Lecture 1

The Theory and the Craft of Translation

1. Is translation an art or a craft?
2. The Theory of Translation as a Linguistic Science
3. Translation Studies as an Academic Discipline
4. A Brief History of Translation
5. Ethics of Translation
6. Criteria for Assessing the Translator’s Competence

Lecture 2
The Translation Process
1. Classification of the Types (Methods) of Translation
2. Translation Strategy
3. Stages of Translating Process
4. The Problem of the Unit of Translation (UT)

Lecture 3

Equivalence and Adequacy in Translation

1. A Brief Outline of Approaches to Defining Equivalence in Translation

2. Semantic correspondences:
a) types of meaning:
- referential meaning;
- linguistic meaning;
- emotive meaning.
b) the degree of preservation of meaning:
- complete correspondence;
- partial correspondence;
- absence of correspondence.
3. Translation of Internationalisms (Borrowings) and the Problem of False Friends
a) internationalisms (borrowings);
b) false friends of a translator.

Lecture 4
The Translation of Word Combinations

1. The Translation of Free Word Combination

a) the translation of attribute groups;
b) the translation of three-member word combinations;
c) the translation of multinuclear nomial combinations.
2. The Translation of Bound Word Combinations
a) the translation of set-expressions;
b) the translation of idioms.

Lecture 5
Grammatical Aspects of Translation

1. Ways of Translating the Passive Voice

2. Ways of Translating the Subjunctive Mood
3. Ways of Translating Modal Verbs
4. Ways of Translating the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb

- the functions of Participle I in the sentence

- the functions of Participle II in the sentence
- Predicative Constructions with the Participle
- the functions of the Gerund in the sentence
- the Predicative Constructions with the Gerund
- the functions of the Infinitive in the sentence
- the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Constructions
- the for-to-Infinitive Constructions
- the Subjective Infinitive Constructions

5. Translation Problems of Syntactical Stylistic Devices

a) translation of inversion;
b) translation of negative emphatic constructions;
c) translation of elliptical constructions;
d) some other means of expressing emphasis and prominence.

Lecture 6
Translation and the Problems of Style
1. Definition of style
2. Classification of functional styles:
a) the belles-lettres style;

b) the publicist style;

c) the style of official documents;

d) the language of scientific literature:
- the main ways of translating terms;
- the main ways of translating abbreviations.
e) the peculiarities of the newspaper style:
- the structure of a newspaper item;
- newspaper headlines;
- the translation of cliché
3. Translation Problems of Lexical Stylistic Devices
Lecture 7

Classification of Translation Techniques

1. Lexical translation techniques
2. Contextual Replacements
a) lexico-semantic modifications;
b) lexico-grammatical transformations.
3. Grammatical transformations

Lecture 1

The Theory and the Craft of Translation

1. Is Translation an Art or a Craft?

Translation is a means of interlingual communication. But is it an art or a craft?

This question has been under debate for many years. According to Natalia
Strelkova “Ideally, the translator is like a talented artist who when he looks at his
sitter or a landscape, sees something more than the ordinary viewer – he sees the
essence of what is in front of him.” A good translator always processes “the textual
information to allow the reader to see what he sees and feel what he is feeling. He
acts as an invisible bridge between the author and the reader. That is what makes
translation an art.” (N. Strelkova. Introduction to Russian-English Translation. New York,
2012, p. 1)
On the other hand, mastery of craft is important, too, for an inept, ineffectual
translator or interpreter can wreak havoc on any effort at communication. (N.
Strelkova. Introduction to Russian-English Translation. New York, 2012, p. 1)

The following example is just a case in point.

Hand-made in every detail, fused to the body of the model who displays it, an
haute couture dress is a wearable sculpture.

The literal translation of this sentence will be the following: Сделанное вручную в
каждой детали, слившееся с телом модели, которая его демонстрирует,
платье высокой моды – это пригодная для носки скульптура.

fuse - объединяться, сливаться

wearable – пригодный для носки
 1. To translate this sentence correctly, we’ll have to analyze its components on
different levels, namely: lexical, grammatical and stylistic.
2. Then we should “decode” and reformulate these elements according to the
norms of the Russian language. This stage of translation requires specific
skills which are called translator’s competence. So, we can say that transla-
tion is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and
statement in one language by the same message and statement in another
language.

Taking all these facts into account, this sentence can be translated like that:
Изготовленное вручную до малейших деталей, подчеркивающее фигуру
модели, которая его демонстрирует, платье высокой моды – это
настоящее произведение искусства.

The term translation has several meanings: it can refer to the general subject field,
the product (the text that has been translated) or the process (the act of producing
the translation, otherwise known as translating).

The process of translation between two different written languages involves

the translator changing an original written text (the source text or ST) in the origi-
nal verbal language (the source language or SL) into a written text (the target
text or TT) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL). (Introducing
Translation Studies, p. 5)

2. The Theory of Translation as a Linguistic Science

The core of the translation theory is the general theory of translation which
is concerned with the fundamental aspects of translation inherent in the nature of
bilingual communication and therefore common to all translation events, irrespec-
tive of what languages are involved or what kind of text and under what circum-
stances was translated.
The basis of this theory is linguistics in the broadest sense of the word, that
is, macrolinguistics with all its new branches, such as psycholinguistics, sociolin-
guistics, text linguistics, communicative linguistics, etc.
The task of the theory of translation is a theoretical description of the trans-
lation phenomenon.
The aims of the theory of translation are:
1) to describe general linguistic principles of translation;
2) to elaborate the principles of types of translation;
3) to define the notion of equivalence and / or adequacy in translation;
4) to describe the process (the notion) of translation from the scientific point of
view;
5) to reveal pragmatic and social-linguistic factors of translation;
6) to define the notion of norm in translation (for example, professional norms,
which regulate the translation process itself, linguistic norms as related to the lan-
guage system, communicative norms as related to communicative behavior, pro-
duction norms which concern the methods and strategies by which a correct prod-
uct can be achieved, etc. (Current Issues In Language and Society Volume 5, Issue 1-2,
1998, Cristina Schaffner The Concept of Norms in Translation, Studies, p. 1)
One of the outstanding scientists who influenced the development of the theory
of translation was Eugene Nida. (He is also famous for his translation of the
Bible).
Central to Nida’s work is the move away from the old idea that an orthographic
word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which
a word ‘acquires’ meaning through its context and can produce varying responses
according to culture. (Introducing Translation Studies, p. 39)
Fyodorov stresses that translation theory is an independent linguistic discipline,
deriving from observations and providing the basis for practice. He believes that all
experience is translatable and rejects the view that language expresses a peculiar
mental word-picture (словесное изображение).
Comissarov sees translation theory moving in three directions:
1) the denotative (informational translation);
2) the semantic (precise equivalence);
3) the transformational (transposition of relevant structures).

3. Translation Studies as an Academic Discipline

Translation studies is the academic discipline related to the study of the theory
and phenomena of translation. By its nature it is multilingual and also interdiscipli-
nary, encompassing any language combinations, various branches of linguistics,
comparative literature, communication studies, philosophy and a range of types of
cultural studies (культурология) as well as sociology and historiography. (Introduc-
ing Translation Studies, p. 1)
Translation studies contains elements of social science and the humanities
(гуманитарные науки) and deals with the systematic study of the theory, the de-
scription and the application of translation, interpreting or both these activities.
Translation studies has become more prominent in recent years due to:
1) a proliferation of specialized translating and interpreting courses at both
undergraduate and postgraduate level, which are mainly oriented towards
training future professional translators and interpreters.
2) a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on the theory and prac-
tice of translation (The Journal of Translation and New Voices, The Linguist,
The ITI Bulletin and In Other Words).
 3) The work of such international organizations as the Canadian Association
for Translation Studies, the European Society for Translation Studies, etc.,
which bring together translation studies scholars nationally and internation-
ally.
This thesis can be illustrated with the following example: the book by Jeremy
Munday INTRODUCING TRANSLATION STUDIES. Theories and applications
contains material on historical sources, the works on ethics, ideology, sociology,
historiography and other branches of science.

3. A Brief History of Translation

Throughout history, written and spoken translations have played a crucial role
in interhuman communication. The first traces of translation date from 3000 BC
during the Egyptian Old Kingdom, where inscriptions in two languages were
found. The practice of translation was discussed by, for example, Cicero and Ho-
race (first century BCE) and St Jerome (fourth century CE). Their writings were to
exert an important influence up until the 20-th century. For example, St Jerome’s
approach to translating the Greek Septuagint into Latin would affect later transla-
tions of the Scriptures. Indeed, in Western Europe the translation of the Bible was
to be the battleground of conflicting ideologies. In China, it was the translation of
the Buddhist sutras that inaugurated a long discussion on translation practice.
It should be mentioned that in academic circles translation was previously rel-
egated to just a language-learning activity. But today thanks to cross-cultural com-
munication translation got enhanced importance and we see the rapid growth in
this area, particularly over the last decade.
 4. Ethics of Translation

Criterion Its characteristics

Preparation and Professional translators need comprehensive mastery of gram-

qualifications mar, syntax and vocabulary of both the source and target lan-
guages (linguistic competence), and in-depth understanding of
cultural norms.
Professional translators must have knowledge of the pertinent
Knowledge of subject matter.
the subject of
translation

The relation- 1. Professional translators should refuse to translate from a TT

ship with the unless with the consent of the author.
author 2. If they want to alter some part of the text, they may do it
only with the author's consent.
1. In the case of co-translation, the names of all the translators
The relation- must appear on TT.
ships with col-
leagues 2. A translator must refuse work detrimental to a fellow trans-
lator.

Confidentiality A translator must respect professional secrets. He must not di-

vulge any information obtained during the performance of his
services, including access to documentation or reports.

Impartiality A translator should remain neutral, unbiased and impartial with

regard to either party's gender, disability, race, ethnicity or na-
tional origin, age, educational level, socioeconomic status, reli-
gious or political beliefs.

5. Criteria for Assessing the Translator’s Competence

The translator’s competence is the ability to render a target language text into
a source language text in accordance with all agreements. It consists of the follow-
ing sub-competences: linguistic, cultural, textual, subject, research, and transfer
competence.

Competence Its characteristics

Linguistic The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL

 and TL.

Cultural Cultural competence comprises four components:

(a) awareness of one's own cultural worldview;

(b) attitude towards cultural differences;

(c) knowledge of different cultural practices and world-

views;

(d) cross-cultural skills.

Textual It consists in being proficient in combining linguistic forms

(текстовый) to produce a written or oral text in different genres or text
types.

Subject Knowledge of the ST subject is essential as it allows the

translator to provide clear insight into the core ideas of the
original work in the TT.

Research The translator should have the ability to acquire and process
information.

Transfer To make the TT accurate and complete, the translator must

know the principles guiding translation, such as processes,
methods, procedures, and so forth.

The Chartered Institute of Linguists’ (IoL) Diploma in Translation is the most

widely known initial qualification for translators in the UK. Its Notes for Candi-
dates gave the following criteria for assessing the translation:
1) accuracy: the correct transfer of information and evidence of complete com-
prehension;
2) the appropriate choice of vocabulary, idiom, terminology and register
(регистр, стиль; уровень (произношения, чистоты речи и т. п.));
3) cohesion (связность), coherence (логичность, последовательность,
обоснованность) and organization;
4) accuracy in technical aspects of pronunciation, etc. (Introducing Translation
Studies, p. 31)

Lecture 2
The Translation Process

1. Classification of the Types (Methods) of Translation

 Different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predomi-
nant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in
the translation process. Thus we distinguish between the following types of trans-
lation:
№ Criterion Characteristics of the type of translation
1 According to the 1. Informative translation is rendering into the target
overall ST func- language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is
tion we distin- to convey a certain amount of ideas, that is, to provide
guish between in- information to readers. The source texts can be repre-
formative and sented by scientific and technical texts, newspaper mate-
literary transla- rials, official papers, public speeches, political and pro-
tion. paganda materials, advertisements, etc.
2. Literary translation (novels, short stories, plays,
poems, etc.) involves various lexical, grammatical and
stylistic techniques as each genre calls for a specific ar-
rangement and makes use of specific artistic means to
impress the reader.
2 According to the Semantic translation attempts render, as close as the se-
translation ap- mantic and syntactic structures of the second language
proach used in allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. It is
producing the tar- appropriate for translation of serious literature, autobiog-
get text, transla- raphy, ‘personal effusion’, any important political or
tions can be char- other statement (Introducing translation studies, p. 44-45)
acterized as se- whose content is addressed to specialists.
mantic or com- Ex: the translation of legislation and legal documents.
municative. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its
readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on
the readers of the original (Introducing translation studies, p.
44-45) whose content is addressed to the general reader.
Ex: the translation of Pushkin’s poems.
3 According to the 1) ‘literal’ translation / word-for-word translation
degree of modifi- (дословный перевод) consists in mechanical substitu-
cation introduced tion of the elements of the original text for their equiva-
in the translation, lence in the language of the TT (Ex: to play with fire –
it can be literal or играть с огнем);
free. 2) ‘free’ translation / sense-for-sense translation
(вольный перевод) means rendering the most essential
things of a ST without formal correspondences being
taken into account. ((Introducing Translation Studies, p. 20)
4 According to the Selective translation is a translation of selected parts of
integrality of a document (the extraction of information). It covers not
translation, i.e. only translation of certain passages in a text but also ab-
the amount of the stracts or summaries prepared on the basis of a ST in an-
ST translated, other language. (Roda P. Roberts, Towards a Typology of
translation can be Translations, p. 74)
 either full or se- Full translation is a translation of the whole piece of
lective. writing, whose content is so important for the recipient
that it should be translated into the TL in detail. The
most widely used methods of full translation are literal
translation, semantic translation and communicative
translation.
5 According to the 1. Oral translation is commonly known as interpreting
medium of trans- or interpretation.
lation the transla- There are two main kinds of oral translation – consec-
tion can be oral utive (последовательный) and simultaneous
and written. (синхронный перевод). In consecutive translation the
translating starts after the original speech or some part of
it has been completed.
In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is sup-
posed to be able to give his translation while the speaker
is uttering the original message.
2. Written is the reproduction of the content of the
original document by means of the language of transla-
tion in written form.
The Russo-American linguist Roman Jakobson (Jacobson
1959/2000 'On Linguistic Aspects of Translation') makes a very
important distinction between three types of written
translation:

1. intralingual translation - translation within the

same language, which can involve rewording, or
paraphrase;
2. interlingual translation - translation from one
language to another, and
3. intersemiotic translation - translation of the ver-
bal sign by a non-verbal sign, for example music
or image.

Back-translation and adaptive translation are another two

types of written translation.

"Back-translation" is a translation of a translated text

back into the language of the original text, made without
reference to the original text.

Adaptive translation represents the concept of the origi-

nal but it is different because a created text cannot be
substituted for the original text completely. Adaptive
translation is characterized by the following features:
simplification + interpretation. Its aim is to make the TT
 clear to certain groups of people who don’t possess cer-
tain professional or other types of knowledge to under-
stand this material if it were translated word-for-
word.
6 According to the Machine translation (MT) is a sub-field of computa-
ways of employ- tional linguistics that investigates the use of computer
ing the newest software to translate text or speech from one natural lan-
technologies we guage to another.
distinguish be-
tween machine Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called
translation, com- "computer-aided translation," "machine-aided human
puter translation translation" (MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a
and web-based form of translation wherein a human translator creates a
human transla- target text with the assistance of a computer program.
tion. The machine supports a human translator.

Web-based human translation is generally favored by

companies and individuals that seek more accurate trans-
lators. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine
translators, human translation remains the most reliable,
most accurate form of translation available.

2. Translation Strategy

Hurtado Albir proposes the following definition of translation strategy: “Strat-

egy is the procedure used by the translator to solve problems that emerge when
carrying out the translation process with a particular objective in mind” (Hurtado Al-
bir 1996, 1999).
According to Chesterman translation strategy is “a plan that is implemented in
a given context.” (2005: 26).
Jaaskelainen (2005: 71) considers strategy as, "a series of competencies, a set of
steps or processes that favor the acquisition, storage, and utilization of informa-
tion".
"A 'strategy' is a generalization about typical courses-of-action exhibited by pro-
fessional translators" (Neubert and Shreve, 1992: 52); they are the standard tools of
the trade, the procedures offering a solution to the various types of problems en-
countered in the translation task.
It is worth mentioning that translation techniques affect the micro-units of text
and the results of translation, while translation strategies affect the process of
translation.
Translators use strategies for comprehension (e.g., distinguish main and sec-
ondary ideas, establish conceptual relationships, search for information) and for re-
formulation (e.g., paraphrase, retranslate, say out loud, avoid words that are close
to the original). Because strategies play an essential role in problem solving, they
are a central part of the subcompetencies that make up translation competence.
 3. Stages of Translating Process
Description of the translating process is one of the major tasks of the transla-
tion theory. The most widespread approach to organizing the translating process
includes several steps:

1. Review the material you are going to translate so that you can understand its in -
tent and content. Use your linguistic competence and ‘world knowledge’ (de-ver-
balized, theoretical, general, encyclopaedic and cultural) to grasp the sense of the
ST.
2. Identify its genre or functional style.
3. Identify the problems you may come across in the process of translation.
4. Identify the units of translation.
5. Make a draft translation.
6. Leave a little extra time to review the text after having finished translating. You
should take a break and look at the text with a new perspective, which will allow
you to improve your work.
7. Then edit this version:
- check the translation against the original to ensure accuracy of content;
- proofread it carefully to correct typographical errors and grammatical mistakes.
8. Translate the headline.
9. The final stage involves going over your draft to verify that the text reads as one
originally produced in the target language - not as a 'translation'.

4. The Problem of the Unit of Translation (UT)

Being one of the fundamental concepts always argued about in the realm of trans-
lation, the unit of translation (UT) has been given various definitions by different
theorists. Some linguists say that a word can’t be the UT because the boundaries
between words aren’t clear and it is difficult to single out a separate word in
speech. For example, the noun ice cream and the phrase I scream are pronounced
the same. That’s why these authors reject a word as a UT.

Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997) define it as: "a term used to refer to the linguis-
tic level at which ST is recodified in TL" (p. 192). In other words, it's an element
with which the translator decides to work while translating the ST. Barkhudarov
(1993) defines a UT as the smallest unit of SL which has an equivalent in TL". He
recommends that this unit of translation, no matter how long, can itself have a
complex structure although its parts separately cannot be translated and replaced
by any equivalent in the TL.

Newmark insists that the unit of translation, understood as a segment of the

original text from which the translator can begin his or her reformulation in a dif-
ferent language, is part of a movable scale: “The word, the lexical unit, the colloca-
tion, the group, the clause and the sentence–rarely the paragraph, never the text”.

On the whole, in modern language the UT is distinguished on the following

levels:

Level Its characteristics Example

Sutherland - Сатерленд
1 The level of Though a phoneme doesn’t bare (графство Шотландии)
phonemes an independent meaning of its
own, it is sometimes used as a [Ө] – [t]
UT. In this case a phoneme of a
SL is substituted for the similar
in articulation and acoustic fea-
tures phoneme in the TL or
graphemes in writing.
Backbencher -
2 The level of The adoption by the TL of a "заднескамеечник" (рядовой
morphemes compound word whose compo- член парламента)
nents are literal translations of
the components of a corre- back is a root, bench is a root,
sponding compound in the SL. -er is a suffix

3 The level of The unit of the TL is one word Tom thanked his teachers. –
words and it is much more frequently Том поблагодарил своих
used in the SL. But such cases учителей.
are too limited. Only some
words in a sentence find their
correspondence in the TL.
To plough the sands -
4 The level of Very often their meanings are заниматься бесполезным
collocations not equal to the meanings of делом / тратить силы
(phrases) their components (that is the впустую
words they consist of). And in
this case they are translated by But if an interform of the phrases
means of their equivalents in coincides in both languages, the lit-
eral translation is possible.
the TL.
 Pandora's box - ящик
Пандоры (источник всяческих
бедствий)
On December 23, 1856,
5 The level of When a translator segments a cries of new life swelled from
sentences text into translation units, the a North Carolina farmhouse,
larger these units are, the better their source a baby boy named
chance there is of obtaining an James Buchanan Duke. The
idiomatic translation. lad would have far more im-
pact on the world than the
failed president his name hon-
ored.
23 декабря 1856 года с
фермы, расположенной в
Северной Каролине,
донеслись крики
новорожденного,
возвестившего о своем
появлении на этот свет. Это
был мальчик, которого
нарекли Джеймс Бучанан
Дьюк. Парнишка этот
повлиял на мир куда
больше, чем неудачник-
президент, в честь которого
он был назван.
(Steiner, John F., Steiner, George A. Busi-
ness, Government, and Society: A Man-
agerial Perspective, Text and Cases. USA,
2011. Ch. 3)
On this level more attention is
6 The level of paid to producing a naturally For example, compare the
text reading TT than to preserving Russian translation of Ch.
the ST wording intact. Brontë’s novel Jane Eyre with
the original.

Lecture 3

Equivalence and Adequacy in Translation

1. A Brief Outline of Approaches to Defining Equivalence in Translation

Translation equivalence is defined as a measure of semantic similarity be-

tween ST and TT.
There are different approaches to defining equivalence in translation, but even the
brief outline of the issue indicates its importance within the framework of the theo-
retical reflection on translation.

I. Vinay and Darbelnet use this term to refer to cases where languages describe
the same situation by different stylistic or structural means.
II. According to Komissarov there are five types of equivalence in translation.

1 It is only the purport of The chemistry between him

The level of the communication that is re- [HK Gruber] and the Philhar-
purport of com- tained in translation. monic was there from the
munication Such sentences can be charac- start. (The Times, 12.02.2010)
terized by an absolute dissimi-
larity of language units which
(= He established a good re-
is accompanied by the absence
lationship with the Philhar-
of obvious logical link between
monic from the very begin-
the two messages. Nevertheless
ning.) - С самого начала
they describe one and the same
situation. между ним [Грубером] и
филармонией установились
хорошие, добрые
отношения.
2 Most of the words or syn- He answered the telephone.
The level of iden- tactical structures of the (= He lifted the receiver.) -
tification of situ- original have no direct Он снял трубку.
ation correspondences in the
translation. At the same
time it is obvious that
there is a greater proximity
of contents than in the pre-
ceding group.

Since in each of the two sen-

tences the situation is described
in a different way, the common
feature is not the method of de-
scription but the reference to
the situation, the possibility of
identifying the situation, no
matter how it is described in
the text.
3 The level of The translation is a seman- Scrubbing makes me bad-tem-
methods of situa- tic paraphrase of the orig- pered. - От мытья полов у
tion description inal, preserving its basic меня настроение портится.
semes and allowing their
free reshuffle in the sen- Both in the translation and in the
original the situation is described
 tence. as a “cause-effect” event with a
different pattern of identical semes.
In the original: A (scrubbing)
causes В (I) to have С (temper)
characterized by the property D
(bad). In the translation: С (temper)
belonging to В (I) acquires the
property D (bad) because of A
(scrubbing).
4 The level of in- The target and the source Ex. 1
variant meaning language sentences mani- Good language skills are a
of syntactic fest grammar transforma- prerequisite for the job.
structures (which tions, which can include Хорошее знание языка для
is also called transposition of the sen- этой должности
transformational tence elements (words, обязательно.
equivalence) phrases and clauses), parts (The replacement of the word
of speech replacement, the form: plural is translated by singu-
lar.)
replacement of the word
form, the replacement of Ex. 2
the sentence structure, the The Bradford Formula is used
replacement of the sen- to calculate an “attendance
tence type, etc. score”.
Формула Брэдфорда
используется для расчета
баллов, показывающих
количество дней, когда
работник присутствовал на
рабочем месте.
(Part of speech replacement: the
verb is translated by the noun.)
Ex. 3
Four years later, the famous
black, white and red check
made its first appearance as a
raincoat lining.
Четыре года спустя для
подкладки дождевика
впервые была использована
ткань в знаменитую теперь
черно-бело-красную клетку.
(The Active construction is trans-
lated by the Passive one.)
5 The level of Here we can observe: Business power is legitimate
words semantics 1) the equivalence of when it is used for the com-
semes which make up the mon good.
meaning of correlated Могущество бизнеса
words in the original text является легитимным, когда
 and the translation; оно реализуется на общее
2) parallelism of syntactic благо.
structures implying the
maximum invariance of
their meanings;
3) the similarity of the no-
tional categories which de-
termine the method of de-
scribing the situation;
4) the identity of the situa-
tions;
5) the identical functional
aim of the utterance or the
purport of communication.

III. Mona Baker distinguishes between:

 Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when
translating from one language into another.
 Grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical
categories across languages (e.g. number, tense and aspects, voice, person
and gender).

 Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text

and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. In this case the transla-
tor should take into account three main factors, that is, the target audience,
the purpose of the translation and the text type.

 Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and strategies of

avoidance during the translation process. The role of the translator is to
recreate the author's intention in another culture in such a way that enables
the TC reader to understand it clearly.

2. Semantic Correspondence

The term “meaning” should be considered as widely as possible, thus the task
of a translator is to render completely all types of meaning:
Type of meaning Its characteristics Example
Referential mean- The denotative ‘dictionary’ Country town -
ing meaning (референциальное провинциальный город
значение). This type of meaning
has direct reference to things or
phenomena of objective reality.
Pragmatic (or It reflects the subjective rela- Ударник - record-setter in
emotive) meaning tions, that is emotional, expres- work productivity / top
 sive and stylistic. performer, shock-worker
Interlinguistic It reflects the relationship be- Policeman – 1) полисмен,
(linguistic) mean- tween the language sign and the полицейский (a member of
ing participant of the process of a police force, esp. one hold-
speech. ing the rank of constable);
2) полицай (recruited by
Nazi authorities from among
collaborating locals in occu-
pied territories during World
War Two)

The Degree of Preservation of Meaning

The degree of preservation of meaning in the process of translation is different; it

mostly depends on the type of meaning.
Reason Example
The highest degree of preservation Thus, human capital is a means of produc-
of meaning is that of referential tion, into which additional investment yields
meanings, because they are better additional output.
translatable, the reason is easily ex- Таким образом, человеческий капитал –
plained as the objective reality of the это средство производства,
language communities has more дополнительные инвестиции в который
common features than differences приносят дополнительный доход.
and so referential meanings coincide (Complete correspondence)
more often than not in different lan-
guages.
Pragmatic meanings have a lower Ex. 1
degree and the difference lies in the Большевик - Bolshevik
fact that the relation of different (from Russian Bol'shevik majority, from bol'shoi -
communities to the given things, no- great; from the fact that this group formed a major-
tions and situations will be different, ity of the Russian Social Democratic Party in
1903);
so the attitude will be different, too. the derivative is bolshie - реакционер,
It especially concerns metaphorical бунтарь; ярый фанатик; несговорчивый
meanings and complex cultural id- приверженец своих взглядов
ioms, where the sense of the phrase Ex. 2
is always diverges from the sum of To go a bomb
the individual elements. (BE) to be successful – иметь успех;
(AE) to go badly - провалиться, потерпеть
неудачу
A minimum degree of preservation Ex. 1
is in interlinguistic meaning. In this He had visions of grandeur for the little fac-
case a translator can resort to func- tory …
tional replacement. Он четко представлял себе, как из
маленькой фабрики сделать мощное
предприятие …
 Literal translation:
У него было видение грандиозности для
маленькой фабрики …
Ex. 2
Though having “human capital” gives work-
ers some benefits, they are still dependent
on the owners of non-human wealth for their
livelihood.
Хотя наличие «человеческого капитала»
дает работникам некоторое
преимущество, их заработок все равно
зависит от тех людей, богатство
которых воплощено в материальных и
денежных активах.
Literal translation:
… они все равно зависят от владельцев
нечеловеческого богатства в отношении своих
средств к существованию.

All types of semantic correspondences between the lexical units of two languages
can be presented in 3 main types:
1) complete correspondence;
2) partial correspondence;
3) absence of correspondence (non-equivalent lexis).

Complete Correspondences

This case is relatively rare. As a rule these are mono-semantic words, that is, they
have one meaning in both languages. Such words can be presented by the fol-
lowing groups:
Semantic group English example Russian translation
Proper and geographi- The British Isles Британские острова
cal names
Scientific and technical Eye of hurricane Глаз бури; глаз
terms тропического циклона
Words closed in seman- (days of the week, Воскресенье, март
tics months, etc.) Sunday,
March

However, not all the words belonging to these groups are characterized by com-
plete correspondences.
Ex: lighting - 1) освещение; 2) зажигание; воспламенениеж 3) запуск
(ракетного двигателя)

Partial Correspondences
 Partial correspondence is the most widely spread case in the process of com-
paring lexical units of two languages. In this case one word in the SL has several
semantic equivalents in the TL.
Ex. table – стол

English Russian
1) a piece of furniture - стол 1) предмет мебели - table
kitchen table - кухонный стол письменный стол - writing table / desk
2) food as served in a particular house- 2) питание - board; diet; meals; (кухня)
hold or restaurant - пища, стол; еда, cooking, cuisine
кухня стол и квартира - board and lodging
good table - хороший стол, вкусная диетический стол - diet, dietary meals
еда
3) such a piece of furniture specially 3) (отдел в учреждении) desk, depart-
designed for any of various purposes - ment, office
доска для настольных игр
стол заказов - order placement desk
backgammon table –доска для игры в адресный стол - address bureau
нарды паспортный стол - passport office
5) any flat or level area, such as a
plateau - горное плато, плоскогорье
6) an arrangement of words, numbers,
or signs, usually in parallel columns, to
display data or relations a table of con-
tents - таблица; расписание, табель
7) a tablet on which laws were in-
scribed by the ancient Romans, the He-
brews, etc. - скрижаль

ten tables - десять заповедей

Absence of Correspondences (Non-equivalent lexis)

Non-equivalent lexis is words and word-combinations of the source language,
denoting objects, processes and other realia which do not exist or have correspon-
dences at present in the target language.

Types of non- 1) temporary non-equivalence: the target language has no

equivalent lexis ready equivalence.
Ex: plane spotter - a person who observes, photographs, and catalogues
aircraft as a hobby
2) constant non-equivalence:
- these are words which designate concepts or realities of cul-
ture, i. e. exotisms and realia.
Ex: Bushism - an apparently fatuous statement attributed to George W.
 Bush, 43rd Presidnt of the USA
Ex: house party - вечеринка в загородном доме (гости остаются на
ночь или на несколько дней)
- lacunas: lexical units don’t have equivalents in the target
language because they denote specific elements typical of the
source language national culture only.
Ex: arm / hand – рука
Where non- 1) in science fiction and scientific and technical literature
equivalent lexis where authors use a lot of terms and neologisms.
can be found Ex: start-up - "стартап" (недавно созданная фирма, обычно
интернет-компания)
2) in the names of realia:
- geographical and ethnographical realia
Ex: Stakhanovism - (in the former Soviet Union) a system designed to
raise production by offering incentives to efficient workers;
- everyday life realia
Ex: brandy; изба;
- political realia
Ex: агитпункт
Ways of transla- 1) loan translation (or calque)
tion Ex: brain drain - утечка мозгов (массовая эмиграция научных
работников);
Ex: bloodstream - кровоток
2) transcription / transliteration
Ex: окрошка – okroshka;
Ex: flash mob - флеш-моб
3) descriptive translation
Ex: caregiver - тот, кто ухаживает за больным, инвалидом,
пожилым человеком (обычно на дому);
Ex: дружинник (добровольный помощник милиции) - member of vol-
untary police, police helper

It should be noted that each exercise involves some kind of loss of meaning due
to a number of factors. The basic loss can result from overtranslation (increased
detail - детализация) or undertranslation (increased generalization - обобщение).
Firstly, if the text describes a situation, which has elements peculiar to the natu-
ral environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable
loss of meaning unless there is already recognized translation equivalent in the
target language.
Secondly, as the two languages have different lexical, grammatical and sound
systems, they determine many physical objects and intellectual concepts differ-
ently. Usually the closer the language and the culture, the closer the translation and
the origin.
Thirdly, very often the individual usage (словоупотребление) of the language
of the text by the writer and the translator don’t coincide. Everybody has lexical, if
not grammatical idiosyncrasies, or peculiarities (индивидуальная или групповая
отличительная особенность (характера, стиля)) and attaches “private” mean-
ing to some words. The translator usually writes in a style that comes naturally to
him unless the text prevents it.
Fourthly, the translator and the writer of the text have different theories of
meaning and different values. The translator’s theory colors his interpretation of
the text. He may set greater value than the writer of the text on connotation
(коннотация (дополнительное, сопутствующее значение языковой единицы
или категории)) and correspondingly less on denotation (значение; смысл).
Thus, the translator requires knowledge of literary and nonliterary text criticism
(критика (анализ, истолкование и оценка литературных и художественных
произведений)) since he has to estimate and assess the quality of the text before he
desides how to interpret it and then translate it.

3. Translation of Internationalisms (Borrowings) and the Problem of False

Friends

Internationalisms (Borrowings)

Borrowing is a word or phrase which has been taken from one language and
used in another language.
Borrowed terms often pass into general usage, for example in the fields of
technology ("software") and culture ("punk"). It can be pure (without any change,
when speakers pronounce them as they are pronounced in the original language),
e.g., lobby (English) and лобби (Russian), or it can be naturalized (when speakers
pronounce it according to the sound system of their own language), e.g., globaliza-
tion – глобализация (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics, p.
57).
False Friends

False friend is a word or expression in one language that, because it resembles

one in another language, is often wrongly taken to have the same meaning

Classification of False Friends

№ Type of false friend English Russian
1 The Russian word coin- Import - 1) импорт; Import - импорт
cides with the English word импортирование (ввоз в (Syn: ввоз)
only in one or two mean- страну товаров из-за
ings. границы); 2) значение,
смысл, суть, сущность
2 The meanings of the word Academia - 1) научное Академия - academy
in Russian and English сообщество, мир
don’t coincide at all. It is университетской
typical of the situation науки; 2)
when the word is borrowed традиционность;
 into Russian and English академизм,
from the third language. академичность;
педантизм (следование
строгим классическим
образцам,
установившимся
традициям и правилам);
3) академизм,
академичность;
схоластика (сугубо
теоретическая
направленность занятий,
их оторванность от
практики и жизни)
3 The word has both coincid- Qualified - 1) Квалифицированный
ing and different meanings квалифицированный; – 1)
in Russian and English. компетентный; 2) (подготовленный)
годный, подходящий; skilled, trained, quali-
3) ограниченный; fied; (опытный,
частичный, неполный знающий) expert,
competent; 2) (с
отягчающими
обстоятельствами)
aggravated
4 The word has the same or Pathetic - 1) Патетический -
very similar form in two жалостный; высокий,
languages, but it has a dif- трогательный, возвышенный,
ferent meaning in each. умилительный; 2) приподнятый,
душераздирающий; 3) торжественный,
грустный, патетичный
задумчивый,
печальный; 4) жалкий,
вызывающий
презрение

Lecture 4
The Translation of Word Combinations

1. The Translation of Free Word Combination

The Translation of Attribute Groups

The attribute group consists of two words.

In these word-combinations the right noun is a prop word (опорное слово) and
the left noun is a determiner (определяющее).
The prop word is considered the first member, and the determiner is the second
member.
From the structurally-semantic point of view attribute word-combinations are
divided into two groups:
Type of the word-combi- English example Russian translation
nation
Adjective / participle + Operating budget Операционный
noun (A/P + N) [оперативный, текущий]
бюджет
Noun + noun (N + N) Labour victory Победа лейбористов (но
не Лейбористская победа)

The attribute group (or the nomial word-combination) can be introduced by arti-
cles, possessive pronouns (this, that), indefinite pronouns (some, any), negative
pronouns and nouns in the possessive case. They serve as syntactic words but not
as members of word-combinations. As a rule they refer to the prop word.
One should bear in mind that these syntactic words are the markers of the left bor-
der of the word-combination, and the marker of the right border cannot be anything
but a noun.
some rebranding tips – some tips on rebranding
Ex: Helpfully, she later shared some rebranding tips with the Financial Times.
Позже она любезно согласилась поделиться некоторыми советами по
возрождению бренда с журналистами газеты Financial Times.

In order to understand the two-member word-combination correctly it’s necessary

to establish a sense connection between its members. To achieve this aim we will
have to transform this word-combination into a noun word-combination with a
noun in the function of the right attribute and find a suitable preposition which will
connect both nouns into a logical word-combination.

Ex: property administration = administration of property (управление

недвижимостью)

The Translation of Three-Member Word-Combinations

This kind of word-combinations differs from the two-member one by the fact that
there is one more third element, which is the extreme (крайний) left member.

Word-combination Translation Explanation

Family size norm Норма размера семьи 1) the norm of size - норма
(средний размер семьи) размера;
2) the size of a family - размер
 семьи
Minimum wage legis- Законодательство о 1) wage - заработная плата;
lation минимальной 2) minimum wage -
заработной плате минимальная заработная
плата;
3) wage legislation -
законодательство о
заработной плате

The correct translation depends upon the context. But more often the third member
is closely connected with the first (though it is not a rule because as it was men -
tioned above, our translation should be based on the context).

NB! The ability to define the current structural type is very important for the cor-
rect understanding:
Ex: the forward car wheels = 1) передние колеса а/м;
2) колеса передней а/м

The Translation of Multinuclear Nomial Combinations

The multinuclear nomial combination consists of four and more members.

The first and the second members are always nouns.
The rest can belong to different parts of speech.

Word-combination Translation Explanation

Customer relation- Система управления 1) the system of management;
ship management взаимоотношениями с 2) management of relationship;
system клиентами 3) the relationship with cus-
tomers
4) the system of customer rela-
tionship management
Long-Term-Disabil- Медицинские 1) benefits - выплаты;
ity workers compen- выплаты в качестве
sation medical bene- компенсации для 2) medical benefits -
fits работников с медицинские выплаты;
долговременной
нетрудоспособностью 3) workers compensation benefit
- пособие по
нетрудоспособности;

4) disability benefit - пособие

по нетрудоспособности;

5) long-term disability -
 долговременная
нетрудоспособность

2. The Translation of Bound Word Combinations

English bound word-combinations are divided into set-phrases and figurative

phraseological units (idioms).
Set expression is any expression which offers a ready-made way of saying some-
thing. (Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, p. 141) For example, to earn one's liv-
ing - зарабатывать на жизнь; by the way - кстати, между прочим, etc. It should
be noted that such word combinations don’t present any difficulty for the transla-
tor.
The problem usually arises when translating phraseological units (or idioms). As a
rule, they produce “a considerable expressive effect for, besides conveying infor-
mation, they appeal to the reader’s emotions, his aesthetic perception, his literary
and cultural associations. Whenever the author of the source text uses a phraseo-
logical unit, it is the translator’s duty to try and reproduce it with the utmost fi-
delity”. (Olga Churilova, http://passexam.cc.ua/handling-phraseological-units/)

Idiom is an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning cannot
be worked out from its separate parts. (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics, p. 246)
We distinguish between two types of idioms: phraseological fusions
(фразеологическое сращение) and phraseological unities.

Type of idiom Example Translation

Phraseological fusions Even in the 1969s, when Даже в 1960-е, когда
are word combinations the fashion was democra- мода стала
whose meaning cannot be tized and everyone демократичнее и
derived from the meaning claimed the right to be каждый считал, что он
of their elements. stylish, the marketers had имеет право выглядеть
the upper hand. стильно, последнее
слово все равно
оставалось за
маркетологами.
Phraseological unities The actual use of the Атомную бомбу
are word combinations bomb in cold blood on сбросили на Хиросиму
whose meaning is par- Hiroshima is the most вполне хладнокровно;
tially dependent on the horrible single act so far это самое ужасное
meaning of their individ- performed. (C. P. Snow, преступление, какое
ual words. ‘The New Men’, part IV, ch. только можно себе
(Dubrovin, A Book of Russian 27) представить.
Idioms Illustrated, p. 5)
In the majority of cases it is impossible to translate idioms literally. Many linguists
and translators have characterized as ‘untranslatables ’. As a rule they have their
equivalents in the TL. But there are a number of idioms with complete or partial
correspondence in both languages.
The Ways of Translating Idioms

By means of the equivalent By means of the analog

By means of the TL idiom which is By means of the corresponding TL equiva-
identical to the SL idiom in all as- lent, when different imagery is used to
pects of its semantics (absolute convey the same idea.
equivalent). Ex: a free hand - полная свобода
Ex: to play with fire (to be involved in действий
something risky) - играть с огнём, Usually, however, Lincoln left his generals
рисковать a pretty free hand in such matters. (W. Fos-
ter, ‘The Negro People in American History’, ch.
25)

Впрочем, обычно Линкольн

предоставлял своим генералам
значительную свободу действий в
подобных делах.
By means of the TL idiom which co- If an idiom doesn’t have an equivalent in
incides with the SL idiom in meaning the TL, it can be translated by means of:
and style, but differs in some lexical 1) literal translation or calque
or grammatical aspects such as word- Ex: vanity fair - ярмарка тщеславия,
order, word-form, etc. (relative базар житейской суеты [выражение
equivalent). впервые встречается в книге Дж. Беньяна
Ex: drop sb. a line - черкнуть "Странствие пилигрима"; название известного
романа У. Теккерея]
словечко, черкнуть несколько
строк. Had he not been so great a prince very few
I’ll drop you a line as soon as I get possibly would have visited him; but in
there. Vanity Fair the sins of very great person-
ages are looked at indulgently. (W. Thack-
eray, ‘Vanity Fair’, ch. XLVII)
Если бы лорд Стайн не был таким
знатным вельможей, очень немногие
посещали бы его, но на Ярмарке
Тщеславия снисходительно смотрят на
грехи великих особ.
2) by means of descriptive translation (ex-
plicating the figurative meaning of the SL idiom)
Ex: to have one’s cake and eat it too (to en-
joy both of two desirable but incompatible alter-
natives) - совмещать несовместимое
Lecture 5
Grammatical Aspects of Translation

1. Ways of Translating the Passive Voice

2. Ways of Translating the Subjunctive Mood
3. Ways of Translating Modal Verbs
4. Ways of Translating the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb

- The functions of Participle I in the sentence

- The functions of Participle II in the sentence
- Predicative Constructions with the Participle
- The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence
- The Predicative Constructions with the Gerund
- The Functions of the Infinitive in the Sentence
- The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Constructions
- The for-to-Infinitive Constructions
- The Subjective Infinitive Constructions

1. Ways of Translating the Passive Voice

Way of translation English sentence Russian translation

The Passive con- The way to misfortune is Путь к неудаче вымощен
struction is translated paved with good inten- благими намерениями.
by the analogous tions.
Russian construction. to pave the way -
прокладывать путь,
подготавливать почву
The Passive con- Human populations are Ущерб, нанесенный
struction is translated already being severely af- окружающей среде
by the Active one. fected by damage to the вследствие истощения
environment due to deple- природных ресурсов и
tion and degradation of re- ухудшения их качества, уже
sources. весьма серьезно
сказывается на жизни
людей.
The Passive con- Recently, the phrase "tal- Сегодня фразу «управление
struction is translated ent management" is being талантами» используют для
by the indefinite-per- used to refer the activities того, чтобы описать вид
sonal sentence to attract, develop and re- деятельности, направленный
(неопрделенно-личное tain employees. на привлечение, развитие и
предложение). удержание работников на
предприятии.
 2. Ways of Translating Modal Verbs
The ability of the translator to identify the function of the modal verb, used in the
sentence will help him better understand the author’s intention and render this sen-
tence into Russian as close as possible to the original.

Modal Function English sentence Russian translation

verb
Can Physical or To fill its entry-level mar- Чтобы заполнить
mental ability keting positions, the com- вакансии на начальные
(to be able to is pany recruits students from должности, компания
an equivalent) universities or business набирает на работу
schools who can demon- студентов
strate an ability to handle университетов или
cross-cultural situations. бизнес-школ, которые
могут (в состоянии)
entry-level position - продемонстрировать
начальная должность [работа]
способность управлять
(должность, на которую
назначаются новые ситуациями, в которых
работники, не обладающие задействованы
большим опытом и представители разных
квалификацией, т. е. первая межэтнических групп.
должность при поступлении
на работу)

handle - управлять (чем-л.),

справляться (с чем-л.)

cross-cultural -
межкультурный;
межэтнический
He will be able to use the Он сможет работать
computer after he finishes на компьютере после
the training course. окончания курсов.

Possibility + 1) due to circumstances Иногда лучшее, что вы

permission Sometimes the best thing можете сделать для
you can do for others is to других – это самому
care for yourself. позаботиться о себе.
Anonymous

2) due to existing laws Невозможно продать

You cannot sell the cow корову и пить её
and drink the milk. (Proverb) молоко (т. е. нельзя
делать две
взаимоисключающие вещи).
Incredibility, Can it be true? Неужели это правда?
 doubt, aston- She can't be telling lies. Не может быть, что
ishment она лжет.
May Permission Luggage may be left here. Здесь можно оставить
(written notice) свой багаж.
Uncertainty as The instructor may have to Инструктору,
to the fulfill- repeat the presentation … возможно, придется
ment of an ac- повторить презентацию
tion, state or …
occurrence,
supposition im-
plying doubt
Possibility due Other things may change us, Другие обстоятельства
to circum- but we start and end with могут менять нас, но
stances family. мы начинаем и
Anthony Brandt заканчиваем свою
жизнь в семье.
Reproach You might pay more atten- Ты мог бы уделять
tion to your lessons. больше внимания
своим занятиям.
Must Necessity or We must be thoroughly Мы должны в полной
obligation democratic, and patronize мере проявлять
everybody without distinc- демократичность и
tion of class. проявлять заботу о
G. каждом, невзирая на
Bernard Show его классовую
patronize - заботиться;
принадлежность
опекать
(классовые различия).
A command or You must leave the office Немедленно покиньте
a prohibition immediately. офис.
Visitors must not feed the Посетителям
animals. запрещается кормить
животных.
Probability or I must have missed the orig- Должно быть, я
supposition, inal query, but I would like прослушал исходный
bordering on to take exception to this вопрос, но мне
assurance, al- idea. хотелось бы выступить
most a convic- против этой идеи.
tion. to take exception to sth. -
(In this function возражать, протестовать
must corresponds против чего-л.
to the Russian
должно быть.) query - вопрос
Strong advice The workers must be stimu- Работников нужно
lated to greater effort by an стимулировать к более
offer to share in the firm's усердному труду,
 profits. предлагая им долю от
profit - прибыль, доход доходов фирмы.
Should Obligation Theoretically, a senior HR Теоретически
/ ought representative should be представитель высшего
to present when an organiza- звена управления
tion’s corporate objectives должен участвовать в
are devised. процессе разработки
HR - персонал, штат целей деятельности
служащих фирмы.
Advisability Wanting to work is so rare a Желание работать –
merit that it should be en- столь редкая
couraged. добродетель, что ее
Abraham Lincoln следует поощрять.
merit - достоинство,
добродетель
To be An order which The expedition is to start in Экспедиция
to + In- is generally the two days. отправляется (должна
finitive result of an ar- отправиться) через два
rangement дня.
made by one
person for an-
other, an ar-
rangement
which is not to
be discussed.
An arrange- I was to send him the first Я должен был послать
ment or mutual draft of the project yester- ему первоначальный
agreement, part day. вариант этого проекта
of a plan вчера.
To Obligation or Newspapers have had to Газетам приходится
have to necessity aris- cope with competition from вести острую
+ In- ing out of cir- radio and television. конкуренцию с радио и
finitive cumstances. (It телевидением.
is often rendered
in Russian
приходиться,
должен,
вынужден)
Shall Compulsion or “Congress shall make no "Конгресс не должен
strict order law … abridging the free- издавать ни одного
dom … of the press.” закона, …
ограничивающего
свободу … печати".
Suggestion Shall we do this exercise Делать это упражнение
now? сейчас?
 Offer Shall I help you with your Тебе помочь сделать
homework? домашнее задание?
Will Volition I will read this report. Я обязательно
(волевой акт, прочитаю этот доклад.
хотение), inten-
tion
(In most cases
this meaning is
rendered in Rus-
sian by emphatic
intonation, but
sometimes the
verb хотеть is
used.)
Persistence re- .. as doctors get more expe- … по мере того, как
ferring to the rience, their competence врачи приобретают
present or to base will increase, as will больше опыта,
the future their endowment of human бесспорно, растет и их
capital. компетентность; прямо
endowment - дарование, пропорционально
талант, способности растут и их вложения
в человеческий
капитал.
Would Volition He would do it. Он непременно хотел
(волевой акт, это сделать.
хотение)
Persistence The lad would have far Парнишка этот повлиял
(настойчивость, more impact on the world на мир куда больше,
упорство, than the failed president his
чем неудачник-
непоколебимост
name honoured. президент, в честь
ь)
которого он был
назван.
Need Necessity This assembly line needs Этот сборочный
repairing. конвейер нужно
отремонтировать. /
Этот сборочный
конвейер требует
ремонта.

3. Ways of Translating the Subjunctive Mood

The Subjunctive Mood in English often corresponds to the same mood in Russian.
But it can also be rendered by the Indicative Mood (изъявительное наклонение)
or the Infinitive. Here are some examples of translating such sentences into Rus-
sian. For further information see lectures on theory of language.
 English sentence Russian translation
You will make progress provided that Ты добьешься лучших результатов
you study harder. при условии, что будешь заниматься
(Conditional: Type I) еще усерднее.
What would we do in our jobs if we had Чем бы мы занимались на работе,
the resources such that we did not have если бы у нас были ресурсы,
to worry about money? благодаря которым нам не нужно
(Conditional: Type II) было бы беспокоиться о деньгах?
Its techniques force the managers of an Эта методика заставляет менеджеров
enterprise to express their goals with предприятия формулировать свои
specificity so that they can be under- цели особенно четко, так чтобы
stood and undertaken by the workforce работники предприятия могли понять
… их и выполнить …
(The Subjunctive Mood is used in the
adverbial clause of purpose, which is
introduced by the conjunction so that.)
In war, whichever side may call itself В войне, какая бы сторона не
the victor, there are no winners, but all назвала себя победителем, таковых
are losers. нет. Проигравшими являются все.

Neville Chamberlain

(The Subjunctive Mood is used in the

adverbial clause of concession.)

4. Ways of Translating the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb

To translate constructions containing non-finite forms of the verb, we should first

of all define the function this part of speech performs in the sentence.

The functions of Participle I in the sentence:

Function English sentence Russian sentence

An attribute The best-selling weeklies are
Лучше всего продаются те
those giving details of the еженедельные периодические
forthcoming week’s television
издания, в которых
and radio programmes … сообщаются подробности
будущих телевизионных и
радио программ …
An adverbial of time: Кушая фрукт, подумай о
modifier When eating the fruit, think of человеке, посадившем дерево,
the person who planted the на котором он вырос.
tree.
Vietnamese proverb
of cause: В 1955 году компания перешла
 By the time the company was в собственность холдинга Great
acquired by Great Universal Universal Stores (GUS). К этому
Stores (GUS) in 1955, its rain- времени ее плащи уже
coats were considered classics, считались классикой,
having been worn by поскольку именно в таких
Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid дождевиках Хэмфри Богарт и
Bergman in “Casablanca”. Ингрид Бергман появляются в
фильме «Касабланка».
of manner and attendant cir- Стоя во дворе замка, мы
cumstances: ощущали, как столетия катятся
Standing in the castle yard, we назад.
could feel the centuries roll
back.
roll back - уноситься назад,
возвращаться в прошлое (о
времени)

of comparison: Он все еще находился в

He was still in the room, as if аудитории, как будто ожидая
waiting for the rational expla- разумного объяснения этому
nation of this phenomenon. явлению.
A predicative The result of the poll was con- Результат голосования сбил
fusing. всех с толку.
Part of a For example, the job analyst Например, аналитик рабочих
complex ob- may tour the job site and ob- мест может обходить
ject serve workers performing производственный участок и
their jobs. наблюдать за тем, как
работники выполняют
поставленные перед ними
задачи.
Part of a They were heard crossing the Видели, как они переходили
compound street. улицу.
verbal predi-
cate
Parenthesis Generally speaking, the bu- В сущности (вообще говоря),
reau acts as a job shop for vol- это бюро выступает в роли
unteer vacancies and offers a магазина вакансий для
wide range of opportunities in волонтеров и предлагает
all areas of community ser- большой выбор возможного
vice. трудоустройства во всех
job shop - магазин вакансий областях общественной
(организация, собирающая и службы.
распространяющая информацию
о вакансиях, особенно -
временных (напр. для студентов
 или других лиц, желающих
подработать, развить навыки в
различных областях
деятельности и т. д.))

The functions of Participle II in the sentence:

Function English sentence Russian sentence

An attribute Until the 1990s it could be
Вплоть до 90-х годов
claimed that 70% of the news-
прошлого столетия можно
papers sold supported a Con-
было утверждать, что 70% от
servative viewpoint. всех продаваемых газет
разделяли взгляды
консерваторов.
An adverbial of time: Все промышленные системы и
modifier All industrial systems and de- модели теряют важность,
signs pale when compared to когда их сравнивают с
the efficiency of natural sys- экологически чистыми
tems of production. системами производства.

of condition: Поэтому возобновляемые

And renewables, if overcon- ресурсы вполне могут стать
sumed or depleted, can be- невозобновляемыми, если
come nonrenewables. допустить их чрезмерное
потребление или истощение.
of comparison: Он стоял молча, как
вкопанный.
He stood silently, as if riveted
to the spot

as if riveted to the spot - словно

прикованный к месту, как
вкопанный
of concession: Хотя его письмо и было
The letter, though written написано небрежно, оно все
carelessly, impressed him равно произвело на меня
greatly. впечатление.
A predicative We were confused to learn of Мы пришли в
his latest decision. замешательство, когда
узнали о его последнем
решении.
Part of a com- As you know, haute couture Как вы знаете, haute couture
plex object has its roots in the origins of уходит своими корнями в
fashion, when wealthy women обычную моду, когда
had dresses made to measure. состоятельные дамы шили
себе платья на заказ.
Predicative Constructions with the Participle

Function English sentence Russian sentence

The Objective 1) after verbs denoting sense Я видела, как Элеонора
Participial perception: hear, see, watch, полчаса подряд
Construction feel, etc. разговаривала с Джоном
Болдом.
...I saw her talking to him for
half an hour at the stretch. (A.
Trollope, ‘Barchester Towers’, ch.
XIII)

at a stretch - подряд, без перерыва

2) after some verbs of mental ac- Мы считаем, что она
tivity: consider, understand, etc. полностью соответствует
We consider her qualified for этой должности.
this position.

3) after verbs denoting wish: Генеральный директор

want, wish, desire. хочет, чтобы этот проект
The Chief Executive Officer был выполнен в ближайшем
wishes the project carried out in будущем.
the near future.
4) after the verbs to have and to Сейчас оно [кабельное
get; (in this case only Participle II is телевидение] доступно всем,
used) кто готов установить
It now provides anybody who is спутниковую тарелку у себя
ready to have a satellite dish in- на заднем дворе …
stalled in his or her backyard …

The Subjective They were heard discussing this Слышали, как они
Participial plan with the manager. обсуждали этот план с
Construction менеджером.
The Nomina- of time: Когда опрос был проведен,
tive Absolute The survey carried out, they be- они начали анализировать
Participial gan analyzing its results. его результаты.
Construction of cause: Ближе к 20-ти годам
By his late teens, James had lost Джеймс утратил интерес к
interest in attending college, his занятиям в колледже,
love of the business being so поскольку ему очень
great. нравилось заниматься
бизнесом.
 of attendant circumstances: То и дело щелкали вспышки
Cameras flickered and everyone фотоаппаратов, все сидели
was silent, pens poised. He молча, держа наготове
spoke; slow, clear, infinitely po- ручки (на тот случай, если
lite and reasonable. что-то придется записать).
Он говорил; медленно,
четко, корректно и очень
вежливо.
of condition: Если время позволит, то мы
продолжим эту дискуссию.
(In this function the Nominative Ab-
solute Participial Construction occurs
but seldom and is almost exclusively
used with the participles permitting
and failing.)

The time permitting, we will

continue this discussion.
The Preposi- Such a drastic overshoot, how- Тем не менее, такое
tional Absolute ever, did not lead to restabiliza- серьезное превышение не
Participial tion at a lower level, with the ex- привело к обеспечению
Construction traneous reindeer dying off. устойчивости на более
низком уровне, и то
количество особей, которое
выходило за потенциальные
границы данной системы,
просто вымерло.
Absolute con- The Nominative Absolute Con- 23 декабря 1856 года с
structions struction фермы, расположенной в
without a par- On December 23, 1856, cries of Северной Каролине,
ticiple new life swelled from a North донеслись крики
Carolina farmhouse, their новорожденного,
source a baby boy named James возвестившего о своем
Buchanan Duke. появлении на этот свет. Это
был мальчик, которого
нарекли Джеймс Бучанан
Дьюк.
The Prepositional Absolute Con- Когда Джим услышал свист
struction падающей бомбы, он
бросился на пол и закрыл
When he heard the bomb голову руками.
whistling down, Jim hurled him-
self down on the floor with his
hands over his head.

hurl down - броситься на землю, на

 пол; распластаться

The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence

Function English sentence Russian sentence

Subject Coming together is a begin- Объединиться – это только
ning, начало;
Keeping together is a
process, Оставаться единым целым
Working together is a suc- – это процесс;
cess. Henry Ford
Работать вместе – это уже
успех.
(The gerund used as a subject Бессмысленно злиться на
may follow the predicate; in несправедливое
these cases the sentence opens
законодательство.
with the introductory it or with
the construction there is)
It's no use raging at unjust
laws.
rage - злиться; быть в ярости,
в гневе
Predicative Education is not filling a Образование не должно
pail, but lighting a fire. ассоциироваться с
William Butter Yeats наполнением сосуда; это,
скорее, сродни умению
зажечь огонь.
Part of a compound - with verbs and verbal phrases Нельзя не восхищаться его
verbal predicate denoting modality the gerund умственными
forms part of a compound verbal
способностями.
modal predicate;

We can’t help admiring his

brainpower.

brainpower - мыслительные
способности
- with verbs denoting the begin- Хикок продолжал писать
ning , the duration, or the end of
письма, в которых
an action, the gerund forms part
протестовал против
of a compound verbal aspect
predicate вынесенного ему приговора.
Одно из этих писем, наконец
Hickock continued writing дало результаты.
letters protesting his convic-
tion and one of those at last
bore fruit. (T. Capote, ‘In Cold
 Blood’, part IV)

bear fruit - приносить плоды,

давать результаты
Object If your organization is inter- Если ваша организация
ested in submitting a pro- заинтересована в том, чтобы
posal, please visit our web- выйти к нам с
site for further information. предложением, для
submit a proposal - входить с получения дальнейшей
предложением информации, пожалуйста,
заходите на наш сайт.
Attribute (In this function the gerund is al- У неё репутация страстного
ways preceded by a preposition) защитника личных свобод.
She has a reputation for be-
ing an ardent protector of
individuals' liberties.
Adverbial modifier - of time: По возвращении домой в
On returning home in 1865 1865 году отец маленького
little James’s father built a Джеймса построил
small factory to make a небольшую фабрику для
brand chewing tobacco производства сорта
named Pro Bono Publico. жевательного табака,
который назывался “Про
Боно Публико”.
- of manner: В 1988 году компания
In 1988 the company en- вышла на рынок, запустив
tered the television market спутниковое телевидение.
by launching a satellite tele-
vision network.
- of attendant circum- Многие люди цитируют
stances: Библию, не сознавая этого.

Many people quote from the

Bible without knowing that
they are doing so.

quote - цитировать; ссылаться

- of purpose: Парники используются для
выращивания растений в
(In this function the gerund is контролируемых условиях,
chiefly used with the preposition
защищающих их от
for.)
внешнего воздействия.
Greenhouses are used for
growing plants in protected
or controlled conditions.
 - of condition: Глупо встревать в чью-то
ссору, когда тебя не
(In this function the gerund is спрашивают.
preceded by the preposition
without.)

It's unwise to strike into

someone else's quarrel with-
out being invited.
- of cause: Деловые партнёры злятся на
него, потому что он в
(In this function the gerund is последнюю минуту вышел
used with the prepositions for,
из сделки.
for fear of, owing to.)

He's in bad odour with his

business partners for having
pulled out of the deal at the
last minute.

to be in bad odour with smb. -

быть в немилости у кого-л.;
вызвать чьё-л. раздражение,
гнев
- of concession: Но даже я, несмотря на то,
что мне пришлось провести
(In this function the gerund is беспокойную ночь и крайне
preceded by the preposition in
неприятное утро со
spite of)
стражами закона, и то
Why, even I, in spite of hav- понимаю, что это безумное
ing had a disturbed night предприятие.
and a most painful morning
with the minions of the law,
can see that the scheme is a
loony one. (P. G. Wodehouse,
‘Carry on, Jeeves’, ch. VII)

the minions of the law - или

блюстители порядка,
полицейские; тюремщики

The Predicative Constructions with the Gerund

A gerundial construction is nearly always rendered into Russian by a subordinate

clause, generally introduced by то, что; тем, что; как, etc.
Type of construction English sentence Russian translation
If it denotes a living be- - by a noun in genitive case Вы не возражаете, если
ing it may be expressed: (родительный падеж) or by a я закрою дверь?
possessive pronoun:

Do you mind my closing the

door?
- by a noun in the common Я смутно помню, что
case: мой брат иногда играл
в шахматы с мистером
I have a dim recollection of Льюисом.
my brother sometimes play-
ing chess with Mr Lewis.
If the nominal element The council could refuse to Совет может отказаться
(именная часть) of the set a legal budget which от составления
construction denotes a would result in its being un- официального
lifeless thing, it is ex- able to borrow money and бюджета, в результате
pressed by a noun in the pay its employees. чего не сможет брать
common case or by a кредиты и оплачивать
possessive pronoun. труд своих служащих.

The nominal element of I insist on all of you partici- Я настаиваю на том,

the construction can pating in this project. чтобы вы все
also be expressed by a участвовали в этом
pronoun which has no проекте.
case distinctions, such
as all, this, that, both,
each, something.

The Functions of the Infinitive in the Sentence

Function English sentence Russian sentence

Subject - by an infinitive Хорошее правило -
To hearken to the voice of con- прислушиваться к голосу
(The infinitive совести.
science is a good rule.
as a subject can
be rendered in hearken to - прислушиваться к
Russian by an (чему-л.); слушать, выслушивать
infinitive, by a
noun, or by a - by a noun Мысль о том, чтобы пройти
clause.) To think of passing such tests as эти испытания только лишь
the sole reason for being in busi- для того, чтобы в первую
ness in the first place is not very очередь заняться бизнесом
different from being one of those очень похожа на
awful students who sees the only представления одного из тех
purpose in taking a course as a недалеких студентов, для
way to pass the test at the end of которого единственный
 it. способ сдать итоговое
тестирование – это просто
записаться на данный курс
обучения.
- by a clause Когда на человека внезапно
To be growing suddenly and vio- сваливается столь огромное
lently rich, as this man is, natu- богатство, как это
rally makes him a bloated aristo- произошло с ним,
crat. (M. Twain, ‘The Innocents немудрено, что он
Abroad’, 1869) становится высокомерным и
кичливым.
Very often the infinitive follows the Сейчас как раз подходящий
predicate. As a rule such sentences момент, чтобы написать об
open with the introductory it, which is
индустрии моды.
not translated into Russian.
It is a good time to write about
fashion industry.
Predicative The main aim of the exhibition is Главная цель выставки -
to showcase British design. показать достижения
showcase - выставлять, британского дизайна.
демонстрировать, показывать (в
наиболее выгодном свете; с
наилучшей стороны)
(The infinitive can also be used as part Анализировать эту книгу
of a predicative.) было достаточно сложно.
This was not an easy book to re-
search.

Part of a a) with modal verbs, modal expres- Следует обратить внимание

compound sions, and verbs expressing modality: не на стиль речи, а на её
verbal predi- One should look from the manner содержание.
cate to the matter of his speech.

b) with verbs denoting the beginning, Я начал изучать ядерную

duration, or the end of an action: физику еще в 1938 году.
Back in 1938 I started to study Меня в равной степени
nuclear physics. Torn between влекло и к точным наукам, и
two loves, science and literature, I к литературе, и я долго не
could not make up my mind мог решить, по какому пути
which field to choose. (R. E. Lapp, пойти.
‘Atoms and People’, ch. I)

Object Many countries already have a Во многих странах уже

system which requires their citi- работает система, согласно
zens to carry identification cards. которой граждане обязаны
носить с собой
 удостоверение личности.
(The infinitive in this function can be Они посчитали
preceded by the introductory object it.) необходимым назначить
They found it necessary to ap- точное время и место
point the exact time and place of встречи.
their meeting.
Part of a Mr Walsh said he could not pre- Мистер Уолш сказал, что не
complex ob- dict when the company’s growth может спрогнозировать,
ject would return to pre-recession lev- когда состояние дел в
els, but he expected sales to im- компании вернется на
prove in the first half of this year. дорецессионный уровень.
Однако он полагает, что
рост продаж произойдет уже
в первом полугодии.
Attribute The work, considered one of the Эту работу, которая по
greatest bronze statues to have мнению большинства
survived from Ancient Greece, is ученых является одной из
attributed to Lysippos, one of the великолепнейших
three great sculptors of the period. бронзовых статуй
древнегреческого периода,
сохранившихся до наших
дней, приписывают
Лисипосу, одному из трех
выдающихся скульпторов
того времени.
Adverbial - of purpose: Чтобы затраты,
modifier To get the payback from training вложенные в обучение,
and education, care needs to be окупились, следует
taken to ensure the knowledge ac- позаботиться о том, чтобы
quired is also applied. приобретенным знаниям
также было найдено
применение.
The infinitive in - of result: Давай сегодня пойдём в
this function is какой-нибудь ресторан, я
chiefly used af- Let's eat out tonight, I'm too tired слишком устала, чтобы ещё
ter adjectives
to cook. готовить.
modified by the
adverbs enough
eat out - питаться вне дома
and too.
The infinitive as an adverbial modifier Поэтому я взвешивал
of result is also to be found in sentences каждый
свой шаг и
of the following type:
действовал таким образом,
чтобы одним ударом убить
So I watched my step and went
двух зайцев.
about my job in such a way as to
try to kill the two birds with one
 stone. (H. Pollitt. ‘Serving My Time’,
ch. V)

kill two birds with one stones - убить

двух зайцев одним ударом
- of comparison (manner): Он чуть было не ударил ее.

He made as if to hit her.

make - демонстрировать жестами,

движением тела
- of attendant circumstances: Нет смысла повышать
There is very little value or bene- квалификацию сотрудников
fit in training people only to then только лишь для того,
frustrate them through a failure to чтобы в последствие они
provide ample career and devel- расстраивались из-за
opment opportunities. неудачи в продвижении по
карьерной лестнице и
возможности дальнейшего
профессионального роста.
Parenthesis But what was happening in Paris? Но что же в это время
By the end of the 1990s the city происходило в Париже? К
was a shadow of its former self, концу 1990-х годов от его
its image as the world’s fashion былой славы практически не
capital eroded by the slow decline осталось и следа. Его имидж
of haute couture and the rapid as- как столицы мировой моды
cent of Milan, not to mention the постепенно терял свой
dominance of US pop culture and престиж. Причиной этому
the influence of American design- послужили, с одной
ers. стороны, медленный спад в
индустрии высокой моды, а
be a shadow of one's former self - с другой стороны, быстрые
быть измученным, истощённым; ≈ от
темпы завоевания ведущих
него одна тень осталась
позиций Миланом, не говоря
not to mention - не говоря уже о уже о доминировании
американской поп-культуры
и влиянии американских
дизайнеров.

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Constructions

Some peculiarities of English sentence Russian sentence

translating these con-
structions
When translating this Clinical studies have found Клинические исследования
construction into Russian males to be more suscepti- показали, что мужчины
we use a subordinate ble to certain infections … более восприимчивы к
clause, introduced by the susceptible - чувствительный, определенным инфекциям
conjunctions что, восприимчивый
чтобы. Though some- …
times such constructions
are translated into Rus-
sian by a simple sen-
tence.
The verbs which demand I rely on you to do this work Я рассчитываю на то, что
prepositional object such properly. вы выполните эту работу
as to wait for, to rely on,
надлежащим образом.
to speak about preserve
this preposition in front
of the construction and
the subordinate clause is
introduced by the con-
junctions то что,
чтобы, пока, etc.

The for-to-Infinitive Constructions

(In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate clause or an infinitive is used)

Function English sentence Russian sentence

Subject (often with He said it was wrong for Он заявил, что ученые не
the introductory it) scientists to refuse to dis- правы в том, что
close their data to the crit- отказываются
ics. обнародовать данные для
дальнейшего критического
рассмотрения.
Predicative It is not for you to choose. Выбирать не вам.
Complex object Beijing is keen for natural Пекин стремится к тому,
gas to play a bigger role in чтобы природный газ занял
its energy mix because it is более твердую позицию в
a cleaner fuel than crude oil структуре энергетического
and coal. комплекса страны,
поскольку этот вид топлива
чище нежели сырая нефть и
уголь.
Attribute The thing for him to do was Ему оставалось только ...
to ... build up a seeming of принять добродетельный,
virtue and dignity which полный достоинства вид в
would pass muster for the расчете, что его лицедейство
genuine thing. (Th. Dreiser, сойдет за чистую монету.
‘The Financier’, ch. XXII)
Adverbial modifier - of purpose: Она отошла в сторону,
чтобы мистер Нельсон
 вошел в аудиторию.
Note: unlike the infinitive, the
for-to-construction in this func-
tion can be placed only after the
predicate.

She stepped aside for Mr

Nelson to enter the room.
- of result: Эта книга по философии
This philosophy book is too слишком серьёзна, чтобы я
heavy for me to enjoy. ею наслаждался.

The Subjective Infinitive Constructions

(The Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction)

Some peculiarities English sentence Russian sentence

of translating these
constructions
As a rule the sentence A.W. Lewis is said to have
Говорят, что А. Льюис стал
with this construction begun the field of Economic
основоположником теории
is translated as a com-
Development and conse-
«Экономического развития»,
plex subject. The main
clause of it is an im- quently the idea of human
и, следовательно, идеи о
personal sentence, like capital when he wrote in
человеческом капитале,
говорят, сообщают, 1954 the “Economic Devel-
когда в 1954 году он
известно and the sub- opment with Unlimited
написал книгу под
ordinate clause is in- Supplies of Labour”.названием «Экономическое
troduced by the con-
развитие в условиях избытка
junctions что and как.
трудовых ресурсов».
In some cases the In other words press is sup- Другими словами, пресса
Complex Subject may posed to regulate itself. должна регулировать все
be translated as a sim-
процессы самостоятельно.
ple sentence.
If the predicate The ambassadorial level Ожидается, что переговоры
(сказуемое) in the talks are not expected to last на уровне послов продлятся
main clause is used in
more than two days. не более двух дней.
the negative form, in
ambassadorial level talks -
translation the nega-
переговоры на уровне послов
tion is shifted to the
subordinate clause.
The predicate may be This contract may be con- Можно считать, что для
expressed by the com- sidered to be of primary im- компании этот контракт
bination of the modal
portance to the company. представляет
verb + infinitive. In
of primary importance - первостепенную важность.
translations it becomes
первостепенной важности
an impersonal sen-
tence which has a
modal meaning.
The Subjective Infini- They are likely to watch Наверняка они будут
tive Construction is Labour policy towards the внимательно следить за
used with the word-
media very closely. политикой лейбористской
groups to be likely, to
(The modal expression to be партии в отношении СМИ.
be sure, and to be cer-
likely to is used to denote proba-
tain.
bility or supposition.)

5. Translation Problems of Syntactical Stylistic Devices

When translating an emphatic sentence, the first thing we will have to do is “estab-
lish what the author really means, and act accordingly.” (N. Strelkova. Introduction to
Russian-English Translation. New York, 2012, p. 58) There are many ways of expressing
emphasis and prominence in English, but we will focus only on the most wide-
spread devices.
Stylistic Inversion
Stylistic inversion is used when a word or a group of words is put in a prominent
position so as to produce a greater effect. So word order often becomes a means of
emphasis, thus acquiring a stylistic function.

The main function of stylistic inversion is to make prominent or emphatic that part
of the sentence which is more important or informative in the speaker’s opinion.
Though prominence and emphasis are different in their purpose, in many cases
they go together or overlap and are difficult to differentiate. (Kobrina, et al., p. 92)

Type of inversion English sentence Russian translation

The inversion of a direct A serious talk I had with Серьезный разговор
object one of my employees. произошел у меня с
одним из моих
работников.
An adverbial modifier Rarely can a demerger Редко разделение
opens the sentence or have had such contrasting компании может иметь
clause. results … столь контрастирующие
(as a rule such inversion is demerger - разъединение, результаты …
translated into Russian by lex- разделение (разделение
ico-grammatical means) одной крупной компании на
несколько самостоятельных
компаний, особенно
разделение ранее слившихся
компаний)
The fact is that seldom Дело в том, что крайне
can you focus on only one редко можно
area. сосредоточиться
только на какой-либо
одной сфере
деятельности.
The inversion of an object Not a single tear did she Она не проронила ни
or an adverbial modifier shed when she was told to слезинки, когда ей
expressed by a word leave London. велели уехать из
group with not a …, or Лондона.
many a … which open the
sentence or a clause
The inversion of posses- Mine came from Mark Мои-то чемоданы были
sive pronouns Cross, and they were gen- куплены у Марка
uine cowhide and all that Кросса, настоящая кожа,
crap and I guess they cost со всякими штучками, и
quite a pretty penny. (J. стоили они черт знает
Salinger, ‘The Catcher in the сколько.
Rye’, ch. XV)
The inversion of preposi- Into that disorderly mass, И в этот
tions denoting direction did Adam Smith intro- беспорядочный хаос
duce symmetry, method, Адам Смит привнёс
and law. гармонию, метод и
закон.
Inversion occurs when the Gone, it seems, is the Мода на то, чтобы пить
sentence has the follow- fashion for drinking from из огромных кофейных
ing structure: the 2-nd bathtub-sized American чашек, похоже,
part of the predicate (it coffee cups. осталась в прошлом.
may be expressed by Partici- bathtub – ванна
ple I, Participle II, a noun or
an adjective) opens the sen- Of great importance is the Особую важность
tence; then stands the first translator’s ability to em- представляет умение
part of the sentence, and ploy various transforma- переводчика применять
finally – the subject. tions. различные
трансформации.
Inversion occurs when the Not only can failure make Такие неудачи не
adverbial words such as us better human beings, только положительно
only, never before, no but it can improve our влияют на наш
longer, not only but, not chances for future suc- характер, но и
until – только после, cess. увеличивают наши
hardly, no sooner … than, шансы на успех в
or the conjunction nor будущем.
open the sentence.
Inversion occurs when a But, admirable as such
Но какие бы
predicative expressed by sentiments are, that is
восхитительные чувства
an adjective or by a noun where I have reservations
меня не переполняли, у
modified by an adjective about this otherwise
меня все равно есть
or by the pronoun such wholly delightful artist.
некоторые оговорки в
opens the sentence. отношении этого
потрясающего артиста.
Inversion occurs when the Unfamiliar though most Даже если большинство
1-st place is occupied by of these dishes will be, all этих блюд вам и не
an adjective, followed by are easy to cook and знакомо, все они
the conjunctions as, could be made the day be- готовятся легко. Кроме
though. fore. того, это можно сделать
и накануне.
Inversion is found in con- Should this avenue prove Окажись это средство
ditional clauses intro- fruitless, a reporter will бесполезным,
duced without any con- then aim to flesh out his корреспондент
junction when the predi- article with historical ex- обязательно нацелится
cate is expressed by was, amples and precedents … на то, чтобы оживить,
were, had, could, should. avenue - путь, средство описав какие-либо
flesh out - расширять исторические примеры
(текст), облекать плотью;
или прецеденты …
конкретизировать
The introductory con- Then came the second Затем наступило
struction there + verb, fol- long wait: at the town второе долгое
lowed by an attributive hall. ожидание: на этот раз в
clause is used to empha- town hall - здание здании муниципалитета.
size the subject. муниципалитета

Negative-emphatic constructions

Way of achieving empha- English example Russian translation

sis and prominence
Emphasis is achieved No politician can pretend Ни один политик не
with the help of the nega- that these colossal sums может делать вид, что
tive pronoun no, followed can be found without можно собрать такие
by a noun. hurting very large num- огромные суммы денег,
bers of people. при этом не ущемив
положение огромного
количества граждан.
In some cases antony- People can’t be reminded Лучше людям реже
mous translation is em- of their faults too often. напоминать об их
ployed when rendering недостатках.
emphatic negative struc-
tures into Russian.
In English the construc- He had been spending Он сорил деньгами и
tions with two negations money like water and it осознал грозящую
(e.g. not until - только; не was not until he got a let- опасность только
раньше чем) are widely ter from the bank that he тогда, когда получил
spread. In this case both saw the red light. предупредительное
negations exclude each see the red light - видеть или письмо из банка.
other and the negation be- подозревать опасность
comes affirmation.
Especially emphatic are Nowhere is the issue of Нигде в мире
the constructions with the journalistic freedom more независимость
words derived from the sensitive than in the case журналистской
negative pronoun no. of the BBC … деятельности не
является таким
больным вопросом, как в
компании ВВС.

Elliptical constructions
Elliptical constructions are incomplete subordinate clauses which usually consist
of the following elements: a conjunction + an adjective or a noun with or without a
preposition. Such sentences lack one or two main members. There are several
types of elliptical constructions.

Type of construction English sentence Russian translation

The elliptical construc- Once the process of the Когда-то подобная
tions with the conjunc- wealthy, the gap-year has практика была лишь
tions although, though, become a global finishing уделом богатых. Теперь
once (стоит лишь ..., school for would-be stu- же такая ситуация стала
если), when, while. dents from across society. распространенной и на
глобальном уровне:
gap year - a year's break
taken by a student between выпускники школ
leaving school and starting зачастую предпочитают
further education уезжать из дома куда-
либо на год, прежде,
чем поступят в вуз.
The elliptical construc- If anything, this iconic Пожалуй, в
tions like if any, if any- garment became even послевоенное время эта
thing have an expressive, more popular after the культовая одежда
intensifying meaning and war … завоевала даже
are translated as condi- большую популярность
tional clauses or the …
words почти, пожалуй,
вовсе, вообще, etc.
The clauses of concession Money, in whatever Деньги, попавшие в
introduced by the con- hands, will confer power. любые руки, приносят
junctions whatever, how- власть.
ever are translated as
complete clauses of con-
cession with the conjunc-
tions какой бы ни, как
бы ни.
 Other Means of Expressing Emphasis and Prominence

Type of emphatic sentence English sentence Russian translation

A detached attribute may A darling of the media, Любимец прессы,
be placed in preposition, he followed Dior’s exam- Карден шел по стопам
post-position, or often at ple by licensing his in- Диора …
some distance from the creasingly marketable
headword (заглавное identity …
слово).
A detached attribute may refer
With her quotable wit Благодаря ее остроумию
not only to the headword, but and her talent for mixing и умению завязывать
also to another part of the sen- with the right crowd, отношения с нужными
tence and have in addition to Coco fits right into our людьми, Коко четко
its attributive meaning some alternative history of вписывается в нашу
adverbial shade of meaning, fashion – one that em- альтернативную
such as conditional, casual, or
concessive (условность,
phasizes the power of историю моды, где
случайность, уступка). marketing. важнейшая роль
отводится именно
маркетингу.
It is / was … + relative clause
It is the ‘art of the deal’ Приветствуется
What … is / was … that gets celebrated, not именно «умение
the production and distri- совершать сделки», а не
Cleft sentence is a sen- bution of quality … само производство и
tence which has been di- goods and services. распределение
vided into two parts, each ‘art of the deal’ – зд. качественных товаров и
with its own verb, to em- «умение совершать сделки» услуг … .
phasize a particular piece
What I find so exciting Что для меня в цирке
of information.
about circus is that there является наиболее
Cleft sentences usually be-
is always that moment of захватывающим, так это
gin with It plus a form of
wonder when you don’t то, что там всегда
the verb be, followed by
know what is going to бывают моменты, когда
the element which is being
happen next. происходит нечто
emphasized.
удивительное, и при
этом ты не знаешь, что
же случится потом.
As for the predicate it can Nobody ever does re- Действительно, ни один
be emphasized with help member details. человек, не может
of the auxiliary verb to do припомнить ни одной
which is used to intensify подробности.
positive statements and What yesterday’s num- Что вчерашние цифры
commands. bers did show is a com- на самом деле
pany trading well on all продемонстрировали,
fronts. так это то, что компания
продолжает вести свою
коммерческую
 деятельность во всех
направлениях.
Emphasis is created by the Whenever a disturbance Всякий раз, когда
following words: whoever, or perturbation such as a устоявшуюся
whatever, wherever, road violates an estab- экосистему нарушает
whenever, however. lished ecosystem, inva- какое-либо
sive weeds like thistle or вмешательство извне,
broom take over bare как например, дорога, то
ground … быстро
распространяющиеся
семена, такие как
чертополох или
ракитник тут же
колонизируют
лишенную
растительности почву …
Emphasis can be created This is the very book I Это та самая книга,
with the help of the con- have been searching for которую я ищу почти
struction: the or posses- almost a year. год.
sive determiner + very + a
noun.

Lecture 6

Translation and the Problems of Style

1. Definition of Style

Style is variation in a person’s speech or writing. Style usually varies from casual
to formal according to the type of situation, the person or persons addressed, the
location, the topic discussed, etc.
A particular style, e.g. a formal style or a colloquial style, is sometimes referred to
as a stylistic variety.
Some linguists use the term register for a stylistic variety while others differentiate
between the two. (522)
Register (регистр, стиль; уровень (произношения, чистоты речи и т. п.)) is a form of a
language associated with a particular social situation or subject matter, such as ob-
scene slang, legal language, or journalese.
Register is concerned with the overall tone of a text or conversation, and the rela-
tionship that is built between the speaker and listener, or reader and writer. It is im-
portant to speak and write in the appropriate register for the situation.
A functional style of a language is a system of interrelated language means which
serves a definite aim in communication.
A functional style is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain task, set by the
sender of the message.

2. Classification of Functional Styles

Functional style appears mainly in the literary standard of a language. In English

there are the following major functional styles:
1) the language of belles-lettres (poems, emotive prose, drama);
2) the language of publicist literature (oratory, essays, feature articles in newspaper
and journals):
3) the language of newspapers (brief news items, advertisments and announce-
ments, headlines);
4) the language of science (scientific prose, exact sciences, humanitarian sciences);
5) the language of official documents (diplomatic, business, legal, military).

The Belles-Lettres Style

Belles-Lettres is literature that is an end in itself and is not practical or purely in-
formative. The term can refer generally to poetry, fiction, drama, etc., or more
specifically to light, entertaining, sophisticated literature. It is often used to refer to
literary studies, particularly essays. The word is French and literally means “beau-
tiful letters”. (Encyclopaedia Britannica http://www.britannica.com/bps/failedlogin)

The function of belles-lettres style is aesthetic. Its main features are:

1. Genuine imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.

2. The use of words in its contextual meaning.

3. The individual choice of vocabulary which reflects the author's personal evalua-
tion of things and phenomena.

4. A peculiar individual choice of syntactic structures.

5. The introduction of elements typical of other styles.

Especial attention should be paid to the translation of headings and titles of literary
works.

Translation of Headings and Titles

The title of a literary text may be a little changed to achieve an appropriate conno-
tation in the TT. For example, the translation of the title of Alexander Grin’s book
Алые паруса required lexical and stylistic analysis so that the translator didn’t dis-
tort the message of the novel.
The thing is that the adjective алый in the Russian language has a good connota-
tion. It is associated with something pleasant, merry, for example, with holidays.
Ex: алые губы - cherry red lips
In English алый is translated as:
vermilion - ярко-красный, алый; багряный;
crimson - 1) малиновый, тёмно-красный; 2) кровавый;
scarlet - алый, ярко-красный; пурпурный.
However the title of the book is translated as Crimson Sales because in the English
language a scarlet woman is any sexually promiscuous woman, especially a prosti-
tute (блудница, распутная женщина), that is why the word scarlet has a bad con-
notation.
(This expression comes from the Bible, New Testament. It means a sinful woman described in
Revelation 17, interpreted as a figure either of pagan Rome or of the Roman Catholic Church re-
garded as typifying vice overlaid with gaudy pageantry.)

The Publicist Style

Publicist style is represented by the following substyles: oratorical (direct contact

with the listeners); radio and TV commentary; essay (moral, philosophical, liter-
ary; book review in journals and magazines, pamphlets); journalistic articles (polit-
ical, social, economic). (Рябцева Э.Г. Стилистика английского языка, с. 256 //Ю.К.
Волошин, В.В. Катермина, Э.Г. Рябцева Основы научных исследований, Лексикология
английского языка. Стилистика английского. (УМК) языка, Краснода, 2008)

Publicist style is characterized by its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion di-

rected at influencing the reader or listener and shaping his views.

The following features are typical of publicist text:

1. Coherent and logical syntactical structure of the text;
2. Expanded system of connectives;
З. Careful paragraphing;
4. Ample use of the words with emotive meaning;
5. Wide use of imagery, but the stylistic devices used in publicist style аге not
fresh and genuine.
6. Brevity of expression. In essays brevity sometimes becomes epigrammatic.

The Style of Official Documents

Official style is the language of business documents.

This style has a definite communicative aim and, accordingly, its own system of
interrelated language and stylistic means.

1. The vocabulary of this type of documents is characterized by the highest degree

of formality.
2. Words are usually used in their logical dictionary meaning.

3. The language is rather lofty: e.g. to inform (=to tell); to assist (=to help); to co-
operate (=to work together). The use of words with emotive meaning is unaccept-
able in official style.

4. Besides, official documents are replete with clichés, terms and set-phrases for
which there are usually standard equivalents in the TL.
Ex: the High Contracting Parties - высокие договаривающиеся стороны
we the undersigned ... - мы, нижеподписавшиеся, …

5. Another feature of the language of official documents is the use of abbrevia-

tions, conventional symbols and contractions.

Ex: $ (dollar); Ltd (Limited); FLOTUS (First Lady of the United States)

6. The syntax of official documents is characterized by the frequent use of:

1) non-finite forms – Gerund, Participle and Infinitive.

Ex: Considering that …

in order to achieve cooperation in solving the problems…

2) complex structures with them, such as:

- the Complex Object (We expect this to take place);

- Complex Subject (This is expected to take place);

- the Absolute Participial Construction (The conditions being violated, it appears

necessary to state that …).

7. The structure of the official document is also worth mentioning. A piece of writ-
ing of this type usually consists of a preamble, main text body and a finalizing
(concluding) part.

The Language of Scientific Literature

Scientific style is found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific and
academic publications. (Рябцева Э.Г. Стилистика английского языка, с. 257 //Ю.К.
Волошин, В.В. Катермина, Э.Г. Рябцева Основы научных исследований, Лексикология
английского языка. Стилистика английского. (УМК) языка, Краснода, 2008)

The following features are typical of scientific texts:

1. Scientific texts are characterized by the use of special terminology.
2. The word-order is usually strict. The inversion occurs if the sentence is the con-
tinuation of the previous one.
3. Each paragraph starts with a key sentence containing the main idea.
4. The logical sequence of utterances with clear indications of their interrelations
and interdependence is especially important when discussing this or that subject.
5. Another distinctive feature of scientific texts is the use of quotations, references
and footnotes is also an indispensable.
6. To stress the logical connection between sentences the special set-phrases are
used.
Ex: to sum up - суммировать; обобщать; подводить итог
as we have seen in chapter 5 ... - как мы показали в главе 5 ...

The adverbs, conjunctions and connective words serve the same aim.
Ex: finally, again, thus (adverbs)
that, and that, than, if, as, or, nor (conjunctions and connective words)
Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): not merely, but also, both …
and, as … as.
7. The expressiveness in scientific and technical texts is quantitative. The follow-
ing phrases are typical of this kind of texts.
Ex: much the same - почти такой же, похожий
to note that - отметить, что
another point of considerable interest is … - другой момент, который
представляет для нас значительный интерес – это …
it is by no means trivial - это отнюдь не банальный, тривиальный факт

The Main Ways of Translating Terms

Way of translation Example Translation

1. The translation a) one takes a Russian term as an equiva- отпуск по
of terms using a lent to an English term, the form of which беременности и
is not connected with the form of the Eng-
lexical equivalent родам
lish term (recognized translation).
in Russian: maternity leave
b) the equivalent is created by means of the аутсорсинг
transcription / transliteration of the English
term.

outsourcing
c) the equivalent is created by means of брачно-
calque. имущественный
контракт
marriage property pact
d) the equivalent is created by combination биоразнообразие
of transcription and calque (semicalque). (биологическое
разнообразие)
biodiversity
2. The translation a) the choice between calque and - "полевые"
by choosing one of corresponding Russian term. сотрудники
the possible lexical - сотрудники
variants field force компании,
работающие на
местах или в
филиалах компании,
вдали от головной
конторы
b) the choice between transcription and the - прайм-тайм
Russian term. - лучшее эфирное
время
prime time
c) the choice between transcription and - бэби-бумер
definition. - человек,
baby boomer родившийся в
период
демографического
взрыва (особенно в
1946-64 гг. в США или
Канаде);

The translation by first-past-the-post отдающий победу

means of defini- кандидату,
tion only набравшему простое
большинство
голосов

The Main Ways of Translating Abbreviations

Abbreviation is a shortened or contracted form of a word or phrase used in place of

the whole.

Abbreviation Way of word Russian translation Way of transla-

formation tion

EuroClear Syllable abbre- ЮроКлир (клиринговая Transcription /

viation (combi- система, учреждение для transliteration
nation of two ini- расчетов между банками на
tial syllables) вторичном рынке
еврооблигаций и других
ценных бумаг)

CEO (Chief Ex- Letter abbrevia- Главный исполнительный The abbreviation

ecutive Officer) tion директор корпорации is reformulated
 into full words.

Four Ps (prod- Mixed abbrevi- Четыре составных части The abbreviation

uct, place, price, ation (consists of маркетинга is reformulated
promotion) number and let- into full words.
ters)

Sales rep. (sales Shortened word Торговый представитель The abbreviation

representative) is reformulated
into full words.

WTO (World Letter abbrevia- ВТО (Всемирная Corresponding

Trade Organiza- tion торговая организация) Russian abbrevi-
tion) ation

CHESS (Com- Acronym (letter Система контроля за The abbreviation

munity Health abbreviation) состоянием здоровья is reformulated
and Environmen- населения и окружающей into full words.
tal Surveillance
средой
System)

SALT (Strategic Acronym (letter Переговоры ОСВ Mixed transla-

Arms Limitation abbreviation) (советско-американские tion: prop noun
Talks) переговоры об ограничении переговоры +
стратегических вооружений)
corresponding
Russian abbrevi-
ation

The Peculiarities of the Newspaper Style and Their Translation

1. The structure of a newspaper item

2. Newspaper headlines
3. The translation of clichés

The Structure of the Newspaper Item

Russian and English news texts are characterized by a number of common features,
namely:
1) a wide stylistic range (different styles depending on the theme of the article);
2) preference for compressed sentences.

1. The title or headline

2. The lead (краткое изложение газетной статьи (помещается
непосредственно перед статьёй))
3. The article itself
2. The lead usually contains the summary of the most essential and interesting facts
of the article. And the detailed account of the material follows the lead.
In former times people used to consider that the lead had to contain one sentence
answering 6 questions:
1) Who?
2) When?
3) Where?
4) Why?
5) What?
6) How?

Nowadays this rule is not so strict. The lead should answer these questions, but not
necessarily all of them.

3. The compression of the text is one of the most important facts, which should be
taken into account when translating newspaper article.
One and the same idea can be expressed in various ways, but on the whole lacon-
ism is typical of the newspaper style.
In the majority of manuals for journalists in the USA and Great Britain laconism is
considered as one of the demands for newspaper style, but some investigations
prove that the volume of any translation is bigger than that of the origin.

The tendency to the widening of the volume of the text translated should be bal-
anced by the tendency to compression if we want to create the text meeting the
norms of the newspaper international style.

Newspaper Headlines

These should normally be translated last. A non-literary text or book should be ac-
curately described by its title.
When comparing English and Russian headlines, you may trace a number of dis-
tinctive features, which are naturally reflected in translation.
1. Thus, in English headlines verb-phrases are preferably used.
Ex: Cat goddess discovered in ruins of temple
In this headline the verb to be and the articles are left out.
N.B. You should bear in mind that in the English headlines the articles and the so
called function words (служебное слово) are omitted.
So the restored sentence would be:
The cat goddess has been discovered in the ruins of a temple

Ex: British protesters arrested

The British protesters were arrested
2. The actions which took place in the past are usually expressed by the verbs in
the present tenses.

Ex: Pay gap faces security = Данные о разрыве в размере заработной платы не
будут оглашаться

The context: Companies are to be given some immunity (неприкосновенность,

иммунитет) from investigation by the Equality and Human Rights Commission if
they publish details on pay disparity (неравенство) between men and women.

3. The actions that will take place in the future are usually expressed by infinitive.

Ex: Britain and France to sign defense treaty

Hero of wartime elephant ‘Dankirk’ to be honored

4. The Russian headlines favor noun-phrases.

So to translate them correctly you should resort to some syntactic transformation.
Ex: Переброска американских солдат в Афганистан = Американских солдат
перебрасывают в Афганистан

The American soldiers are being airlifted to Afghanistan

But it is not a headline yet. We should omit the verb to be and the definite article.

The American soldiers airlifted to Afghanistan

The Translation of Clichés

The newspaper language is rich in ready-made formulae, or clichés.

Cliché is an expression which has lost its originality or effectiveness because it has
been used too often. (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics, p.
75)
In the process of translation it is important not only to preserve the figurative sense
of the cliché, but also to stress the fact that it is used regularly and that everybody
is used to it.
Here are some examples of cliché:
English expression Russian translation
Silent Majority (a presumed moderate ma- "Молчаливое большинство"
jority of the citizens who are too passive to
make their views known)

Double standard (a set of principles that al- Двойной стандарт; двойная мораль;
lows greater freedom to one person or group двойные критерии оценки
than to another)

Crying shame (of something bad that de- Вопиющее безобразие

mands urgent attention)

To flex one's muscle (to show off one's Играть мускулами, демонстрировать
strength or power) силу

3. Translation Problems of Lexical Stylistic Devices

To enhance the communicative effect of his message the author of the source text
may make use of various stylistic devices, such as metaphors, similes, puns and so
on. Coming across a stylistic device the translator has to make up his mind whether
it should be preserved in his translation or left out and compensated for at some
other place.
The problem of stylistic devices touches upon the relative functional value of
seemingly identical stylistic resources.
Stylistic device is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical struc-
tural and / or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted
to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative model.
Some of the examples of translating stylistic devices are presented in the following
table:

Device Example Way of translation

Metaphor is a figure of Ex: He is a lion in battle. – В Metaphors are
speech in which a word or
бою он просто лев. translated either
phrase is applied to an ob-
Ex: Assuming that it was now up by:
ject or action that it does
to him to put bread on the family 1) keeping to se-
not literally denote in or-
table, Charles headed for London mantic similarity;
der to imply a resem- … 2) choosing an ap-
blance. Посчитав, что теперь пришел propriate prag-
* A distinction is made be-
его черед кормить семью, matic equivalent
tween a metaphor, which Чарльз отправился в Лондон … flood of tears
compares without like or as; a
simile, which uses like or as in
the comparison; and personifi-
cation, which gives human
qualities to something that is
not human, usually in abstract
ideas.
Similes are more precise, Ex: My heart is like a singing Similes are trans-
more restricted than bird lated either by:
metaphors, thus they are Whose nest is in a watered 1) keeping to se-
easier to translate. shoot; mantic similarity;
A simile is a comparison My heart is like an apple 2) choosing an ap-
that shows similarities in tree propriate prag-
things that are basically Whose boughs are bent matic equivalent.
different. A simile is usu- with thickest fruit.
ally introduced by as or Christina Rossetti
like. Similes are often
used in both poetry and Ex: Mrs. Mallard’s eyes shone
prose. like polished gems when she real-
Many metaphors and similes ized she was free at last.
are conventional figures of Глаза миссис Мэлард просто
speech regularly used by the засияли от счастья, когда она
members of the language com-
осознала, что наконец-то
munity. Such figurative units
may be regarded as idioms свободна.
and translated in a similar Literal translation of polished gems is
way. шлифованные драгоценные камни.
And the main problem is cul-
tural, that is how one adopts or
transfers the simile.
Ex: snow-white - 1)
белоснежный; белый,
как снег (в странах, где
бывает снег); 2) белый,
как перья цапли
Personification is refer- Love conquers all. Literal translation
ence to something general (Love is personified.)
or abstract as if it were an
individual (i.e. the attribu-
tion of human characteristics
to things, abstract ideas, etc.,
as for literary or artistic effect)
Metonymy is the substi- For example, the use of the Literal translation
tution of a word referring crown to refer to a monarch
to an attribute for the Institutional metonymies such as the
thing that is meant (замена Kremlin and the White House may or
одного слова другим на may not require any explanation.
основе связи их значений по Ex: the Kremlin - правительство
смежности). России
In other words the name of an Ex: the White House (the US
object is transferred to take the presidency) - Белый дом,
place of something else with
правительство США
which it is associated. Nor-
mally it requires the knowl- Ex: Both the FBI and the White
edge of the target language House were determined to learn
culture. how the Post was getting its in-
formation and to put a stop to it.
(C. Bernstein and B. Woodward, ‘All
the President's Men’, ch. 4) - ФБР и
 Белый дом решили докопаться,
каким образом "Вашингтон
пост" получает подобную
информацию, и положить
этому конец.
Hyperbole is a deliberate Ex: He embraced her a thousand Literal translation
exaggeration used for ef- times. – Он обнял ее тысячу
fect. раз.
Epithet is a descriptive Ex: "Lackland" (безземельный) Literal translation
word or phrase, especially is an epithet for King John.
of praise or blame, added Ex: America the Beautiful -
to or substituted for a per- "Америка прекрасная" /
son's name. Красавица Америка
Epithets often show the atti-
tude of the author to the object
he is speaking about and if
these epithets are used regu-
larly, they become clichés.
Alliteration is the use of Alliteration is used in many common Corresponding TL
the same consonant (con- set phrases: equivalent
sonantal alliteration) or safe and sound - цел и
of a vowel, not necessar- невредим, жив-здоров
ily the same vowel (vo- Tell your aunt you're safe and
calic alliteration), at the sound, and right on the dot of
beginning of each word or seven. (P. H. Johnson, ‘An Impossible
Marriage’, part I, ch. 14)
each stressed syllable in a
line of verse. Передайте тетушке, что я
Alliteration sounds that доставил вас в целости и
are difficult to pronounce сохранности ровно в семь.
make a “tongue twister”.

Pun (also play on words) Ex: "Ben Battle was a soldierA pun can be
is an amusing use of a bold, And used to war's alarms:
translated only by
word or phrase that has But a cannonball took off hisa word in the TL
two meanings, or of legs, So he laid down his arms."
with a similar ca-
words with the same (Thomas Hood) pacity to develop
sound but different mean- two meanings in a
ings. Ex: Seven days without water particular context.
make one weak. (not week) English is compara-
tively rich in polyse-
mantic words and
homonyms, whereas
in Russian these word
types are rather rare.
Allusion is an indirect This is Gangsta rap for execu- Literal translation
reference by the word- tives, hardly a recipe for success
combination to the fact of in business.
everyday life. Да это скорее гангстерский
рэп для руководителей, а не
рецепт успеха в бизнесе.
gangsta rap - a style of rap music,
usually characterized by lyrics about
Black street gangs in the US, often
with violent, nihilistic, and misogynis-
tic themes
Antonomasia is 1) the That there are modern-day Attilas Literal translation
substitution of a title or and Machiavellis is obvious, and
epithet for a proper name the same uncritical admiration is
(ex: his highness - Его in evidence.
Высочество) Современные Аттилы и
2) the use of a proper Макиавелли существуют - это
name for an idea совершенно очевидно; также
налицо и тот факт, что ими
слепо восхищаются.
(the proper names - Attila and Machi-
avelli symbolize negative features of
character)

Lecture 7

Classification of Translation Techniques

Translation techniques are procedures which are used to analyse and classify
how translation equivalence works. Translation techniques have five basic charac-
teristics:
1. They affect the result of the translation.
2. They are classified by comparison with the original.
3. They affect micro-units of text.
4. They are by nature discursive (совершаемый путём логических умозаключений) and
contextual.
5. They are functional.

The choice of the translation technique depends on:

1) the genre of the text (letter of complaint, contract, tourist brochure, etc.);
2) the type of translation (technical, literary, etc.);
3) the purpose of the translation and the characteristics of the translation audience.

It should be noted that terminological diversity and the overlapping of terms of-
ten make it difficult to explain the peculiarities of the process of translation. The
same concept can be expressed with different names and the classifications vary,
covering different areas of problems.
1. Lexical translation techniques
2. Contextual Replacements
a) lexico-semantic modifications
b) lexico-grammatical transformations
3. Grammatical transformations

1. Lexical Translation Techniques

1 Transcription is a technique based upon Flash mob - флеш-моб

phonetic principle.
It is mandatory in all the following cases unless Food-court – фуд-корт
there is already a generally accepted transla- (ресторанный дворик,
tion. расположенный на территории
1) proper names (names of people or geographi- торгового центра, который
cal places); объединяет и включает в себя
2) addresses; операторов фаст-фуда)
3) names of private firms;
4) names of national, private and public institu-
tions unless they are transparent (i.e. clear, under-
standable);
5) titles of newspapers, periodicals, books, musi-
cal compositions.
In all the above mentioned cases the translator
may add a translation or gloss if he thinks this
will help the reader.
2 Transliteration is the practice of tran- Facilitator - фасилитатор,
scribing a word or text written in one writ- посредник
ing system into another writing system. Insider – инсайдер (лицо, в силу
N.B. Translators often resort to translitera- служебного положения
tion and naturalization* simultaneously. располагающее конфиденциальной
* Naturalization adapts the SL word first to the информацией о делах организации)
normal pronunciation, then to the normal mor-
phology of the TL. (Newmark, 1988b:82)
3 Semantic translation is the attempts to Home care - медицинская
render, as closely as the semantic and syn- помощь на дому; стационар на
tactic structures of the second language al- дому
low, the exact contextual meaning of the Densely populated area -
original. густонаселённый район
5 Loan translation (through translation / Peacemaker – миротворец
calque) is the adoption by one language of Hot zone - "горячая" зона, зона
a phrase or compound word whose com- переноса (части строк,
ponents are literal translations of the com- непосредственно примыкающих к
ponents of a corresponding phrase or com- правому краю страницы текста)
pound in a foreign language. It can be lexi-
cal or structural.
6 Mixed translation is represented by the Constantine the Great -
 combination of semantic translation + Константин Великий
transcription and / or calque.
7 Recognized translation occurs when the Stakeholder - акционер
translator "normally uses the official or Fashion designer - модельер
the generally accepted translation of any
institutional term." (Newmark, 1988b:89) It is
usually called the corresponding TL
equivalent or established equivalent.
8 Analogous translation = approximate Drugstore - аптека, аптекарский
translation is the selection of a synonym магазин (с самым широким
that will perfectly fit the context, that is a ассортиментом товаров, в т.ч.
word or phrase which is clearer to the re- туалетными и канцелярскими
принадлежностями, мороженым,
ceptor.
кофе, журналами)
In other words analogous translation is аптека - chemist's (shop) аптека,
used when the terms are very close but аптекарский магазин (торгует
there is a slight difference in meaning, лекарствами, косметикой и
which in most cases may be neglected. средствами личной гигиены)

(Analogue is a word or phrase which is quite Punch - Панч (традиционный

close to the SL word meaning, but without com- персонаж английского кукольного
plete coincidence.) театра; аналог русского Петрушки)
Judy Punch and Judy show -
"Панч и Джуди" (кукольное
уличное представление)
9 Footnote (or translator’s commentary) A haunting case of such an over-
is a technique that has two main functions: shoot took place on St. Matthew
1) to correct linguistic and cultural differ- Island in the Bering Sea in 1944
ences, e.g., to explain contradictory customs, to when 29 reindeer were imported.
identify unknown geographical or physical items,
to give equivalents for weights and measures, to В памяти то и дело всплывает
explain word play, to add information about
случай подобного овершута
proper names, etc.;
(т.е. превышения потенциала
2) to add additional information about the действия над потенциалом
historical and cultural context of the text покоя), когда в 1944 году на
in question. остров Святого Матфея завезли
29 северных оленей.
(Translator’s commentary)

University professors sing the

praises of Einstein, Socrates, and
occasionally a more prestigious
version of ‘Mr. Chips’.
Преподаватели университетов
прославляют Эйнштейна,
Сократа, а иногда и более
 престижный пример для
подражания - мистера Чипса*.
(Footnote)
*Мистер Чипс - центральный
персонаж книги Дж. Хилтона [Hilton,
James] " До свидания, мистер Чипс"
[" Goodbye, Mr. Chips"] (1935) и
одноименного фильма по ней (1939);
учитель латыни, отдающий все силы
и любовь своим ученикам. Синоним
учителя, преданного своему делу.

2. Contextual Replacements

Lexico-semantic Modifications
№ Type of replacement Example
1 Generalization is the The country was fragmented into hundreds of war-
use of a more general or ring states.
neutral term instead of Страна была раздроблена на множество
the corresponding воюющих между собой областей.
source text item.
hundreds - сотни
2 Specification / Con- All industrial systems and designs pale when com-
cretization / Particu- pared to the efficiency of natural systems of pro-
larization is the use of a duction.
more precise or concrete Все промышленные системы и модели теряют
term. важность, когда их сравнивают с экологически
чистыми системами производства.

design - 1) замысел, план; 2) намерение, цель; 3) чертёж,

эскиз, набросок; 4) модель, шаблон
3 Description (or defini- The ability to overexploit the earth’s stored-up sup-
tion) is the replacement ply of resources is what we call economic progress.
of a word or expression Процесс использования природных ресурсов
with a description of itsвыше уровня их естественного восстановления
form or / and function. – это то, что мы называем экономическим
прогрессом.
4 In attempting to make our designs more and more
Occasional substitute complex, we found that there was less and less
is the replacement of a room for improvisation or spontaneity.
SL unit by a TL unit,
which can be considered Пытаясь сделать наши работы более сложными,
as its synonym only in a мы поняли, что остается все меньше и меньше
given context. простора для полета фантазии и
импровизации.

spontaneity - 1) самопроизвольность, спонтанность,

 естественность; 2) непосредственность

Lexico-grammatical Transformations

№ Type of transformation Example

1 Addition (добавление) is the Corporations expand and contract, hire and
inclusion of one or several ele- fire, they make and sell products.
ments into the word-combina- Корпорации расширяются и заключают
tion or phrase in the TL. договора, нанимают и увольняют
персонал, производят и реализуют свою
продукцию.
2 Omission / Subtraction / Re- About 35 million Americans pay a monthly
duction (опущение) is the re- fee of approximately $17.00 for greater selec-
verse of addition. It is used to tion.
reduce the redundancy of the Около 35 миллионов американцев
phrase by omitting words ежемесячно платят примерно $17.00,
which can be easily restored чтобы иметь возможность большего
from the context (for example, выбора программ.
pair synonyms, unnecessary repeti-
tion, specified references, conjunc- to pay - платить
tions and adverbs). fee - (денежный) взнос, платёж; внесение платы
3 Modulation is a procedure Adam Smith, in particular, would have no
that is employed when, al- patience for these dehumanizing metaphors
though a literal or even trans- …
posed, translation results in a Адама Смита такие грубые метафоры
grammatically correct utter- особенно выводили из себя …
ance, but it is considered un-
suitable, unidiomatic or awk- (Paraphrase)
ward in the TL. Modulation
can be lexical or structural. We Literal translation:
distinguish three main types of Адам Смит в особенности не имел терпения к
modulation: cause-and-effect, таким грубым метафорам.
metonymy and paraphrase.*
4 Antonymous translation is The debate over the possible link between the
the replacement of the nega- amount of violence on television and the
tive construction by the affir- amount of violence in society has not been
mative one and vice versa, yet resolved.
though the meaning of the
original sentence remains in- Полемика вокруг возможной связи между
tact. демонстрацией насилия по телевидению и
насилием в обществе продолжается.

Literal translation:
... еще не окончена.
5 Adaptation involves changing "Not a dime's worth difference" - "различия,
the cultural reference when a не стоящие и гроша"
situation in the source culture
doesn’t exist in the target cul- dime - монета в 10 центов (в Америке и Канаде)
ture.
(Намек на отсутствие существенных различий
между двумя основными политическими
партиями США - Республиканской и
Демократической. Впервые эту фразу употребил
в 1967 губернатор штата Алабама Дж. Уоллес.)
6 Compensation implies that, Sanary is an unpretentious seaside resort on
whenever it is not possible or the Riviera... You'll like it if you don't mind
comfortable to translate an ele- its being as dull as ditchwater. (W. S.
ment of the ST, the loss is Maugham, ‘The Razor's Edge’, ch. VI)
compensated by expressing the
dull as ditch water - невыносимо нудный,
same concept in another part
скучный; ≈ тоска смертная, тоска зелёная
of the text or the sentence.
“Compensation may be the an- Санари - скромный морской курорт на
swer when a translator cannot Ривьере... Там тоска смертная. Если вы
find a good way to put across этого не боитесь, Санари вам понравится.
some component of the origi-
nal. He can sometimes modify
or add another element to aid
comprehension in a different
part of the sentence, thus mak-
ing up for the original defi-
ciency”. (N. Strelkova. Introduc-
tion to Russian-English Translation.
New York, 2012, p. 95)
7 Interpretation / discursive These advances produced a need for more
creation is an attempt to ex- skilled labor, which caused the wages of oc-
press the original utterance in cupations that required more education to
absolutely different words in considerably diverge from the wages of ones
the TL. Such changes are that required less.
caused by incompatibilities be-
tween the two languages, for Такой прогресс вызвал необходимость в
example, semantic misfits. In- использовании более квалифицированной
terpretation is often employed рабочей силы, в результате чего
when translating proverbs, сложилась ситуация, когда размер
sayings and idiomatic expres- заработной платы нужно было
sion. дифференцировать в зависимости от
знаний и опыта работника:
квалифицированный труд оплачивался
выше, нежели работа, не требующая
специальной квалификации.
 Literal translation:
Такой прогресс послужил причиной потребности
в более квалифицированной рабочей силе, что
вызвало заработную плату профессий, которые
требовали более высокого образования,
существенно отличающейся от заработной платы
тех профессий, где не требовалась высокая
квалификация.
8 Emphatization. This means Countries whose children do well at school
that we lend a stronger emo- are those that recruit their teachers from the
tional or expressive impact to brightest graduates.
the translation as compared
with the original. “Techniques Дети демонстрируют хорошую
of pointing up (придавать успеваемость в школе именно в тех
колорит) or playing down странах, где учителей набирают из числа
(преуменьшать, умалять) an ele- самых талантливых выпускников.
ment in the sentence can help
to highlight and bring out the
thought more effectively.” (N.
Strelkova. Introduction to Russian-
English Translation. New York,
2012, p. 58)
9 Neutralization is the reverse In a sense, each batik resides in the lap of the
of emphatization. Gods until it comes back from the Dry clean-
ers with the wax removed.

in the lap of the gods - beyond human control and

power (в руках божьих)

В некотором смысле, мы совершенно не

уверены, что будет с батиком дальше,
пока его не вернут из химчистки
полностью очищенным от воска.

*Modulation
Type of LD Definition Example
Metonymy - The substitution of a He knows political Washington, too,
метонимия word referring to an at- and pulls the strings. (W. Du Bois,
tribute for the thing that ‘Worlds of Color’, ch. I)
is meant (замена одного
слова другим на основе Кроме того, у него есть связи в
связи их значений по Вашингтоне, и он ими нередко
смежности) пользуется.
Cause-and-ef- An expression of a state- Child labour, once widespread in the
fect relation- ment or text in other United States, is no longer permitted,
ships - words, esp. in order to but exists in other nations.
причинно- clarify (замена причины Детский труд, который когда-то был
следственны следствием, или широко распространен в США,
е связи результатом и наоборот, теперь там запрещен, однако в
замена результата
других странах эта практика до сих
причиной)
пор существует.

Literal translation:
Детский труд, когда-то широко
распространенный в США, больше не
разрешен, но существует в других странах.
Paraphrase - Paraphrase involves There are significant parallels with
парафраз(а) / changing whole phrases 1980s.
перифраз and more or less corre- Все очень похоже на то, как было в
sponds to faithful or восьмидесятых.
sense-for-sense transla-
tion. Literal translation:
(вместо названия предмета Есть значительные параллели с
или понятия используется восьмидесятыми.
свободное словосочетание,
описывающее или
характеризующее этот
предмет; и наоборот,
вместо описательного
оборота дается название
предмета.)

3. Grammatical Transformations

Courses of gram- Grammatical transformations occur because of different rea-

matical transfor- sons both of purely grammatical and lexical character, but the
mations grammatical factors play the main role.
While comparing grammatical categories (English and Rus-
sian) and forms of both languages one can observe the follow-
ing differences:
a) the absence of correspondence of a category of one of the
languages (e.g. articles, Gerund, nominative construction,
деепричастие);
b) partial correspondence of a category of number, the forms of
the passive voice and the forms of the Infinitive and Partici-
ple).
Besides, the structural peculiarities of the English language de-
mand the structural finality of the sentence and a strict word-
order.
The most wide- 1. Transposition / Permutation is a change in the order of lin-
spread types of guistic elements such as words, phrases and clauses.
grammatical 2. Replacement / Substitution can affect practically all types
transformations of linguistic units, that is word form (словоформа), for exam-
 ple, the category of number when plural is replaced by singu-
lar: The novel of lives of common people – Роман о жизни
простых людей; parts of speech; types of syntactic relations
(синтаксическое отношение), etc.

Types of Grammatical Transformations

Type of gram- English sentence Russian sentence

matical trans-
formation
Parts of This use of a woman to ad- То, что к рекламе сигарет он
speech re- vertise cigarettes created a привлек женщину, стало
placement sensation … сенсацией …
(The verb is replaced by the noun.)
Despite the fact that environ- Несмотря на тот факт, что
mental issues are now ac- проблема состояния
cepted internationally as the окружающей сейчас
most pressing problem of the признается в международном
twenty-first century, the in- масштабе самым актуальным
stitutions that embody and вопросом 21-го века,
guide our economic progress институты, которые
have only begun to respond. осуществляют и управляют
экономическим прогрессом,
начали на нее реагировать
относительно недавно.
(The adverb is replaced by the noun
phrase.)
He was dismissed as incom- Его уволили за
petent. некомпетентность.
(The adjective is replaced by the
noun.)
There has been a subtle Лишь незначительно
change in vocabulary. изменился словарный запас.
(The adjective subtle is replaced by
the adverb; the noun change is re-
placed by the verb.)
The replace- Taking a major gamble, he Предприняв рискованный шаг,
ment of the committed the company to a он переориентировал
word-form then-novel product – the cig- производство на выпуск тогда
arette. еще новой продукции –
сигарет.
(Singular is replaced by plural.)
People have only to be rich Если человек богат и на виду,
enough and in the swim to be пресса будет чуть не каждый
credited every other day in день писать о нем, наделяя его
the Press with the impressive весьма привлекательными
 qualities. (J. B. Priestley, ‘Rain качествами.
upon Godshill’, ch. 13) (Plural is replaced by singular.)
The replace- Through their complex inter- Путем сложного обмена
ment of a sim- changes of nutrients, gases питательными веществами,
ple sentence and information, mature sys- газами и информацией зрелые
by a complex tems create the greatest системы создают огромное
one amount of biomass with the количество биомассы,
least amount of input. затрачивая на это
минимальное количество
ресурсов.
Splitting tech- Theoretically, anyone in the Теоретически в США любой
nique / Divi- U.S. can start a newspaper человек может основать
sion: dividing or magazine, but to become газету или журнал. Однако
one long sen- a radio or television broad- для того, чтобы приобрести
tence into two caster one must be granted a статус радио- или
or more portion of the limited radio- телевизионной вещательной
smaller ones television spectrum … организации, владелец должен
иметь гарантии того, что он
получит хотя бы
лимитированный спектр теле-
и радиочастот …
Unification: So soon as this is recognized, Как только люди начинают это
combining the distinction between econ- осознавать, различие между
two sentences omy in consumption and экономикой потребления и
into one economy in investment be- экономикой инвестиций
comes blurred. For, up to a становится расплывчатой,
point, consumption is invest- поскольку потребление, хотя и
ment in personal productive не полностью, является
capacity. инвестицией в
производительность самого
работника.
The Active His biggest hit was a per- Особенно громкий успех среди
Voice is re- fume Opium, which покупателей имели духи
placed by the launched in 1978 and re- Opium. Они были выпущены в
Passive mains popular today. 1978 году, но пользуются
Voice. популярностью и по сей день.
The Passive Programs that aim at mass Развлекательные программы,
Voice is trans- entertainment are preferred рассчитанные на массовую
lated by the over educational and news аудиторию, пользуются
Active Voice. programs. большей популярностью,
нежели учебные и
информационные программы.
The replace- “Go anywhere in the world, «Куда бы вы ни поехали»,
ment of the one leading political journal- пишет один ведущий
sentence type ist has written, “and British политобозреватель,
 television is an object of «британское телевидение везде
envy and admiration”. является предметом зависти и
восхищения».
(The Imperative sentence is replaced
by the Subjunctive mood.)
Transposition Pieces of wood are cast up Весь берег покрыт
of the mem- all along this coast. выброшенными из моря
bers of the деревянными обломками.
sentence (Subject – predicate - adverbial modi-
fier of place = adverbial modifier of
place – predicate – subject)
Transposition A problem must be stated in Чтобы решить проблему, её
of the parts of order to be solved. надо чётко определить.
the sentence
Transposition If you saw a ghost, what Что бы ты сделал, если бы
of the clauses would you do? увидел привидение?

DISCUSSION POINTS
SEMINAR 1
Theory and the Craft of Translation (1, 2)
1. State the main point of the concept of translation. Is translation an art or a craft?
2. Discuss the interdisciplinary character of translation.
3. What is implied by the ‘translator’s competence’?
4. Enumerate the criteria which define the ethics of translation?
5. What is the hierarchy of the UT in modern English? Illustrate your answer with
the examples.
6. Identify the major types of translation.
7. What kind of problems do translation strategies solve?
8. Comment on the stages of translating process.

Practical tasks
SEMINAR 2
Equivalence and Adequacy in Translation (3)

1. What are the main concepts of equivalence in translation? (Komissarov, M.

Baker, Vinay and Darbelnet)?
2. Classify the types of meaning.
3. What does the degree of preservation of meaning in the process of translation
depend on? Give the examples.
4. Comment on the problem of translatability. List the ways of translating the non-
equivalent lexis (lacunas, neologisms, exotisms, realia).
5. Differentiate between internationalisms and false friends of a translator.
6. Give the classification of false friends of a translator.

SEMINAR 3
The Translation of Word Combinations
1. Differentiate between free word combinations and bound word combinations.
2. Comment on the approaches to translating attribute groups.
3. Comment on the approaches to translating three-member word combinations.
4. Comment on the approaches to translating multinuclear nomial combinations.
5. What distinction is made between set-expressions and phraseological units (id-
ioms)?
6. Describe the ways of translation idioms.

SEMINAR 4
Grammatical aspects of translation
1. List the ways of translating the Passive into Russian? Illustrate your answer with
the examples.
2. Does the Subjunctive Mood always correspond to the same mood in Russian? If
no, what other ways of rendering such sentences do you know? (They can also be ren-
dered by the Indicative Mood (изъявительное наклонение) or the Infinitive.)
3. What should the translator do first, when rendering in Russian sentences con-
taining modal verbs and the non-finite forms of the verb?
4. List the most widespread syntactical stylistic devices which are used to express
emphasis and prominence in the English language.

SEMINAR 5

1. What is functional style? Give the classification of styles.

2. What are the main demands which a good translator should meet in the process
of translation of scientific literature? State the main ways of translating terms.
3. Explain the peculiarities of translating newspaper headlines (from English into
Russian and vice versa).
4. Describe the structure of a newspaper item.
5. Comment on the translation of clichés used in newspaper items.
6. What does the problem of stylistic devices touches upon? How does it correlate
with translation?

SEMINAR 6
1. What are the basic characteristics of a translation technique?
2. Comment on the cases of employing lexical translation techniques.
3. List the types of lexico-semantic modifications.
4. What lexico-grammatical transformations can be employed in the process of
translation?
5. Explain the courses of grammatical transformations.
6. State the main types of grammatical transformations.
SEMINAR 7
Translation: Working Procedures
Part I
Imagine a situation in which you are working as a freelance translator. You contact
a translation agency inquiring for work and are offered to translate the text from
English into Russian. It is an introduction to the book by Gabriel A. Almond A de-
velopmental approach to political system. Describe the algorithm of working on
the translation paying especial attention to the theoretical knowledge you have
gained in the course of studies. Translate the text into Russian and comment on all
the peculiarities of the process of translation.

By GABRIEL A. ALMOND

DURING the past decade two tendencies have come to dominate the field of
comparative politics. One of these is the concern for theoretical explication and
methodological rigor, and the second is the emphasis on field studies of the
"emerging," "new," and "non-Western" nations. The theoretical tendency has
largely taken the form of applications of "systems" theory to the study of politics,
and the chief criticism of this approach has been that it is a static theory, not
suitable for the analysis and explanation of political change.
The great output of empirical studies of contemporary politics in the new
and emerging nations and the relative decline in the volume of European politi-
cal studies have similarly been criticized. Here the argument is that the relative
neglect of Western political studies, and particularly of their historical dimen-
sion, handicaps us in our efforts to work out the developmental theories and
approaches which we need for our research on the new and emerging na -
tions.
Both of these criticisms have great cogency. Systems theory does have a
static, "equilibrium" bias; and the stress on the politics of the new and emerging
http://artanum.ru

nations gives us an inadequate sampling of man's experience with social and po-
litical change. The only answer to this criticism is that this seems to be the way
sciences develop - not by orderly, systematic progression, but in a dialectical
process involving overemphases and neglects. If we are to come to grips more ef-
fectively with political change, we shall have to redress this imbalance, adapt sys-
tems theory in a developmental direction, and utilize historical knowledge of
Western political development (but not only Western history) in elaborating theo-
ries of political systems and political change.
This article represents a move in this direction, an effort on the part of one po-
litical systems theorist to define what political development consists of and to
take into account the variables which affect it.

(The source: Comparative Politics Today, 2000)

Part II
In the theory of translation action, the translator is considered to be the expert of
intercultural transfer, although not always a trained expert in the subject-specific
area of the TT. How far do you agree with this assessment and what does it imply
for the role of the translator in modern-day communications? (Introducing Translation
Studies, p. 88)
Translate the following text into English. Before starting the work define the
distinctive features of the text type, state lexico-semantic and grammatical prob-
lems you may come across in the process of translation and the ways of solving
them and choose the appropriate translation strategy.

http://artanum.ru
Переславль-Залесский и московские художники

В Ярославской области на озере Плещеево расположен старинный город Переславль-

Залесский, богатый историческими событиями и памятниками культуры. В 1175-76 гг.
возникло княжество Переславль-Залесское, разоренное Ордой (the Golden Horde) в 1238
году, а в 14 веке оно вошло в состав Великого княжества Московского. И как некогда
вокруг Москвы собирались и сплачивались русские земли, так ныне Москва часто
служит той мощной творческой силой, что объединяет культуру России.
Московские художники открывают сначала для себя, а затем для тысяч и тысяч зрителей
уникальные по красоте места российской глубинки. Именно благодаря московским
живописцам на художественной карте России сверкают такие драгоценности, как
Боровск, Касимов, Тутаев, Гороховец …. Маленькие провинциальные русские города –
бесценные жемчужины в бесконечных просторах Нечерноземья. При всей
незатейливости старинной русской архитектуры они непохожи друг на друга, но сколько
в них трогательности, обаяния, теплоты, человечности.

Переславль – город, являющийся не просто одним из маленьких красивейших городов,

чудом уцелевший в современной России, видимо, потому, что входит в Золотое кольцо.
Переславль, благодаря совершенно неподражаемому Трубежу с его венецианскими
берегами, благодаря «русскому морю» - Плещееву озеру и особенно устью Трубежа с
церковью Сорока мучеников несет неповторимый образ сказочного былинного города.
На краю возвышенности у Плещеева озера высятся стены, башни и палаты Успенского
Горицкого монастыря.

Вблизи Переславля – Залесского родился прекрасный русский художник, академик

живописи Дмитрий Николаевич Кардовский. В 1915 году он получил в наследство дом,
построенный в 1885 году вблизи Горицкого монастыря, с прилегающим садом. Позднее
дочь академика передала усадьбу Союзу художников, и в 1954 году здесь был основан
Дом творчества художников. Здесь начинали свою творческую биографию и серьезно
заявили о себе на выставках такие мастера отечественного искусства, как Виктор Иванов,
Петр Оссовский, Ефрем Зверьков, Виктор Попков … . В разные годы здесь работали
замечательные художники, и в творческой биографии многих Переславль остался
незабываемым и прекрасным событием.

Часто выезжают в Переславль-Залесский современные художники, члены Товарищества

живописцев Московского Союза художников: академик Российской Академии
художеств Зверьков Е.И., члены-корреспонденты академии художеств Браговский Э.Г.,
Суровцев А.П., Тутунов А.А., Бубнов В.А., Глухов В.А., Щербаков В.В. Но не только для
маститых и заслуженных живописцев Переславль стал тем «кастальским ключом», из
которого они черпают вдохновение. Молодые художники неизменно находят в красоте
Переславля-Залесского нечто созвучное их творческой индивидуальности.

Историко-художественный музей Переславля – Залесского может гордиться экспозицией

отдела современного искусства, где представлены самые значительные имена русской
живописи, графики и скульптуры конца 20 века. Благодаря сотрудничеству художников
и искусствоведов музея коллекция постоянно пополняется новыми произведениями. Как
правило, это дары художников музею.

Великое княжество Московское - Grand Duchy of Muscovy

неповторимый по своей красоте - inimitable in its beauty, of inimitable / unique beauty

человечность – humaneness

былинный - epic

заявить о себе – to make oneself known

быть созвучным с чем-л. - to be in tune with

ПРИМЕРНАЯ ТЕМАТИКА РЕФЕРАТОВ И ПРЕЗЕНТАЦИЙ

1. Principal aims of translation

2. The problem of equivalence in meaning, discussed by Jakobson, Nida and New-
mark
3. The role of the translator: visibility, ethics and sociology
4. Translation and gender (S. Simon, A. Lefevere, B. Godard, etc.)
5. The ways of modeling the translation process
6. The criteria for assessing the translation
7. The concept of norms of translation behaviour
8. Verbosity of the TT as one of the main problems of translation
9. The approaches to translating titles of films and books
10. Translation of cultural references
11. Translation of metaphors and idioms in business texts
12. The problem of terminological confusion and overlapping terms in translation
studies
13. Translation of advertisements
14. “The British and Americans are divided by a common language” (George
Bernard Shaw)

ВОПРСЫ К ЭКЗАМЕНУ

1. What is translation?
2. The Theory of translation as a linguistic science
3. Translation studies as an academic discipline
4. A brief history of translation
5. Ethics of translation
6. Criteria for assessing the translator’s competence
7. Classification of the types of translation
8. Translation strategies
9. Stages of translating process

10. The problem of the unit of translation

11. A brief outline of approaches to defining equivalence in translation
12. The problem of semantic correspondence
13. Types of meaning
14. The degree of preservation of meaning in the process of translation
15. Translation of internationalisms and the problem of false friends. Classification
of false friends
16. Translation of attribute groups
17. Translation of three-member word-combinations
18. Translation of multinuclear nomial combinations
19. Translation of bound word combinations
20. Ways of translating the passive voice
21. Ways of rendering the subjunctive mood
22. Ways of translating modal verbs
23. Ways of translating the Participle
24. Ways of translating the Infinitive
25. Ways of translating the Gerund
26. Translation problems of syntactical stylistic devices (inversion, emphasis, neg-
ative emphatic constructions, elliptical constructions)
27. Translation and the problems of style (definition of style; classification of func-
tional styles)
28. Basic characteristics of the language of scientific literature
29. Ways of translating terms and abbreviations
30. Translation of newspaper items (the structure of the newspaper article)
31. The rules of translating newspaper headlines
32. Translation of cliché
33. Translation problems of lexical stylistic devices
34. What is translation technique?
35. Lexical techniques of translation
36. Contextual replacements (lexico-semantic modifications)
37. Contextual replacements (lexico-grammatical transformations)
38. Grammatical transformations