Stewardship approach is to assure responsible and
concerning all procedures and records appropriate safe use of technology throughout its life cycle
to the principles ensuring quality assurance is and to maximize the benefits from technology
the edifice of stewardship management process. products. In this process of achieving total quality
These stewardship initiatives, guidelines and management through stewardship management,
recommendations will not be effective unless they following points can be the guiding principles:
are communicated to seed growers.
In reality, stewardship is not a regulatory Take Personal Responsibility for
requirement. Stewardship covers a broad range of Quality
aspects which should not be subjected to regulatory •• Make a Commitment to Never-Ending
oversight. There is no question that breeders and Improvement
the seed industry must comply with science-based •• Honor Your Commitments
regulations. While a strong regulatory system •• Make a Daily “To Do” List
oversees plant biotechnology, biotechnology •• Accept Help Graciously
product stewardship is the responsibility of each •• Lead When a Leader Is Needed

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 Millet Seed Technology

•• Define Excellence for Yourself •• Help When There’s a Time Crunch

•• Be Part of the Solution •• Listen Actively to Your Customers
•• Admit Your Mistakes •• Use Customers’ Names
•• Do Your Part in the Group Effort •• Offer to Do the Job
•• Learn to Say “I’m Sorry” •• Reward Customers for Giving You Their
•• Learn Something New Each Day Business
•• Strive for Zero Defects •• Be Prompt in Straightening Out a Problem
•• Take Charge of Morale •• Keep Your Promises & Delivery
•• Inspire Trust
•• Offer Suggestions General guidance for the Practice of
•• Look for Opportunities in Losses or Mistakes Quality Management for product integrity and
•• Accept Revisions as Proof That Someone Cares purity of both biotechnology-derived seed and
•• Don’t Gossip or Spread Rumors conventional seed
Important stages in variety development, seed
Improve Teamwork and Commitment production and marketing are:
•• Know Your Organization’s Mission 1. Breeding stage
•• Know Your Team’s Goals 2. Working in Seed Laboratories or Storage
•• Start and End Meetings on Time Facilities
•• Be Tough on Problems—Soft on People 3. Variety and Trait Testing
•• Prepare for “Storming” Times 4. Breeder Seed and Seed Stock Development
•• Help Your Group Reach Consensus 5. Seed Production Operations
•• Appreciate Your Team’s Diversity i. Planting: Planting and Equipment
•• Develop an Effective Problem-Solving Process Cleaning
•• Celebrate Your Success ii. Cultivation/Husbandry
•• Use Open-Ended Questions iii. Harvest and Post-Harvest
•• Help with Your Team’s Chores iv. Land Use Monitoring
•• Share Ideas as Well as Problems v. Seed Cleaning/Conditioning
•• Use “Creative Dissatisfaction” as an Incentive vi. Viable Plant/Seed Storage, Warehousing
•• Ignore Complaining and Distribution
•• Listen Respectfully to Each Team Member To practice Quality Management for product
•• Empathize with Other Team Members’ Feelings integrity and purity of both biotechnology-derived
•• Put into Practice “Actions Speak Louder Than seed and conventional seed, whether in breeding
Words” process or while working in lab or storage facility
•• Find at Least One More Solution to Every and evaluation, we should focus on following:
Problem
Analysis of Product Integrity and
Focus on Customers and Service Control Concerns
•• Define the Term “Customer” •• Unintended traits at unacceptable level
•• Share Your Expertise •• Lack of intended traits at desired level
•• Use Your Judgment •• Improper identification of material and
•• Distinguish Between Your “Job” and Your Incorrect material
“Work” •• Maxing of genetic material.
•• Remember, Everyone Has and Is a Customer •• Loss of genetic material
•• Develop Friendly Relationships •• Disposition of genetic material

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 Millet Seed Technology

•• Error in identification, planting, off type needed information is present

removal •• Establish appropriate documentation of
•• Errors in material identification and harvest records, work instructions and SOPs
•• Monitor field at regular intervals so that
Determine Control Points confinement of the site is in accordance
•• Checking the Receipt of seed if received from with internal and, if appropriate, regulatory
third party requirements
•• Selection of seed and transfer of material prior •• Provide supervision of personnel and oversight
to planting of the field
•• Personnel access to facilities and/or processes •• Establish plant disease monitoring procedures
•• Movement of material in and out of facility •• Training of personnel on plant pest and
•• Disposition of material pathogen identification
•• Sorting, identifying and packaging of material
•• Personnel access to facilities and/or processes Establish Corrective Measures
•• Field/plot selection and identification •• If sourced material does not meet established
•• Harvesting, Seed handling purity standard and dispose of the material
•• If incorrect identity or demarcation of seed
Preventive Measures is found or if material is lost or disposed of
•• Establish seed integrity procedures and purity improperly, evaluate deficiencies in SOPs and
standards personnel training and revise
•• Handling, control, and proper disposal of •• If genetic material is inappropriately mixed,
packaging materials in GM lost or disposed of improperly, evaluate
•• Following site work instructions , processes and deficiencies in facility inspections and/or
SOPs design
•• Establish procedures for accurate sample and •• Correction of any deficiencies identified that
product identity could affect confinement of the nursery site.
•• Establish defined procedures for equipment •• In the event that seed or plants are incorrectly
maintenance and cleaning in GM identified or where identity cannot be
•• Establish procedures for germination, physical confirmed, review and dispose of plants
purity, genetic purity, trait purity confirmation material as appropriate
and LLP •• Incorporate any corrective measures or
•• Establish procedures for proper training of all procedural changes into SOPs
field workers •• Implement control measures for pathogens
•• Establish procedures for site selection and pests as appropriate to protect final
•• Establish appropriate inspection, devitalization product at harvest
and disposition procedures including rouging
and proper disposal of infected/infested material Establish Verification Procedures
•• Establish seed treatment practices for pathogen •• Establish and confirm the gate way testing
control •• Procedure for periodic auditing and
assessments through a checklist
Establish Monitoring Procedures •• Verify appropriate testing of germination,
•• After receiving the sample and determine physical purity, genetic purity, trait purity
material meets specifications confirmation and unintended LLP, in addition
•• Utilize a checklist to establish that all to other tests as appropriate

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 Millet Seed Technology

•• Verify proper analysis for the LLP of an control , transfer and a record of any special
unintended trait instructions or procedures
•• Verify adequate records and work instructions •• Maintain records of project progress and logs
•• Verify identity and assessment of product purity of activities
•• Verify appropriate confinement measures •• Maintain records of compliance with specific
through assessment, field inspection and work instruction and sample and product
monitoring after harvest disposition
•• Verify volunteer management practices •• Establish appropriate procedures for retention
•• Verify equipment clean-out of records
•• Verify personnel practices •• Establish documentation procedures for
inventory control and transfer
Record Keeping and Documentation •• Maintain records of documentation used to
Procedures identify plants so that pertinent identification is
•• Establish that documentation of identity, recoverable
including test results, of the material is •• Maintain record of neighboring practices/
accessible, secure and is retained as appropriate activities
•• Ensure adequate documentation of inventory

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 Millet Seed Technology

Developing a community based

seed system for Millet
A little-known, under-appreciated and pressing concern in the global supply of crop seed is a
dearth of systems providing seed for crops of import mainly to poor households in developing
countries. Seed for such crops cannot be supplied economically by the formal and centralized seed
sector. The resulting bottleneck in seed supply primarily affects self-pollinating food-feed crops,
such as Sorghum, Pearl Millet, groundnut, chickpea, Pigeonpea, black gram and green gram etc,.
which are served largely, if largely ineffectively by local seed provision systems. The lack of scientific
knowledge of seed production, quality control and innovative interventions are the main handicaps
of farmers seed systems, which have resulted in inferior quality seed and poor outputs. This paper
discusses the preliminary process for developing farmers seed system or informal seed system at
village level to develop smallholders village seed bank for seed security and interventions most
likely to improve seed supply by, among and to the poor.The mechanisms of creating and training
seed growers’ associations to promote seed production and distribution at village level are also
detailed here.

Introduction which is state- or private-controlled, seed is

Throughout our history, farmers’ informal seed monitored through the entire process of breeding,
systems have had a great influence on the evolution multiplication, processing and storage, leading
of modern agriculture, by practicing conservation of to the final product. In contrast, in the informal
agro-biodiversity at the gene, farmer and ecosystem sector, it is mainly the farmers themselves who
levels. Within this framework, women in particular provide each other with seed for sowing. The seed
have played a crucial role, as has been identified may be manually cleaned, a mixture of varieties,
by a relatively recent analysis, in sustaining the unprocessed, but is otherwise non-treated, which
informal seed sector, and more widely, in ensuring exposes the crop to the risk of seedborne diseases.
food security. However, informal seed systems are Therefore, efforts to strengthen the community seed
heavily dependent on local resources and inputs, system should incorporate all aspects of modern
and highly vulnerable to natural disasters and seed activities.
sociopolitical disruptions. Therefore, investing in Farmers have for centuries selected and saved
innovation in order to strengthen local seed systems seeds to grow in the next season. They learnt to
assumes great urgency. cross-pollinate plants by hand or by mixing varieties
The formal seed sector provides the vast within the same field to maintain and adapt their
majority of seed to farmers in the industrialized crops. Thus they assisted in the evolution of locally
countries while both seed systems, formal adapted crops. Some of these varieties may be
and informal, operate in developing countries. resistant to certain pests, and others more tolerant of
Despite large investments in formal seed sector salinity or drought. Some varieties can be sown or
in developing countries over the past 30 years, harvested earlier or later in the season. Traditional
80-85% of smallholder farmers still get their crops also provide a wide range of nutrients to the
seeds from informal sources. In the formal sector, diet. The seeds of traditional crops and knowledge

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 Millet Seed Technology

of their growth and use are therefore important the experiences of community and small-scale
resources and should be conserved and used. seed enterprises already in operation in some
countries.
The quality of farmer-saved seed is constrained •• Seed quality of farm-processed seed can be as
by poor harvests, inadequate on-farm storage good as and often better than certified seed if
facilities, insufficient means to multiply quality seed farmers take the first step by selecting the right
and poor seed distribution systems. There is thus a variety, controlling purity with good rotation,
need to strengthen the local capacity to produce, and follow standard agronomic practices to
store and distribute seed of many crop varieties, achieve disease and weed control. They can
including some landraces/farmers' varieties, which choose a mobile seed processor that can offer
are useful in diverse and evolving farming systems. the equipment, management and expertise to
achieve the standard required.
Steps for strengthening community
seed production, saving and storage Seed quality guidelines for farmers
•• Appropriate policies for seed production
and distribution are needed to help focus a. Seed production
government-supported initiatives on the varietal •• A seed is likely to give rise to a plant that has
needs of resource-poor farmers with particular characteristics similar to its parent plants,
attention to the needs of women farmers, and to unless the parents come from F1 hybrid seeds.
minor and food-feed crops that are inadequately Therefore, seeds should be selected from strong
covered by the private sector. and healthy plants.
•• Promote small-scale seed enterprises and •• It is very important to remove non-healthy or
strengthen linkages between gene banks, plant diseased plants from the field as soon as they are
breeding organizations, seed producers and seen. Plants with non-desirable characteristics
small-scale seed production and distribution should be removed from the field before
enterprises. they flower and pollinate other plants, but
•• Strengthen seed quality control schemes for after making sure that there is a diversity of
small-scale enterprises and provide appropriate characteristics in the field.
incentives, credit schemes, etc. to facilitate the •• If a farmer wants to develop or introduce
emergence of seed enterprises, paying attention specific characteristics in a plant, he can do so
to the needs of the small farming sector, of by controlling the pollination of plants chosen
women and of vulnerable or marginalized for seed production. To combine desirable
groups. characteristics, the farmer can transfer the
•• Support and strengthen farmers' organizations pollen from a chosen plant to fertilize another
in order that they can more effectively express chosen plant. For plants such as maize, which
their seed requirements, paying particular are usually wind-pollinated, the male flower
attention to the needs of women and of should be shaken over the female flower to
vulnerable or marginalized groups. transfer the pollen.
•• Provide training and infrastructural support to •• If plants are being cross-pollinated for particular
farmers in seed technology in order to improve characteristics, the farmer must prevent the
the physical and genetic quality of farmer-saved pollination of the chosen plants by pollen from
seed. plants with other characteristics. This can be
•• Develop approaches to support small-scale, done by isolating the plants as prescribed.
farmer-level seed distribution, learning from •• Seeds must be dried to the prescribed moisture

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 Millet Seed Technology

level before storing them to improve their including seed certification agencies. In both
storage life. Moisture in the seed may encourage cases, producers should pay for the field
mold, bacteria or other pests and diseases which inspection services.
may affect seed viability.
•• On the other hand, seeds should not be dried too c. Seed storage
much or too rapidly as they may crack or lose •• Seeds must be stored in a way that prevents
their ability to germinate. They can be dried in them from being attacked by pests or diseases,
the morning sun or in partial shade, but should and that maintains their quality. Some seeds can
not be exposed to strong sunlight. be stored for a long time without losing their
•• To dry seeds, spread them out thinly on paper, germination rate, and others for only a few
cloth, flat basket or plate in a warm place off the months. This depends on the type of seed, the
ground. They should not be dried on metal as it moisture content of the seed and the storage
may become too hot. Turn over the seed several conditions. Good storage conditions for seeds
times a day to ensure even drying. When the are: Low moisture, low temperature, low light,
seeds do not feel damp or stick together, they protection against rodents, protection against
are likely to be ready for storage. insect pests and diseases.
•• Any seeds that are immature, broken, diseased •• High temperature can encourage biological
or pest-infested should be taken out. Stones, activity in seeds and shorten their storage life,
dirt and seeds from other plants should also be particularly if there is any moisture in the seeds.
removed. Bright light can also be damaging to stored
•• Winnowing can remove smaller contaminants seeds. Seed containers should be kept in a cool
such as dust, weed seeds and dry leaves. To area and out of direct sunlight.
winnow the seeds, place them in a large flat •• To keep rodents away, seeds should be stored
container and toss them into the air when in a hygienic area. The floor should be swept
there is a gentle wind, then catch them in the so there are no scraps of food that may attract
container. The light contaminants will be blown rodents. Seed containers should be well-sealed
away by the wind. and if possible kept off the ground so that
rodents cannot get in. Sometimes seeds are
b. Seed certification stored in specially built huts that are raised off
•• To encourage decentralized seed production, the ground.
the "truthfully labeled" designation could be •• Storage weevils, fungi and bacteria can infest
used as an alternative to the existing system of seeds in storage. Seeds should be free of such
centralized public certification. In this case, no pests before storing them. Weevils, fungi and
field inspection is made, producers are wholly bacteria multiply in warm and moist conditions.
responsible for seed quality, and are required To prevent this from happening, the seeds should
to describe certain quality aspects on the label. be kept dry and cool. Appropriate pesticides/
However, under such a system there would be substances may be mixed with the seeds to help
a need to develop enforcement mechanisms prevent pests and diseases. Mixing the seeds
that might operate by involving individuals with clean, dry sand and filling the container
(possibly extension agents) who have been will prevent weevils moving around.
trained by the public certification agency in •• The quality of the seeds affects how well they
field inspections for artisan quality seed, or by will store and their ability to germinate and
shifting the responsibility for quality control grow well in the field. Testing the seed before
to an autonomous or local public institution, storage ensures that only good quality seeds are

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 Millet Seed Technology

stored. A germination test gives an idea of the years to develop a sustainable community seed
proportion of plants that are likely to grow from program. The first three years should focus on
a certain quantity of seed, and will show how capacity building such as technical training in
many seeds must be sown in order to obtain the seed production, business skills, group dynamics,
desired number of plants. Use between 10 and leadership and getting farmers to understand the
100 seeds for the germination test, depending seed production process. The next two years should
on how many seeds there are. concentrate on exit strategies or the final handing
•• To test the germination rate, place the seeds over of the management of seed production to
some distance apart on a clean damp cloth or the community. Some of the important activities
paper towel. For large seeds it is better to use during this last stage include taking farmers on
sterilized soil. Soil can be sterilized by pouring orientation visits to places such as research stations
boiling water over it to kill germs. The seeds and gene banks (for seed sources) and the State
should be placed somewhere warm, but out of Seed Certification Agencies (SSCAs). This will
direct sunlight. Keep the seeds damp, but not acquaint the farmers with seed production and
too wet, by sprinkling with water or covering certification procedures and expenses. In addition,
with a clean damp cloth or paper towel. seed producers should visit seed companies and
•• If none of the seeds has germinated, it may be other service providers (eg,. NGOs, KVKs) as
necessary to leave them for more time, keeping potential market outlets. A study visit to other, more
them warm and damp. If most of the seeds have experienced seed growers’ associations would be of
germinated and have healthy-looking roots and benefit to new seed growers.
shoots, the rest of the seeds from that harvest
should be viable and suitable for storage and The model
sowing. If less than half of the seeds have A basic model for developing a community
germinated, or if many of them are nonhealthy, seed program detailed below must have universality
the rest of the harvest are probably also in developing community seed systems in the
nonhealthy with a low germination rate. The semi-arid tropics. The basic objective of the this
farmer may decide not to store these seeds. If program operates at village level, with the farmers
seed are in short supply, these seeds may still be participation in seed production, harvesting and
stored and sown, but a note should be made that storage with in the village, involving low or
they are not good quality seeds. It may be useful minimum quality parameters on mutual trust among
to test the quality of seeds before storage, and to the farmers. The seed produced with an aim to
test home-saved seeds and seeds that have been distribute among the farmers of the village or couple
bought or exchanged, before sowing them. of villages. A model developed for a specific area/
village/region ( Almekinders et al,. 1994; Cormwell
Community seed program 1990; Lewis and Mulwani 1996; Rohrbach et al
The response from farmers to development 2002; Ravinder Reddy and Wani 2007; ) may not
initiatives varies from one place to another. Some yield the same result elsewhere because of the
of the factors motivating them as seed growers variation in the willingness of the stakeholders,
include a good harvest and increased income from the crops and varieties grown, climatic conditions,
the sale of seed. A poor harvest in the first season socioeconomic and perhaps biotic factors.
can discourage them and lead to them giving up. a. Reconnaissance survey: After identifying
the areas of operation, the nongovernmental
While some farmers do become self-reliant organization (NGO) or project implementing
within a few seasons, it takes a minimum of five agency (PIA) should carry out a reconnaissance

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 Millet Seed Technology

survey of seed needs assessment (SNA). This is approachable to others.

a series of participatory dialogues to engage a •• Inclination to put in sincere efforts.
community in a diagnosis of the problems relating •• Must be willing to work in a team.
to seed and to secure the community’s commitment •• Experienced in growing one or more of the
to develop and act on its own solutions. The SNA crops intended for multiplication.
will also identify knowledge gaps that can be •• Must be honest and willing to repay seed loans.
corrected during training. The SNA should assist Having such a set of criteria reduces bias and
communities in developing an action plan on what helps farmers to choose the seed growers correctly.
needs to be done, while remembering that the role Experience has shown that where an NGO decides
of the NGO is only to facilitate this process. to interpose and select the seed growers, other
farmers have had to secure seed for them instead.
b. Participatory selection of crops / varieties:
It is for the communities to identify the crops and d. Capacity building: After seed growers have
varieties to be multiplied. There is a tendency for been identified, technical training should follow. The
farmers to select only improved varieties at the seed growers are trained in basic seed production
expense of important local varieties. Facilitators techniques including rules and regulations and seed
should check this tendency. Farmers should be certification methods, seed health management and
encouraged to select a good mix of crop types (crop seed storage management. Training is enhanced
diversity). Locally adapted varieties would be ideal when followed by an educational tour to areas where
in the first year. This tends to increase the chances similar programs exist. This is farmer-to-farmer
of success since farmers already have adequate learning. Farmers must be trained in business skills
experience growing them. The NGO should be and some basic group dynamics and leadership.
proactive in promoting farmers’ participation in As with all farmer training, the trainer should
the selection of varieties/crops for a particular area/ be conversant with principles of adult learning and
region/village. facilitation skills. Training can be conducted by
competent extension officers so long as they fully
c. Selection of seed growers: Once the crops understand the basic seed production standards
for multiplication have been identified through and the Seeds Act. For such innovation projects a
farmers’ participatory selection, the community can consortium approach has yielded good results.
select individuals who will be the seed growers.
Since food legumes are known to be conserved and e. Procurement of basic seed & distribution:
multiplied mostly by women, it is only appropriate The NGO or farmers need to secure basic seed
and advantageous that seed production of such (foundation seed) for their seed production activities.
crops be done by them. To help farmers carefully Basic seed can be difficult to secure. Therefore, a
select their local seed growers, the NGOs can help proper seed source has to be found much before the
facilitate a process developing criteria for selecting start of the season. Where poor weather has affected
seed growers. Some suggested criteria are: the growing season, it would be imperative to
arrange seed for the following season. It is advisable
•• He/she should be resident of the village. to subcontract breeders recognized by government
•• Inclination for basic agriculture and willingness or research organizations to produce basic seed in
for innovations specified quantities. Contact arrangements may be
•• Should be a farmer with land holding. worked out for a specific period to ensure timely
•• Willing to attend training programs without fail. supply of basic seed.
•• He/she should be friendly in nature and In the absence of basic seed, a seed grower

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 Millet Seed Technology

can plant certified seed, but only for one season. scheme such as a revolving fund. This will enable
Thereafter farmers must secure basic seed for community-based organizations to buy up seed
producing quality seed for long-term benefits. from seed growers which will then generate new
loans for resource-poor farmers. Some farmers do
f. Formation of seed growers association: loan seed to other farmers, to be repaid later in the
Some seed growers would certainly prefer to work form of kind (grain), labor or livestock. Marketing
as individuals but in seed growing, forming an of seed produced by village farmers for village seed
association has the following advantages: bank, has a inbuilt strategy to sell their produce
•• Registration is cheaper for a group than for through linkage network of VSBC (Village Seed
individuals. Self-help groups can take up this Bank Committee) with CBOs (Community based
activity right away without any registration. Organizations) within the village and as well as
•• It is cost-effective to work as a team when to other villages through their Self Help Groups
procuring basic seed and selling seed: There is (SHGs).
the benefit of bulk buying and selling. After selling off their produce, farmers should
•• Group contributions can be used for paying be encouraged to save some of the income for
for activities such as crop inspections, seed purchasing new seed and covering other overheads
sampling and testing and inputs for seed in the next growing season.
production. Many development projects have used
•• During the early years of seed growing the community-level seed production as the starting
team is important for providing mutual support, point for commercial seed development. The results
encouragement and a collective voice. have been disappointing with little commercial
•• However, for farmers to work effectively sustainability. The reasons for this lack of success are
as a group, needs assessment can determine two fold: a lack of attention to transaction costs (for
whether they need to be trained in group making contracts for source breeder seed, funding
dynamics, leadership, record keeping, conflict for procurement of seed and ensuring quality control
management and business skills. and obtaining information) and a lack of experience
•• The seed growers association would be and resources for marketing. Community-level
required, in the longer term, to mobilize funds seed projects need more appropriate goals to be
to sustain their seed growing activities. successful, such as testing and disseminating
•• Farmers associations will develop social and new varieties, developing farmers' participatory
human capital in the village experimentation and capacities, and bridging better
links between farmers and researchers.
g. Seed marketing: The success of a community
seed project lies in the ability of the seed growers Interventions needed
to sell their produce. Some farmers have used field It is clear that there are various formal and
days, weekly village markets, and village local informal approaches to seed supply. In fact what is
market days as a way of advertising available seed encountered is usually a complex mix of the two in
to fellow farmers. Others have used public meetings varying proportions. The alternatives to promote the
and ceremonies in their villages to sell seed. Seed most suitable blend, so as to make the best quality
growers should be innovative in adopting ideas seeds available to the farmer at the right time and at
that are workable within their rural setup. They, the right price. In such a perspective, the components
however, should be careful not to price their seed of the seed supply system would emerge as neither
beyond the local farmers’ willingness to pay. necessarily complementary nor supplementary
Wherever possible, help establish a credit in relation of one to the other—although it may

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sometimes be so. Various components in the chosen mutual learning by farmers and scientists to
mix would assume equal importance in approach help improve the effectiveness of seed supply
but not in their relative contribution toward seed to local communities.
supply. Further, no components may probably •• Designing, developing and testing site specific
exist as mutually exclusive; several alternatives alternative seed system models for improving
may exist and function together. Therefore, the and sustaining local seed supply based on
following interventions and future strategies need geographic and ethnic as well as administrative
to be considered to strengthen alternative seed boundaries.
systems: •• Taking into consideration and utilizing
aspects of the lesser known traditional seed
•• Implementing Farmer seed self-reliance management systems
programs through community or village seed
bank program or ‘Beej Swavlamban Yojana’ Sustaining viability of informal
facilitating   decentralized seed production and systems through Innovative seed
distribution system delivery models
•• Developing contractual agreements with The main purpose of alternative seed delivery
farmers to grow seed and establishment of system is to address the seed availability problems
parastatal seed cooperatives. of smallholder farmers. In this chapter we discuss
•• Improving supplies of seed for forages, on the ways of strengthening seed systems that
medicinal plants, flowers and underused crops could potentially address the needs and counter the
that could benefit resource-poor farmers. vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers in these areas
•• Promoting community-based evaluation, using specific seed delivery models.
characterization and multiplication of “at-risk” Most of the community-based seed production
varieties. Collection and characterization of models/schemes are initiated because farmers are
indigenous grain varieties and establishment of concerned about the non-availability of quality
in situ seed conservation centres to reduce the seed at planting time. Many farmers don’t have
risk of local varieties disappearing. access to improved varieties; and wouldn’t be able
•• Building capacity of self-help groups to to afford them even if they were. So introduction
facilitate community seed banks and provide of alternative seed systems models must impact
incentives for farmers to grow indigenous farmers’ access to seeds of improved varieties at
varieties and seed conservation efforts. affordable cost. The quality of seed produced by
•• Facilitating community-devised and generated community-based system or farmer seed systems
marketing and credit support systems. is guaranteed only by its seller or village seed
•• Introduction of controlled conditions to committee, because they are not processed and
effectively produce nuclei seed; facilities are uncertified seed. The seed so produced is low
for seed storage, processing, and packaging priced, and available at farmers’ doorsteps at the
and establishment of public-private sector right time, and provides access to all farmer groups
partnerships for seed distribution. in the village.
•• Practicing of Farmer participatory varietal The regulatory and legal framework of
selection, seed production and monitoring. national seed rules and regulations in many
On-farm demonstration trials, on-station seed countries hampers the development of informal
selection, and distribution of seed to private seed systems. National seed regulations are mostly
suppliers. based on international standards, which are often
•• Continual identification of opportunities for incompatible or irrelevant to the realities of farmers’

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seed systems. The restrictions imposed by national resource-poor farmers

seed authorities on free exchange and marketing of 2. Build capacity of stakeholders at the community
seed, especially compulsory variety registration and level to enhance sustainable supply of good
seed certification, as practiced by many developed quality seed, and timely supply at affordable
and developing countries are constraints on the price.
efficient functioning of the formal seed sector and Alternate village based seed delivery
on the development of alternative seed systems. On models
the other hand regulatory frameworks are crucial
for the development of a national seed system. Model 1: Individual farmer as seed bank
The major source of seed for small-scale This model (Figure 1) can be developed as
farmers comes from their own on-farm savings, a local seed system for different crops. Most
seed exchange, borrowings and local traders. effectively this seed system will benefit farmers for
Nevertheless, farmer’s community systems of seed crops that require high seed rate, which are bulky
supply are under pressure due to recurring natural in nature, or crops that involve high transport and
calamities such as drought, crop failure, storage package costs, for example groundnut pod. This
problems and poverty. In the drought situations model involves training a couple of farmers in
farmers depend on subsidized seed supply by each village in seed production technology and
government agencies, which meets only 30–40% supporting them by supplying breeder seed and
seed requirement of smallholder farmers. In order to technology backstopping.
strengthen the seed delivery system, interventions The pros and cons of the model
are required to strengthen informal seed supply •• This model can be tried even in remote areas
systems, such as establishing village-based seed where NGO are unwilling to take up operations.
banks as alternative seed systems for seed security. •• External finance is not required as all the costs
The alternate village based seed delivery models are usually met by the farmer/seed producer.
that may enable sustainability of community seed •• Effective and provides wider scope for
systems in the dry land ecosystems have following dissemination and adoption of improved
objectives: varieties through informal seed channels.
1. To improve seed availability and access •• Technical institutional services not justifiable
to improved varieties of seed to small and for individual farmers.

Figure 1. Model 1: Individual farmer as seed bank

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 Millet Seed Technology

•• Farmers are still unwilling to save seed because price

of storage pests and other financial debts. •• Improved seed delivery system to resource-
•• Procurement of breeder seed is difficult at the poor farmers
farmer level once the project is completed. •• Reduced dependence on external seed sources
•• There is no control on the selling price of seed. and hence an effective measure to curb spurious
•• There is no control on seed distribution to seed trade
different communities in the village. •• Encourages village level trade and improves
•• Seed distribution is limited to select groups. village economy
•• Social responsibility of the seed production and
Model 2: Village based seed banks delivery system
The concept of ‘seed bank’ (Figure 2), which •• A step ahead towards sustainable crop
advocates village self-sufficiency in production production
and distribution of quality seeds, is fast gaining •• Avoidance of diseases carried through seed
ground. Seed villages or village seed banks operate (seed-borne pathogens) that have been produced
with utmost transparency, mutual trust and social and imported from different agro-ecoregions
responsibility. Though this is not an entirely new •• Scope for farmers’ participatory varietal selection
concept, it is being promoted to reduce farmers’ •• Availability of true-to-type varieties and
dependence on external inputs. healthy seed.

Advantages of village based seed banks Constraints

•• Availability of improved varieties in sufficient •• Reluctance of farmers when it comes to
quantity within the village adopting quality seed production practices
•• Assured and timely supply of seed •• Additional investment for inputs in seed
•• Decentralized seed production production
•• Availability of improved variety seed at a low •• Lack of buy-back assurance to farmers from

Figure 2. Model 2: Village based seed banks

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 Millet Seed Technology

SHGs/NGOs critical aspect in this model is technical support and

•• Proper seed storage facilities and management supply of breeder seed. Given the proper support,
in villages this model could provide significant benefits to
•• Lack of funds with SHGs/NGOs for seed farmers as it ensures the opportunity for all members
procurement, packaging, storage and and groups to share the profits of seed production.
transportation This model performs two tasks: meeting seed
•• Fixing of a minimum support price for seed requirements of farmers as well as conserves a wide
procurement range of crop genetic diversity.
•• Technical support for seed production and its
monitoring In most developing countries, the formal sector
•• Responsibility of quality control aspects and is far smaller than the informal seed sector. The
monitoring of seed production later is the major source of planting material
•• Regular availability, accesses, and procurement for smallholder farmers, contributing 80–90%
of breeder seed for seed production of the seed requirement of smallholder farmers
•• Willingness of farmers to participate in seed (Monyo et al. 2003; Ravinder Reddy 2004b).
bank activities Strategies to improve quality of seed, accesses and
Small-scale seed enterprises models availability of improved varieties, multiplication
and dissemination, availability of seed on time at
Model 3: SHG-mediated system affordable prices to resource-poor smallholder
In this model, SHG is empowered to take up farmers can bring about changes in the food
the task of seed production (figure 3.). Members, security in developing countries. Support from
however, need to develop skills in planning and state/national governments, and international
seed production techniques as well as support in organizations or any other funding agencies should
terms of storage. Alternatively arrangements may be targeted at improving the efficiency of these
be worked out with nearest market yard or state investments by strengthening technical capabilities
godowns to have the seed storage facility. The most of SHGs, NGOs, farmer cooperatives, CBO’s,

Figure 3 . Model 3: SHG – mediated system

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KVK’s and schemes to improve or develop village production on a contract basis and preference is
based seed programs through seed multiplication, given to crops and varieties that are in demand in
quality control and marketing activities. particular area. Basically NGOs are involved in
mobilizing farmers/seed producers, planning seed
Pros and cons multiplication, training, procuring, processing and
•• Improved availability and access to improved marketing seed. Similar to other models, NGOs
varieties by all groups of farmers. has to depend on other institutions for procuring
•• Minimum overheads. foundation/basic seed stocks for multiplication.
•• Seed is stored in the village.
•• Seed available at reasonable price and at the Pros and cons
right time. •• Operates in couple of villages.
•• Control on fixing procurement and selling price •• Seed production operations in couple of villages
of seed. (3-5).
•• Priority for farmers’ preferred varieties. •• Storage of seed within the village.
•• Need for institutional support for technical •• Seed distribution within the operational areas.
backstopping and supply of breeder seed. •• Selling price can be fixed by discussions with
•• Fund for procurement of seed. farmers.
•• Improved seed availability and access for all
Model 4: NGO-mediated system groups of farmers.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): •• Minimum overhead costs.
In this model (figure 4), an NGO may be given •• Need institutional support for technical
the responsibility for a cluster of villages. These backstopping and supply of breeder seed.
organizations select and engage farmers in seed •• Fund required for seed procurement

Figure 4. Model 4: NGO– mediated system

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The comparative statement comparing all the five

Model 5: KVK-mediated system models across each component working towards
In this model (figure 5) KVK’s are given the seed system sustainability is given in Table 1.
responsibility to implement the model. Conclusion
Pros and cons An effective means of improved seed
•• Targets, large operational area (many villages). distribution is farmer-to-farmer seed exchange.
•• Centralized production; needs large storage This may be primed to a limited extent by supplies
place (such as godowns) of improved seed from public agencies, agricultural
•• Comparatively greater overhead costs research stations and non-governmental organizations
•• Involves more than one crop and variety in to farmers in easily accessible villages. However,
production such a system is very slow. To speed up the flow
•• Less scope for farmers’ participation and their of adapted improved varieties to farmers, there is
choice of varieties a need to form a network, formal and informal or
•• More inclined towards commercial seed trade integrated seed systems between community-based
•• No scope for involving farmers in fixing organizations and research institutes, public and
procurement and selling prices private seed multiplication agencies, involved in
•• Model needs infrastructure various aspects of seed production. This network will
•• Usually KVKs has fairly good technical identify bottlenecks in the seed production chain, and
capabilities catalyze or instigate applied and adaptive research and
•• Generally institution funds are available to policy changes that may be required to ensure rapid
some extent. movement of new cultivars into local seed delivery
system benefiting smallholder farmers small and
Each of five models tested can be harbingers resource poor farmers who need them. This approach
of seed system sustainability upon implementation will require continued interaction between the various
based on the environments and regions they operate. institutions, policy makers and stakeholders.

Figure 5. Model 5: KVK– mediated system

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Table 1. Comparitive chart of different seed systems models

Components Models
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Organization/ Individual VBSB SHG NGO KVK
community involved farmer
Breeder seed source Research Research Research Research Self or research
institute institute or institute or institute or institutions
or project project scientist project scientist project scientist
scientist
Responsibility for Research Research Research Research Self
transport of source institute institute or institute or institute or
seed or project project scientist project scientist project scientist
scientist
Sourcing of other Farmer Seed bank Farmers Farmers/NGO Farmers/KVK
inputs committee/
farmers

Choice of crop/ Farmers Farmers Farmers NGO/farmer KVK

variety
Training in seed Project Farmers Farmers NGO KVK
production scientist(PS)
Seed production Project PS, NGO, VSBC PS, SHG PS, NGO. PS, KVK
monitoring scientist members
Seed quality Farmer VSBC SHG NGO KVK
assurance
Cleaning, packing, Farmer Farmers Farmers NGO KVK
and transportation
Marketing Farmer VSBC SHG NGO KVK
Fixing procurement Farmer VSBC SHG NGO KVK
and selling price
Funding for seed Farmer Farmers Farmers Farmers/NGO Farmers/KVK
production
Funding for seed Farmer VO/SBC VO, self VO, self, other Self, other org.
procurement org.
Sustainability issues Technical Technical Incentives for Farmer produce Marketing,
support, support, supply farmers for fetch low price cost of seed,
supply of of breeder seed, maintaining because there selection of
breeder seed funding, takes quality, is no external varieties,
over of role technical quality control, Incentives for
once project support, certification. farmers for
completed breeder seed Supply of maintaining
Incentives for supply, funding breeder seed, seed quality,
farmers for for seed funding certification
maintaining procurement
quality.

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Rules and regulations

related to seed testing
S eed testing has been recognized as an essential aspect of quality of seed programme. In fact,
quality control programmes are pointless unless they involve seed testing. Conversely, a Seed
Testing Laboratory has little value unless it is a part of seed certification programme, a seed law
enforcement programme or a production and marketing activity. Accordingly, the importance of
Seed Testing Laboratories has been well recognized under the Seeds Act. Section 4(2) of the Seeds
Act, 1966 empowers the State Government to establish one or more State Seed Testing Laboratories
in the State. The laboratories are expected to provide the following services:

1. Services to the certification agencies for certification and validation of foundation and certified
seed
2. Service samples – seed users and producers of quality seeds other than certified seed getting
the seed samples tested and
3. Seed law enforcement samples to determine the compliance of labeling requirements under
Section 7 of the Act.

Seed testing network in India get the hybrid seeds testing of seeds for hybridity
The need of good seed testing laboratories in in laboratory in shortest period will be imperative.
India was recognized in the late 60s when steps Electrophoresis test could provide answer to this
were taken to establish one laboratory per State. In problem. Similarly, some time conducting of grow
1968, there were 23 Seed Testing Laboratories in out test in off-season will also be necessary and for
the country. At present, one Central Seed Testing this purpose availability of green house facility to
Lab at IARI, New Delhi and 101 State Seed Testing laboratory will be essential.
Laboratories are there in the country, out of which A well-equipped and well-staffed laboratory
81 laboratories have been notified under Section can serve the needs of both the certification
4 of the Seeds Act. The number of seed samples and control programmes, and also needs of the
tested has gone up from 6,000 in 1962 to more than cultivators and dealers. It can also conduct the
6 lakh samples in 2003-04. research in practical seed problems. The Central
Recently, seed production has been included a Government has taken various steps in the past to
high technology are and Multinational Companies strengthen STLs. During 6th Five Year Plan Rs. 100
have been allowed to enter into the area of seed lakhs, 7th Plan Rs. 134.40 lakhs and 8th Plan Rs. 150
production and marketing. Similarly, import lakhs were proved as grant in aid to various State
of seed of certain crops for two years with the Governments to equip 12 STLs, 22 STLs and 10
stipulation that parental material and technology STLs respectively. Similarly, an amount of Rs. 225
will be imported within two years has also been lakhs was released during 9th Five Year Plan with
allowed under New Policy on Seed Development, main emphasis to create the computer facilities in
1988. It is expected that a large number of hybrid various STLs. During the year 2002-03, 2003-04,
varieties of various crops will be produced and an amount of Rs. 75 lakhs have been provided to
marketed in the country. To ensure that farmers strengthen 5 Seed Testing Labs which include one

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lab at North Eastern States. respectively. The Section 4(1) and 4(2)
The legal requirement of setting up of a read as under:
laboratory under the Act has been met. These 4(1) : The Central Government may, by
laboratories are having the required essential notification in the Official Gazette,
equipment for drawing seed samples for establish a Central Seed Laboratory or
conducting routine tests such as determination of declare any Seed Laboratory as the Central
moisture content, physical purity, seed health and Seed Laboratory to carry out the functions
germination. However, none of the laboratories entrusted to the Central Seed Laboratory by
are equipped to conduct X-ray, RALF and other or under this Act.
biotechnology-related tests where have become 4(2) : The State Government may, by notification
essential for modern seed industry. These tests in the Official Gazette, establish one or
could establish the genetic purity within shortest more State Seed Laboratories or declare any
period and at a very low cost. Seed Laboratory as a State Seed Laboratory
The laboratories, which had been strengthened, where analysis of seeds of any notified
based on the required space availability staff kind or variety shall be carried out by Seed
provision to meet the running expenditure and Analysts under this Act in the prescribed
essential equipments to conduct routine tests. The manner.
Laboratory which is capable of testing 10,000 to Notification and de-notification of the State
15,000 samples per year having at least 200 to 250 Seed Testing Laboratories are to be done based on
sq. meter working space, had been strengthened. the recommendation of the concerned State Seed
Similarly, it was ensured about the required number Sub-Committee established under Section 3(5) of
of seed analysts and other technical staff possessing the Seeds Act.
proper qualification to conduct the various tests
before providing financial assistance. Functions of the central seed testing
laboratory
Regulatory mechanism of seed testing The important functions of analyzing the
laboratory litigation seed sample (seed samples referred by the
There is a provision to set up a Central Seed court of law) and service samples by Central Seed
Laboratory and States Seed Laboratory to discharge Laboratory has been indicated in the Act and Rules.
various functions enshrined under the Seeds Act, The details of the same are given as under.
1966. The definition of Seed Testing Lab as defined
in the Seeds Act, is as follows: a) Analysis of the litigation samples referred by
the court of law. As specified under Section
2(2) : “Central Seed Laboratory means the Central 16(2), any accused vendor or complainant could
Seed Laboratory established or declared as request the Central Seed Laboratory through
such under sub-section (1) of Section 4; Court to analyze the sample. The Section 16(2)
2(15) : “State Seed Laboratory”, in relation to any reads as under:
State, means the State Seed Laboratory 16(2) : “after the institution of a prosecution
established or declared as such under sub- under this Act, the accused vendor or
section (2) of Section 4 for that State, the the complainant may, on payment of the
Section 4(1) and 4(2) of the Seeds Act prescribed fee, make an application to
specify that Central Government and State the court for sending any of the samples
Governments could set up the Central Seed mentioned in clause (a) or clause (c)
Laboratory and State Seed Laboratory of sub-section (2) of Section 15 to the

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Central Seed Laboratory for its report or labeling purposes.

and on receipt of the application, the Apart from above, the Central Seed Laboratory
court shall first ascertain that the mark has been assigned to perform the following
and the seal or fastening as provided in functions as indicated in Rule 5 of the Seeds Rules,
clause (b) of sub-section (1) of Section 1968.
15 are intact and may then dispatch In addition to the function entrusted to the
the sample under its own seal to the Central Seed Laboratory by the Act, the laboratory
Central Seed Laboratory which shall shall carry out the following functions, namely:
thereupon send its report to the court in a. initiate testing programme in collaboration
the prescribed form within one month with the State Seed Laboratories designed to
from the date of receipt of the sample, promote uniformity in test results between all
specifying the result of the analysis. seed laboratories in India;
b) Analysis of the service sample b. collect data continually on the quality of seeds
The Central Seed Laboratory could also analyze found in the market and make this data available
the service samples. The results of the sample to the Committee; and
to be used as information for seeding, selling c. carry out such other functions as may be
or labeling purposes s referred in 2(i) of Seeds assigned to it by the Central Government from
Rules, 1968, which is defined as follows: time to time.
2(i): “service sample” means a
sample submitted to the Central Functions of the state seed laboratories
Seed Laboratory or to a State Seed State Seed Laboratories are meant to analyze
Laboratory for testing, the results to be the seed samples of any notified kind or variety in
used as information for seedling, selling the prescribed manner. The State Seed Laboratory

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be Seed Analysts and define the areas within which 4. The Seed Analyst shall from time to time forward
they shall exercise jurisdiction” to the State Government the reports giving the
The perusal of the Section 12 would indicate result of analytical work done by him.
that State Government could appoint the Seed Precaution to be followed by seed analyst as
Analyst through notification in the Official Gazette. specified in seeds rules: Rules 29, 30 and 31 of the
The specimen copy of the notification is given Seed Rules specify the precautions to be taken at
below: the time of dispatch of the samples to Seed Analyst.
Qualification of the seed analyst: The Seed The Rules 29, 30 and 31 read as under:
Analyst should possess certain minimum qualification Rule 29 : Samples how to be sent to the Seed
as prescribed in Rules 20 of the Seed Rules, 1968. Analyst: The container of sample for analysis shall
The same is reproduced below: Qualifications of be sent to the Seed Analyst by registered post or
Seed Analyst – A person shall not be qualified for by hand in a sealed packet enclosed together
appointment as Seed Analyst unless he – with a memorandum in Form V in an outer cover
i. possess a Master’s or equivalent degree addressed to the Seed Analyst.
in Agriculture or Agronomy or Botany or Rule 30: Memorandum and impression of seal
Horticulture of a University recognized for this to be sent separately: A copy of the memorandum
purpose by the Government and has had not less and a specimen impression of the seal used to
than one year’s experience in seed technology; seal the packet shall be sent to the Seed Analyst
or separately by registered post or delivered to him or
ii. possess a Bachelor’s or equivalent degree to any person authorized by him.
in Agriculture or Botany of a University Rule 31: Addition of preservatives to sample:
recognized for this purpose by the Government Any person taking a sample of need for the purpose
and has had not less than three year’s experience of analysis under the Act may add preservatives as
in seed technology. may be specified from time to time to the sample for
Provisions of seeds rules related to duties of the purpose of maintaining it in a condition suitable
a seed analyst: The duties of a Seed Analyst have for analysis.
been specified in the Rule 21 of the Seed Rules, Accordingly, the Seed Analysts should ensure
1968 and are reproduced below: that seed sample is received in proper form.

Duties Provision of seeds rules for analysis of

1. On receipt of a sample for analysis the Seed seed sample
Analyst shall first ascertain that the mark and Rule 33: “On receipt of the packet, it shall
the seal or fastening as provided in clause (b) of be opened either by the Seed Analyst or by an
sub-section (1) of Section 15 are intact and shall Officer authorized in writing in that behalf by
not the condition of the seals thereon. the Seed Analyst, who shall record the condition
2. The Seed Analyst shall analyze the samples in of the seal on the packet. Analysis of the sample
accordance with the procedures laid down in shall be carried out at the State Seed Laboratory
the ‘Handbook of Seed Testing”. in accordance with the procedure laid down by the
3. The Seed Analyst shall deliver in Form VII, Central Government”
a copy of the result of analysis to the persons Form of report: Rule 35 specify that the report
specified in sub-section (i) of Section 16, as of the results of the analysis under sub-section (1)
soon as may be, but not later than 30 days from or sub-section (2) of Section 16 shall be delivered
the date of receipt of samples sent by the Seed or sent in Form VII. The specimen copy of the
Inspector under sub-section (2) of the Section 15. same is given as under:

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FORM VII
(Certificate of test and/or analysis by the Seed Analyst)

Certified that the sample(s) bearing number -------------------------- purporting to be a sample --------------------------------------
received on -----------------------Memorandum No. -------------------- Dated --------------- from ---------------------------------- has/have
been tested / analyzed and that the result/results of such test(s) analysis is/are as stated below:
____________________________________________________________

2. The condition of the seals on the packet and the outer covering on receipt was as follows:

____________________________________________________________________________________________

is expected to analyze the sample received from Provison for retaining of the seed samples
various sources for the following different purposes. Rule 37: “The sample of any seed shall,
(i) Analysis of the samples received from Seed under clause (c) of sub-section (2) of Section
Certification Agencies set up under Section 8 15, be retained under a cool, dry environment
of the Seeds Act. to eliminate the loss of viability and insect proof
(ii) Analysis of the service samples: Seed users and or rate proof container. The containers shall be
seed producers could get seed sample tested dusted with suitable insecticides and the storage
to obtain the result to be used as information room fumigated to avoid infestation of samples by
for seedling selling or labeling purpose under insects. The sample shall be packed in good quality
section 2(i) of Seeds Rules, 1968. containers of uniform shape and size before storage.
(iii) Analysis of the samples received from Seed
Inspector to determine the compliance of International certificate on seed testing
labeling requirements under Section 7 of the International Seed Analysis Certificate is a form
Seeds Act. of Certificate issued only by the International Seed
Testing Association (ISTA) and used for reporting
Provisions of seeds act & rules related the results of tests. An International Seed Analysis
to seed analyst Certificate may be issued only by the official seed
As per Section 2(12)”Seed Analyst” means a testing station which carried out the tests to be
seed analyst appointed under Section 12. Section reported under provided that
12 reads as under: 1. The issuing station is currently authorized to do
“The State Government may, by notification so by ISTA
in the Official Gazette, appoint such persons as it 2. The seed tested is of a species listed in the ISTA
thinks fit, having the prescribed qualifications to International Rules for seed Testing.

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3. The seed lot complies with the requirements the seed lot is located shall be responsible for
of these Rules and has been sampled in strict sampling, sealing and labeling of the seed lot
accordance with these Rules. and for the sending of the submitted sample
4. The tests are carried out in accordance with to the testing station, which after testing in
these Rules. this case issues a GREEN INTERNATIONAL
The International Seed Analysis Certificate are SEED LOT CERTIFICATE
multilingual and of two kinds; Seed Lot Certificate •• A BLUE INTERNATIONAL SEED SAMPLE
and Seed Sample Certificates. CERTIFICATE refers only the sample
•• if the sample is tested in the country where submitted for testing
the lot is located, the testing station shall be •• Not more than one certificate shall be valid for
responsible for sampling, sealing, labeling a lot at any time.
testing and issuance of the Certificate in this •• If ordered, an exact copy of a completed
case an ORANGE INTERNATIONAL SEED International Seed Analysis Certificate can
LOT CERTIFICATE. be issued and will in that case be marked
•• If the sample is tested in another country an DUPLICATE.
official seed testing station in the country where

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Guidelines for the conduct of test

for Distinctiveness, Uniformity and
Stability on Sorghum (Sorghum
bicolor (L.) Moench)

Subject b. Moisture content: 10-12 %( maximum)

These test guidelines shall apply to all varieties, c. Physical purity: 98% (minimum)
hybrids and parental lines of Sorghum (Sorghum 3. The applicant shall also submit along with the
bicolor (L.) Moench) seed a certified data on germination test made
not more than one month prior to the date of
Seed material required submission. It also shall possess the highest
1. The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' genetic purity, uniformity, sanitary and phyto-
Rights Authority (PPV & FRA) shall decide sanitary standards.
when, where and in what quantity and quality 4. The seed material shall not have been subjected
of the seed material are required for testing a to any chemical or bio-physical treatment.
variety denomination applied for registration
under the Protection of Plant Variety and Conduct of tests
Farmers' Rights (PPV& FR) Act, 2001. 1. The minimum duration of the DUS tests shall
Applicants submitting such seed material from a normally be at least two independent similar
country other than India shall make sure that all growing seasons.
customs and quarantine requirements stipulated 2. The test shall normally be conducted at least at
under relevant national legislations and two test locations. If any essential characteristics
regulations are complied with. The minimum of the candidate variety are not expressed for
quantity of the seed to be provided by the visual observation at these locations, the variety
applicant shall be 3000 gram in the case of the shall be considered for further examination at
candidate variety or hybrid and 1500 gram for another appropriate test site or under special test
each of the parental line of the hybrid. Each of protocol on expressed request of the applicant.
these seed lots shall be packed and sealed in ten 3. The field tests shall be carried out under conditions
equal weighing packets and submitted in one favouring normal growth and expression of
lot. If requested by the competent authority in all test characteristics. The size of the plots shall
addition 100 panicles shall be submitted. be such that plants or parts of plants could be
2. The seeds submitted shall have the following removed for measurement and observation
standards for germination capacity, moisture without prejudicing the other observations on
content and physical purity. the standing plants until the end of the growing
a. Germination capacity period. Each test shall include about 900 plants
i. Inbred lines and single cross hybrids: 80% in the plot size and planting space specified
(minimum) below across four replications. Separate plots
ii. Varieties and double cross hybrids: 90% for observation and measurement can only
(minimum) be used if they have been subjected to similar

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 Millet Seed Technology

environmental conditions. All the replications all varieties in the collection are suitable for
shall be sharing similar environmental conditions grouping purposes.
of the test location. 2. The following characteristics are proposed to be
4. Test plot design: used for grouping sorghum varieties:
Number of rows : 6 a) Kharif or rabi adaptation
Row length :6m b) Plant: Time of panicle emergence (50% of the
Row to row distance : 60 cm plants with complete panicle emergence)
Plant to plant distance : 15 cm (Characteristics 4)
Number of replications : 4 c) Plant: Total height at maturity) (Characteristics
5. Observations shall not be recorded on plants in 18)
border rows. d) Panicle: Shape (Characteristics 27)
6. Additional tests for special purpose shall be e) Caryopsis: Colour after threshing
established by the PPV & FR Authority. (Characteristics 33)

Methods and observations Characteristics and symbols

1. The characteristics described in the Table of 1. To assess Distinctiveness, Uniformity and
characteristics shall be used for the testing of Stability, the characteristics and their states as
varieties, inbred lines and hybrids for their DUS. given in the Table of characteristics (Section VII)
2. For the assessment of Distinctiveness and Stability, shall be used.
observations shall be made on 40 plants or parts 2. Note (1 to 9) shall be used to describe the state
of 40 plants, which shall be divided among 4 of each character for the purpose of digital data
replications (10 plants in each replication). processing.
3. For the assessment of Uniformity of characteristics 3. Legend:
on the plot as a whole (visual assessment by a (*) Characteristics that shall be observed during
single observation of a group of plants or parts of every growing period on all varieties and shall
plants), the number of aberrant plants or parts of always be included in the description of the
plants shall not exceed 6 in 100. variety, except when the state of expression of
4. For the assessment of Uniformity of any of these characters is rendered impossible by
characteristics on single ear-rows, plants or parts a preceding phenological characteristic or by the
of plants (visual assessment by observations of a environmental conditions of the testing region.
number of individual ear-rows, plants or parts of Under such exceptional situation, adequate
plants) the number of aberrant ear-rows, plants explanation shall be provided.
or parts of plants shall not exceed 6 in 100. (+) See Explanation on the Table of
5. For the assessment of colour characteristics, the characteristics in SectionVIII. It is to be noted
latest Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) that for certain characteristics the plant parts on
colour chart shall be used. which observations to be taken are given in the
explanation or figure(s) for clarity and not the
Grouping of varieties colour variation.
1. The candidate varieties for DUS testing shall be 4. The optimum stage of plant growth for
divided into groups to facilitate the assessment of assessment of each characteristic is given in the
distinctness. Characteristics, which are known sixth column.
from experience not to vary, or to vary only 5. Type of assessment of characteristics indicated
slightly within a variety and which in their in column seven of Table of characteristics is as
various states are fairly evenly distributed across follows:

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MG: Measurement by a single observation of a VG: Visual assessment by a single observation of

group of plants or parts of plants a group of plants or parts of plants
MS: Measurement of a number of individual VS: Visual assessment by observation of
plants or parts of plants individual plants or parts of plants

Table of characteristics

S.No Characteristics States Note Example Stage of Type of

Variety / line observation assessment

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 (+) Seedling : Yellow green (RHS 144- 1 AKMS 14B M Seedling7-8 VS

Anthocyanin 144N) 2 35-1, AKR 150 days after
colouration of Greyed sowing
coleoptile pur ple (RHS 183-187)

2 (*) Leaf sheath: Yellow green (RHS 144- 1 AKMS 14B, 5 leaf VS
Anthocyanin 144N) 2 Pant Chari 4
colouration Greyed pur ple (RHS 183-
187)

3 Leaf: Mid rib White ( RHS 155-N 155) 1 SPV462, JJ 5th leaf VS
colour (5th Yellow green (RHS 144-N 2 1041
fully developed 144) 3 CS 3541
leaf) Greyed yellow (RHS 162) 4 -
Greyed purple (RHS 183- -
187)
4 (*) Plant: Time of Very early (<56 days) 1 GFS 4 Panicle emer- VG
panicle emer- Early (56-65 days) 3 CSH 14 gence
gence (50% of Medium (66-75 days) 5 CSH 16
the plants with Late (76-85 days) 7 Pant Chari 5
50% anthesis) Very late (>85 days) 9 SSV 84

5 Plant: Natural Very short (<76 cm) 1 - Panicle emer- MS

height of plant Short (76-150 cm) 3 - gence
up to base of Medium (151-225 cm) 5 296B RS 29
flag leaf Tall (226-300 cm) 7 Pant chari 3
Very tall (>300 cm) 9 -
6 (*) Flag leaf: Yellow Absent 1 CS 3541 Panicle emer- VS
colouration of Present 5 27B gence
midr ib
7 (*) Lemma: Arista Absent 1 CS 3541 Flower ing VS
formation Present 5 296B
8 (*) Stigma: Absent 1 CS 3541 Upper por- VS
Anthocyanin Present 5 SSG 59-3 tion of the
colouration panicle at the
end of flower
ing

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 Millet Seed Technology

9 (*) Stigma: Yellow Absent 1 CS 3541 Flowering VS

colouration Present 5 27B
10 Stigma: Length Short (<1mm) Medium 3 AKMS 14 Flowering MS
(1-2mm) 5 BIMS 9B
Long (>2mm) 9 MAN T1
11 (+) Flower with Very short 1 - Flowering MS
pedicel: Length Short 3 -
of flower Medium 5 CS 3541
Long 7 27B
Very long 9 SSG 59-3
12 Anther: Length Short (<3mm) 3 C 43 Flowering MS
Medium (3-4mm) 5 27B
Long (>4mm) 7 -
13 Anther: Colour Yellow orange (RHS 14-23) 1 2219B End of flower VG
of dry anther Orange (RHS 24-29) 2 CS 3541 ing
Orange red (RHS 30-35) 3 -
Greyed orange (RHS 163- 4 CSH 16
177)

14 (*) Glume : Co- Green white (RHS 157) 1 - Physio- logi- VG

(+) lour Yellow white (RHS 158) 2 2077B cal maturity
Greyed yellow (RHS 160- 3 Pant chari 5 of grain
162) 4 UPMC 503
Greyed orange (RHS 163- 5 -
177) 6 Pant chari 4
Greyed red (RHS 178-182)
Greyed pur ple (RHS 183- N
187)
15 (*) Plant: Total Very short (< 76 cm) 1 - Physiological MS
height Short (76-150 cm) 3 2219 B maturity
Medium (151-225 cm) 5 RS 673
Long(226-300 cm) 7 GJ 39
Very long (> 300 cm) 9 -
16 Stem : Small (<2 cm) 3 CS 3541 Physiological MS
Diameter (at Medium (2 - 4 cm) 5 2077B maturity
lower one Large (> 4 cm) 7 -
third height of
plant)
17 Leaf: Length Short (< 41 cm) 3 - Physiological MS
of blade (the Medium (41 - 60 cm) 5 2219B maturity
third leaf from Long (61- 80 cm) 7 CS 3541
top Very long (> 80 cm) 9 CSH 18
including flag
leaf)
18 Leaf: Width of Narrow (< 4.1 cm) 3 GFS 4 Physio-logical MS
blade(the third Medium (4.1 - 6.0 cm) 5 - maturity
leaf from top Broad (6.1 - 8.0 cm) 7 CSV 17
including flag Very broad (> 8.0 cm) 9 CSH 16
leaf)

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 Millet Seed Technology

19 (*) Panicle : Very short (<11 cm) 1 - Physio-logical MS

Length without Short (11 - 20 cm) 3 SSV 84 maturity
peduncle Medium (21 - 30 cm) 5 CS 3541
Long (31 - 40 cm) 7 IMS 9B
Very long (> 40 cm) 9 SSG 59-3
20 Panicle : Length Short (<5.1 cm) 3 - Physio-logical MS
of branches Medium (5.1-10 cm) 5 CS 3541 maturity
(middle third Long (10.1-15 cm) 7 2077B
of panicle) Very long (>15 cm) 9 SSG 59-3
21 (*) Panicle : Den- Very loose 1 SSG 59-3 Physio-logical VG
sity at maturity Loose 3 Pant Chari 4 maturity
(ear head com- Semi loose 5 CSH 16
pactness) Semi compact 7 C 43
Compact 9 Surat 1
22 (*) Panicle : Shape Reversed pyramid 1 - Physio-logical VG
(+) Panicle broader in upper 2 JJ 741 maturity
part 3 CSH 9
Symmetric 4 MAN T1
Panicle broader in lower 5 SSG 59-3
part
Pyramidal
23 (*) Neck of Absent or very short (<5.1 1 296B Physio-logical MS
panicle : Visible cm) 3 JJ 1041 maturity
length above Short (5.1-10 cm) 5 Pant chari 4
sheath Medium (10.1-15 cm) 7 GJ 37
Long (15.1-20 cm) 9 CSH 16
Very long (>20cm)
24 (+) Glume: Length Very short (25% of grain 1 CSH 9 Physio-logical MS
covered) 3 CSV 15 maturity
Short (50% of grain cov- 5 2219B
ered) 7 SSG 59-3
Medium (75% of grain 9 -
covered)
Long (100% of grain cov-
ered)
Very long (longer than the
grain)
25 (+) Grain: Thresh- Freely threshable 1 C 43 Maturity VG
ability (<11%) unthreshed grain)
Partly thresahble 5 MR 750
(11 - 50% unthreshed
grain) 7 SSG 59-3
Difficult to thresh
(>50% unthreshed grain)
26 (*) Caryopsis: White 155 1 MAN T1 After thresh- VG
Colour after Greyed white 156 2 Pant Chari 4 ing
threshing Yellow white 158 3 Pant Chari 5
Yellow orange 14-20 4 27B
Greyed orange 200 5 UPMS 503

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 Millet Seed Technology

27 Grain : Weight Very low (< 16 g) 1 SSG 59-3 After thresh- MG

of Low (16-25 g) 3 2219B ing
1000 grains Medium (26-35 g) 5 C 43
High (36-45 g) 7 -
Very high (> 45 g) 9 -

28 (+) Grain: Shape Narrow elliptic 1 SSG 59-3 After thresh- VG

(in dorsal Elliptic 2 2219B ing
view) Circular 3 27B

29 (+) Grain: Shape in Narrow elliptic 1 SSG 59-3 After thresh- VG

profile view Elliptic 2 2219B ing
Circular 3 27B

30 (+) Grain: Size of Very small 1 - After thresh- VG

mark of germ Small 3 RS 29 ing
Medium 5 296B C 43
Large 7 DSV 4
Very large 9

31 (*) Grain: Texture Fully vitreous (100% corne- 1 - After thresh- VG

of endosperm ous) 3 - ing
(in longitudi- ¾ vitreous (75% corneous) 5 AKMS 14B
nal section) Half vitreous (50% corne- 7 296B
ous) 9 -
¾ farinaceous (25% corne-
ous)
Fully farinaceous (0%
corneous)

32 Grain: Colour Greyed yellow RHS 160-162 1 AKMS 14B After thresh- VG
of vitreous Greyed orange RHS 166 2 SSG 59-3, ing
albumen Greyed purple RHS N 187 3 UPMC 503
Pant Chari 4

33 (*) Grain : Lustre Non-lustrous 1 296B After thresh- VG

Lustrous 5 CS 3541, M ing
35-1

Explanations on the table of

characteristics Soil : 1/3 compost + 2/3 sand
Temperature : 24°C
Characteristic 1. Seedlings: Anthocyanin Lighting : Continuous light at 24000 lux
colouration of coleoptile Duration of test : About 14 days with the day of
Cultivation for production of seedlings of sowing included
sorghum under controlled conditions as per Payne Actual observation : 2 times on 25 seedlings
et al., 1980.

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 Millet Seed Technology

Characteristic 11. Flower with pedicel: Characteristic 25. Grain: Threshability

Length of flower (at flowering) Three primary branches each from top, middle
and bottom portions (total 9 primary branches)
of the panicle shall be selected after one week of
physiological maturity and hand threshed. Ten
panicles per replication shall be randomly selected for
this purpose.

Characteristic 28. Grain: shape in dorsal

view

Characteristics 14. Glume: Colour

Glume colour is to be recorded at the time of
physiological maturity i.e., when the black layer is
formed on the base of the grain.

Characteristic 22. Panicle: Shape (at

maturity)
Characteristic 29. Grain: Shape in profile
view

Characteristic 30. Grain: Size of mark of

Characteristic 24. Glume: Length (at germ
maturity)

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 Millet Seed Technology

Literature National Research Centre for Sorghum (NRCS),

UPOV (1989), TG/122/3 Guidelines for the Hyderabad, the Nodal Officer, DUS Testing, NRCS,
conduct of tests for distinctness, homogeneity and Hyderabad and the Task Force (1/2005) constituted
stability in Sorghum. by the PPV & FR Authority
IBPGR and ICRISAT, 1984, "Revised Sorghum
Descriptors". The Members of the Task Force (1/2005)
IBPGR and ICRISAT, 1993, "Descriptors for Dr. M. V. Rao (Chairman)
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) 99 Dr. S. Bala Ravi
Payne, R.C., Koszykolowski,T.U. Morris, L. Dr. A. Seetharam
P., 1980: "Differentiation of Sorghum, Sudan grass Dr. O. P. Makhija
and Sorghum x Sudan Grass Cultivars by seedling Dr. S. P. Sharma
pigmentation patterns," Journal of Seed Technology Dr. B. S. Dhillon
Nr 1. Dr. R. V. Singh
Dr. J. L. Tikkoo
Working group details Dr. (Mrs). Malathi Laxmi Kumaran
The Test Guideline developed by the National Dr. (Mrs.) Roshini Nair
Core Committee in consultation with the Director, Dr. S. K. Chakrabarty

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 Millet Seed Technology
Guidelines for the conduct of test for
Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability on
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.)

Subject uniformity, sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards.

These test guidelines shall apply to all varieties, 4. The plant material shall not have been subjected
hybrids and parental lines of Pearl millet (Pennisetum to any chemical or bio-physical treatment.
glaucum (L.) R. Br.)
Conduct of tests
Seed material required 1. The minimum duration of DUS tests shall normally
1. The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' be at least two independent similar growing
Rights Authority (PPV & FRA) shall decide seasons.
when, where and in what quantity and quality of 2. The tests shall normally be conducted at least at
the seed material are required for testing a variety two test locations. If any essential characteristics of
denomination applied for registration under the the candidate variety are not expressed for visual
Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers' Rights. observation at these locations, the variety shall
(PPV& FR) Act, 2001. Applicants submitting be considered for further examination at another
such seed material from a country other than appropriate test site or under special test protocol
India shall make sure that all customs and quarantine on expressed request of the applicant.
requirements stipulated under relevant national 3. The field tests shall be carried out under conditions
legislations and regulations are complied with. favouring normal growth and expression of
The minimum quantity of the seed to be provided all test characteristics. The size of the plot shall
by the applicant shall be 1000 gram in the case of be such that plants or parts of plants could be
candidate variety or hybrid and 500 gram for each removed for measurement and observation
of the parental line of the hybrid. Each of these without prejudicing the other observations on
seed lots shall be packed and sealed in ten equal the standing plant until the end of the growing
weighing packets and submitted in one lot. period. Each test shall include about 900 plants
2. The seeds submitted shall have the following in the plot size and planting space specified
standards for germination capacity, moisture below across four replications. Separate plots
content and physical purity. for observation and measurement can only be
a. Germination capacity used if they have been subjected to similar
i. Inbred lines and single cross hybrids : environmental conditions. All the replications shall
80% (minimum) be sharing similar environmental conditions of the
ii.Varieties and double cross hybrids : test location.
90% (minimum) 4. Test plot design
b. Moisture content: 10-12% (maximum) Number of rows :6
c. Physical purity: 98% (minimum) Row length :6m
3. The applicant shall also submit along with the seed Row to row distance : 60 cm
a certified data on germination test made not Plant to plant distance : 15cm
more than one month prior to date of submission. Number of replications :3
It also shall possess the highest genetic purity,

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 Millet Seed Technology

5. Observations shall not be recorded on plants in a) Plant: Time of spike emergence

border rows. (Characteristic 3)
6. Additional tests for special purpose may be b) Anther: Colour (Characteristic 8)
established by PPV & FR Authority. c) Spike: Shape (Characteristic 19)
d) Seed: Colour (Characteristic 24)
Methods and observations e) Seed: Shape (Characteristic 25)
1. 1. The characteristics described in the Table of
characteristics (see section VII) shall be used for Characteristics and symbols
the testing of varieties, inbred lines and hybrids 1. To assess Distinctiveness, Uniformity and
for their DUS. Stability, the characteristics and their states as
2. 2. For the assessment of Distinctiveness given in the Table of characteristics (Section VII)
and Stability, observation shall be made on shall be used.
(excluding out crossed plants in inbred lines and 2. Note (1 to 9) shall be used to describe the state
plants obviously resulting from the selfing of a of each character for the purpose of digital data
parental line in single cross hybrids) at least 30 processing.
plants for inbreds / single cross hybrids and 60 3. Legend:
plants for varieties and other hybrids. (*) Characteristics that shall be observed during
3. 3. For the assessment of Uniformity of inbred lines every growing season on all varieties and shall
and single cross hybrids a population standard always be included in the description of the
of 1% with an acceptance probability of 95% variety, except when the state of expression of
shall applied. In the case of a sample of 100 any of these characters is rendered impossible by
plants, maximum number of variants allowed a preceding phenological characteristic or by the
shall not exceed 3 in case of inbred and single environmental conditions of the testing region.
cross hybrids and 6 in case of other varieties and Under such exceptional situation, adequate
hybrids. explanation shall be provided.
4. Leaf characteristics shall be observed on (+) See Explanation on theTable of characteristics
penultimate leaf. in Section VIII. It is to be noted that for
5. Spike, leaf, node and internode characteristics certain characteristics the plant parts on which
shall be observed on primary tiller of the plant. observations to be taken are given in the
6. For the assessment of colour characteristics, the explanation or figure(s) for clarity and not the
latest Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) colour colour variation.
chart shall be used. 4. A decimal code number in the sixth column of
Table of characteristics indicates the optimum
Grouping of varieties stage for the observation of each characteristic
1. The candidate varieties for DUS testing shall be during the growth and development of plant. The
divided into groups to facilitate the assessment relevant growth stages corresponding to these
of Distinctiveness. Characteristics, which are decimal code numbers are described below:
known from experience not to vary, or to vary
Decimal Code for the Growth Stage
only slightly within a variety and which in
their various states are fairly evenly distributed Code Growth stage
across all varieties in the collection are suitable for 3 Emergence stage
grouping purposes.
5 Three leaf stage
2. The following characteristics are proposed to be
8 Five leaf stage
used for grouping Pearl Millet varieties:

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 Millet Seed Technology

30 Flag leaf stage 5. Type of assessment of characteristics indicated

in column seven of Table of characteristics is as
35 Boot stage
follows.
45 Half bloom stage MG: Measurement by a single observation of a
50 Anthesis group of plants or part of plants.
MS: Measurement of a number of individual
60 Milk stage
plants or parts of plants.
65 Dough stage VG: Visual assessment by a single observation of
70 Physiological maturity stage a group of plants or parts of plants.
VS: Visual assessment by observation of individual
75 Harvest maturity
plants or parts of plants

Table of characteristics

S.No. Characteristics States Note Example Stage of Type of

variety/line observation assessment
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. (*) Plant : Anthocy- Absent 1 841B, H-77/ 833-2 Seedling emer- VS

anin coloration Present 9 842B, ICMA 88004 gence (3)
of first leaf
sheath
2. (+) Plant : Growth Erect 1 842B, J 2296, G73-107 Spike emer- VG
habit Inter mediate 5 H 77/833-2, Pusa 23, gence(45)
Spreading 7 D 23
---

3. (*) Time of spike Very early 1 H 77/833-2, HHB 67I Spike emer- VG
emergence(50% (<43days) 3 CMH 356 gence (45)
plants with Early (43-46 5 Pusa 23,
atleast one spike days) 7 Pusa 605, 843 A
emerged fully) Medium (47-50 9 GHB 316, ICMH 451
days) HHB 117, J-2290
Late (51-54 days)
Very late (>54
days)

4. Leaf: Sheath Absent 1 842B, 841B Spike emer- VG

pubescence Present 9 MS 81 A gence (45)

5. Leaf: Sheath Short (<10 cm) 3 J 2296, H 77/ 833-2, Spike emer- MS
length Medium (11-15 5 ICMB 88004 gence(45)
cm) 7 ICMR 356, D 23
Long (>15 cm) 842B, Pusa 23

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 Millet Seed Technology

6. Leaf: Blade Very short(<41 1 843 A Spike emer- MS

length cm) 3 H 77/833-2, ICMB gence (45)
Short (41-50 cm) 5 88004
Medium (51-60 7 842B, 841B, D 23
cm) 9 ICMP 423,
Long (61-70 cm) PPMI69,Pusa 23
Very long (>70 RHRBH 892, RHRBI
cm) 458
7. Leaf: Blade Narrow (<3 cm) 3 H 77/833-2, ICMB Spike emer-
width Medium (3-4 cm) 5 88004 gence (45)
(at widest point) Broad (>4 cm) 7 842B, D 23, HHB 117 MS
841A, Pusa 23, ICMH
423

8. (*) Spike: Anther Yellow 1 HHB 94, G 73-107, Anthesis (50) VG

colour Brown 2 RHRBI458
Pur ple 3 842 B, 81B
RHB 30, 403 A

9. (*) Plant: Node Absent 1 H77/833-2, 842 B, Dough grain VG

pubescence Present 9 RHB 30 (65)
841B, D 23
10. Plant: Number Low (<11) 3 GHB 526, HHB 117, Dough grain MS
of nodes HHB 60, RHB 30 (65)
Medium (11-15) 5 -
High (>15) 7 -

11. Plant: Node Whitish 1 G 73-107, CZP 9802, Dough grain MS

(*) pigmentation Green 2 RCB 2 (65)
Brown 3 H 77/833-2, 841B,
Red 4 Pusa 23
Pur ple 5 RHB 30, RHB 58, HHB
94
HHB 60, HMS 7A, GHB
526
842 B, ICMH 356,
88004 A
12. Plant: Inter node Whitish 1 MBH 183, G 73-107 Dough grain VG
(*) pigmentation Green 2 H 77/833-2, Pusa 23 (65)
(between 3rd & Brown 3 ---
4th node from Red 4 ---
top) Pur ple 5 ICMH 356, ICMB
88004
13. Spike exertion Partial 1 GHB 558, ICMA Dough grain VS
Complete 3 88004, J 2290 (65)
GHB 526, HHB 67,
HHB94

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14. Spike: Length Very small (< 1 H 90/4-5 Dough grain MS

(*) 11cm) 3 ICMA 88004, ICMR (65)
Small (11-20 cm) 356
5 GHB 526,
Medium (21-30 7 HHB 60, 843 A
cm) 9 JMSA 101, PHB 47,
Long (31-40 cm) GHB 316
Very long (>40 cm) ---
15. Spike: Anthocy- Absent 1 RHRB 1A, RHRBI Dough grain VG
(*) anin pigmenta- 138, RHRBI 458 (65)
tion of glume Present 9 H 77/833-2, Pusa 23,
D 23
16. Spike: Bristle Absent 1 Pusa 23, D23 Dough grain VG
Present 9 ICMP 451, ICMH 451, (65)
MB 110
17. Spike: Bristle Green 1 ICMP 451, ICMH 451 Dough grain VS
(*) colour Brown 2 --- (65)
Red 3 ---
Pur ple 4 RHRBI 138, RHRBI
458
18. Spike: Girthat Thin (<1.6 cm) 3 --- Dough grain MS
(*) maximum point Medium (1.6-3.0 5 HHB 67, HHB (65)
(excluding cm) 94, RHB 30
bristles) 7 J 2290, J 2405
Thick (>3.0 cm)
19. Spike shape Cylindrical 1 H 77/833-2, Pusa 23, Dough grain VG
(*) Conical 2 D23 (65)
(+) Spindle 3 842B, ICMP
Candle 4 423,ICMH 356
Lanceolate 5 PT 1890, G 73-107
Dumble-Bell 6 843 A
Club 7 HHB 67
Oblanceolate 8
Globose 9

20. Plant: Number Monoculm 1 HTP 94/54 Dough grain MS

(*) of productive Low (2-3 tiller) 3 GHB 316, J 2290 (65)
(+) tillers Medium (4-6 5 HHB 117, 843A,
tiller) 7 88004 A
High (>6 tiller) ---
21. Plant: Height Very short 1 81 B, 842 B, 843 A Dough grain MS
(*) (excluding (<101cm) 3 843 B, 88004 A (65)
spike) Short (101-150cm) 5 GHB 558, HHB 67
Medium (151- 7 ---
200 cm) 9 ---
Tall (201-250cm)
Very tall (>250cm)

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 Millet Seed Technology

22. Spike: Tip steril- Absent 1 H 77/833-2, H Harvest matu- VS

ity 77/29-2, rity (75)
Present 9 732 A
GHB 526, HHB 60,
843 A

23. Spike: Density Very loose 1 --- Harvest matu- VG

(*) Loose 3 --- rity (75)
Semi-compact 5 HHB 67, HHB 94,
Compact 7 843 A
Very compact 9 HHB 117, GHB 526,
GHB 558
---

24. Seed: Colour Whitish 1 --- Harvest matu- VG

(*) Cream 2 --- rity (75)
Yellow 3 ---
Grey 4 842 B, D 23
Deep grey 5 GHB 558
Grey brown 6 PPMI 69, GHB 526
Yellow brown 7 81B, HHB 67

25. Seed: Shape Obovate 3 842 B, Pusa 23 Harvest matu- VG

(*) Elliptical 5 --- rity (75)
(+) Hexagonal 7 ---
Globular 9 843 B, HHB 67

26. Seed: Weight of Very low (<5gm) 1 --- Harvest matu-

(*) 1000 grains Small (5.0-7.5 gm) 3 H77/833-2, RIB rity (75)
Medium(7.6-10 5 335/74
gm) 7 GHB 526, 843 A
Bold (10.1-12.5 9 88004 A, Pusa 322
gm) ---
Very bold (>12.5
gm)

Applicable to forage pearl millet only

S. Characters States Note Example Stage of observation Type of as-

No. varieties sessment

1. Forage characters Dry 1 --- Harvest maturity (75) VG

Stay green 5 HHB 117
2. Stalk juiciness Juicy 1 HS 1, K 2, K 3 Dough grain (65) MS
Non -juicy 5 ---
3. Green fodder Good 3 --- Boot stage (35) VG
yield potential Average 5 ---
Poor 7 HHB 67

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 Millet Seed Technology

Explanations for the table of

characteristics

Characteristics 2. Plant: Growth habit

Characteristics 20: Plant: Number of

productive tillers
Number of spikes bearing seeds. Spikes younger
than the dough stage are not counted.

Characteristics 19. Spike: Shape

Characteristics 25. Seed: Shape

Working group detail

The Test Guideline developed by the National
Core Committee in consultation with the Project
Coordinator,AICRP - Pearl Millet, and the Nodal
officer DUS Testing, MPKV, Rahuri (NSP) and the
Task Force (1/2005) constituted by the PVP & FR
authority.

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 Millet Seed Technology

The Members of the Task Force (1/2005) Dr. B. S. Dhillon

Dr. M. V. Rao (Chairman) Dr. R. V. Singh
Dr. S. Bala Ravi Dr. J. L. Tikkoo
Dr A Seetharam Dr. (Mrs.) Malathi Laxmi Kumaran
Dr. O. P. Makhija Dr. (Mrs.) Roshini Nair
Dr. S. P. Sharma Dr. S. K. Chakrabarty

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 Millet Seed Technology
Draft guidelines for the conduct of tests For
Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability on
Foxtail millet [Setaria italica (L.) Beauv.]

TG/SETARIA (proj.8)
International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plant (UPOV), Geneva

Prepared by an expert from China to be considered by the Technical Committee at its forty-ninth session,
to be held in Geneva from March 18 to 20, 2013

The purpose of these guidelines (“Test Guidelines”) is to elaborate the principles contained in
the General Introduction (document TG/1/3), and its associated TGP documents, into detailed
practical guidance for the harmonized examination of distinctness, uniformity and stability
(DUS) and, in particular, to identify appropriate characteristics for the examination of DUS and
production of harmonized variety descriptions.

ASSOCIATED DOCUMENTS for germination, species and analytical purity, health

These Test Guidelines should be read in and moisture content, specified by the competent
conjunction with the General Introduction and its authority. In cases where the seed is to be stored,
associated TGP documents. the germination capacity should be as high as
possible and should, be stated by the applicant.
Subject of these test guidelines The plant material supplied should be visibly
healthy, not lacking in vigor, nor affected by any
These Test Guidelines apply to all varieties of important pest or disease.
Setaria italica (L.) Beauv.. The plant material should not have undergone
any treatment which would affect the expression
Material required of the characteristics of the variety, unless the
24.2.1: The competent authorities decide on the competent authorities allow or request such
quantity and quality of the plant material required treatment. If it has been treated, full details of the
for testing the variety and when and where it is to treatment must be given.
be delivered. Applicants submitting material from
a State other than that in which the testing takes Method of examination
place must ensure that all customs formalities and
phytosanitary requirements are complied with. Number of growing cycles
The material is to be supplied in the form of The minimum duration of tests should normally
seed. be two independent growing cycles.”
The minimum quantity of plant material, to be
supplied by the applicant, should be: 100 g. Testing place
Tests are normally conducted at one place. In
The seed should meet the minimum requirements the case of tests conducted at more than one

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place, guidance is provided in TGP/9 “Examining influence of the environment is not such that more
Distinctness”. than a single growing cycle is required to provide
assurance that the differences observed between
Conditions for conducting the examination varieties are sufficiently consistent. One means
24.3.3.1: The tests should be carried out under of ensuring that a difference in a characteristic,
conditions ensuring satisfactory growth for the observed in a growing trial, is sufficiently consistent
expression of the relevant characteristics of the is to examine the characteristic in at least two
variety and for the conduct of the examination. independent growing cycles.
24.3.3.2: The optimum stage of development
for the assessment of each characteristic is indicated Clear differences
by a number in the second column of the Table of Determining whether a difference between
Characteristics. The stages of development denoted two varieties is clear depends on many factors,
by each number are described in Chapter 8.3. and should consider, in particular, the type of
expression of the characteristic being examined, i.e.
Test design whether it is expressed in a qualitative, quantitative,
24.3.4.1: Each test should be designed to result or pseudo-qualitative manner. Therefore, it is
in a total of at least 1,000 plants, which should be important that users of these Test Guidelines are
divided between at least two replicates. familiar with the recommendations contained in
24.3.4.2: The design of the tests should be such the General Introduction prior to making decisions
that plants or parts of plants may be removed for regarding distinctness.
measurement or counting without prejudice to the
observations which must be made up to the end of Number of plants / Parts of plants to be
the growing cycle. examined
Unless otherwise indicated, for the purposes
Additional tests of distinctness, all observations on single plants
Additional tests, for examining relevant should be made on 20 plants or parts taken from
characteristics, may be established. each of 20 plants and any other observations made
on all plants in the test, disregarding any off-type
Assessment of distinctness, uniformity plants.
and stability
Method of observation
Distinctness The recommended method of observing the
characteristic for the purposes of distinctness is
General recommendations indicated by the following key in the second column
It is of particular importance for users of these of the Table of Characteristics (see document TGP/9
Test Guidelines to consult the General Introduction “Examining Distinctness”, Section 4 “Observation
prior to making decisions regarding distinctness. of characteristics”):
However, the following points are provided for
elaboration or emphasis in these Test Guidelines. MG: single measurement of a group of plants
or parts of plants
Consistent differences MS: measurement of a number of individual
The differences observed between varieties may plants or parts of plants
be so clear that more than one growing cycle is not VG: visual assessment by a single observation
necessary. In addition, in some circumstances, the

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of a group of plants or parts of plants case of a sample size of 1,000 plants 15 off-types
VS: visual assessment by observation of are allowed.
individual plants or parts of plants
Type of observation: visual (V) or measurement Stability
(M) 24.4.3.1: In practice, it is not usual to perform
“Visual” observation (V) is an observation tests of stability that produce results as certain as
made on the basis of the expert’s judgment. For those of the testing of distinctness and uniformity.
the purposes of this document, “visual” observation However, experience has demonstrated that, for
refers to the sensory observations of the experts many types of variety, when a variety has been
and, therefore, also includes smell, taste and touch. shown to be uniform, it can also be considered to
Visual observation includes observations where be stable.
the expert uses reference points (e.g. diagrams, 24.4.3.2: Where appropriate, or in cases of
example varieties, side-by-side comparison) or doubt, stability may be further examined by testing
non-linear charts (e.g. color charts). Measurement a new seed stock to ensure that it exhibits the same
(M) is an objective observation against a calibrated, characteristics as those shown by the initial material
linear scale e.g. using a ruler, weighing scales, supplied.
colorimeter, dates, counts, etc.
Type of record: for a group of plants (G) or for Grouping of varieties and oganization
single, individual plants (S) of the growing trial
For the purposes of distinctness, observations 24.5.1: The selection of varieties of common
may be recorded as a single record for a group of knowledge to be grown in the trial with the
plants or parts of plants (G), or may be recorded candidate varieties and the way in which these
as records for a number of single, individual plants varieties are divided into groups to facilitate the
or parts of plants (S). In most cases, “G” provides assessment of distinctness are aided by the use of
a single record per variety and it is not possible or grouping characteristics.
necessary to apply statistical methods in a plant-by- 24.5.2: Grouping characteristics are those in
plant analysis for the assessment of distinctness. which the documented states of expression, even
In cases where more than one method of where produced at different locations, can be
observing the characteristic is indicated in the used, either individually or in combination with
Table of Characteristics (e.g. VG/MG), guidance other such characteristics: (a) to select varieties of
on selecting an appropriate method is provided in common knowledge that can be excluded from the
document TGP/9, Section 4.2. growing trial used for examination of distinctness;
and (b) to organize the growing trial so that similar
Uniformity varieties are grouped together.
24.4.2.1: It is of particular importance for 24.5.3: The following have been agreed as
users of these Test Guidelines to consult the useful grouping characteristics:
General Introduction prior to making decisions (a) Plant: anthocyanin coloration of basal leaf
regarding uniformity. However, the following sheath (characteristic 2)
points are provided for elaboration or emphasis in (b) Time of heading (characteristic 6)
these Test Guidelines: (c) Stem: length (characteristic 15)
(d) Grain: color (characteristic 27)
24.4.2.2: For the assessment of uniformity (e) Endosperm: type (characteristic 29)
a population standard of 1% and an acceptance 24.5.4: Guidance for the use of grouping
probability of at least 95% should be applied. In the characteristics, in the process of examining

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distinctness, is provided through the General State Note

Introduction and document TGP/9 “Examining Small 3
Distinctness”. Medium 5
Large 7
Introduction to the table of
characteristics However, it should be noted that all of the
following 9 states of expression exist to describe
Categories of characteristics varieties and should be used as appropriate:
State Note
Standard test guidelines characteristics Very small 1
Standard Test Guidelines characteristics Very small to small 2
are those which are approved by UPOV for Small 3
examination of DUS and from which members Small to medium 4
Medium 5
of the Union can select those suitable for their
Medium to large 6
particular circumstances. Large 7
Large to very large 8
Asterisked characteristics Very large 9
Asterisked characteristics (denoted by *) are
Further explanation of the presentation of states
those included in the Test Guidelines which are
of expression and notes is provided in document
important for the international harmonization of
TGP/7 “Development of Test Guidelines”.
variety descriptions and should always be examined
for DUS and included in the variety description by
all members of the Union, except when the state of
Types of expression
An explanation of the types of expression
expression of a preceding characteristic or regional
of characteristics (qualitative, quantitative and
environmental conditions render this inappropriate.
pseudo‑qualitative) is provided in the General
Introduction.
States of expression and corresponding notes
States of expression are given for each
Example varieties
characteristic to define the characteristic and to
Where appropriate, example varieties are
harmonize descriptions. Each state of expression
provided to clarify the states of expression of each
is allocated a corresponding numerical note for
characteristic.
ease of recording of data and for the production and
exchange of the description.
Legend
In the case of qualitative and pseudo‑qualitative (*) Asterisked characteristic – see Chapter 6.1.2
characteristics (see Chapter 6.3), all relevant states QL Qualitative characteristic – see Chapter 6.3
of expression are presented in the characteristic. QN Quantitative characteristic – see Chapter 6.3
However, in the case of quantitative characteristics PQ Pseudo-qualitative – see Chapter 6.3
with 5 or more states, an abbreviated scale may characteristic
be used to minimize the size of the Table of MG, MS, VG, VS – see Chapter 4.1.
Characteristics. For example, in the case of (a) See Explanations on in Chapter 8.1
a quantitative characteristic with 9 states, the (+) See Explanations on the Table of
presentation of states of expression in the Test Characteristics in Chapter 8.2
Guidelines may be abbreviated as follows: 11-92 See Explanations on the Table of
Characteristics in Chapter 8.3.

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Table of Characteristics

DUS# Stage of English Example Varieties Note

observation
(+) VG First leaf: shape of tip
QN pointed Lianggu 1
pointed to rounded Ribenchixu 2
rounded Yugu 8 3
2. (*) VG Plant: anthocyanin coloration of basal
leaf sheath
QN absent or weak Jingumi 1
medium Ribenchixu 2
strong Lianggu 3
3. VG Plant: intensity of green color of foliage
QN light Jinmiaogu 1
medium Yugu 1 3
dark Jingumi 5
4. (+) VG Plant: growth habit
QN upright Yugu 1 1
semi-upright Hongruangu 2
spreading Yin 120 3
5. (+) VG Plant: anthocyanin coloration of leaf
collar
QN absent or weak Jinmiaogu 1
medium Lianggu 2
strong Hongmiaoqing 3
6. (*) (+) MG Time of heading
QN very early Loulixiu 1
early Lianggu 3
medium Jinmiaogu 5
late Ribenchixu 7
very late W56 9
7. VG Stem: anthocyanin coloration of brace
roots
QL absent Yugu 8 1
present Ribenchixu 9
8.(*) (+) VG Leaf: attitude of blade
QN erect Anai 3 1
semi‑erect Lianggu 2
slightly drooping Ribenchixu 3
strongly drooping Jinmiaogu 4
9. (*) (+) VG Panicle: length of bristles
QN short Yugu 8 1
medium Lianggu 3
long Ribenchixu 5
10. VG Panicle: anthocyanin coloration of
bristles
QL absent Yugu 8 1
present Baishagu 9
11. (*) (+) VG Anther: color
PQ white Yugu 8 1
orange Hongmiaoqing 2
brown Yegu 5 3
12. MS/MG Flag leaf: length of blade
QN short Loulixiu 3

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DUS# Stage of English Example Varieties Note

observation
medium Lianggu 5
long Yegu 5 7
13. (+) MS/MG Flag leaf: width of blade
QN very narrow Loulixiu 1
medium Hongshilixiang 3
very broad Anai 4 5
14. VG Flag leaf: anthocyanin coloration of
blade
QN absent or very weak Jinmiaogu 1
medium Lianggu 3
very strong Bianganhuang 5
15. (*) (+) MS/MG Stem: length
QN very short Loulixiu 1
short Zhangai 10 3
medium Kenya 5
long Lianggu 7
very long Yintianhan 9
16. (+) MG Stem: diameter
QN small Loulixiu 1
medium Lianggu 3
large Yintianhan 5
17. VG Glume: anthocyanin coloration
QL absent Yanandali 1
present Yugu 8 9
18. (+) MG Plant: number of elongated internodes
QN few Hongshilixiang 3
medium Yegu 5 5
many W 77 7
19. (*) (+) VG Panicle: attitude in relation to stem
QN (a) erect Anai 3 1
semi‑erect Yugu 8 2
horizontal Lianggu 3
drooping Ribenchixu 4
20. (*) (+) MS/MG Plant: length of peduncle
QN (a) short Ai 88 3
medium Anai 17 5
long Anai 3 7
21. (*) (+) VG Panicle: type
PQ (a) conical Hongfengu 1
spindle Kenya 2
cylindrical Ai 88 3
club Taohuami 4
duck mouth W 59 5
cat foot Maotigu 6
branched Foshougu 7
22.(*) MS/MG Panicle: length
QN (a) short Loulixiu 3
medium Hongshilixiang 5
long Yintianhan 7
23. (*) (+) MG Excluding varieties with panicle shape: 1
branched: Panicle: density
QN (a) lax Jinmiaogu 1
medium Lianggu 3

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DUS# Stage of English Example Varieties Note

observation
dense Yugu 8 5
24. (+) MS/MG Panicle: number of grains on primary
branch
QN (a) few Ribenchixu 3
medium Lianggu 5
many W 77 7
25. (*) MG in weight
QN low W 67 3
medium Hongmiaoqing 5
high Lianggu 7
26. (*) (+) VG Grain: shape
PQ narrow ovate 1
medium ovate 2
circular 3
27. (*) VG Grain: color
PQ whitish Anai 3 1
grey Kenya 2
yellow Jinmiaogu, Ribenchixu 3
brown Yugu 8 4
red Hongmiaoqing 5
black Heiniangu 6
28. (*) VG Dehusked grain: color (not polished)
PQ whitish Taohuami 1
grey Hongmiaoqing 2
yellow Lianggu, Yugu 8 3
29. (*) (+) VG Endosperm: type
QL waxy 1
non-waxy 2

Explanations on the Table of Ad. 4: Plant: growth habit

Characteristics

Explanations covering several characteristics

Characteristics containing the following key in
the second column of the Table of Characteristics
should be examined as indicated below: 1. upright 2. semi-upright 3. spreading
(a) To be observed on the panicle of the main
stem. Ad. 5: Plant: anthocyanin coloration of leaf collar
Explanations for individual characteristics
Ad. 6: Time of heading
Ad. 1: First leaf: shape of tip Time of heading is the
time when 50% of plants have
reached stage 45.

Ad. 8: Leaf: attitude of blade

The observation should be
1 2 3 made on leaves in the middle
pointed pointed to rounded
third of the stem.
rounded

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Ad. 9: Panicle: length of bristles

1. erect 2. semi‑erect 3. slightly drooping 4. Strongly drooping

Bristles originate from the sterile spikelets.

1. short 2. medium 3. long

Ad. 11: Anther: color
The observation should be made early in the morning, before the anthers splits.

Ad. 13: Flag leaf: width of blade

The observation should be made at the broadest part of the blade.
Ad. 15: Stem: length

To be observed between
the third and fourth nodes
from the base.

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Ad. 18: Plant: number of elongated internodes

Ad. 19: Panicle: attitude in relation to stem

1. erect 2. semi‑erect 3. horizontal 4. drooping

Ad. 20: Plant: length of peduncle

Ad. 21: Panicle: type

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
conical spindle cylindrical club duck mouth cat foot branched
(primary
branches)

Ad. 22: Panicle: length

Ad. 23: Excluding varieties with panicle shape: branched: Panicle: density
The density of the panicle is the number of rachis per centimeter in the middle third of the panicle.

Ad. 24: Panicle: number of grains on primary branch

The number of grains should be counted on a primary branch taken from the middle third of a main
stem panicle.

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Ad. 26: Grain: shape

1 2 3
narrow ovate medium ovate circular

Ad. 29: Endosperm: type waxy type endosperm is stained reddish purple;
The characteristic is observed by reaction to non-waxy type endosperm is stained blue purple.
solution of 3% Potassium Iodide and 1% Iodine:

Decimal Code for the Growth Stages of Cereals (Foxtail Millet)

2-digit Code General Description 2-digit Code General Description

Germination 11 First leaf unfolded
00 Dry seed 12 2 leaves unfolded
01 Start of imbibition 13 3 leaves unfolded
02 14 4 leaves unfolded
03 Imbibition complete 15 5 leaves unfolded
04 16 6 leaves unfolded
05 Radicle emerged from caryopsis 17 7 leaves unfolded
06 18 8 leaves unfolded
07 Coleoptile emerged from caryopsis 19 9 or more leaves unfolded
08 Tillering
09 Leaf just at coleoptile tip 20 Main shoot only
Seedling growth 21 Main shoot and 1 tiller
10 First leaf through coleoptile 22 Main shoot and 2 tillers

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2-digit Code General Description 2-digit Code General Description

23 Main shoot and 3 tillers 47 All inflorescence visible/emerged
24 Main shoot and 4 tillers 49
25 Main shoot and 5 tillers Anthesis
60 Beginning of anthesis
26 Main shoot and 6 tillers
65 Anthesis half-way
27 Main shoot and 7 tillers
69 Anthesis complete
28 Main shoot and 8 tillers
Milk development
29 Main shoot and 9 or more tillers 70
Stem elongation 71 Caryopsis watery ripe
30 Pseudo stem erection 73 Early milk
31 1st node detectable 75 Medium milk
32 2nd node detectable 77 Late milk
33 3rd node detectable Dough development
80
34 4th node detectable
83 Early dough
35 5th node detectable
85 Soft dough
36 6th node detectable
87 Hard dough
37 7th node detectable
Ripening
38 8th node detectable
90
39 Flag leaf ligule/collar just visible Caryopsis hard (difficult to divide by
91
Booting and inflorescence emergence thumbnail)
40 Caryopsis hard (can no longer be
92
dented by thumbnail)
41 Boots swollen
93 Caryopsis loosening in daytime
10% of inflorescence visible/
43 94 Over-ripe, straw dead and collapsing
emerged
95 Seed dormant
50% of inflorescence visible/ 96 Viable seed giving 50% germination
45
emerged
97 Seed dormancy ended

278