CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

 Psycho- relating to mind, brain and personality

 Social- external relationships and environment

Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages, taking in five stages up
to the age of 18 yrs and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is
still plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout one’s life.

Like Freud, Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. For Erikson, (1963) these
crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual
conflicting with the needs of society.

Epigenetic Principle

 Explains that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in

eight stages
 Erikson’s theory delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier
stages served as a foundation for later stages
 It highlighted the influence of one’s environment, particularly on how earlier
experiences gradually build upon the next and result into one’s responsibility.

Psychosocial Crisis

 Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces

 Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges.
Syntonic- positive disposition (e.g. TRUST)
Dystonic- negative disposition (e.g. MISTRUST)
 If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain VIRTUE or PSYCHOSOCIAL
STRENGTH
 Malignancy- involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of
the task
 Maladaptation- is not quite as bad; involves too much of the positive and too little of
the negative

1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST – INFANCY (BIRTH TO 1 ½ YRS)

 This stage begins at birth and lasts through one year of age
 The infant develops a sense of trust when interactions provide reliability, care, and
affection
 A lack of this will lead to mistrust
2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME & DOUBT – TODDLERS ( 18 MOS. TO 3 YRS.)
 Infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and sense of
independence
  Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of
their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
 Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT – PRESCHOOL YEARS (3-5 YRS.)
 Occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of three and five
 Child begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities,
accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. Success at this stage leads to a sense of
purpose.
 If initiative is dismissed or discourages, either through criticism or control, children
develop a sense of guilt.
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY – ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS (6-12 YRS)
 It occurs during childhood between the ages of six and twelve
 This stage, the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a
major source of child’s self-esteem.
 Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
5. IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION – ADOLESCENCE (12-18 YRS)
 The 5th stage occurs during adolescence, from 12-18 yrs.
 Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, and seek to establish a sense of self,
may experiment with different roles, activities and behaviors.
 This is important to the process of forming a strong identity and developing a sense of
direction in life.
6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION – EARLY ADULTHOOD
 This takes place during young adulthood
 During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships
with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation.
7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION – MIDDLE AGE/ MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
 This stage takes place during middle adulthood between the ages of approx. 40 and 65
 People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often
having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.
 Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world.
8. I NTEGRITY VS, DESPAIR – OLD AGE
 This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one’s life and either
moving into feeling satisfied and happy with one’s life or feeling a deep sense of
regret.
 Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness and despair.

Psychosocial Crisis Virtue Maladaptation Malignancy

Trust Vs. Mistrust Hope Sensory Withdrawal
Maladjustment
“can I trust the people - The belief - Characterized by
around me?” that, even - Overly depression,
Event: Feeding when things trusting, paranoia, possibly
are not going gullible, psychosis
well, they will cannot believe
 work out well that anyone
in the end. would mean
them harm
Autonomy Vs. Shame and Will power or Impulsiveness Compulsiveness
doubt Determination -Shameless willfulness - Feels as if
“can I do things myself or “can do attitude” leads to jumping into everything must be
am I reliant on the help of things without proper done perfectly,
others” consideration. mistakes must be
Event: Toilet Training avoided at all costs.

Initiative Vs. Guilt Courage or Ability to Ruthlessness Inhibition

take risk
“Am I good or bad?” - Heartless, - The fear that if they
Event: Exploration, Play - The capacity unfeeling fall, they will be
for action - They don’t blamed.
despite a clear care who they “Nothing ventured, nothing
understanding step on lost”
of your
limitations and
past feelings
Industry Vs. Inferiority Competency Narrow Virtuosity Inertia
“How can I be good?” - Those who - Those who suffer
Event: School aren’t allowed inferiority
to be children complexes.
- Pushed into “If at first you don’t
one area of succeed don’t every try
competency again.”
Ex: Child Actors
Identity Vs. Role Confusion Fidelity Fanaticism Repudiation
" Who am I?” - Ability to live - His way is the - To reject
Event: Social Relationship by society’s only way - They reject their
standard. - Gather around membership in the
- It means you others there world of adults and
have found a and promote they reject their
place in the their beliefs need for an identity
community and lifestyle
without
regards to
other’s rights
to disagree
Intimacy Vs. Isolation Love Promiscuity Exclusion
“Will I be loved or will I be - Includes not - Tendency to - Tendency to isolate
alone?” only the love become oneself from one
Event: Romantic we found in a intimate too love, friendship and
Relationship good freely, too community and
marriage, but early and develop a certain
the love without any hatefulness in
between depth to your compensation for
friends and intimacy one’s loneliness.
the love one’s
 neighbor,
coworker and
compatriot as
well
Generativity Vs. Caring Overextension Rejectivity
Stagnation -No longer allow time - No longer
“How can I contribute to for themselves participate in
the world?” activities or
Event: Parenthood and contribute to society
work

Integrity Vs. Despair Wisdom Presumption Disdain

“Did I leave a meaningful - This is what - A contempt of life,
life? happens when one’s own or
Event: Reflecting back on a person anyone’s
life presumes ego - The person becomes
integrity very negative and
without appears to hate life.
actually facing
the difficulties
of old age.
Believes that
he alone is
right.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) was one of the 20 th centuries most influential researchers in the area
of developmental psychology. He was a child prodigy who published his first article in a refereed
journal at the age of 11.

While working in Binet’s test lab in Paris, Piaget became interested in how children think. He
noticed that young children’s answers were qualitatively different than older children. This suggested
to him that younger children were not less knowledgeable but, instead, answered the questions
differently than their older peers because they thought differently.

This implies that human development is qualitative rather than quantitative. Piaget showed
that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

 Schema- the cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment
 Assimilation- the process of fitting new experiences into an existing created schema
  Accommodation- process of creating new schema
 Equilibration- achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation

STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. SENSORIMOTOR (BIRTH TO 2 YRS)

Stage when a child initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching becomes more
organized in his movement and activity. Focuses on the prominence of the senses and
muscles movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the
world. In working with children in the sensorimotor stage, they should aim to provide
a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.

 Object Permanence- ability attained in this stage where he knows that an

object still exists even when out of sight.
2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2 TO 7 YRS)
 Begins to use language
 Egocentric thinking; difficulty seeing things from other viewpoints
 Classified objects by single feature e.g color

 Symbolic Function- ability to represent objects and events

 Egocentrism- the tendency of a child to only see his point of view and assume that everyone else
also has his same point of view.
 Centration- the tendency of the child to only focus on one thing or event and exclude other
aspects
 Lack of Conservation- the inability to realize that some things remain unchanged despite looking
different
 Irreversibility- pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking
 Animism- tendency of a child to attribute human like traits to inanimate objects.
 Realism- believing that psychological events such as dreams are real.

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 TO 11 YRS)

 characterized by ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete
objects; covers the elementary school years.
 Decentering- ability of the child to perceive different features of objects and situations
 Reversibility- ability of the child to follow that certain operation can be done in reverse.
 Conservation- ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume or
area do not change even if there is a change in appearance
 Seriation- ability to arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume,
size, etc.
 Classification- ability to group things based on one dimension

4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (11 YEARS AND ABOVE)

  Thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can
hypothesize
 Hypothetical Reasoning- ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and
weighs data to make judgement
 Analogical Reasoning- ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use that
relationship to narrow down possible answers in similar problems
 Deductive Reasoning- ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular
situation.

LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Lev Vygotsky

 Born in Russia in 1896

 His work began when he was studying learning and development to improve his own
teaching
 He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning and development, and
educating students with special needs.

Socio-cultural Theory

 Key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role
in cognitive development
 Social and cultural factors should be looked into in understanding individual
development
 He recognized that social interaction and language are two central factors in cognitive
development

Scaffolding

 Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the
learners accomplish a task.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VYGOSTKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY AND PIAGET’S COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural View Piaget’s Cognitive

Developmental View
Learning is …. social solitary
Development is driven Input from others and MKO’s Conflict between stages
by …
Context Development is different Development is universal and
depending on social and cultural stages are same regardless of
context context
Knowledge Children work with others to Children acquire knowledge
build knowledge through their own explorations
Stages? No Yes
 Link Learning precedes development Development precedes learning
(learning/ development)
Role of Language Language drives thought Thought drives language
Speech Social speech becomes inner Egocentric speech becomes
speech social speech

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Potential Level – Actual Level = ZPD

 Potential Level- level that the learner achieves with the assistance of the teacher or a more
advanced peer
 Actual Level- level that the learner achieves alone

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) - competent adult or more advanced peer

KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927- 1987)

 Born into a wealthy family in New York in 1927.

 Began studying psychology as an undergraduate at the University of Chicago. In one
year, he earned his B.A. in psychology and continued his education as a graduate
student at the University of Chicago. In 1958, he earned his Ph.D.
 Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and development with much work based on that of
Jean Piaget and John Dewey. He had a brief teaching position at Yale University before
moving onto Harvard in 1967.
 While in Central America in 1973, he developed a rare and unknown tropical disease
which disabled him in many ways and caused him to be severely depressed. In January
of 1987, he disappeared; his body was later found in the swamp area. There is some
suspicion the Kohlberg took his own life.

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

LEVEL I. Pre-Conventional Morality (Birth to 9 years)

 People at this stage do not really understand the conventions/ rules of a society.

Stage 1- Punishment- Obedience Orientation

 Consequences of acts determine whether they are good or bad.
Stage 2- Instrumental Relativist Orientation
 The ethics of “what’s in it for me?” Obeying rules and exchanging favors are judged in
terms of the benefit to the individual.
LEVEL II- Conventional (10-13 yrs. Old)
 People at this stage conform to the conventions/ rules of a society

Stage 3- Good Boy- Nice Girl Orientation

 Ethical decisions are based on concern for or the opinions of others
Stage 4- Law and Order Orientation
 Right behavior consists in doing one’s duty, showing respect for authority and
maintaining the given social order for its own sake.
LEVEL III- Post-Conventional
Stage 5- Social Contract Orientation
 Rules and laws represent agreement among people about behavior that benefits
society. Rules can be changed when they no longer meet society’s needs.
Stage 6- Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
 Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical
principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality and consistency.

Sigmund Freud

 Considered to be the most well- known psychologist because of his very interesting
theory about the unconscious and also about sexual development.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

1. Oral Stage ( birth to 18 mos.)

2. Anal Stage ( 18 mos. to 3 yrs.)
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
4. Latency Stage (6 to puberty)
5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards)

ORAL STAGE

 Erogenous zone- (pleasure area) a specific area that becomes the focus of pleasure or
needs. These may be arms, mouth and the genitals.
 Erogenous zone is the mouth.
 During the oral stage the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking)
 Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to Oral Fixation or Oral Personality as shown
in increased focus on oral activities.

Fixation- results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual stage.

 Oral receptive- a type of personality which has a stronger tendency to smoke, drink,
alcohol, overeat.
 Oral aggressive- a tendency to bite his/her nails or use curse words or even gossip
 As a result, these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and
lack leadership traits.
  However, they may also find these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive
in relating with people.

ANAL STAGE

 The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus.

 The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces.
 The child needs to work on toilet training.
 In terms of personality, fixation during this stage can result in being anal retentive or anal
expulsive.
 Anal retentive- an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control
 Anal expulsive- the person becomes messy and disorganized

PHALLIC STAGE

 The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.

 During preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different.
 Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals.
 Oedipus Complex- boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother
 Oedipus- in Greek mythology unintentionally killed his father and married his mother
Jocasta.
 Electra Complex- girls may develop an unconscious sexual attraction towards their father.
 According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to strong competition of their father,
boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them.
 By identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and identify
themselves as males and repress their sexual feelings towards their mother.
 A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviances and weak or confused sexual
identity.

LATENCY STAGE

 It is during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed

 Children’s focused is the acquisition of physical and academic skills
 Boys relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.

GENITAL STAGE

 Begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are again awakened.
 Adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex with pleasure centered on
the genitals.

FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS

Id
 Operates on the pleasure principle
 It focuses on immediate gratification of its needs
 Whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration for the reality,
logicality or practicality in the situation.
Ego
 emerges during toddler and preschooler years
  operates using the reality principle
 aware that others have also needs to be met
 It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative
consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations.
Superego
 Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of phallic stage, the superego develops
 It embodies a person’s moral aspect
 It is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right or
wrong.
TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL
1. The unconscious
 Freud believes that most of what influences us is our unconscious
 The Oedipus and Electra Complex are both buried down into the unconscious, out of our
awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused.
2. The Conscious
 All that we are aware of are stored in our conscious mind
 However, our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in
our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our
personality.
 Most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
3. The Subconscious
 This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious
 It is right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it.
 Telephone number, childhood memories, name of your childhood friend

I. URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

 This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system f
relationships that from his/her environment.
 It defines complex “layers” of environment, each having an effect on a child’s
development
 Renamed as Bioecological Systems Theory
 Emphasizes that a child’s own biology is a primary environment fueling her
development
 The interaction between factors in the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family
community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development.
Social Levels or Systems
1. Microsystem
 Is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has
direct contact.
 Family, child care services, school, local neighborhood, memberships of organizations
or clubs, or child care environments.
2. Mesosytem
 This layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem
  Ex. The connection between the child’s teacher and his parents, between his church
and his neighborhood, etc.
3. Exosystem
 This layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly.
 It is one step removed from the child
 The exosystem has an indirect impact on the child’s development because of the
connection with the family unit.
 The structrures in this layer impact the child’s development by interacting with some
structure in her microsystem
 For example, a parent’s place of employment, and access to family and community
services.

4. Macrosystem
 May be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment
 This layer is comprised of cultural values, customs and laws. (Berk, 2000).
 the effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence
throughout the interaction of all the other layers.
5. Chronosystem
 Encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environments
 The social and historical time frame in which the child’s life is set- this reflects how
children change over time.
 Elements within the system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent’s
death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a
child.
 AS children get older, they may react differently to environment changes and may be
more able to determine more how that change will influence them.

Prepared by:
JERICHO C. MATUTINAO, LPT
LET TOP 10