1755 – Hutcheson – A System of Moral Philosophy

THE INTENTION OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY IS TO direct men to that course of action which tends most
effectually to promote their greatest happiness and perfection; as far as it can be done by observations
and conclusions discoverable from the constitution of nature, without any aids of supernatural
revelation: there maxims, or rules of conduct are therefore reputed as laws of nature, and the system or
collection of them is called the Law of Nature. 1

As human happiness, which is the end of this art, cannot be distinctly known without the previous
knowledge of the constitution of this species, and of all its perceptive and active powers, and their
natural objects; (since happiness denotes the state of the soul arising from its several grateful
perceptions or modifications;) the most natural method in this science must be first to inquire into the
several powers and dispositions of the species, whether perceptive or active, into its several natural
determinations, and the objects from whence its happiness can arise; and then to compare together the
several enjoyments this species is capable of receiving, that we may discover what is its supreme
happiness and perfection, and what tenor of action is subservient to it. 2

In this inquiry we shall but briefly mention such parts of our constitution, whether in body or mind, as
are not of great consequence in morals; avoiding unnecessary controversies, and often referring to
other authors for those points which have been tolerably well explained by them. Thus we pass over
many ingenious anatomical observations upon the advantages and dignity of the human body above
that of other animals. The reader may find them in the anatomical authors, and Dr. Cumberland. 2

These sensations, as the learned agree, are not pictures or representations of like external qualities in
objects, nor of the impression or change made in the bodily organs. They are either signals, as it were, of
new events happening to the body, of which experience and observation will shew us the cause; or
marks, settled by the Author of Nature, to shew us what things are salutary, innocent, or hurtful; or
intimations of things not other ways discernable which may affect our state; tho' these marks or signals
bear no more resemblance to the external reality, than the report of a gun, or the flash of the powder,
bears to the distress of a ship. 5

Don't we see this confirmed in experience? We have, no ground to believe that this earth could nourish
a higher order than mankind. A globe of this kind may be necessary in the system: it must have such
inhabitants or be desolate. Besides all the men it could maintain, there yet is room for other lower
orders subordinate and subservient to their subsistence. 183

The greatest Epicures have acknowledged this when business or diversions have casually led them to
make the experiment. 123

Tis of no importance to determine whether such superstitions have wore effects than Atheism. They
may, as to men in certain stations; tho' they hurt not the rest considerably. The experiment of a society
of Atheists has never yet been made. Grant that the effects of some superstitions were wore than those
of Atheism: this is rather honorable to religion. The best state of religion is incomparably happier than
any condition of Atheism; and the corruptions of the best things may be most pernicious. 220

In cultivating this science he pursued the fame method in which he began, setting aside all researches
into the abstract relations and eternal fitness and unfitness of things, and directing his enquiries into
what is more obvious and immediately known from observation and experience, viz. What is in fact the
present constitution of human nature; what is that state of heart, and course of life which is most
correspondent to the whole frame. (In preface, Leechman, xiii)

He had observed, that it was the happiness and glory of the present age, that they had thrown off the
method of forming hypotheses and suppositions in natural philosophy, and had set themselves to make
observations and experiments on the constitution of the material world itself, and to mark the powers
and principles which are discerned operating in it: he saw plainly that it was by adhering strictly to this
method that natural philosophy had been carried to a greater degree of perfection than ever it was
before, and that it is only by pursuing the same method that we can hope to reach higher improvements
in that science. He was convinced that in like manner a true scheme of morals could not be the product
of genius and invention, or of the greatest precision of thought in metaphysical reasoning, but must be
drawn from proper observations upon the several powers and principles which we are conscious of in
our own bosoms, and which must be acknowledged to operate in some degree in the whole human
species. And that therefore, one proper method at least to be followed in the moral science, is to inquire
into our internal structure as a constitution or system composed of various parts, to observe the office
and end of each part, with the natural subordination of those parts to one another, and from thence to
conclude what is the design of the whole, and what is the course of action for which it appears to be
intended by its great Author. He thought there was ground to hope, that from a more strict
philosophical enquiry into the various natural principles or natural dispositions of mankind, in the same
way that we enquire into the structure of an animal body, of a plant, or of the solar system, a more
exact theory of morals may be formed, than has yet appeared: and a theory too built upon such an
obvious and firm foundation as would be satisfactory to every candid enquirer. (in preface, Leechman,
xiv)

Whatever corrections or improvements his scheme may be supposed to admit of, after longer
observation and further examination into the frame and operations of our minds, one thing is certain
that the remit of his observations and reasoning must meet with entire approbation, as it places the
highest virtue and excellence of a human character, where all sound Philosophy and Divine Revelation
has placed it. (in preface, Leechman, xvi)

He understood Natural Philosophy as it is now improved by the assistance of Mathematics and

When men have the proper genius, and access to more laborious knowledge, what ardour of mind do
some shew for geometry, numbers, astronomy, and natural history ? All toils and watchings are born
with joy. 23

While we are calm we must frequently attend to the danger of following precipitantly the first
appearances of good or evil; we must recollect our former experiences in ourselves, and our
observations about others. 102

And then our reason and observation enables us to compare the effects, and consequences, and
duration. 120

We shall only point out briefly the heads of argument on this subject. The whole of natural knowledge
or natural history, is a collection of evidence on this affair. 169
Whithersoever we turn our eves or our thoughts, there occur as great evidences of design, intention,
art, and power, as our imagination can conceive. The most stupendous orbs, the greatest masses,
moving in constant order, with great rapidity: forces and powers exerted everywhere, in worlds as large
as this habitation of men: a universe large beyond imagination and all our powers of observation. But as
far as we can make observations, manifest footsteps of contrivance and regular design appear in the
most exquisite fitness of parts for their several uses. 170

For this we must refer to all the ancient and modern observations on the constitution of nature. 189

… that which is intended for the general good of mankind in the wisest manner that our reason and
observation can suggest. 227

A like effect, in a lower degree, arises from a just observation on human affairs, that a course of virtue is
the most probable way of obtaining outward peace and prosperity. 249

This notion of a law shews how justly the practical conclusions of right reason from the order of nature
constituted by God, and laid open to our observation, are called laws of nature, and laws of God ; as
they are clear declarations of his will about our conduct. 268

Precepts of the law of nature, or these practical observations, are deemed immutable and eternal,
because some rules, or rather the dispositions which gave origin to them, and in which they are
founded, must always tend to the general good, and the contrary to the general detriment, in such a
system of creatures as we are. 273

As the precept is indeed no more than a conclusion from observation of what sort of conduct is
ordinarily useful to society; some singular cases may happen in which departing from the ordinary rule
may be more for the general interest than following it. 273

In the laws of nature there can be no place for them, since the same reason and observation which
discovers the ordinary general rule discovers also all the exceptions, which are therefore parts of the
law. 279