American International Journal of Social Science Vol. 7, No. 4, December 2018 doi:10.30845/aijss.

v7n4p4

Theories of Conflict and Conflict Resolution

Ningxin Li
Nova Southeastern University
USA

Introduction
This paper presents a focused and in-depth discussion on the theories of Basic Human Needs Theory, Marxism,
and Post-modernity, which analyze social structures and social developing processes. Different theories of each
expert are analyzed from the perspectives of their definitions and functions. The ideas of experts are essential to
understand different cultures, societies, and the human need for balance. Furthermore, the strengths and
weaknesses of different theories will be clarified, as will the social problems and potential consequences of
implementing different theories. Exploring these theories through different lenses, such as ethics and power, help
to illustrate the applications of different theories in studying peace and conflict resolution.
Keywords: The Theory of Karl Marx, Human Needs Theory, The Theory of Wright Mills, The Theory of
Antonio Cramsci, The Theory of Jean-Francois Lyotard, The Theory of Anthony Giddens
1. The Theory of Karl Marx
Karl Marx (1818 –1883) was a philosopher and sociologist. His theory, Marxism, analyzes class relations and
critiques the development of capitalism. He indicates the conflicts between the ruling classes and working classes
(Peter, 2002). Marx clearly sees that capitalists form a ruling class. In Marx's theory, bureaucracy rarely creates
new wealth by itself, but by controlling and distributing (Peter, 2002). For Marx, ―class antagonisms under
capitalism, owing in part to its instability and crisis-prone nature, would eventuate the working-class‘
development of class consciousness‖ (Lemert, 2004). Marx implied that the legal system is applied by rulers to
enhance their authority. He observed that labor-market relations were especially strained in our society and how
they influenced on how the industry operated (Schellenberg, 1996), as well as how all the different classes in a
society were impacted and challenged by the ruling class. Marxism creates a system with shared equality in which
an emphasis on human rights is important. According to Marxian theory, class conflict arises in capitalist societies
due to contradictions between the material interests of the oppressed employees (Lemert, 2004).
Marxism encourages free market competition. The process of bureaucratization in the state administration itself is
a parallel phenomenon of democracy (Lemert, 2004). His theory implies the mutual relations between the
producers and the labor itself. It indicates ideas of the root problems of social disruption and class conflicts. Also,
Marx suggested that capitalists invest more in improving new technologies than labor. What is good for the ruling
class should be good for the whole of the society with which the ruling class identifies itself (Lemert, 2004).
Marxist theory provides the key to human observation in analyzing the internal structure of society from the
standpoint of dialectical and historical materialism. Marxism mentioned how the society would look under the
control of capitalism and illustrated the consequences of continuing tyranny (Peter, 2002). Marx‘s analysis of
capitalism further underlines its weaknesses. My criticism of Marxism is that bureaucracies provide the possibility
for the government to function effectively and guide organizations and public companies in an orderly way.
Although bureaucracy is not perfect to maintain a society, it helps maintain social order. Instead of feeling
discouraged, many people were willing to contribute their strengths and ideas to the development of the society.
Marx recognized that human relationships had become "rationalized" according to a purely economic logic (Peter,
2002). Also, Marxism encourages people to protect their rights and encourages workers to achieve their goals. His
theory helps correct political decisions and creates a harmonious political and ecological environment. Whether a
person's value is small or big, the evaluation varies among each individual. The most important thing is to
participate in the production and practical activities of the society and its developing process.
2. The Theory of Max Weber
Max Weber (1864-1920), a German sociologist, described a theory known as Weberian bureaucracy. Bureaucracy
is the administrative system governing any large institution.
29
ISSN 2325-4149 (Print), 2325-4165 (Online) ©Center for Promoting Ideas, USA www.aijssnet.com

Weber analyzed the causes of bureaucracy in terms of cultural roots. Weber described an ideal type of
bureaucracy and considered it to be a rational domination (Gane, 2012). Compared to Marx‘s theory, Weber
indicated that bureaucracy was the most effective way to run an administration, more than traditional structures
(Gane, 2012). Weber expressed ideas from social, cultural, and personal perspectives and pointed out that any of
organization is based on some form of authority, which can eliminate chaos and give order to the society.
From an economic point of view, the development of the commodity economy has provided a strong impetus to
the emergence of bureaucratic organizations (Lemert, 2004). Weber‘s theory provides implications for the current
society. For example, social actions that directly determine the class situation of the worker and the entrepreneur
are: the labor market, the commodities market, and capitalistic enterprise (Lemert, 2004). ―Class‖ is an
unambiguously economic interest and only the interests of those responsible for managing the market maintain
the class situation (Lemert, 2004). Weber indicated modern bureaucracy, which includes concentration of the
means of administration and its impersonality (Gane, 2012). He believed that administrative regulations help
allocate tasks to different fields. Weber‘s theory helps in showing how to make the social system more efficient.
In addition, Weber viewed a society with its rationalization. Rationalization includes changes in ethics or culture,
one of the fundamental elements of the spirit of modern capitalism and of all modern culture (Lemert, 2004, p.
103).
Critical responses to Weber: My question to Weber's historical analysis is that sometimes a decision itself is more
important than the efficiency of distributing works. It is difficult to predict the changes of this world; sometimes
conflicts are inevitable and hard to control to develop a bureaucratic line. Officials can pass the buck to others and
delay the working procedures to avoid responsibility, or when people make decisions too slowly, it can also result
in negative consequences in certain circumstances. There should be a flexible way to manage the risks of changes.
The inspiration of this theory is that by decentralizing power people need to pay more attention to creating
rational thoughts, respect knowledge and talents, and take advantage of the superiority of bureaucracy.
3. The Theory of Human Needs Theory
The Basic Human Needs Theory describes human intentions and behaviors, as well as analyzing resolutions for
conflict. John Burton presented a list of needs including that human beings need to have a sense of security, and
people require both recognition and valued relationships. Also, individuals want control over their surroundings to
make sure their needs are satisfied (Burton, 1990). In addition, human needs include having a sense of security
and recognition. There are fundamental needs that all human beings have (Park, 2010). People have basic needs,
such as safety, belongingness of love, and self-actualization (Rubenstein, 2001). They also have a need to
encourage others, promote justice, and have the belongingness of love and a need to care for others. These
positive human needs can not only benefit ourselves, but also strengthen other people‘s needs and increase
satisfactions. By learning the Human Needs Theory, a growing problem can be solved deliberately, and it will
help people distinguish different causes of conflicts (Burton, 1979).
Abraham Harold Maslow (1908－1970) designed Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which reflects to some extent
human behavior and mental activity (Maslow, 1987). He explored human incentives and behaviors. Also, he
stated that human motivation is based on people seeking different needs. For example, he indicated that human
needs can be ranked in order of importance and hierarchy, from basic needs, such as food and housing, to
complexes needs, such as self-actualization (Maslow, 1987). In addition, people have the need of friendship;
everyone needs to be in a harmonious relationship among colleagues and friends. Everyone has hopes for love
and the love of others (Rubenstein, 2001). Moreover, Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory points out that in
different periods of time people may have different needs to focus on; they have dominant needs, as well as other
basic needs. Human behaviors are impacted by the outside environment, such as encountering wars and conflicts.
The problem for this theory is that people‘s needs may change in different periods and circumstances. Individuals
might not meet all their needs at the same time. It is difficult to say how and when our needs can be achieved,
especially under social chaos.
4. The Theory of Wright Mills
Wright Mills (1916-1962) was a social theorist. He asserted that social science was neither pure science nor pure
humanities (Lemert, 2004). He found a way to connect individual experiences and societal relationships. As a
student of Max Weber, Wright Mills' theory indicated that rationalization is the practical application of
knowledge to achieve a desired end (Lemert, 2004).
30
American International Journal of Social Science Vol. 7, No. 4, December 2018 doi:10.30845/aijss.v7n4p4

Mills believed that the social bureaucratization was unevenly distributed. Bureaucratization shaped the political
and economic elites, which threatened the lower classes to accept freedom and democracy (John, 2003). Also, the
theory of Wright Mills gives ideas on general social structure and the historical development of bureaucracy,
which implies that sociological imagination was becoming the major common denominator of our cultural life.
Mills suggested that people were at the ‗Modern Age‘, which was decades before post modernity became
prominent in sociology (John, 2003). He analyzed the sociocultural systems and gave thought on the Sociological
Imagination in studying human condition (Lemert, 2004). His ideology, Sociological Imagination helps people
distinguish between personal and public issues. It also implies that the concentration of wealth and power can
cause imbalance with unequal opportunities for people to meet their needs (Mills, 1956). For example, individuals
may have both personal and social issues which are connected in their everyday life. When there are many people
who are poor and living under repression, it might impact the overall economic and social development. By
understanding the sociological imagination theory, it helps people understand how to adjust themselves in the
society and avoid isolation from the disconnect benefiting the society.
5. The Theory of Antonio Cramsci
Antonio Gramsci (1929-1936) was an Italian Marxist philosopher and politician. Gramsci indicated that cultural
hegemony was ruled by a class who manipulated the culture of that society, such as the beliefs and values
(Adamson, 2014). His thoughts would influence later social and cultural theory (Lemert, 2004). Gramsci‘s theory,
cultural hegemony describes the ruling capitalist class which maintains power in capitalist societies. Gramsci
agreed with Marx‘s theory that the superstructure maintains the classes‘ relationships. This theory is a tool for
exploring the dynamic relationships between culture, politics, and economy (Adamson, 2014). Gramsci also
encouraged the development of a new culture, which advocated for the equal rights of people. His ―cultural
hegemony" theory indicates that the mass media has become one of the important tools for capturing ideological
leadership and helps to explore the relationship between hegemony and the world order (Adamson, 2014). It
enlightens the thought of cultural leadership and its construction in the society, which raises the moral culture of
the public and helps people adapt to the requirements of the development of productive forces.
In addition, Gramsci had a sense of building civic capacities to think differently to challenge assumptions and
articulate new ideas (Lemert, 2004). ―Political society‖ can be divided into the police, the army, and the legal
system (Forgacs, 2000). Governments should uphold a system of public order and justice (Schellenberg, 1996).
However, Gramsci indicated that the capitalists use state apparatus and force political power to the society
(Schellenberg, 1996). His theory provides inspiration for the ruler of how to avoid conflicts and manage affairs
fairly. However, this theory lacks explanation on how to allow the capitalist state to have control over residence,
to have self-control instead of taking advantage of the system.
6. The Theory of Jean-Francois Lyotard
Jean-François Lyotard (1924—1998) was a French philosopher, best known for his highly influential formulation
of postmodernism in The Postmodern Condition (Lyotard, 2003). His thoughts can be applied to many areas, such
as politics. It is Lyotard's view that certain technical and technological advancements have taken place since the
Second World War (Lemert, 2004). Postmodern condition describes the economic or cultural state of society that
is said to exist after modernity (Lyotard, 2003). In contemporary society and culture, postmodern culture implies
that the upsurge of technology would have an impact on the status of knowledge. Also, postmodernism requires
people to understand scientific truth as a culturally specific achievement dependent on social conditions for its
production and reproduction (Lemert, 2004). The theory of Jean-Francois Lyotard reminds people to pay attention
to the existence of social and individual differences, while recognizing the shortcomings of the holistic thinking
paradigm. Moreover, his theory provides a unique perspective for the innovation of moral education. People need
to pay attention to the diversity and heterogeneity of moral values. Additionally, building a democratic and equal
relationship between people is important to maintain a harmonious environment.
7. The Theory of Anthony Giddens
Sociology is a broad and diverse subject, which inhibits a satisfactory analysis of modern institutions (Giddens,
1990). Anthony Giddens‘ refers to the current society as a continuation of the modern ideology. His theory
provides approaches in people‘s social life. He grasped the distinctive culture of late modernity and claimed that it
is necessary to introduce a new concept of disembodying (Giddens, 1982).

31
ISSN 2325-4149 (Print), 2325-4165 (Online) ©Center for Promoting Ideas, USA www.aijssnet.com

Also, Giddens argued that Marx's anticipations of an order in which class domination would be replaced by a
rational order, in which the free development is the condition. Anthony Giddens concentrated on a contrast
between traditional (pre-modern) culture and post-traditional (modern) culture (Loyal, 2003). People were
influenced by global change and created new ways of communication and technology. He argued that modernity
opens new opportunities for humans to achieve their goals and he saw the current situation as a high modernity.
Any attempt to capture the experience of modernity must derive from the dialectics of space and time, as
expressed in the time-space constitution of modern institution (Lemert, 2004, p. 478).
Modernity does not mean that people always live in a safe and humane world. Confusion and doubt stimulate
uncertainty. People will have different choices for maintaining a sustainable social system and understand the
history to realize that modernity cannot only rely on traditional rules, people can consider things flexibly along
with making processes of rationalization and motivation (Loyal, 2003). Furthermore, modernity is a risk culture,
Giddens placed the risk in his investigation of the modern society and used his theory to reflect modernity (Loyal,
2003). The mix of risks and opportunities is complex in many situations. This theory gives inspiration that
building trust and managing risks are important. People need to seek different opportunities, avoid potential
conflicts, and pursue peace (Loyal, 2003).
8. The Theory of Cornel West
American philosopher Cornel West described that the new cultural politics included notions of modernity,
margins, and difference (Lemert, 2004). West stated that Marxist theory is insufficient, because Marxist Theory
did not fully give explanations on how cultural factors could impact the changing society. He saw a culture with
depoliticized policy to empower people to have rights to react to the society (West, 1999). He indicated that the
new cultural politics have three basic challenges, such as intellectual, existential and political. His ideas help
people critically understand the practical world (Lemert, 2004). For example, he indicated that Jewish people,
white people, and gentiles are alike in their positive capacities, such as human sympathy, service to others,
intelligence, and beauty (Lemert, 2004).
West disclosed the structures of power and analyzed problems that were rooted in the past. He addressed the
struggles of the African American working class (Keith, 2008). West believed that ―the best examples of African
American humanism are the spirituals, the blues, gospel, and jazz‖ (Keith, 2008). However, his thoughts include
how the black community was isolated by itself from the white community and he stated that the same rules of
self-destructive isolation and pandering to the lowest common denominator can apply to any group between black
and white people (West, 1999). By learning this theory, it helps to understand that people should respect cultural
dynamics, be open-minded, and update their knowledge in understanding different personal identities. West‘s
thoughts help people realize how to promote political and emotional reconciliation, protect rights of different
classes and races, respond to civil voices, and recover their political responsibility.
Conclusion
Marxist theory revealed the principle of the evolution and development of human society. While, Weber believed
in the importance of cultural influences for understanding capitalism, and the Human Needs Theory helped people
understand the process of human growth. In Postmodern theory, it considered the change of new life and gave
ideas on pursuing justice. By comparing and applying different knowledge of theories respectively, it helps in
studying political systems, bureaucratic structures, as well as rationally analyzing human affairs. Also, it is
important to gain trust between people and encourage them to fulfill justice in the society. All these theories can
help people understand the importance of protecting human rights and developing a sustainable society. By
finding the meanings of different theories, it becomes apparent that people don‘t have control over time, however,
they can learn from history, find alternative ways, and avoid conflicts to improve the society.
References
Adamson, L., Walter. (2014). Hegemony and Revolution: Antonio Gramsci's Political and Cultural Theory.
Vermont: Echo Point Book & Media.
Burton, J. (1990). Conflict: Resolution and Prevention. NY: St. Martin‘s Press.
Burton, J. (1979). Deviance Terrorism & War: The process of solving unsolved social
and political problems.
Australia: Australian National University Press. Retrieved from: https://openresearch.
32
American International Journal of Social Science Vol. 7, No. 4, December 2018 doi:10.30845/aijss.v7n4p4

Giddens, A. (1982). Classes, Power and Conflict: Classical and Contemporary Debates. LA: University of
California Press.
Gane, N. (2012). Max Weber and Contemporary Capitalism. UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
John, D, Brewer. (2003). C. Wright Mills and the ending of violence. NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Keith, G. (2008). Composition and Cornel West. Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.
Laureen Park ―Opening the black box: reconsidering needs theory through psychoanalysis and critical theory‖
International Journal of Peace Studies. 15.1 (Spring-Summer 2010) p1.
Lemert Charles. (2004). Social Theory: The Multicultural and Classic Readings. Colorado: West view Press.
Lyotard, J., F. (2003). Postmodern Fables. MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Loyal, S. (2003). The Sociology of Anthony Giddens. London: Pluto Press.
Mills, W. (1956). The power Elite. NY: Oxford University Press.
Maslow, A., H. (1987). Motivation and Personality. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Peter, W. (2002). Marx and Marxism. London: Routledge.
Rubenstein, R. (2001). Basic Human Needs: The Next Steps in Theory Development. International Journal of
Peace Studies. Retrieved from: http://www.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol6_1/Rubenstein.htm
Schellenberg, A., James. (1996). Conflict Resolution: Theory, Research, and Practice. NY: State University of
New York.
West, C. (1999). The Cornel West Reader. NY: Basic Caritas Books.
Forgacs, D. (2000). The Antonio Gramsci Reader. NY: New York University Press.
.

33