• Learning: is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from

experience.

• Relatively permanent: it does not include temporary changes such as

tiredness. It also does not include very permanent changes that are associated with
maturation.

• Change in behavior: Learning cannot be seen but can only be inferred from
observable behavior.

• Experience: It means something that happen to you in your lifetime, usually

involving interaction with your environment.

• Reflex: is an inborn involuntary response to a specific kind of stimulus.

• Instinct: is an inborn complex behavior found in humans.

• Maturation: is defined as sequential unfolding of inherited predisposition

for instance, walking in humans.

• Knowledge: is defined as the possession of information or the possession of

the ability to locate desired information.

• Learning: is the process of acquiring knowledge. It's the general term used
for a group of activities that result in behavior or information being gained or
modified.

• Performance: is what you do with the knowledge and learning you have.

• Generalize: or take information gained in one setting and apply it to

another.

• Cognition: the act of knowing and understanding through cognitive processes,

including memory, problem solving, reasoning, etc. are parts of that greater whole
in learning.

• Habituation: it is one of the simple forms of learning, in which an organism

after a period of exposure to a stimulus stops responding. (A stimulus is any
physical energy that affects a person and evokes a response).

• Sensitization: it is the process whereby an individual learns to response

defensively to a wide range of stimuli due to exposure to a dangerous or painful
situation.

• Associative learning: it involves learning that two events occur together.

• Association between stimuli: under this type of learning, an organism learns

association between two stimuli e.g. through constant pairing of dark clouds and
rain, humans have come to realize that dark clouds is normally followed by rain.

• Classical conditioning: the process whereby organism learns associations

between stimuli.

• Operant conditioning: type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if

followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.

• Observational learning and Cognitive learning: acquiring new behaviors

through observation and information rather than by direct experience.
• The VARK model: explains that students learn in different ways.

• Scientific research: refers to research that collects data using systemic

methods and strategies.

• At the theoretical level: concepts are developed, especially concepts related

to social and natural phenomena.

• At the empirical level: theoretical concepts and relationships are tested.

• In inductive research: the researcher gathers theoretical concepts from

observed data.

• In deductive research: the researcher tests concepts and patterns of the

theory using new empirical data.

• Non-scientific research: is research conducted without any systematic methods

and scientific basis.

• Ethos: which can mean custom, habit, character or disposition.

• Ethics: are a system of moral principles and a branch of philosophy which

defines what is good for individuals and society./ may refer to the philosophical
study of the concepts of moral right and wrong and moral good and bad./ referred to
the philosophical study of morality, the latter being a more or less systematic set
of beliefs, usually held in common by a group, about how people should live. / also
referred to particular philosophical theories of morality.

• Teaching: can be described as “a professional occupational group of education

sector possessing social, cultural, economic, scientific and technological
dimensions”.

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• Human behavior: is the potential and expressed capacity of human individuals

or groups to respond to internal and external stimuli throughout their life.
Behavior is driven by genetic and environmental factors that affect an individual./
Behavior can also be defined as the actions or reactions of a person in response to
external or internal stimulus situation.

• Molecular behavior: The sudden behavior what occurs without thinking

something.

• Moler behavior: When human behavior occurs with a thinking process.

• Overt behavior: The behavior that is visible and what occurs outside of human
being.

• Covert behavior: The behavior that is not visible and what occurs inside of
human being,

• Voluntary behavior: The behavior that depend on human want.

• Involuntary behavior: behavior that occurs naturally.

• Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory: states that behaviors are
learned from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very
little influence on behavior./ focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned
through interaction with the environment.

• Classical conditioning: is a process that causes someone to learn a new

behavior through an association between two stimuli.

• Operant conditioning: is a learning technique in which consequences control

responses.

• Thorndike Puzzle Box: One of his greatest contributions to education was

inspired by his operant conditioning experiments, particularly the lab device.

• Trial and error: a problem-solving method that involves repeated, varied

attempts until a solution is found.

• S-R Theory: which stated that learning results from associating stimuli (S)
and responses (R).

• Law of Effect: the idea that responses to stimuli that lead to a positive
result will be repeated.

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• Classical conditioning: refers to learning that occurs when a neutral

stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that
naturally produces a behavior.

• Unconditioned stimulus (US): is something (such as food) that triggers a

naturally occurring response.

• Unconditioned response (UR): is the naturally occurring response (such as

salivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned stimulus (CS): is a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly

presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the
unconditioned stimulus.

• Initial acquisition (learning) phase: in which the conditioning occurred,

when the CS was then presented alone, the behavior rapidly decreased.

• Extinction: refers to the reduction in responding that occurs when the

conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous recovery: the increase in responding to the CS following a pause

after extinction.

• Generalization: refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble

the original conditioned stimulus.

• Discrimination: the tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are

similar but not identical.
• Second-order conditioning: a process in which an existing conditioned
stimulus can serve as an unconditioned stimulus for a pairing with a new
conditioned stimulus.

• Phobia: a strong and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or

situation.

**
• Unconditioned stimulus: is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic
response.

• Neutral stimulus: is a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on

its own.

• Conditioned stimulus: is a stimulus that was once neutral (didn't trigger a

response) but now leads to a response.

• Unconditioned response: is an automatic response or a response that occurs

without thought when an unconditioned stimulus is present.

• Conditioned response: is a learned response or a response that is created

where no response existed before.
**
• Acquisition: is the initial stage of learning, when a response is first
established and gradually strengthened.

• Extinction: is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or

disappear.

• Spontaneous recovery: Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge,

even after a period of extinction.

• Stimulus generalization: is the tendency for a conditioned stimulus to evoke

similar responses after the response has been conditioned.

• Discrimination: is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned

stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned
stimulus.

• Deterministic: This means that it does not allow for any degree of free will
in the individual.

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• Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning):

is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.

• Operant: refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to
generate consequences."

• Law of effect: According to this principle, actions that are followed by

desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by
undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.
• Respondent Behaviors: are those that occur automatically and reflexively.

• Operant Behaviors: are those under our conscious control. Some may occur
spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions
that then influence whether or not they occur again in the future.

• Cumulative recorder: the device recorded responses as an upward movement of a

line so that response rates could be read by looking at the slope of the line.

• Reinforcement: is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it

follows.

• Positive Reinforcers: are favorable events or outcomes that are presented

after the behavior.

• Negative Reinforcers: involve the removal of an unfavorable events or

outcomes after the display of a behavior.

• Punishment: is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a

decrease in the behavior it follows.

• Positive punishment: sometimes referred to as punishment by application,

presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it
follows.

• Negative punishment: also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a

favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.

• Continuous reinforcement: involves delivering a reinforcement every time a

response occurs.

• Fixed-ratio schedules: are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are

reinforced only after a specific number of responses have occurred.

• Fixed-interval schedules: are another form of partial reinforcement.

Reinforcement occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed.

• Variable-ratio schedules: are also a type of partial reinforcement that

involve reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses.

• Variable-interval schedules: are the final form of partial reinforcement

Skinner described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable
amount of time has elapsed.

• Goal behavior: refers to the desired responses the teacher wishes to bring
out, the things he wants the child to do. The teacher must first of all decide what
behavior is to be established.

• Shaping behavior: when the teacher reinforce components of the total

behavior.

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• Hull's drive theory: where a drive is a need that stimulates a behavioral
response, crucially conceiving a drive for imitation, which was positively
reinforced by social interaction and widespread as a result.

• Expectancy: is defined as the individual's subjectively held probability that

a given action will lead to a given outcome.

• Reinforcement value: is defined as the individual's subjective preference for

a given outcome, assuming that all possible outcomes were equally available. In
other words, the two variables are independent of each other.

• Social learning theory: proposed that learning occurs through observation,

imitation, and modeling and is influenced by factors such as attention, motivation,
attitudes, and emotions. The theory accounts for the interaction of environmental
and cognitive elements that affect how people learn.

• Vicarious reinforcement: learning that occurs through the observation of

rewards and punishments.

• Reciprocal Determinism: refers to the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of:

person (individual with a set of learned experiences), environment (external social
context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals).

• Behavioral Capability: refers to a person's actual ability to perform a

behavior through essential knowledge and skills.

• Observational Learning: asserts that people can witness and observe a

behavior conducted by others, and then reproduce those actions.

• Reinforcements: refers to the internal or external responses to a person's

behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior.

• Expectations: refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior.

• Self-efficacy: refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her

ability to successfully perform a behavior.

• Cognitive Factors: Our dispositional factors: beliefs, expectations, values,

intentions, social roles, emotional makeup and biological and genetic influences

• Behavioral Factors: Our skills, practice and self-efficacy.

• Self-efficacy: Similar to confidence. The belief that one is capable of

performing a certain behavior to attain a certain goal.

• Environmental Factors: Our social, political and cultural influences and

personal learning experiences.

• Reciprocal determinism: this notion states that just as an individual's

behavior is influenced by the environment, the environment is also influenced by
the individual's behavior.

• Live models: where a person is demonstrating the desired behavior.

• Verbal instruction: in which an individual describes the desired behavior in

detail and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior.

• Symbolic: in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies,

television, Internet, literature, and radio. Stimuli can be either real or
fictional characters.

• Vicarious learning: learn from the consequences of the models’ behavior.

• Cultural intelligence hypothesis: argues that humans possess a set of

specific behaviors and skills that allow them to exchange information culturally.

• Mirror neuron: is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the
animal observes the same action performed by another.