Domestic Terrorism: An Overview

Jerome P. Bjelopera
Specialist in Organized Crime and Terrorism

August 21, 2017

Congressional Research Service

7-5700
www.crs.gov
R44921
 Domestic Terrorism: An Overview

Summary
The emphasis of counterterrorism policy in the United States since Al Qaeda’s attacks of
September 11, 2001 (9/11) has been on jihadist terrorism. However, in the last decade, domestic
terrorists—people who commit crimes within the homeland and draw inspiration from U.S.-based
extremist ideologies and movements—have killed American citizens and damaged property across
the country. Not all of these criminals have been prosecuted under federal terrorism statutes,
which does not imply that domestic terrorists are taken any less seriously than other terrorists.
The Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) do not officially
designate domestic terrorist organizations, but they have openly delineated domestic terrorist
“threats.” These include individuals who commit crimes in the name of ideologies supporting
animal rights, environmental rights, anarchism, white supremacy, anti-government ideals, black
separatism, and beliefs about abortion.
The boundary between constitutionally protected legitimate protest and domestic terrorist activity
has received public attention. This boundary is highlighted by a number of criminal cases
involving supporters of animal rights—one area in which specific legislation related to domestic
terrorism has been crafted. The Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act (P.L. 109-374) expands the
federal government’s legal authority to combat animal rights extremists who engage in criminal
activity. Signed into law in November 2006, it amended the Animal Enterprise Protection Act of
1992 (P.L. 102-346).
This report is intended as a primer on the issue, and four discussion topics in it may help explain
domestic terrorism’s relevance for policymakers:
 Level of Activity. Domestic terrorists have been responsible for orchestrating
numerous incidents since 9/11.
 Use of Nontraditional Tactics. A large number of domestic terrorists do not
necessarily use tactics such as suicide bombings or airplane hijackings. They
have been known to engage in activities such as vandalism, trespassing, and tax
fraud, for example.
 Exploitation of the Internet. Domestic terrorists—much like their jihadist
analogues—are often Internet and social-media savvy and use such platforms to
share ideas and as resources for their operations.
 Decentralized Nature of the Threat. Many domestic terrorists rely on the
concept of leaderless resistance. This involves two levels of activity. On an
operational level, militant, underground, ideologically motivated cells or
individuals engage in illegal activity without any participation in or direction
from an organization that maintains traditional leadership positions and
membership rosters. On another level, the above-ground public face (the
“political wing”) of a domestic terrorist movement may focus on propaganda and
the dissemination of ideology—engaging in protected speech.

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Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Domestic Terrorism Defined ........................................................................................................... 2
What Is Domestic Terrorism?.................................................................................................... 3
Toward a Narrower Definition ............................................................................................ 4
Ambiguity Regarding “U.S.-Based Extremist Ideologies” ................................................. 4
Factors Complicating the Descriptions of the Domestic Terrorism Threat ............................... 5
Counting Terrorism Cases ................................................................................................... 5
Sifting Domestic Terrorism from Other Illegal Activity ..................................................... 6
Extremism vs. Terrorism ..................................................................................................... 8
The Lack of an Official Public List .................................................................................... 9
Toward a Practical Definition: Threats Not Groups ................................................................ 10
Animal Rights Extremists and Environmental Extremists.................................................11
Anarchist Extremists ......................................................................................................... 13
White Supremacist Extremists .......................................................................................... 16
Anti-Government Extremists ............................................................................................ 23
Black Separatist Extremists .............................................................................................. 32
Abortion Extremists .......................................................................................................... 33
Protected Activities vs. Terrorism—Divergent Perceptions of the ALF ................................. 35
A Serious Domestic Concern or “Green Scare?” .............................................................. 35
Assessing Domestic Terrorism’s Significance............................................................................... 39
Counting Incidents .................................................................................................................. 40
“Nonviolent” Strategies .......................................................................................................... 41
Direct Action ..................................................................................................................... 41
The ALF: “Live Liberations” and “Economic Sabotage” ................................................. 42
The ELF: “Monkeywrenching” ........................................................................................ 42
“Paper Terrorism”: Liens, Frivolous Lawsuits, and Tax Schemes .................................... 46
The Internet and Domestic Terrorists ...................................................................................... 48
A Decentralized Threat............................................................................................................ 50
Leaderless Resistance ....................................................................................................... 50
Lone Wolves ..................................................................................................................... 53
Scoping the Threat Remains Difficult for Policymakers ............................................................... 57
Terminology ............................................................................................................................ 57
Designating Domestic Terrorist Groups .................................................................................. 57
A Public Accounting of Plots and Incidents ............................................................................ 58
Better Sense of Scope May Assist Policymakers .................................................................... 59

Figures
Figure 1. ALF and ELF Guidelines ............................................................................................... 45

Contacts
Author Contact Information .......................................................................................................... 59

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 Domestic Terrorism: An Overview

Introduction
Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (9/11), domestic terrorists—people who commit
crimes within the homeland and draw inspiration from U.S.-based extremist ideologies and
movements1—have not received as much attention from federal law enforcement as their violent
jihadist counterparts. This was not necessarily always the case. The Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) reported in 1999 that “[d]uring the past 30 years, the vast majority—but not
all—of the deadly terrorist attacks occurring in the United States have been perpetrated by
domestic extremists.”2
The U.S. government reacted to 9/11 by greatly enhancing its counterterrorism efforts. This report
discusses how domestic terrorists broadly fit into the counterterrorism landscape, a terrain that
since 9/11 has been largely shaped in response to terrorists inspired by foreign ideologies. This
report focuses especially on how domestic terrorism is conceptualized by the federal government
and issues involved in assessing this threat’s significance. Today (perhaps in part because of the
government’s focus on international terrorist ideologies), it is difficult to evaluate the scope of
domestic terrorist activity. For example, federal agencies employ varying terminology and
definitions to describe it.
Possibly contributing to domestic terrorism’s secondary status as a threat at the federal level, a
large number of those labeled as domestic terrorists do not necessarily use traditional terrorist
tactics such as bombings or airplane hijackings. Additionally, many domestic terrorists do not
intend to physically harm people but rather rely on alternative tactics such as theft, trespassing,
destruction of property, and burdening U.S. courts with retaliatory legal filings.
While plots and attacks by foreign-inspired homegrown violent jihadists have earned more media
attention, domestic terrorists have been busy as well. It is worth noting that in terms of casualties
on U.S. soil, an act of domestic terrorism is second only to the events of 9/11. Timothy McVeigh’s
bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995, claimed
168 lives and injured more than 500 others. Some estimates suggest that domestic terrorists are
responsible for carrying out dozens of incidents since 9/11.3 Much like their jihadist counterparts,
domestic terrorists are often Internet savvy and use the medium as a resource for their operations.
Terrorists are typically driven by particular ideologies. In this respect, domestic terrorists are a
widely divergent lot, drawing from a broad array of philosophies and worldviews. These
individuals can be motivated to commit crimes in the name of ideas such as animal rights, white
supremacy, and abortion, for example. However, the expression of these worldviews (minus the
commission of crimes) involves constitutionally protected activity.

1
This conceptualization of the term “domestic terrorism” is derived from a number of U.S. government sources
detailed in this report. This report will not focus on homegrown violent jihadists. However, when referring to such
actors, for this report, “homegrown” describes terrorist activity or plots perpetrated within the United States or abroad
by American citizens, permanent legal residents, or visitors radicalized largely within the United States. “Jihadist”
describes radicalized Muslims using Islam as an ideological and/or religious justification for belief in the establishment
of a global caliphate—a jurisdiction governed by a Muslim civil and religious leader known as a caliph—via violent
means. Jihadists largely adhere to a variant of Salafi Islam—the fundamentalist belief that society should be governed
by Islamic law based on the Quran and follow the model of the immediate followers and companions of the Prophet
Muhammad.
2
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Terrorism in the United States: 30 Years of Terrorism—A Special Retrospective
Edition, (2000) p. 16.
3
New America Foundation, Terrorism in America After 9/11: Part IV, What is the Threat to the United States Today?
https://www.newamerica.org/in-depth/terrorism-in-america/what-threat-united-states-today/.

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Aware of the lines between constitutionally protected speech and criminality, domestic terrorists
often rope themselves off from ideological (above-ground) elements that openly and often legally
espouse similar beliefs. In essence, the practitioners who commit violent acts are distinct from the
propagandists who theorize and craft worldviews that could be interpreted to support these acts.
Thus, in decentralized fashion, terrorist lone actors (lone wolves) or isolated small groups (cells)
generally operate autonomously and in secret, all the while drawing ideological sustenance—not
direction—from propagandists operating in the free market of ideas.
Domestic terrorists may not be the top federal counterterrorism priority, but they feature
prominently among the concerns of some law enforcement officers. For example, in 2011, Los
Angeles Deputy Police Chief Michael P. Downing included “black separatists, white
supremacist/sovereign citizen extremists, and animal rights terrorists” among his chief
counterterrorism concerns.4 A 2014 national survey of state and local law enforcement officers
found that sovereign citizens were “the top concern” among terrorist threats.5
The violence related to protests in Charlottesville, VA, on August 12, 2017, also has raised the
issue of domestic terrorism, particularly related to public discussions regarding a widely reported
incident involving James Alex Fields, who according to witnesses drove his car into a group of
people protesting a rally featuring white supremacists in Charlottesville on August 12.6 Fields
allegedly killed one person and injured 19 others in the incident. The Department of Justice
(DOJ) has opened a civil rights investigation into the incident, presumably pursuing possible hate
crime charges.7 Additionally, Attorney General Jeff Sessions has publicly stated that terrorism
investigators are involved in investigating the incident, ostensibly exploring the possibility of
characterizing it as an act of domestic terrorism rather than a hate crime.8
This report provides background regarding domestic terrorists—detailing what constitutes the
domestic terrorism threat as suggested by publicly available U.S. government sources. 9 It
illustrates some of the key factors involved in assessing this threat. This report does not discuss in
detail either violent jihadist-inspired terrorism or the federal government’s role in
counterterrorism investigations.

Domestic Terrorism Defined

Two basic questions are key to understanding domestic terrorism. First, what exactly constitutes
“domestic terrorism?” Answering this question is more complicated than it may appear. Some
4
Bill Gertz, “L.A. Police Use Intel Networks against Terror,” Washington Times, April 11, 2011. See also Joshua D.
Freilich, Steven M. Chermak & Joseph Simone Jr. “Surveying American State Police Agencies About Terrorism
Threats, Terrorism Sources, and Terrorism Definitions,” Terrorism and Political Violence, vol. 21, no. 3 (2009) pp.
450-475. Freilich, Chermak, and Simone found that domestic terrorist groups featured prominently among the concerns
of U.S. state police officials.
5
Jessica Rivinius, “Sovereign Citizen Movement Perceived as Top Terrorist Threat,” National Consortium for the
Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, July 30, 2014. For the report, see Carter, David, et al., “Understanding
Law Enforcement Intelligence Processes,” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to
Terrorism, 2014.
6
T. Rees Shapiro et al., “Alleged Driver of Car that Plowed into Charlottesville Crowd Was a Nazi Sympathizer,
Former Teacher Says,” Washington Post, August 13, 2017.
7
Department of Justice, “Joint Statement from United States Attorney’s Office for the Western District of Virginia,
Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Civil Rights Division,” press release, August, 13, 2017.
8
Michael Edison Hayden, “Sessions Defends Trump’s Comments on Charlottesville, Says Car Ramming Fits
Definition of Domestic Terror,” ABC News, August 14, 2017.
9
This report does not presume the guilt of indicted individuals in pending criminal cases.

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consider all terrorist plots occurring within the homeland as acts of domestic terrorism. According
to this perspective, a bombing plot involving U.S. citizens motivated by a foreign terrorist group
such as Al Qaeda or the Islamic State constitutes domestic terrorism. While this conceptualization
may be true at some level, a practical definition of domestic terrorism distilled from federal
sources is much narrower. It suggests that domestic terrorists are Americans who commit
ideologically driven crimes in the United States but lack foreign direction or influence—whether
tactical or philosophical. This conceptualization excludes homegrown individuals directed or
motivated by groups such as Al Qaeda or the Islamic State. Second, what particular groups are
considered domestic terrorist organizations? The U.S. government does not provide a precise,
comprehensive, and public answer to this question. Rather, in broad terms, DOJ has identified a
number of general threats that embody this issue. The ideological concepts that underpin such
threats may inspire criminal activity, such as hate crimes, that do not rise to the level of terrorism.
This further complicates defining “domestic terrorism.”

What Is Domestic Terrorism?

In the most general statutory terms, a domestic terrorist engages in terrorist activity that occurs in
the homeland. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI, the Bureau) has lead responsibility for
terrorism investigations at the federal level.10
The FBI generally relies on two fundamental sources to define domestic terrorism. First, the Code
of Federal Regulations characterizes “terrorism” as including “the unlawful use of force and
violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population,
or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.”11 Second, 18 U.S.C.
Section 2331(5) more narrowly defines “domestic terrorism” and differentiates it from
international terrorism and other criminal activity.12 This definition comes from Section 802 of
the USA PATRIOT Act (P.L. 107-56). According to 18 U.S.C. Section 2331(5), domestic
terrorism occurs primarily within U.S. territorial jurisdiction, and involves
(A) ... acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United
States or of any State;
(B) appear to be intended—
(i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population;
(ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or
(iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or
kidnapping.... 13

10
28 C.F.R. §0.85.
11
Ibid.
12
U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, “Responses of John E. Lewis [then Deputy
Assistant Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation] to Additional Questions from Senator Obama,” Eco-Terrorism
Specifically Examining the Earth Liberation Front and the Animal Liberation Front, 109th Cong., 1st sess., May 18,
2005, S. Hrg. 109-947 (Washington: GPO, 2007), p. 41. Hereinafter: Responses of John E. Lewis.
13
18 U.S.C. §2331(5).

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Enforcement—Joint Terrorism Task Forces

Aside from the FBI, other federal agencies such as the Bureau of Alcohol Tobacco Firearms and Explosives (ATF) and
the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) play a role in enforcement efforts to counter domestic terrorism. These
agencies—as well as state and local law enforcement representatives—typically cooperate within the framework of
Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs), multi-agency investigative units led by DOJ and the FBI across the country.14
JTTFs are teams of police officers, federal agents, analysts, linguists, SWAT experts, and other specialists who
investigate terrorism and terrorism-related crimes. Seventy-one of the more than 100 JTTFs operated by DOJ and
the FBI were created since 9/11. About 4,000 federal, state, and local law enforcement officers and agents—more
than four times the pre-9/11 total—work in them. These officers and agents come from more than 500 state and
local agencies and 50 federal agencies.15
The FBI considers JTTFs “the nation’s front line on terrorism.”16 They “investigate acts of terrorism that affect the
U.S., its interests, property and citizens, including those employed by the U.S. and military personnel overseas.”17 As
this suggests, their operations are highly tactical and can involve developing human sources (informants) as well as
gathering intelligence to thwart terrorist plots. JTTFs also offer an important conduit for the sharing of intelligence
developed from FBI-led counterterrorism investigations with outside agencies and state and local law enforcement.18

Toward a Narrower Definition

The definitions cited above are too broad to capture what the FBI specifically investigates as
“domestic terrorism.” Besides the statutory definitions regarding the crime of domestic terrorism,
the FBI has historically emphasized particular qualities inherent to the actors who engage in
domestic terrorism. According to the Bureau, domestic terrorists do not simply operate in the
homeland, but they also lack foreign direction.19 In fact, the Bureau’s practical, shorthand
definition of domestic terrorism is “Americans attacking Americans based on U.S.-based
extremist ideologies.”20 The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) follows this construction.21

Ambiguity Regarding “U.S.-Based Extremist Ideologies”

On the surface, the FBI’s shorthand definition for domestic terrorism appears straightforward.
However, there is inherent ambiguity to it. Namely, some of the “U.S.-based extremist
ideologies” driving what the Bureau views as domestic terrorism have international roots and
active followings abroad. The ideologies supporting eco-extremism and animal rights extremism
(discussed below) readily come to mind, and people have long committed crimes in their names
outside the United States.22 At least in part, their origins lay in the United Kingdom. Nazism—

14
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Joint Terrorism Task Forces.”
15
Ibid.
16
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Protecting America against Terrorist Attack: A Closer Look at Our Joint Terrorism
Task Forces,” May 2009.
17
Brig Barker and Steve Fowler, “The FBI Joint Terrorism Task Force Officer,” The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin,
vol. 77, no. 11 (November 2008), p. 13.
18
Kevin Johnson, “FBI Issues More Top Secret Clearance for Terrorism Cases,” USA Today, August 12, 2010;
STRATFOR, A Decade of Evolution in U.S. Counterterrorism Operations, Special Report, December 2009.
19
James F. Jarboe, [then Domestic Terrorism Section Chief, Counterterrorism Division] Federal Bureau of
Investigation, Testimony Before the House Resources Committee, Subcommittee on Forests and Forest Health,
February 12, 2002. Hereinafter: Jarboe, Testimony.
20
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Domestic Terrorism in the Post-9/11 Era,” September 7, 2009. Hereinafter: Federal
Bureau of Investigation, “Domestic Terrorism.”
21
See Department of Homeland Security, “Domestic Terrorism and Homegrown Violent Extremism Lexicon,”
November 10, 2011. Hereinafter: Department of Homeland Security, “Domestic Terrorism and Homegrown.”
22
See Gary A. Ackerman, “Beyond Arson? A Threat Assessment of the Earth Liberation Front,” Terrorism and
(continued...)

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 Domestic Terrorism: An Overview

with its German origins and foreign believers—is an element within domestic white supremacist
extremism. Anarchism, the philosophy followed by anarchist extremists, also has long-standing
European roots. The racist skinhead movement traces its origins abroad—to the United
Kingdom—as well. These examples illustrate the FBI’s challenge when it emphasizes U.S.-based
ideologies in its framing of domestic terrorism.

Factors Complicating the Descriptions of the Domestic

Terrorism Threat
A few more issues make it hard to grasp the breadth of domestic terrorist activity in the United
States. First, counting the number of terrorist prosecutions or plots in general has been difficult in
the post-9/11 period. Second, there may be some ambiguity in the investigative process regarding
exactly when criminal activity becomes domestic terrorism. Third, the federal government
appears to use the terms “terrorist” and “extremist” interchangeably when referring to domestic
terrorism. It is unclear why this is the case. Finally, and most importantly, which specific groups
are and should be considered domestic terrorist organizations? The U.S. government does not
provide a public answer to this question. Rather, the federal government defines the issue in terms
of “threats,” not groups.

Counting Terrorism Cases

While statutory and practical federal definitions exist for “domestic terrorism,” there is little clear
sense of the scope of the domestic terrorist threat based on publicly available U.S. government
information. Most broadly, it has been said that in much of the post-9/11 period, the federal courts
and DOJ may have applied different parameters when sorting, counting, and categorizing all
types of terrorist prosecutions—let alone domestic terrorism cases.23 A 2009 study (critiqued by
DOJ) found that the U.S. federal district courts, DOJ’s National Security Division, and federal
prosecutors rely on different criteria to determine whether or not specific cases involve terrorism
at all.24
A bit more narrowly, in many instances, individuals considered to be domestic terrorists by
federal law enforcement may be charged under non-terrorism statutes, making it difficult to grasp
from the public record exactly how extensive this threat is. Regarding the prosecution of domestic
terrorism cases, no separate federal crime of “domestic terrorism” exists.25 Also, DOJ has noted
that, “[a]lthough we do have at least one specialized [federal] statute aimed at animal enterprise
terrorism,26 domestic terrorism cases often involve firearms, arson or explosive offenses; crimes
relating to fraud; and threats and hoaxes.”27 In some instances, the crimes committed by people

(...continued)
Political Violence, vol. 15, no. 4 (2003), pp. 155-156. Hereinafter: Ackerman, “Beyond Arson?”
23
Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse (TRAC), Who Is a Terrorist? Government Failure to Define Terrorism
Undermines Enforcement, Puts Civil Liberties at Risk, September 8, 2009, http://trac.syr.edu/tracreports/terrorism/215/.
DOJ issued a press release that broadly challenged these findings and suggested that TRAC may have omitted certain
statistics in its study. TRAC refuted these claims. For the interchange between DOJ and TRAC, see http://trac.syr.edu/
tracreports/terrorism/219/.
24
Ibid.
25
Greg Myre, “Why the Government Can’t Bring Terrorism Charges in Charlottesville,” NPR, August 14, 2017.
26
This likely refers to the Animal Enterprise Protection Act from 1992. In late 2006 shortly after the white paper’s
publication, this act was amended by the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act.
27
Department of Justice, Counterterrorism White Paper, June 22, 2006, p. 59. Hereinafter: Department of Justice,
(continued...)

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the FBI describes as domestic terrorism suspects do not violate federal law. When this occurs, the
Bureau, “support[s] [its local] partners any way [it] can—sharing intelligence, offering forensic
assistance, conducting behavioral analysis, etc.”28 Thus, individuals considered domestic
terrorists by federal law enforcement may not necessarily be federally charged as terrorists.

Sifting Domestic Terrorism from Other Illegal Activity

It may not be possible for investigators to describe the criminal activity involved early in an
investigation as domestic terrorism. In these instances, investigators can work toward clarifying
the motives of the suspects involved.29 Domestic terrorism cases differ from ordinary criminal
activity in key ways. Most importantly, unlike ordinary criminals—who are often driven by self-
centered motives such as profit and tend to opportunistically seek easy prey—domestic terrorists
are driven by a cause or ideology.30 If the motives involved align with the definition laid out in 18
U.S.C. Section 2331(5), presumably the case becomes a domestic terrorist investigation. In some
instances, ideologically motivated actors can also collaborate with profit-driven individuals to
commit crimes.
To further cloud matters, another category of criminal activity, hate crime, may appear to involve
ideological issues. However, as described by one federal official, a “hate crime” “generally
involve[s] acts of personal malice directed at individuals” and is missing the broader motivations
driving acts of domestic terrorism.31 For investigators, distinguishing between “personal malice”
and ideologically motivated actions may be difficult in specific cases. This suggests that sorting
domestic terrorism from hate crimes depends on the degree of a suspect’s intent. Did the suspect
articulate an ideology belonging to an extremist movement? The grey area between domestic
terrorism and hate crime hints that in some instances, suspects with links to domestic terrorist
movements or ideologies supporting domestic terrorism may be charged with hate crimes. 32 It is
unclear to what extent this influences how the government understands the threat posed by
extremist movements that hold racist beliefs. If some individuals of this ilk commit crimes
against police or judges, for example, is the government more apt to label this activity as
terrorism while individuals sharing these same racist motivations but targeting ordinary citizens
based on race, religion, disability, ethnic origin, or sexual orientation are charged with hate
crimes?

(...continued)
White Paper.
28
See CRS Legal Sidebar WSLG1858, Charlottesville Car Crash Attack: Possibility of Federal Criminal Prosecution,
by Charles Doyle. See also Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Domestic Terrorism.”
29
Responses of John E. Lewis, pp. 41, 42.
30
In some instances such as those involving white-supremacist prison gangs who espouse extremist beliefs, the profit
motive may be paramount in their criminal activity. See Joshua D. Freilich, Steven M. Chermak, and David Caspi,
“Critical Events in the Life Trajectories of Domestic Extremist White Supremacist Groups,” Criminology and Public
Policy, vol. 8, no. 3 (August 2009), p. 508. Hereinafter: Freilich, Chermak, and Caspi, “Critical Events.”
31
Responses of John E. Lewis, p. 41.
32
While this discussion focuses on intent, domestic terrorists can exhibit additional traits that distinguish them from
other offenders. For example, as part of their involvement in ideological movements, domestic terrorists often are
exposed to more tactical training—in weapons, explosives, arson, reconnaissance, paramilitary discipline—than many
more ordinary criminals. See Anti-Defamation League, Guidebook on Extremism for Law Enforcement, (2007), p. 9.
Hereinafter: Anti-Defamation League, Guidebook.

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Two Cases Demonstrating Blurred Lines Between

Hate Crime and Domestic Terrorism
When it comes to characterizing ideologically inspired criminal actors for investigative purposes, the FBI occasionally
confronts suspects who can be viewed either as terrorists or as perpetrators of hate crimes. Precisely
understanding suspect’s motives (among other things) can be useful in categorizing his or her case as either a
domestic terrorism or hate crime investigation.33 However, when it comes to prosecution, one can say that such
considerations are somewhat more limited, namely because no separate federal crime of “domestic terrorism”
exists.34 Federal prosecutors can pursue hate crimes charges or other criminal offenses that fit the crime.35 While
pursing such non-terrorism charges, prosecutors may avoid publicly describing suspects as domestic terrorists.
Dylann Roof
On June 17, 2015, Dylann Roof shot and killed nine African Americans in the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal
Church in Charleston, SC. Three churchgoers survived. DOJ pursued a case involving federal hate crimes and
firearms charges.36 Roof was sentenced to death by a federal jury.37 According to DOJ, before the shooting incident,
Roof had posted on a website a manuscript and photos “expressing his racist beliefs.” Additionally, DOJ argued that
he “wanted to increase racial tensions across the Nation, and sought retribution for perceived wrongs he believed
African-Americans had committed against white people.”38 Although it seems that Roof’s alleged motives had
ideological underpinnings in white supremacy, then-Attorney General Loretta E. Lynch noted in 2015 that DOJ
pursued federal hate crimes charges because “[w]e think that this is exactly the type of case that the federal hate
crimes statutes were, in fact, conceived to cover.”39
Kevin Harpham
The FBI’s public description of the case of confessed would-be bomber Kevin Harpham is an example of how
difficult it may be to characterize acts as domestic terrorism. Initially, the FBI viewed the case as domestic terrorism.
In 2011, Harpham, motivated by white supremacist ideology, left a bomb—which never detonated—along the route
of a parade in Spokane, WA, honoring Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. The FBI’s Northwest Joint Terrorism Task Force
led the investigation.40 In prepared public remarks framing the “current state of the terrorism threat” from April
2011, the then-FBI Assistant Director for the Counterterrorism Division noted that Harpham’s case was one of
“several recent domestic terrorism incidents [that] demonstrate the scope of the threat.”41 Harpham eventually
pled guilty to committing a federal hate crime and attempting to use a weapon of mass destruction.42 Thereafter, the
Bureau described the case as the successful prevention of a “horrific hate crime.”43

33
Investigating an individual as a terrorist may confer more resources to an investigation and may offer more
investigative options. Regarding the latter, see American Civil Liberties Union, “How the USA PATRIOT Act
Redefines ‘Domestic Terrorism,’” https://www.aclu.org/other/how-usa-patriot-act-redefines-domestic-terrorism.
34
Greg Myre, “Why the Government Can’t Bring Terrorism Charges in Charlottesville,” NPR, August 14, 2017.
35
For a discussion of federal hate crimes, see Department of Justice, “Hate Crime Laws,” https://www.justice.gov/crt/
hate-crime-laws.
36
Department of Justice, “Attorney General Lynch Statement Following the Federal Grand Jury Indictment Against
Dylann Storm Roof,” press release, July 22, 2015. DOJ also sought the death penalty. Department of Justice, “Attorney
General Loretta E. Lynch Statement on the Case of Dylann Roof,” press release, May 24, 2016.
37
Department of Justice, “Federal Jury Sentences Dylann Storm Roof to Death,” press release, January 10, 2017.
38
United States v. Dylann Storm Roof, indictment, U.S. District Court, District of South Carolina, June 20, 2015.
39
Christina Maza, “Why is Dylann Roof Not Facing Charges of Terrorism?” Christian Science Monitor, July 24, 2015.
40
Department of Justice, “Attempted Bomber Arrested,” press release, March 9, 2011.
41
Mark F. Giuliano, Assistant Director, Counterterrorism Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation, prepared remarks
delivered at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Stein Program on Counterterrorism and Intelligence,
Washington, DC, April 14, 2011, http://www.fbi.gov/news/speeches/the-post-9-11-fbi-the-bureaus-response-to-
evolving-threats.
42
Department of Justice, “Attempted Bomber Pleads Guilty to Federal Hate Crime and Weapons Charge,” press
release, September 7, 2011.
43
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “MLK Parade Bomber,” January 13, 2012; Department of Justice, press release,
“Colville, Wash., Man Indicted for Federal Hate Crime in Attempted Bombing of the MLK Unity March,” press
release, April 21, 2011.

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Extremism vs. Terrorism

Another concept that muddies discussion of domestic terrorism is “extremism.” The latter term is
commonly applied to homegrown actors, whether they be domestic terrorists or adherents of
ideologies forwarded by foreign groups such as Al Qaeda. National security expert Jonathan
Masters has suggested that many law enforcement officials likely view “extremism” as largely
synonymous with “terrorism.”44 Masters has also found that there is a “lack of uniformity in the
way domestic terrorist activities are prosecuted” in the United States.45 Presumably, using the
term “extremist” allows prosecutors, policymakers, and investigators the flexibility to discuss
terrorist-like activity without actually labeling it as “terrorism” and then having to prosecute it as
such. This flexibility is certainly an asset to prosecutors. They can charge subjects of FBI
domestic terrorism investigations under a wider array of statutes without having to convince a
jury that the accused were terrorists. However, for policymakers this flexibility makes it hard to
determine the scope of the domestic terrorist threat. One cannot get a clear sense of scope if some
individuals are charged and publicly described as terrorists, others are discussed as extremists,
and still others enter the public record only as criminals implicated in crimes not necessarily
associated with terrorism, such as trespassing, arson, and tax fraud.

What Is Extremism?
The FBI’s public formulation of “extremism” suggests two components. First, extremism
involves hewing to particular ideologies. Second, it also includes criminal activity to advance
these ideologies.46 Thus, according to this construction, an anarchist believes in a particular
ideology—anarchism. An “anarchist extremist” is an anarchist who adopts criminal tactics.47
One scholar has indicated a similar bifurcation: First, extremism refers to an ideology outside a
society’s key values, and for liberal democracies, such ideologies “support racial or religious
supremacy and/or oppose the core principles of democracy and human rights.” Second,
extremism can refer to the use of tactics that ignore the rights of others to achieve an
ideological goal.48

44
Jonathan Masters, Militant Extremists in the United States, Council on Foreign Relations, Washington, DC, February
7, 2011.
45
Ibid.
46
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Domestic Terrorism: Anarchist Extremism, A Primer,” December 16, 2010. The
focus of this piece, as the title suggests, is anarchist extremism, not necessarily defining the term “extremism.”
Hereinafter: Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Anarchist Extremism.” This type of formulation—extremism consists of
adherence to ideologies and criminal activity committed in the name of these ideologies—is replicated in the
definitions provided within Department of Homeland Security, “Domestic Terrorism and Homegrown.”
47
Making things more complex, the broader concept of “violent extremism” was used by the Obama Administration.
According to the Administration, “violent extremists” are “individuals who support or commit ideologically-motivated
violence to further political goals.” See Empowering Local Partners to Prevent Violent Extremism in the United States,
August 2011, p. 1.
48
Peter R. Neumann, Prisons and Terrorism: Radicalisation and De-Radicalisation in 15 Countries, International
Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence, London, 2010, p. 12. In its Guidebook on Extremism for
Law Enforcement, Hereinafter: Neumann, Prisons and Terrorism. The Anti-Defamation League has defined extremists
as: “people who subscribe to extreme ideologies.” The group goes on to say, “extreme ideologies are those that promote
world views so radical that most other people will not agree with them.” See Anti-Defamation League, Guidebook, p.
3.

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“Homegrown Violent Extremists” Are Not Domestic Terrorists

The FBI and DHS have popularized the phrase “homegrown violent extremist” (HVE). It
separates domestic terrorists from U.S.-based terrorists motivated by the ideologies of foreign
terrorist organizations. According to DHS and the FBI, a HVE is “a person of any citizenship
who has lived and/or operated primarily in the United States or its territories who advocates, is
engaged in, or is preparing to engage in ideologically-motivated terrorist activities (including
providing support to terrorism) in furtherance of political or social objectives promoted by a
foreign terrorist organization, but is acting independently of direction by a foreign terrorist
organization.”49 According to the FBI and DHS, an HVE is not a domestic terrorist—they are two
distinct categories of terrorist actors.50

The Lack of an Official Public List

The federal government does not generate an official and public list of domestic terrorist
organizations or individuals.51 The development of such a list may be precluded by civil liberties
concerns (i.e., inclusion in a publicly available list may impinge on a group’s exercise of free
speech or its other constitutionally protected activities). However, a lack of official lists or
processes to designate groups or individuals as domestic terrorists makes it difficult to assess
domestic terrorism trends and evaluate federal efforts to counter such threats. In 2011, an
unnamed DHS official cited in a news report stated that “unlike international terrorism, there are
no designated domestic terrorist groups. Subsequently, all the legal actions of an identified
extremist group leading up to an act of violence are constitutionally protected and not reported on
by DHS.”52 Constitutionality aside, the lack of a list may also contribute to a certain vagueness in
the public realm about which groups the federal government considers domestic terrorist
organizations. While the government does not provide an official and public list of domestic
terrorist organizations, it does include domestic terrorists (along with international terrorists) in
its Terrorist Screening Database, commonly known as the “Terrorist Watchlist.”53
The government is much less vague regarding foreign terrorist organizations. They are officially
designated as such according to a well-established legally and procedurally proscribed regimen.
According to the Department of State’s Bureau of Counterterrorism, as of August 16, 2017, the

49
This definition appears to differ from the conceptualization of “homegrown jihadists” used in this report by (1) only
including individuals not directed by a foreign organization and by (2) including all sorts of terrorists motivated by
foreign ideologies, not just violent jihadists. See Department of Homeland Security and Federal Bureau of
Investigation, Joint Intelligence Bulletin, “Use of Small Arms: Examining Lone Shooters and Small-Unit Tactics,”
August 16, 2011, p. 3.
50
Ibid.
51
See Christopher Bellavita, “Does the U.S. Have Any Domestic Terrorist Groups?” Homeland Security Watch, June
29, 2010. Hereinafter: Bellavita, “Domestic Terrorist Groups.” See also R. Jeffrey Smith, “Homeland Security
Department Curtails Home-Grown Terror Analysis,” Washington Post, June 7, 2011. Hereinafter: Smith, “Homeland
Security.” David E. Heller, “Designating Domestic Terrorist Individuals or Groups,” (Master’s Thesis, Naval
Postgraduate School, 2010). Hereinafter: Heller, “Designating Domestic.”
52
Smith, “Homeland Security.”
53
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Terrorist Screening Center, “Frequently Asked Questions.” See also Timothy J.
Healy, Director, Terrorist Screening Center, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Statement before the House Judiciary
Committee, Washington, DC, March 24, 2010; Bellavita, “Domestic Terrorist Groups.” For more information on the
Terrorist Screening Database, see CRS Report R44678, The Terrorist Screening Database and Preventing Terrorist
Travel, by Jerome P. Bjelopera, Bart Elias, and Alison Siskin.

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Secretary of State had designated 61 foreign terrorist organizations according to Section 219 of
the Immigration and Nationality Act, as amended.54

Toward a Practical Definition: Threats Not Groups

As discussed above, DOJ and the FBI do not list domestic terrorist organizations publicly and
officially. This may complicate the understanding that federal policymakers have of what exactly
the government considers “domestic terrorism.” While not naming specific groups, DOJ and the
FBI have openly delineated domestic terrorist threats. DOJ has identified domestic terrorism
threats to include criminal activity by animal rights extremists, ecoterrorists, anarchists, anti-
government extremists such as ‘sovereign citizens’ and unauthorized militias, black separatists,
white supremacists, and abortion extremists.55
The actors who constitute each of the domestic terrorist “threats” outlined by DOJ draw upon
ideologies whose expression largely involves constitutionally protected activity. The FBI
safeguards against cases focused solely on constitutionally protected activities. All FBI
investigations have to be conducted for an authorized national security, criminal, or foreign
intelligence collection purpose.56 The purpose of an investigation may not be to solely monitor
First Amendment rights.57
However, it is unclear how DOJ or the FBI arrive at their list of domestic terrorism threats. This
poses at least two fundamental questions:
 How does a particular brand of dissent become ripe for description by DOJ and
the FBI as driving a “domestic terrorism” threat?
What criteria are involved in such a process?
How many crimes or plots attributed to a specific ideology have to occur to stimulate
the identification of a new extremist threat? Is the severity of the crimes linked to an
ideology taken into consideration?

54
For the legal criteria used to designate a foreign terrorist organization, the legal ramifications of designation, and
ancillary effects of designation see Department of State, “Foreign Terrorist Organizations,” https://www.state.gov/j/ct/
rls/other/des/123085.htm.
55
Department of Justice, White Paper, p. 59. See also Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Domestic Terrorism.” In recent
years, the FBI has switched from “anti-abortion” to abortion extremism, thus including individuals who may commit
crimes to protect abortion rights. The FBI’s domestic terrorism investigations likely cover these categories as well as
lone wolves (lone offenders): extremists who commit crimes without the support of a formal organization or network.
Some lone wolves are motivated by the ideologies behind the threats outlined by DOJ, but they can fashion their own
ideologies as well. In the past, in the area of domestic terrorism, the FBI has distinguished between “special interest
terrorism” and “traditional right-wing and left-wing terrorism: “Special interest terrorism differs from traditional right-
wing and left-wing terrorism in that extremist special interest groups seek to resolve specific issues, rather than effect
widespread political change. Special interest extremists continue to conduct acts of politically motivated violence to
force segments of society, including the general public, to change attitudes about issues considered important to their
causes. These groups occupy the extreme fringes of animal rights, pro-life, environmental, anti-nuclear, and other
movements.” It is unclear whether the FBI still uses the categories of “special interest,” “left-wing,” and “right-wing”
terrorism. See Jarboe, Testimony. See also Federal Bureau of Investigation, “What are Known Violent Extremist
Groups?” https://www.fbi.gov/cve508/teen-website/what-are-known-violent-extremist-groups. This is from a website
designed by the FBI to counter violent extremism. The website, titled “Don’t Be a Puppet,” addresses teenagers.
Regardless, it is one of the few publicly-available sources where the Bureau succinctly describes numerous violent
extremist groups or ideologies.
56
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Domestic Investigations and Operations Guide, redacted, October 15, 2011, p. 4-1
through p. 4-2.
57
Ibid.

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 At what point do ideologically driven domestic terrorism threats cease to exist?

Should there be a means for public petitioning of the government to eliminate
various threats as investigative priorities?
The below discussion of domestic terrorism threats does not necessarily presume the priority of
one over the other.58 It is also important to note that instances of animal rights extremism and
ecoterrorism within the last fifteen years are more readily available in the public record than
cases involving other types of domestic terrorism.59 The extensive use of such examples in this
report does not imply the prominence of animal rights extremism or ecoterrorism over other
domestic terrorist threats.

Animal Rights Extremists and Environmental Extremists

The term “animal rights extremism” covers criminal acts committed in the name of animal
rights.60 Environmental extremism—most often referred to as “ecoterrorism”—includes criminal
acts committed in the name of the environment.61 These terms are not applied to groups or
individuals involved with environmental movements or animal welfare protection/rights activism
within the “confines of civil society and the rule of law.”62
Many of the crimes committed by both animal rights extremists and ecoterrorists are perpetrated
by independent small cells or individuals who harass and intimidate their victims.63 These cells or
lone actors engage in crimes such as vandalism, theft, the destruction of property, and arson. Most
animal rights extremists and ecoterrorists also eschew physical violence directly targeting people
or animals. Regardless, crimes committed by ecoterrorists and animal rights extremists have
caused millions of dollars in property damage, and some have involved the intimidation and
harassment of victims.64 These two types of extremism are often discussed together, because the
two broader radical movements from which they draw their philosophical underpinnings have
similar beliefs and overlapping membership.
The two movements—the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF)—
have the greatest reach among animal rights extremists and ecoterrorists. The ALF and the ELF
are too diffuse to be called groups. Neither the ALF nor the ELF maintains formal rosters or
leadership structures, for example.65 However, each communicates a sense of shared identity and
attracts people who commit crimes in its name. They achieve this via “above-ground” wings.

58
The discussion lists the threats in the same order as found in Department of Justice, White Paper.
59
People the FBI or DOJ may characterize as animal rights extremists and ecoterrorists have tended to publicize their
activities online.
60
Department of Homeland Security, “Domestic Terrorism and Homegrown.”
61
For the purposes of this report, “ecoterrorists,” “eco-extremists,” and “environmental extremists” are synonymous.
These terms and “animal rights extremism” describe individuals engaged in criminal activity in the name of radical
environmental ideologies or animal rights. It is unclear why environmental extremists are frequently dubbed
“ecoterrorists” while animal rights extremists do not have a similar commonplace usage applied to them.
62
See Kevin R. Grubbs, “Saving Lives or Spreading Fear: The Terroristic Nature of Eco-Extremism,” Animal Law, vol.
16, no. 2 (2010), p. 353-57. Hereinafter: Grubbs, “Saving Lives.”
63
See Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Putting Intel to Work against ELF and ALF Terrorists,” June 30, 2008.
Hereinafter: FBI, “Putting Intel.”
64
Ibid.
65
Both the ALF and the ELF focus on criminal activity as central tenets of their philosophies or operational guidelines,
and the FBI emphasizes that criminal activity is a key element in the identities of these movements. See FBI, “Putting
Intel.”

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Largely using websites, ALF and ELF supporters publish literature highlighting movement
philosophies, tactics, and accounts (press releases) of recent movement-related criminal activity.
Much of this involves protected speech and occurs in the public realm. Press releases allow
“underground” extremists to publicly claim responsibility for criminal activity in the name of
either movement while maintaining secrecy regarding the details of their operations. The ALF
and the ELF do not work alone. Members of other entities such as Stop Huntingdon Animal
Cruelty (SHAC) have committed crimes in the name of animal rights, for example.
Additional factors tangle our understanding of the ALF and the ELF. People can simultaneously
participate in both. This may partly be true because the movements are so amorphous. The two
movements also share similar agendas, and in 1993 they declared solidarity.66 All of this can play
out confusingly in the real world. For example, an individual can commit a crime and claim
responsibility for it online in the name of both the ALF and the ELF. One case especially
highlights intersections between the ALF and the ELF.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the FBI uncovered a network that, according to DOJ,
committed violent acts in the name of both the ALF and the ELF. The group included about 20
individuals and called itself “the Family.” It was reportedly responsible for at least 25 criminal
incidents totaling approximately $48 million in damages and disbanded at some point in 2001,
due to law enforcement pressure on the group. The Family was responsible for an arson attack in
1998 at the Vail Ski Resort. Eight simultaneous fires damaged radio towers, ski lift towers,
restaurants, and the ski patrol office at the Colorado site and totaled over $24 million in losses.67

Philosophical Underpinnings
Both the ALF and the ELF rely on and borrow from a number of philosophical underpinnings to
rationalize their beliefs and actions. These help forge a common identity among individuals in
each movement. These ideas are also key principles professed by more mainstream animal rights
or environmental activists engaged in legal protest.
The ALF: Animal Rights and Speciesism. The ALF’s moral code includes the belief that
animals possess basic inalienable rights such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and this
suggests that animals cannot be owned. According to the ALF, the U.S. legal system—which
describes animals as property—is corrupt, and there exists a “higher law than that created by and
for the corporate-state complex, a moral law that transcends the corrupt and biased statutes of the
US political system.”68 Simply put, the rights of one species do not trump the rights of others. To
suggest otherwise is to be prejudiced, according to animal rights adherents.
For the ALF and other animal rights supporters, the favoring of one species, particularly humans,
over others has a name: speciesism. For the ALF, speciesism is a “discriminatory belief system as

66
U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, “Statement of Carson Carroll, Deputy
Assistant Director, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives,” Eco-Terrorism Specifically Examining the
Earth Liberation Front and the Animal Liberation Front, 109th Cong., 1st sess., May 18, 2005, S. Hrg. 109-947
(Washington: GPO, 2007), p. 43. Hereinafter: Statement of Carson Carroll.
67
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Operation Backfire: Help Find Four Eco-Terrorists,” November 19, 2008;
Department of Justice, “Eleven Defendants Indicted on Domestic Terrorism Charges,” press release, January 20, 2006.
Hereinafter: Department of Justice, “Eleven Defendants.” See also United States v. Joseph Dibee et al, Sentencing
Memorandum, CR 06-60069-AA, CR 06-60070-AA, CR 06-60071-AA, CR 06-60078-AA, CR 06-60079-AA, CR 06-
60080-AA, CR 06-60120-AA, CR-06-60122-AA, CR-06-60123-AA, CR-06-60124-AA, CR-06-60125-AA, CR-
60126-AA, U.S. District Court, District of Oregon, May 4, 2007, pp. 6, 8, 19, 20-21. Hereinafter: U.S. v. Dibee et al.
68
North American Animal Liberation Press Office, “History of the Animal Liberation Movement.” Hereinafter:
NAALPO, “History.”

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ethically flawed and philosophically unfounded as sexism or racism, but far more murderous and
consequential in its implications.”69 Thus, the movement couches the theft or illegal release of
animals used in research or for economic gain as “liberation.” The ALF views the destruction of
laboratory infrastructure or tools as the elimination of items used to enslave species who have the
same rights as humans. Intimidation of scientists and employees of businesses tied to animal
research or testing is rationalized as confrontation with “oppressors” or those who, in the eyes of
movement adherents, abuse and murder animals.70
The ELF: An Ideological Mélange. Ecoterrorists are motivated by a mélange of environmental
philosophies. There is no single formula for what constitutes the ideological makeup of an ELF
follower, but several concepts likely play key roles in the movement. These are biocentrism, deep
ecology, social ecology, and green anarchism. Biocentrism argues for the equality of all
organisms.71 Deep ecology suggests that all species are part of “the larger super-organism that is
nature.”72 It criticizes industrialization and views modern human impact on the earth as negative
and hearkens back to small communities centered on subsistence agriculture.73 Social ecology
suggests that hierarchical human society leads to social inequalities and environmental harm.
Green anarchism ascribes environmental harm to civilization and domestication and embraces the
notion of “rewilding,” or rejecting civilization and returning to a hunter-gatherer state to preserve
one’s natural surroundings.74

Anarchist Extremists
According to the FBI, anarchist extremists commit crimes in the name of anarchist ideals.75 These
ideals include belief that
individual autonomy and collective equality are fundamental and necessary for a
functional, civilized society. [Anarchism] resists the existing hierarchical structure of
society that gives some people authority and control over others. [According to
anarchists] authority imbues power, and power always is used in illegitimate and self-
serving ways by those who have it.76
Anarchist extremists as well as anarchists engaging in constitutionally protected activity can
oppose government, business, or social interests that they view as dangerous. As this suggests,
anarchists advocate some form of revolution that realigns authority in the societies they desire to

69
Steven Best and Anthony J. Nocella, II, “Behind the Mask: Uncovering the Animal Liberation Front,” in Terrorists
or Freedom Fighters? Reflections on the Liberation of Animals, ed. Steven Best and Anthony J. Nocella, II (New York:
Lantern Books, 2004), p. 24. Hereinafter: Best and Nocella, “Behind the Mask.” Best reportedly advises NAALPO, see
http://naalpo.posterous.com/our-task-new-essay-by-press-office-advisor-st. P. Michael Conn and James V. Parker, The
Animal Research War (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), p. xix. Hereinafter: Conn and Parker, The Animal. See
also NAALPO, “History” which excerpts Best and Nocella’s work.
70
NAALPO, “History.”
71
Stefan H. Leader and Peter Probst, “The Earth Liberation Front and Environmental Terrorism,” Terrorism and
Political Violence, vol. 15, no. 4 (Spring/Summer 2005), pp. 39-40. Hereinafter: Leader and Probst, “The Earth
Liberation Front.”
72
Conn and Parker, The Animal, xx.
73
Leader and Probst, “The Earth Liberation Front,” pp. 39-40.
74
Sean Parson, “Understanding the Ideology of the Earth Liberation Front,” Green Theory and Praxis: The Journal of
Ecopedagogy, vol. 4, no. 2 (2008), pp. 54-58.
75
Ibid.
76
Randy Borum and Chuck Tilby, “Anarchist Direct Actions: A Challenge for Law Enforcement,” Studies in Conflict
and Terrorism, vol. 28, no. 3, (2005), p. 202. Hereinafter: Borum and Tilby, “Anarchist Direct Action.”

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transform. However, adherents cannot agree to a single means for attaining revolutionary
change.77
As one may assume, anarchist activity is decentralized. In fact, a basic, temporary organizational
structure—the affinity group—likely plays a larger role in shaping the work of U.S. anarchists
than any formal long-lasting entities or networks.78 Affinity groups are “autonomous militant
unit[s] generally made up of between five-to-twenty individuals who share a sense of the causes
worth defending and the types of actions they prefer to engage in. The decision-making process is
anarchist, that is to say, egalitarian, participatory, deliberative, and consensual.”79 An affinity
group often consists of a circle of friends. The friends coalesce around a specific objective and
break apart when they achieve their desired ends. Individual groups can band together in
“clusters” and clusters can coordinate their efforts, if need be.80 The efforts can be legal or illegal,
violent or nonviolent, covert or open. These structures have a long history among anarchists, but
other movements use them as well.81 Also, anarchists can engage in what they call “black bloc”
tactics. These involve secretive planning for public—often criminal—activity in which
participants, typically dressed in black, act en-masse.82 Adding to the sprawling nature of the
anarchist movement, some adherents also participate in the ALF and the ELF. These three
movements share general philosophical tenets such as opposition to globalization and
capitalism.83

“Antifa”
In the aftermath of the violence related to protests in Charlottesville, VA, on August 12, 2017, there has been media
attention devoted to the confrontational tactics of antifascist protesters known as “Antifa.” Antifa beliefs can dovetail
with the broad anti-government and anti-capitalist views that are part of anarchism.84 One observer has described
Antifa as, “a radical pan-leftist politics of social revolution applied to fighting the far right. Its adherents are
predominantly communists, socialists and anarchists who reject turning to the police or the state to halt the advance
of white supremacy.”85 Antifa beliefs appear to inspire autonomous groups to track the activities of neo-Nazis, and
most “anti-fascist organizing is nonviolent.”86 However, some Antifa protesters are willing to violently clash with
people publicly advocating what Antifa protesters would see as fascist views, particularly white supremacists.87 Antifa
protesters characterize such violence targeting people as defensive.88

77
Ibid., p. 203.
78
Borum and Tilby, “Anarchist Direct Action,” p. 207.
79
Francis Dupuis-Déri, “Anarchism and the Politics of Affinity Groups,” Anarchist Studies, vol. 18, no. 1 (2010),
p. 41. Hereinafter: Dupuis-Déri, “Anarchism.”
80
CrimethInc. Workers’ Collective, Recipes for Disaster: An Anarchist Cookbook, (Olympia, WA: CrimethInc.
Workers’ Collective, 2004), pp. 28-34. Hereinafter: Anarchist Cookbook.
81
Dupuis-Déri, “Anarchism,” p. 43.
82
Anarchist Cookbook, pp. 127-130.
83
Borum and Tilby, “Anarchist Direct Action,” p. 208.
84
“Anarchist Extremists: Antifa,” State of New Jersey Office of Homeland Security and Preparedness, June 12, 2017.
Hereinafter: “Anarchist Extremists: Antifa.” Breanna Cammeron, “Antifa: Left-Wing Militants on the Rise,” BBC
News, August 14, 2017.
85
Mark Bray, “Who Are the Antifa?” Washington Post, August 16, 2017.
86
Ibid.
87
See “Anarchist Extremists: Antifa.”
88
Sara Ganim and Chris Welch, “Unmasking the Leftist Antifa Movement,” CNN, August 20, 2017. They have also
engaged in property destruction.

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The FBI has described anarchist extremists as typically being “event driven,” meaning
they show up at political conventions, economic and financial summits, environmental
meetings, and the like. They usually target symbols of Western civilization that they
perceive to be the root causes of all societal ills—i.e., financial corporations, government
institutions, multinational companies, and law enforcement agencies. They damage and
vandalize property, riot, set fires, and perpetrate small-scale bombings. Law enforcement
is also concerned about anarchist extremists who may be willing to use improvised
explosives devices or improvised incendiary devices.89
Anarchist extremists in the United States have been involved in illegal activity during mass
protests surrounding events such as the 1999 World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference in
Seattle, WA.
Anarchist extremists reportedly committed crimes during the 2008 Republican National
Convention in St. Paul, MN.90 To coordinate their protests during the convention, some anarchists
formed what they called the “RNC Welcoming Committee” (RNCWC).91 In September 2007, the
RNCWC developed a plan to broadly organize the activities of affinity groups intending to
disrupt the convention. Law enforcement infiltrated and undermined these efforts, arresting 800
people, including eight involved with the RNCWC.92 Initially, in Minnesota state court, the eight
“had been charged with felonies: first-degree damage to property and second-degree conspiracy
to riot. Prosecutors added a more serious charge of conspiracy to riot in furtherance of terrorism,
which was later dismissed.”93 Five of the eight pled guilty to gross misdemeanor charges in 2010.
The others had all of the charges they faced dismissed.94
On April 30, 2012, five men who reputedly had anarchist sympathies were arrested for
purportedly scheming to blow up a bridge near Cleveland, OH.95 One was convicted on charges
related to the plot. The four others pled guilty.96 The plot was apparently timed to coincide with
peaceful protest activity arranged by Occupy Cleveland, an offshoot of the Occupy Wall Street
movement. Occupy Cleveland representatives stated that the would-be bombers “were in no way
representing or acting on behalf of Occupy Cleveland.”97 An FBI sting operation led to the

89
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Anarchist Extremism.”
90
Ibid. For information on reported anarchist criminal activity related to the 2008 Republican National Convention, see
Department of Justice, “Michigan Man Sentenced for Possessing Molotov Cocktails,” press release, March 10, 2009;
Department of Justice, “Texas Man Sentenced on Firearms Charges Connected to the Republican National
Convention,” press release, May 21, 2009; Department of Justice, “Austin, Texas Man Sentenced for Possessing
Molotov Cocktails During the Republican National Convention,” press release, May 14, 2009. For information on a
matter possibly related to the anarchist criminal activity at the 2008 convention, see James C. McKinley Jr., “Anarchist
Ties Seen in ‘08 Bombing of Texas Governor’s Mansion,” New York Times, February 22, 2011.
91
For an archived version of the group’s website see http://web.archive.org/web/20080907081250/http://
www.nornc.org./.
92
Pat Pheifer, “Guilty Pleas Close Book on ‘08 Convention Protests,” Minneapolis-St. Paul Star Tribune, October 19,
2010. Hereinafter: Pheifer, “Guilty Pleas.” See also Fred Burton and Scott Stewart, “The Lessons of St. Paul,”
STRATFOR, September 10, 2008.
93
Pheifer, “Guilty Pleas.”
94
Ibid.
95
Department of Justice, “Five Men Arrested in Plot to Bomb Ohio Bridge,” press release, May 1, 2012. Hereinafter:
Department of Justice, “Five Men.” David Ariosto, “5 Arrested in Alleged Plot to Blow Up Cleveland-Area Bridge,”
CNN, May 1, 2012.
96
Kim Palmer, “‘Anarchist’ Convicted in Ohio Bridge Bomb Plot,” Reuters, June 13, 2013.
97
Henry J. Gomez, “Bridge Bomb Plot: Suspects Were Active in Occupy Cleveland, Even As Movement Slowed to a
Crawl,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, May 2, 2012.

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quintet’s arrest.98 Purportedly, the group relied on an undercover FBI employee to supply them
with two inert bombs that the conspirators believed were functional.99
Criminal acts involving anarchist extremists do not have to be event-driven. For example, Eric G.
King pled guilty to using explosive devices to commit arson in a failed 2014 attempt to ignite a
fire at the Kansas City, MO, office of U.S. Representative Emanuel Cleaver II. The incident
occurred when the office was unoccupied, but King had posted violent commentary regarding
police to social media.100
DHS noted that anarchist extremists had set fires at urban development project sites in Vancouver,
Canada, and Seattle, WA, in 2013. Anarchist extremists are also suspected in a similar incident
that occurred in Grand Rapids, MI in 2011.101 These attacks followed instances of what DHS
characterized as “lower-level criminal activity or mischief involving anarchist or ‘anti-
gentrification statements.’”102
In another case that was not event-driven, Joseph Konopka, the self-dubbed “Dr. Chaos,”
allegedly led a group of boys he called “The Realm of Chaos” in a series of crimes involving
vandalism to radio and cell phone towers in the late 1990s and early 2000s. In 2002, he was
arrested in Chicago for storing more than a pound of deadly cyanide powder in a passageway in a
Chicago Transit Authority subway tunnel.103 He had obtained the material (potassium cyanide and
sodium cyanide) from an abandoned warehouse.104 In 2002, Konopka pled guilty in federal court
to possessing chemical weapons, and in 2005 he pled guilty to 11 felonies, including conspiracy,
arson, creating counterfeit software, and interfering with computers in Wisconsin.105

White Supremacist Extremists

The term “white supremacist extremism” (WSE) describes people or groups who commit
criminal acts in the name of white supremacist ideology. According to media sources, in May
2017, FBI and DHS released a joint intelligence bulletin reputedly stating that white supremacists
“were responsible for 49 homicides in 26 attacks from 2000 to 2016 ... more than any other
domestic extremist movement.”106

98
Department of Justice, “Five Men.”
99
Ibid. Four of the conspirators pled guilty “to conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction, attempted use of
weapons of mass destruction, and malicious use of an explosive device to destroy property used in interstate
commerce.” See Department of Justice, “Three Men Sentenced to Prison for Roles in Plot to Bomb Ohio Bridge,” press
release, November 20, 2012. A fifth was “convicted of conspiracy to use a weapon of mass destruction and other
charges.” See Kim Palmer, “‘Anarchist’ Convicted in Ohio Bridge Bomb Plot,” Reuters, June 13, 2013.
100
Tony Rizzo, “Man Who Threw Molotov Cocktails at Rep. Emanuel Cleaver’s KC Office Gets 10-Year Sentence,”
Kansas City Star, June 28, 2016; Department of Justice, “KC Man Pleads Guilty to Throwing Molotov Cocktails at
Congressional Office,” press release, March 3, 2016.
101
Department of Homeland Security, “Self-Identified Anarchist Extremists Target Urban ‘Gentrification’ Sites with
Arson,” July 23, 2013.
102
Ibid.
103
Juliet Williams, Federal appeals Court Overturns Dr. Chaos Conviction,” Associated Press, May 31, 2005; Mike
Robinson, “Federal Prosecutors Want ‘Dr. Chaos’ to Remain Locked Up,” Associated Press, March 13, 2002; Meg
Jones and Jesse Garza, “‘Anarchist’ Charged Over Cache of Cyanide,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, March 12, 2002.
104
“Man Pleads Guilty to Storing Cyanide,” Associated Press, November 21, 2002.
105
“Judge Sentences ‘Dr. Chaos’ to Prison for Damage to Wisconsin Power Systems, Associated Press, November 30,
2005.
106
Jana Winter, “FBI and DHS Warned of Growing Threat From White Supremacists Months Ago,” Foreign
Policy.com, August 14, 2017.

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At its core, white supremacist ideology purports that the white race ranks above all others. WSE
draws on the constitutionally protected activities of a broad swath of racist hate-oriented groups
active in the United States ranging from the Ku Klux Klan to racist skinheads. Some of these
groups have elaborate organizational structures, dues-paying memberships, and media wings.
Additionally, many individuals espouse extremist beliefs without having formal membership in
any specific organization.
A large proportion of white supremacists dualistically divide the world between whites and all
other peoples who are seen as enemies.107 Particular animus is directed toward Jews and African
Americans. In fact, a common racist and revisionist historical refrain is that the civil rights
movement succeeded only because Jews orchestrated it behind the scenes.108
Scholars indicate that white supremacists believe in racial separation and that society
discriminates against them. To them, whites have lost “ground to other groups and ... extreme
measures are required to reverse the trend.”109 All of this has been encapsulated in a slogan
known as the “Fourteen Words”: “We must secure the existence of our race and a future for white
children.” This was coined by David Lane, a member of a violent terrorist group active in the
1980s. The Fourteen Words have been described as “the most popular white supremacist slogan
in the world.”110
Neo-Nazism and its obsession with Adolph Hitler and Nazi Germany is also a prominent
component of white supremacist extremism in the United States.111 The father of American neo-
Nazism, George Lincoln Rockwell, became publicly active in the late 1950s. According to one
scholar, Rockwell laid down three concepts that have shaped neo-Nazism ever since. For his
followers, he reconfigured the racial notion of “white,” broadening it beyond “Aryan” to include
people of Southern and Eastern European descent. Additionally, Rockwell denied the Holocaust.
He also encouraged tying neo-Nazism to religion, and some of his followers took up the obscure
creed of Christian Identity.112

Conflict and Conspiracy

Aside from racial superiority, a dualistic view of the world, and neo-Nazism, at least two other
broad concepts shape white supremacy in the United States. They are the inevitability of violent

107
Chip Berlet and Stanislav Vysotsky, “Overview of U.S. White Supremacist Groups,” Journal of Political and
Military Sociology, vol. 34, no. 1 (Summer 2006), p. 13. Hereinafter: Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview.”
108
Leonard Zeskind, Blood and Politics: The History of the White Nationalist Movement from the Margins to the
Mainstream (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2009), p. 40. Hereinafter: Zeskind, Blood and Politics.
109
Rory McVeigh, “Structured Ignorance and Organized Racism in the United States,” Social Forces, vol. 82, no. 3
(March 2004), pp. 898-899.
110
Anti-Defamation League, Guidebook, p. 16. Lane died in 2007 while serving 190 years in prison for his
involvement with a terrorist group named the Order. See “Founder of Terrorist Group Dies in Prison,” Terre Haute
Tribune-Star, May 29, 2007, http://tribstar.com/local/x1155692948/Founder-of-terrorist-group-dies-in-prison. Among
other writings, Lane also drafted an influential racist ideological tract titled The 88 Precepts.
111
Anti-Defamation League, Guidebook, p. 15.
112
Fredrick J. Simonelli, “The Neo-Nazi Movement,” Southern Poverty Law Center. See also Charles S. Clark, “An
American Nazi’s Rise and Fall,” American History, vol. 40, no. 6 (February 2006), pp. 60-66; Simonelli, “The
American Nazi Party,” Historian, vol. 57, no. 3 (Spring 1995), pp. 553-566. A follower assassinated Rockwell in 1967.
For information on Christian Identity, see Kevin Borgeson and Robin Valeri, Terrorism in America (Sudbury, MA:
Jones and Bartlett, 2009), pp. 47-72; Martin Durham, “Christian Identity and the Politics of Religion,” Totalitarian
Movements and Political Religions, vol. 9, no. 1 (March 2008), pp. 79-91; Tanya Telfair Sharpe, “The Identity
Christian Movement: Ideology of Domestic Terrorism,” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 30, no. 4 (March 2000), pp. 604-
623; Anti-Defamation League, “Christian Identity.”

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conflict, and a belief that conspiracies hostile to white supremacy shape the existing world.113 It
can be said that WSE broadly shares these concepts with the militia movement (discussed below).
The FBI has stated that white supremacists “commonly anticipate” waging war against their
opponents.114 For example, the inevitability of RAHOWA—an acronym for “racial holy war”—is
a central tenet of the neo-Nazi Creativity Movement, which has its roots in the Church of the
Creator, a racist group founded by Ben Klassen in 1973.115 Klassen, who committed suicide in
1993, argued that whites had no choice but to wage war against non-whites.116 Likewise, some
white supremacists use racism to interpret apocalyptic imagery from Norse mythology embodied
in Odinism.117 Most Odinists are not racists, however.118
Conspiracism has been defined as “the idea that most major historic events have been shaped by
vast, long-term, secret conspiracies that benefit elite groups and individuals.”119 Conspiracy
theories are not the province of a particular movement or group. Regardless, conspiracy theories
can particularly shape the outlooks and actions of white supremacist extremists. Media sources
have stated that Richard Poplawski—convicted of shooting and killing three Pittsburgh police
officers in April 2009—believed that a Zionist conspiracy controlled government and major
corporations in the United States.120
As in Poplawski’s example, anti-Semitism plays a prominent role in the racist conspiracies of
many white supremacists.121 Many anti-Semites—as well as anti-government extremists—believe
in something they call the Zionist Occupied Government (ZOG).122 ZOG refers to the federal
government, which adherents contend is “controlled or manipulated by international Jewish
interests.”123 On its website, one WSE group sold versions of a video game titled “ZOG’s
Nightmare.” Gameplay involves shooting nonwhites while being chased by a police agency

113
Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview,” pp. 12-13 highlights dualism, conspiracism, and apocalypticism as key themes.
114
The Bureau has noted that “warfare” is reflected in beliefs drawn from Christian Identity, the Creativity Movement,
neo-Nazism, and Odinism. See Federal Bureau of Investigation, White Supremacist Recruitment of Military Personnel
since 9/11, July 7, 2008, p. 4. Hereinafter: Federal Bureau of Investigation, White Supremacist.
115
After Klassen’s 1993 death, the Church of the Creator was revived in an altered form by Matt Hale. For more
information see Dobratz, “The Role,” p. 290; and Federal Bureau of Investigation, White Supremacist, p. 4.
116
Ben Klassen, “RAHOWA: The Fighting Slogan of the White Race,” Racial Loyalty, no. 32 (February 1986).
117
Federal Bureau of Investigation, White Supremacist, p. 4. Odinism has been defined as either a combination of old
Norse religion and Christianity or a belief system that draws exclusively on Nordic mythology. See Jonathan White,
“Political Eschatology: A Theology of Antigovernment Extremism,” The American Behavioral Scientist, vol. 44, no. 6,
(February 2001), p. 939.
118
Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview,” p. 30.
119
Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview,” p. 12. For more on conspiracy theories and terrorism see Jamie Bartlett and Carl
Miller, The Power of Unreason: Conspiracy Theories, Extremism, and Counter-Terrorism, Demos, London, August
29, 2010. Barlett and Miller (p. 24.) suggest that conspiracy theories “are one of a number of factors that can lead to
extremism, and can turn extremism to violence.”
120
Timothy McNulty, Paula Reed Ward and Sadie Gurman, “Jury Decides Poplawski Should Die for Killing 3
Officers,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 28, 2011. Hereinafter: McNulty et al., “Jury Decides.” See also Anti-
Defamation League, “Richard Poplawski: The Making of a Lone Wolf,” April 8, 2009. Hereinafter: Anti-Defamation
League, “Richard Poplawski.” Sean D. Hamill, “Man Accused in Pittsburgh Killings Voiced Racist Views Online,”
New York Times, April 7, 2009. Hereinafter: Hamill, “Man Accused.”
121
Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview,” p. 13.
122
Also seen as “Zionist Occupation Government.”
123
Institute for Intergovernmental Research, Investigating Terrorism, p. 93; Mattias Gardell, Gods of the Blood: The
Pagan Revival and White Separatism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 11, 54, 68-69. Hereinafter:
Gardell, Gods.

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controlled by Jews.124 Racists explain all sorts of personal or social grievances by invoking
ZOG.125 One scholar has described ZOG as
an omnipresent and omnipotent cabal involving at its heart varying constellations of
Jews, Illuminati, Freemasons, plutocrats, and multinational corporations. It operates
through many social ‘front’ institutions, from the United Nations to Parent-Teacher
Associations.... ZOG can be used to explain not only the existence of affirmative action,
environmental pollution, and pornography but also why a certain individual made poor
grades in school, lost his job, or seems unable to find a partner.126
According to adherents, ZOG is said to control the media, arts, religion, science, and education.127

Loss of Prominent Leaders and Decline of their Groups

In the 1980s and 1990s, a small number of figures dominated white supremacist circles. They
were intimately linked to their own relatively cohesive organizations. By the early 2000s, these
groups fragmented as they lost their leaders.
Two particularly well-known white supremacist figures died in the early 2000s. William Pierce,
head of the National Alliance, died in 2002. Richard Butler, leader of Aryan Nations, died in
2004. Both Pierce and Butler articulated clear ideologies that attracted followers and drew upon
resources such as rural headquarters/compounds to sustain their organizations.128 By the early
2000s, the National Alliance even had a substantial revenue stream estimated at $1 million
annually generated from a publishing company and record labels it owned as well as dues.129 The
deaths of Butler and Pierce exacerbated the downfall of both organizations. The decline of these
groups also resulted from a number of other forces, such as infighting among members and
pressure from law enforcement and watchdog groups.130 Other groups have emerged since to
promote white supremacist ideas. Several movements espousing such views participated in the
August 2017 rally in Charlottesville, VA, that led to violence mentioned earlier.131
Two prominent white supremacist movements are discussed below.

National Socialist Movement (NSM)

One long-standing white supremacist organization active in the United States is the National
Socialist Movement (NSM). It has benefitted from the decline of other groups as well as new
leadership in the form of Jeff Schoep.132 The NSM also capitalized on the expansion of the

124
Anti-Defamation League, The National Socialist Movement.
125
Gardell, Gods, p. 68.
126
Ibid.
127
Ibid.
128
Freilich, Chermak, and Caspi, “Critical Events,” 511.
129
Ibid., pp. 512, 513.
130
Ibid., p. 516.
131
Groups such as Vanguard America (started in 2014), Identity Evropa (founded in 2016), and the Traditionalist
Worker Party (begun in 2015) reportedly participated. “Various Far-Right Extremist Groups Joined at Virginia Rally,”
Associated Press, August 15, 2017; Terence Cullen, “Vanguard America, Group Charlottesville Driver James Fields Jr.
Marched with, Has Increasingly Become a Neo-Nazi Voice,” New York Daily News, August 13, 2017; Hailey Branson-
Potts, “In Diverse California, a Young White Supremacist Seeks to Convert Fellow College Students,” Los Angeles
Times, December 7, 2016; Ralph Ellis, At Least 7 People Injured at Sacramento Rally, Authorities Say,” CNN, June 27,
2016.
132
Anti-Defamation League, American Stormtroopers: Inside the National Socialist Movement, (2008), p. 3.
(continued...)

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Internet in the early 2000s. The group, which emerged in 1974, is a descendant of the American
Nazi Party, and until the 1990s and early 2000s “it operated only on the fringes of the neo-Nazi
movement.”133 As of 2008, the group had around 500 members and close associates throughout
the United States.134 The NSM is flexible about membership, allowing its members to also
participate in other white supremacist organizations.135
Individuals allegedly tied to the NSM at some point in their lives have run afoul of the law.
 In Minnesota in April 2012, Joseph Benjamin Thomas was indicted on drug-
related charges, and Samuel James Johnson was indicted on weapons-related
charges. Purportedly the two were tied to NSM—at one point Johnson had
allegedly served as its leader in Minnesota. The duo had reportedly formed their
own white supremacist group, gathering weapons and ammunition and planning
to attack the government and other targets.136 In June 2012, Johnson pled guilty
to “one count of being a felon in possession of firearms.”137 In July 2012,
Thomas pled guilty to “possession with intent to distribute more than 50 grams of
high-purity methamphetamine.”138
 William White, a onetime member of the NSM and founder of his own white
supremacist organization, has faced charges in several criminal cases. In
September 2014, he was found guilty on charges related to a December 2013
indictment that included “five counts of making threats in aid of extortion over
the Internet and one count of the unlawful use of identification information in
furtherance of those offenses.”139 He threatened a Florida judge, a state attorney,
and an FBI agent, with kidnapping, torture, rape, and murder. According to DOJ,
White included the families of these individuals in his threats. The officials that
White threatened had been involved in prosecuting suspects tied to the American
Front, a white supremacist organization in Florida. White apparently hoped that
his threats would somehow secure the release of the American Front suspects.140
In January 2011, White was convicted141 of soliciting violence online against the
jury foreman in U.S. v. Matthew Hale.142 In April 2011, a federal judge reversed

(...continued)
Hereinafter: Anti-Defamation League, American Stormtroopers.
133
Ibid.
134
Ibid.
135
Southern Poverty Law Center, “National Socialist Movement.”
136
Department of Justice, “Mendota Heights Man Indicted for Distributing Methamphetamine,” press release, April 27,
2012; Department of Justice, “Austin Felon Indicted for Possessing Firearms,” press release, April 27, 2012; Amy
Forliti, “Affidavit: 2 Men With Supremacist Ties Had Weapons,” Associated Press, April 27, 2012.
137
Department of Justice, “Austin Felon Pleads Guilty to Possessing an Assault Rifle,” press release, June 6, 2012.
138
Department of Justice, “Mendota Heights Man Pleads Guilty to Possessing Methamphetamine,” press release, July
11, 2012.
139
Department of Justice, “Neo-Nazi Sentenced for Sending Gruesome Threats to Florida Officials and Their
Families,” press release, November 21, 2014; Department of Justice, “White Supremacist Charged with Sending Online
Threatening Communications to a Florida Judge, State Attorney, and Task Force Agent,” press release, December 11,
2013.
140
Ibid.
141
Department of Justice, “Self-Proclaimed White Supremacist William White Convicted of Soliciting Violence
Against Hale Jury Foreman,” press release, January 5, 2011.
142
Matthew Hale was convicted of soliciting the murder of U.S. District Judge Joan Humphrey Lefkow. In the mid
1990s, Hale revived the Church of the Creator fortunes. He changed the organization’s name to the World Church of
(continued...)

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White’s conviction. Upon appeal, the conviction was reinstated.143 In an

unrelated case, in December 2009, White was convicted of four counts of
communicating threats in interstate commerce and one count of witness
intimidation. One of the convictions for communicating threats in interstate
commerce was later reversed.144 The witness intimidation charges involved White
reportedly attempting to “delay or prevent the testimony” of African Americans
in a discrimination case.145 According to publicly available information, in 2005
and 2006 White was involved with NSM, for a time serving as its national
spokesman.146 His activity with NSM ceased after he had a falling out with
Schoep.147

Racist Skinheads
In the United States, racist skinheads have a legacy stretching back to the 1980s.148 However,
skinhead culture originated in the United Kingdom in the late 1960s and today has a global
reach.149 Since the early 2000s, the movement in the United States has been characterized by a
proliferation of regional groups or crews rather than a united core organization.150 In law
enforcement circles, racist skinheads have a reputation for violence. This is “reinforced by hate-
filled white power music and literature.” “[T]hey foster [their reputed toughness] through their

(...continued)
the Creator, and according to a watchdog group, by 2002 it had more chapters in the United States than any other neo-
Nazi organization. Judge Lefkow had originally ruled in favor of Hale in a trademark infringement case involving the
name “World Church of the Creator.” Her ruling was reversed on appeal, and as a result, she had to enforce the higher
court’s reversal. Via email and during a conversation, Hale discussed with his security chief the idea of killing Lefkow.
Hale did not know that his security chief was an FBI informant. In 2003, Hale was arrested for soliciting the murder of
Judge Lefkow, and this, as well as his subsequent conviction on charges related to the case, hastened a downturn in
fortune for his World Church of the Creator. Hale is serving a 40-year prison term. After another name change, the
group—currently known simply as the Creativity Movement—shows signs of revival under new leadership. See
Michael, Theology of Hate, pp. 120-133, 173-188; Chris Dettro, “Follow-Up File: White Supremacist Finds Quiet Life
in Prison,” The State Journal-Register, Springfield, IL, October 25, 2010; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “A
Different Breed of Terrorist,” June 6, 2004.
143
Department of Justice, “White Supremacist William White Sentenced to 42 Months in Prison for Soliciting
Violence Against Hale Jury Foreman,” press release, February 20, 2013; Laurence Hammack, “Judge Tosses William
A. White Verdict,” The Roanoke Times, April 20, 2011.
144
Department of Justice, “Roanoke, Virginia Neo-Nazi Sentenced for Threats, Witness Intimidation,” press release,
April 14, 2010.
145
Ibid. See also Laurence Hammack, “Former Neo-Nazi Leader Gets 3 More Months in Prison,” October 23, 2012.
146
Laurence Hammack, “White’s Life on Fringe Puts Him at Center of Storm,” The Roanoke Times, July 26, 2009.
147
Ibid; Southern Poverty Law Center, “Bill White,” 2011. For other cases involving individuals allegedly tied to
NSM, see Department of Justice, “Valley Man Enters Guilty Plea for Possession and Transport of an Improvised
Explosive Device,” press release, September 27, 2011; Department of Justice, “Valley Man Indicted for Possessing and
Transporting Improvised Explosive Devices,” press release, January 26, 2011, http://phoenix.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/
pressrel11/px012611.htm; Rudabeh Shahbazi, “Documents Show Apache Junction Man Planned To Take IEDs to the
Border,” ABC 15; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Domestic Terrorism: Tip Leads to Sting, Prison for Plotter,”
November 29, 2006.
148
Serge F. Kovaleski, “American Skinheads: Fighting Minorities and Each Other,” Washington Post, January 16,
1996; Southern Poverty Law Center, Skinheads in America: Racists on the Rampage, p. 3. Hereinafter: Southern
Poverty Law Center, Skinheads.
149
Ibid.
150
Ibid., p. 13; Federal Bureau of Investigation, Rage and Racism, p. 8.

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appearance (shaved heads or close-cropped hair, white power tattoos) and dress (bomber jackets,
‘braces’ (suspenders), steel-toed boots).”151
Skinheads emerged as a non-racist movement among British working-class youth in the late
1960s. These early skinheads rejected the hippie lifestyle and embraced elements of Jamaican
culture, particularly reggae and ska music. As immigration from South Asia to the UK grew, some
white British skinheads embraced racism and neo-Nazism. This racist skinhead variant of the
subculture materialized in the U.S. Midwest and in Texas in the early 1980s.152
In the mid-1990s, many U.S.-based racist skinhead groups allied with one another to form the
Hammerskin Nation (HSN). HSN eventually developed chapters throughout the United States
and in Europe. It had its own annual meeting/concert called Hammerfest, ran a record label, and
had a publishing company. In the early 2000s, other groups such as the Outlaw Hammerskins,
Hoosier State Hammerskins, and Ohio State Skinheads challenged HSN for preeminence. These
groups saw HSN as “elitist.”153
In January 2010, the FBI released a bulletin that, among other things, emphasized that some racist
skinheads formed the most violent segment of WSE adherents.154 This supported the findings in a
2008 FBI assessment.155 Between 2007 and 2009, skinheads were involved in 36 of the 53 violent
incidents the FBI identified in the United States as being tied to WSE proponents.156 The Bureau
has stated that “violence is an integral part of the racist skinhead subculture.”157 Elements within
the fractious movement even target one another.158 These criminal acts are typically unrehearsed
and opportunistic, targeting nonwhites and “other religious and social minorities.”159
At least one exception involved greater levels of planning. One man was convicted and two
others pled guilty in a Connecticut case that involved the illegal sale of firearms and homemade
grenades. The scheme included multiple meetings between late 2008 and early 2010 to negotiate
the transactions, prepare the firearms, and assemble the grenades. The trio was tied to a skinhead
group known as Battalion 14 (originally called the Connecticut White Wolves). They sold the
weapons to a convicted felon working as an FBI cooperating witness. The informant posed as a
member of the Imperial Klans of America, a Ku Klux Klan organization. Two others in the case,
including the leader of Battalion 14 and a man not tied to the group, were acquitted of charges.160

151
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Rage and Racism, pp. 5-6.
152
Michael R. Ronczkowski, Terrorism and Organized Hate Crime: Intelligence Gathering, Analysis, and
Investigations, 2nd ed. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, 2007), pp. 40-41. Hereinafter:
Ronczkowski, Terrorism. Southern Poverty Law Center, Skinheads, pp. 3-4.
153
Southern Poverty Law Center, Skinheads, p. 5.
154
Federal Bureau of Investigation, White Supremacist Extremist Violence Possibly Decreases But Racist Skinheads
Remain the Most Violent, January 28, 2010. Hereinafter: Federal Bureau of Investigation, White Supremacist Extremist
Violence.
155
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Rage and Racism: Skinhead Violence on the Far Right, December 10, 2008.
Hereinafter: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Rage and Racism.
156
Federal Bureau of Investigation, White Supremacist Extremist Violence, p. 4.
157
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Rage and Racism, p. 5.
158
Southern Poverty Law Center, Skinheads, pp. 5, 16.
159
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Rage and Racism, p. 5.
160
Department of Justice, “Milford Man Sentenced to 10 Years in Prison for Making Grenades and Selling Guns
Intended for White Supremacist Group,” press release, May 5, 2011, http://newhaven.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/pressrel11/
nh050511.htm; Michael P. Mayko, “Two Acquitted in White Wolves Conspiracy Case,” Connecticut Post, December
2, 2010; Michael P. Mayko, “White Wolves Called ‘Home Grown Terrorists,’” Connecticut Post, November 16, 2010;
Anti-Defamation League, “Connecticut White Supremacists Indicted on Firearms and Explosives Charges,” March 24,
(continued...)

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Anti-Government Extremists
As mentioned above, DOJ considers both unauthorized militias and sovereign citizens as anti-
government extremists. Neither militia membership nor advocacy of sovereign citizen tenets
makes one a terrorist or a criminal. However, in some instances both militia members and
sovereign citizens have committed crimes driven in part by their ideologies.161

Militia Extremists
The militia movement became prominent in the 1990s as a collection of armed, paramilitary
groups formed to stave off what they perceived as intrusions of an invasive government.162
Central to this is a fear of firearm confiscation by a federal government thought to be out of
control. Some adherents also believe in anti-Semitic and racist ideologies.163 Regardless, most
militia members engage in constitutionally protected activity.
Militia groups typically coalesce around a specific leader. Groups can run training compounds
where they rehearse paramilitary tactics, practice their survival skills, and receive weapons
instruction and lessons in movement ideology. Some militia groups also maintain websites for
recruitment and fundraising.164 Extremists within the movement who run afoul of law
enforcement “tend to stockpile illegal weapons and ammunition, trying illegally to get their hands
on fully automatic firearms or attempting to convert weapons to fully automatic. They also try to
buy or manufacture improvised explosive devices.”165
Segments of the militia movement believe that the U.S. government is either run by some hidden
conspiracy or is an overreaching sham. Some see a “New World Order” controlling U.S.
institutions such as the media and the federal government. They contend that this is partly
fostered by international organizations such as the United Nations. From this perspective, these
organizations sap American sovereignty. Some militia supporters believe that agents of an un-
authentic “Shadow Government” are interested in seizing lawfully owned firearms as part of a
plan to undermine democracy.166 Importantly, others in the militia movement hold that the federal
government has overstepped its constitutional bounds.167 One scholar has noted that some militia

(...continued)
2010. For another case allegedly involving racist skinheads, see Amy Pavuk and Henry Pierson Curtis, “Details
Emerge in Osceola Skinhead Race-War Case,” Orlando Sentinel, May 8, 2012.
161
The material in this section describes militia extremists and sovereign citizen extremists. On occasion more broadly
anti-government extremists engage in violence but defy easy categorization. For example, in 2014, broadly anti-
government extremists Jerad and Amanda Miller (husband and wife) shot and killed two Las Vegas, NV, Metropolitan
Police Department officers. Police shot and killed the couple. Mark Berman, Las Vegas Shooters Had Expressed Anti-
Government Views, Prepared for ‘Lengthy Gun Battle,’” Washington Post, June 9, 2014.
162
Institute for Intergovernmental Research, Investigating Terrorism and Criminal Extremism: Terms and Concepts,
Version 1.0, (Tallahassee, Florida: Institute for Intergovernmental Research, 2005), p. 49; Hereinafter: Institute for
Intergovernmental Research, Investigating Terrorism.
163
Arizona Counter-Terrorism Information Center, “Sovereign Citizens and Militia Information,” August 19, 2008,
p. 1.
164
Lane Crothers, “The Cultural Foundations of the Modern Militia Movement,” New Political Science, vol. 24, no. 2
(2002), p. 231. Hereinafter: Crothers, “The Cultural.”
165
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Domestic Terrorism: Focus on Militia Extremism,” September 22, 2011.
166
Lane Crothers, Rage on the Right: The American Militia Movement from Ruby Ridge to Homeland Security
(Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003), p. 57. Hereinafter: Crothers, Rage on the Right.
167
Crothers, “The Cultural,” pp. 226-228.

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members assert that they have “the right to organize, purchase and use firearms, and enforce the
law against agents of the government who behave unconstitutionally.”168
A small minority of Americans who held anti-government fears formed militias largely in
response to two incidents in the early 1990s. These were confrontations between federal law
enforcement and private citizens at Ruby Ridge, ID, and at a site near Waco, TX.169 Both involved
warrants related to firearms violations.
 In August 1992, Randy Weaver and his family were engaged in an 11-day
standoff with federal law enforcement agents. Randy Weaver had failed to appear
in court on firearms-related charges in 1991. Subsequently, an unsuccessful
operation to arrest Weaver led to the death of his 14-year-old son and a U.S.
Marshal. It also precipitated the standoff. During the standoff, Weaver and a
friend were shot and wounded. An FBI sniper also shot and killed Weaver’s wife,
Vicki.170 Weaver was eventually found guilty of failing to appear in court on the
gun charges that played a role in the standoff. In October 1993, he was sentenced
to 18 months in jail and a $10,000 fine. In 1995, Weaver received a $3.1 million
settlement in a wrongful death suit filed against the U.S. government.171 The
events at Ruby Ridge helped precipitate the militia movement, whose members
tend to view Randy Weaver as a hero and demonize the federal government.172
 The militia movement also emerged because of the 51-day standoff between
federal law enforcement and a religious sect named the Branch Davidians near
Waco.173 On February 28, 1993, an unsuccessful attempt by Bureau of Alcohol
Tobacco Firearms and Explosives (ATF) agents to arrest the sect’s leader, David
Koresh, initiated the events near Waco. He was wanted on suspicion of federal
firearms and explosives violations.174 Four ATF agents and six Branch Davidians
died in a gunfight during the operation.175 Protracted discussions followed
between federal negotiators and Koresh. These failed. On April 19, federal agents
assaulted the Davidian compound, which caught on fire. At least 75 Branch
Davidians perished in the assault.176

168
Ibid., p. 228.
169
Ibid., pp. 230-231. See also Michael Barkun, “Appropriated Martyrs: The Branch Davidians and the Radical Right,”
Terrorism and Political Violence, vol. 19, no. 1 (2007), p. 120. Hereinafter: Barkun, “Appropriated Martyrs.” See also
Steven M. Chermak, Searching for a Demon: The Media Construction of the Militia Movement, (Boston: Northeastern
University Press, 2002).
170
Stuart A. Wright, Patriots, Politics, and the Oklahoma City Bombing (New York: Cambridge University Press,
2007), pp. 142-148. Hereinafter: Wright, Patriots. Weaver has been described as a survivalist who believed in the
Christian Identity religion. See Barkun “Appropriated Martyrs,” p. 118. He has also been described as holding white
supremacist beliefs and was not a militia member. See Crothers, Rage on the Right, pp. 78-79.
171
Crothers, Rage on the Right, p. 90.
172
Wright, Patriots, pp. 149-152; Crothers, Rage on the Right, pp. 92-97; Barkun, “Appropriated Martyrs,” pp. 120-
121.
173
Crothers, Rage on the Right, p. 104.
174
Department of Justice, Report to the Deputy Attorney General on the Events at Waco, Texas, October 8, 1993. The
Branch Davidian sect emerged from the Seventh-Day Adventist Church and was formed in 1929. The two severed
official ties with one another in 1934. David Koresh was not a militia member. See Crothers, Rage on the Right, pp.
100-101.
175
Crothers, Rage on the Right, p. 105.
176
Crothers, Rage on the Right, p. 110.

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If the incidents involving the Weavers and the Branch Davidians helped form the militia
movement, Timothy McVeigh’s bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma
City on April 19, 1995, helped usher in a temporary decline.177 In the bombing’s aftermath, militia
groups received greater law enforcement scrutiny.178 The bombing claimed 168 lives, and until
9/11 was the largest single act of terrorism on U.S. soil. The militia movement declined after the
bombing.179 Although McVeigh’s bombing cannot fully account for a dip in militia activity, it
affected the movement by causing some groups to temper their rhetoric while others grew more
extreme, and militias became more marginalized.180
Observers have noted that the militia movement has experienced resurgence in the last decade,
likely driven by growing antipathy toward the federal government.181 A few individuals still draw
inspiration from McVeigh. Jerry Drake Varnell was arrested in August 2017 after he allegedly
intended to damage or destroy a bank in downtown Oklahoma City by reportedly attempting to
detonate what he thought was a bomb in a van. But the inert explosive device was based on
materials provided by an undercover FBI agent as part of an investigation that nabbed Varnell,
who allegedly was inspired by the Timothy McVeigh’s 1995 bombing. Varnell purportedly hewed
to militia extremist beliefs and, according to investigators, expressed an interest in founding a
small militia.182
Two widely reported incidents in recent years have attracted militia and other anti-government
extremists.
 In 2014, multiple individuals led by Cliven Bundy engaged in an armed standoff
with police officials at Bundy’s ranch in Bunkerville, NV, preventing the
execution of a court order related to a dispute involving the grazing of cattle on
federal lands.183 One individual involved was sentenced to 68 years in prison for
a variety of crimes related to his involvement in the standoff.184
 For 41 days in late 2015 and early 2016, Ammon and Ryan Bundy (sons of
Cliven Bundy) led numerous individuals in armed occupation of federal property
at the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in Oregon. Although the ringleaders of
the broader occupation—including the Bundy brothers—were acquitted in

177
McVeigh was not a militia member, but he interacted with others who were.
178
Devlin Barrett and Eileen Sullivan, “FBI Sees Little Chance of Copycat Militia Plots,” Associated Press, March 31,
2010.
179
Andrew Wolfson, “The Execution: Militias Dwindle Since Oklahoma City Bombing,” USA Today, June 20, 2001.
180
Crothers, Rage on the Right, p. 138, 147.
181
Max Strasser, “Fed Up with the Feds,” Newsweek, May 2, 2014.
182
Eli Watkins and Shimon Prokupecz, “FBI Arrests Man in Oklahoma Bombing Sting,” CNN, August 14, 2017;
United States v. Jerry Drake Varnell, criminal complaint, U.S. District Court, Western District of Oklahoma, August
13, 2017.
183
“Federal Authorities Indict 19 in 2014 Range Standoff in Nevada,” Associated Press, March 4, 2016; Department of
Justice, “Fourteen Additional Defendants Charged for Felony Crimes Related to 2014 Standoff in Nevada,” press
release, March 3, 2016; United States v. Cliven Bundy, et al., superseding indictment, United States District Court,
District of Nevada, March 2, 2016. This standoff is included in this memo’s list of domestic terrorist/extremist
incidents, because the superseding indictment in the federal criminal case related to the standoff describes it as “a
massive armed assault against federal law enforcement officers.”
184
The charges included assault on a federal officer; threatening a federal law enforcement officer; obstruction of the
due administration of justice; interference with interstate commerce by extortion; interstate travel in aid of extortion;
and three counts of use and carry of a firearm in relation to a crime of violence. See Department of Justice, “Phoenix
Man Sentenced to Over 68 Years in Prison for Threat and Assault of Federal Law Enforcement and Other Charges
Related to 2014 Armed Standoff in Bunkerville,” press release, July 26, 2017.

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federal court of many of the most serious charges levied against them, a violent
incident occurred during the occupation. Oregon State Police officers fatally shot
LaVoy Finicum. The shooting occurred after Finicum reportedly drove a pickup
truck at high speed toward a police roadblock, reputedly endangering officers
before careening into a nearby snowbank. According to law enforcement
officials, Finicum subsequently left the vehicle, refusing to comply with police
commands, and reached for a gun in his pocket before he was shot to death.185 In
the fallout related to the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge takeover, Cliven
Bundy was arrested on charges tied to the 2014 Bunkerville standoff.
Several other examples highlight how some militia adherents have reportedly engaged in criminal
activity since 9/11.
 Purportedly, Curtis Allen, Gavin Wright, and Patrick Eugene Stein conspired to
detonate explosives at an apartment complex in Garden City, KS. Prosecutors
allege Allen, Wright, and Stein hoped to target Somali immigrants living in the
complex.186 The trio was part of a small militia-style group dubbed the Crusaders.
Underscoring the violent viewpoints the trio reputedly held, a larger militia
organization in Kansas reportedly rejected Wright and Stein for membership
because the larger group perceived the duo as too extreme.187
 In November 2011, the FBI arrested four retirees, Samuel J. Crump, Ray H.
Adams, Dan Roberts, and Frederick W. Thomas, who allegedly formed a fringe
militia group and planned violent attacks on government officials. The group,
based in northern Georgia, purportedly had ties to an unnamed militia
organization. According to DOJ, the quartet “discussed multiple criminal
activities, ranging from murder; theft; manufacturing and using toxic agents; and
assassinations in an effort to undermine federal and state government and to
advance their interests.”188 Between June and November 2011, Roberts and
Thomas met with an FBI undercover agent to negotiate the purchase of matériel
for the plot: “a silencer for a rifle and conversion parts to make a fully automatic
rifle, as well as explosives.”189 In October, plotters reportedly discussed making
ricin, a deadly poison derived from castor beans.190 In April 2012, Roberts and
Thomas pled guilty to conspiring to obtain an unregistered explosive device and

185
Patrik Jonsson, “After the Bundy Acquittal, Some Surprising Lessons of the Malheur Occupation,” Christian
Science Monitor, October 29, 2016; Hal Bernton, “Jury Acquits Leaders of Malheur Wildlife-Refuge Standoff,” Seattle
Times, October, 27, 2016. A second trial led to additional verdicts, see Department of Justice, “Jury Delivers Verdict in
Second Oregon Standoff Trial,” press release, March 10, 2017. Greg Botelho and Michael Martinez, “Shooting Death
of LaVoy Finicum Justified, Necessary, Prosecutor Says,” CNN, March 8, 2016. In 2017, an FBI agent involved in the
Finicum shooting was federally indicted for his allegedly attempting to cover up his own involvement in the shooting.
See Maxine Bernstein, “LaVoy Finicum Shooting: Indictment of Agent ‘devastating’ for FBI,” The Oregonian, June
29, 2017.
186
Department of Justice, “Three Kansas Men Charged With Plotting a Bombing Attack Targeting the Local Somali
Immigrant Community,” press release, October 14, 2016.
187
Judy L. Thomas, “Kansas Militia Says It Spurned Alleged Terrorists Arrested in Garden City Case,” Kansas City
Star, November 2, 2016.
188
Department of Justice, “North Georgia Men Arrested, Charged in Plots to Purchase Explosives, Silencer and to
Manufacture a Biological Toxin,” press release, November 1, 2011.
189
Ibid.
190
Craig Schneider, “Documents: Men with Castor Beans, Guns Worried about Getting Caught,” Atlanta Journal-
Constitution, November 6, 2011.

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silencer.191 Crump and Adams were found guilty of “conspiring to make ricin to
be used as a weapon in January 2014. Also, they were found guilty of one count
each of possessing a biological toxin for use as a weapon.” Adams was acquitted
of “attempting to develop, produce and possess a biological toxin.”192
 In June 2012, three individuals were found guilty in Anchorage, AK, of
conspiracy and firearms charges related to a scheme purportedly led by Francis
“Schaeffer” Cox.193 He and his followers allegedly plotted “a potential retaliatory
response to any attempt by law enforcement to arrest Cox, who had an
outstanding bench warrant for not attending a trial over a misdemeanor weapons
charge.”194 They were members of the Alaska Peacemaker’s Militia based in
Fairbanks, AK, and also held sovereign citizen beliefs. The plotters supposedly
codenamed their plan “241 (two for one),” because they reputedly intended to
kill two government officials for every militia member killed in the operation.195
The above activities are not necessarily indicative of trends toward violence in the larger militia
movement, and in one prominent case, DOJ failed to convince the presiding judge of serious
charges revolving around a purported violent plot. In March 2012, a federal judge acquitted
members of a Michigan Militia group known as the Hutaree on charges of seditious conspiracy or
rebellion against the United States and conspiring to use weapons of mass destruction. The judge
also cleared the accused Hutaree members of weapons crimes related to the conspiracies.196
The case garnered headlines in March 2010, when nine Hutaree members were indicted for
allegedly preparing to violently confront U.S. law enforcement.197 Their supposed plotting
included the murder of a local law enforcement officer and an attack on fellow officers who
gathered in Michigan for the funeral procession. According to DOJ, the Hutaree discussed the use
of explosives against the funeral procession.198 Audio recordings by an undercover FBI agent of
reputed Hutaree leader David Brian Stone capture him discussing the New World Order and how,
“it’s time to strike and take our nation back so we will be free of tyranny.... The war will come

191
Department of Justice, “North Georgia Men Plead Guilty to Plot to Purchase Explosives and a Silencer,” press
release, April 10, 2012.
192
Kate Brumback, “Jury Finds 2 Georgia Men Guilty in Ricin Plot,” Associated Press, January 17, 2014.
193
Department of Justice, “Guilty Verdicts in USA v. Cox, Barney, and Vernon,” press release, June 19, 2012.
194
Department of Justice, “Superseding Indictment Returned by Federal Grand Jury Against Fairbanks-Area Men for
Conspiracy to Kill Federal Officers,” press release, January 23, 2012; Sam Friedman, “Details Emerge in Alleged Plot
to Kill Alaska State Troopers, Judge,” Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, March 3, 2011. Cox has also been described as a
sovereign citizen (discussed below). See Sam Friedman, “The Schaeffer Cox File: The Trail of a Young Man,”
Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, April 10, 2011. For a related case see Department of Justice, “Salcha Couple Pleads
Guilty to Conspiracy to Murder Federal Officials,” press release, August 27, 2012; Department of Justice, “Couple
Charged with Conspiracy to Murder Judge and Federal Firearms Crimes, Two Others Indicted for Conspiracy to
Possess Destructive Devices and Illegal Weapons,” press release, March 17, 2011.
195
For examples of other militia adherents involved in crime, see Meghann M. Cuniff, “Health Problems Reduce
Militia Leader’s Sentence,” The Spokesman-Review, August 11, 2011; David Cole, “Militia Member Sentenced on
Federal Firearms and Explosives Charges,” Coeur d’Alene Press, August 9, 2011; Federal Bureau of Investigation,
“Preventing Terrorist Attacks on U.S. Soil: The Case of the Wrong Package Falling into the Right Hands,” April 9,
2004; Scott Gold, Case Yields Chilling Signs of Domestic Terror Plot,” Los Angeles Times, January 7, 2004.
196
Ed White, “Michigan Militia Members Cleared of Conspiracy,” Associated Press, March 27, 2012,
http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/critical-charges-dropped-michigan-militia-16013255?singlePage=
true#.T3MB5kd_lLc. Hereinafter: White, “Michigan Militia.”
197
Department of Justice, “Nine Members of a Militia Group Charged with Seditious Conspiracy and Related
Charges,” press release, March 29, 2010.
198
Ibid.

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whether we are ready or not.”199 According to DOJ, the group had a hit list that included federal
judges, among others.200 However, during the trial an Assistant U.S. Attorney acknowledged that
the Hutaree had not formed a “specific plan” to attack government targets.201 U.S. District Judge
Victoria Roberts stated that, “The court is aware that protected speech and mere words can be
sufficient to show a conspiracy. In this case, however, they do not rise to that level.”202 Three
Hutaree members pled guilty to firearms charges.203

Sovereign Citizen Movement

The FBI defines the sovereign citizen movement as “anti-government,” involving people “who
believe that even though they physically reside in this country, they are separate or ‘sovereign’
from the United States. As a result, they do not accept any government authority, including
courts, taxing entities, motor vehicle departments, or law enforcement.”204 However, simply
holding these views is not a criminal act, and numerous movement adherents solely exercise their
beliefs via constitutionally protected activities.
The ideas behind the movement originated during the 1970s with a group known as the Posse
Comitatus and enjoyed some popularity in extremist circles during the 1980s and 1990s.205 Early
on, the movement featured white supremacist elements, but this has not kept some African
Americans from subscribing to its ideals in recent years.206 In the 1990s, the movement attracted
250,000 followers and was marked by the FBI’s standoff with a group known as the Montana
Freemen that lasted 81 days.207 Estimates from 2011 suggested a membership of 300,000.208

199
Corey Williams and Jeff Karoub, “Prosecutor: Undercover FBI Agent Infiltrated Militia,” Associated Press, March
31, 2010.
200
Dan Harris, Emily Friedman, and Tahman Bradley, “Undercover Agent Key Witness Against Hutaree Militia
Members,” ABC News, April 1, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/undercover-agent-credited-hutaree-militia-bust/
story?id=10257584.
201
Robert Snell and Christine Ferretti, “Key Charges Dropped Against Hutaree Militia,” Detroit News, March 28,
2011.
202
White, “Michigan Militia.”
203
See Department of Justice, “Members of the Hutaree Militia Plead Guilty to Weapons Charges,” March 29, 2012;
Matthew Dolan, “Defendant in Michigan Militia Case Changes Plea to Guilty,” press release, December 6, 2011,
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204083204577080630555077796.html?mod=googlenews_wsj. When
the Hutaree suspects were arrested in the case, some militia members in Michigan did not support the group’s alleged
scheming. For example, a member of another militia group in Michigan provided information to authorities regarding
the whereabouts of a fugitive Hutaree militia member. See Kirk Johnson, “Militia Draws Distinctions Between
Groups,” New York Times, March 31, 2010. Also, a militia leader from Michigan has said that the Hutaree case,
“caused a rift in the militia movement about whether this is the sort of group we want to rally behind or if what they
were doing was outside the scope of what’s acceptable.” See Robert Snell, “Militias Split over Defending Hutaree,”
Detroit News, March 31, 2011.
204
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Domestic Terrorism: The Sovereign Citizen Movement,” April 13, 2010.
Hereinafter: Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Sovereign Citizen.”
205
J.M. Berger, “Without Prejudice: What Sovereign Citizens Believe,” George Washington University Program on
Extremism, June 2016.
206
Sarah Netter, “Anti-Government Sovereign Citizens Taking Foreclosed Homes Using Phony Deeds, Authorities
Say,” ABC News, August 23, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/US/georgia-battling-sovereign-citizens-squatting-
foreclosed-homes/story?id=11445382. See Leah Nelson, “Sovereigns in Black,” Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty
Law Center, no. 143 (Fall 2011).
207
Patrik Jonsson, “‘Sovereign citizens’: Is Jared Loughner a sign of revived extremist threat?” Christian Science
Monitor, March 9, 2011.
208
Ibid.

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For the most part, the sovereign citizen movement is diffuse and includes few organized
groups.209 The FBI suggests that sovereigns “operate as individuals without established leadership
and only come together in loosely affiliated groups to train, help each other with paperwork
[critical to some of their schemes], or socialize and talk about their ideology.”210 The movement
involves leaders described as “gurus” who proselytize online, in print publications, or via in-
person seminars. These gurus rouse followers into believing a conspiracy theory in which the
legitimate federal government has been replaced by a government designed to take away the
rights of ordinary citizens.211 This shares the same broad interplay between concepts of legitimate
and illegitimate rule seen in the New World Order and WSE theories about ZOG. Gurus can also
promote illegal techniques that individuals can use to supposedly cut their ties to the federal
government or avoid its reach, particularly when it comes to taxation.212
Sovereign citizens reject the legitimacy of much of the U.S. legal system.213 Many believe that
the 14th Amendment “shifted the nation from its original common-law roots with states’ rights to
a federal corporation that legally enslaved everyone.”214 According to movement members, the
amendment ushered in an illegitimate federal government by supposedly abrogating individual
rights and replacing them with a system that “grant[ed] privileges through contracts such as
marriage and driver’s licenses, gun permits, and property codes.”215
By ignoring all sorts of laws, avoiding taxes, disregarding permit requirements, and destroying
government-issued identification documents, some sovereign citizens have tried to cut formal ties
with what they perceive as an illegitimate regime.216 Sovereigns have filed court documents
stating that they are not U.S. citizens.217 They have also created bogus financial documents to
harass or defraud their enemies. (For more information, see the “Paper Terrorism”: Liens,
Frivolous Lawsuits, and Tax Schemes” section in this report.)
Sovereign citizens have in some instances created fictitious entities and used fake currency,
passports, license plates, and driver licenses. In 2009, a federal jury found three men guilty of

209
One sovereign citizens group is the “Republic for the united States of America” (RuSA) which is based in Alabama.
RuSA is a successor to a group known as the Guardians of the Free Republics (GFR), which in 2010 mailed letters to
the governors of all 50 U.S. states urging them to leave office. See Southern Poverty Law Center, “Sovereign
President,” Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty Law Center, no. 143 (Fall 2011). In March 2013, the group’s self-
proclaimed president was convicted of “conspiracy to defraud the United States, attempting to pay taxes with fictitious
financial instruments, attempting to obstruct and impede the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), failing to file a 2009
federal income tax return, and falsely testifying under oath in a bankruptcy proceeding.” See Department of Justice,
“Self-Proclaimed President of Sovereign Citizen Nation Convicted in Alabama of Federal Tax Crimes,” press release,
March 25, 2013.
210
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Counterterrorism Analysis Section, “Sovereign Citizens: A Growing Domestic
Threat to Law Enforcement,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, (September 2011). Hereinafter: FBI Counterterrorism
Analysis Section, “Sovereign Citizens.”
211
Anti-Defamation League, The Lawless Ones: The Resurgence of the Sovereign Citizen Movement, August 9, 2010,
pp. 2-6. Hereinafter: Anti-Defamation League, The Lawless.
212
Ibid., p. 6.
213
However, this reportedly does not keep some sovereign citizen extremists from cashing government paychecks. See
J.J. McNabb, “Working for the Man: Anti-Government Extremists Who Cash Government Paychecks,” Forbes, March
5, 2012.
214
Tom Morton, “Sovereign Citizens Renounce First Sentence of 14th Amendment,” Casper Star-Tribune, April 17,
2011, http://trib.com/news/local/casper/article_a5d0f966-7ed0-549f-a066-b1b2c91f9489.html.
215
Ibid.
216
Anti-Defamation League, The Lawless, pp. 4-5.
217
Lance Griffin, “‘Sovereigns’ Gain Attention of Law Enforcement,” Dothan Eagle, May 21, 2011.

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conspiring to use and sell fraudulent diplomatic credentials and license plates that they believed
allowed “their customers [to] enjoy diplomatic immunity and [to] no longer ... pay taxes or be
subject to being stopped, detained, or arrested by law enforcement personnel.”218 In 2003, Ronald
K. Delorme developed the Pembina Nation Little Shell Band of North America219 into a sovereign
citizen group.220 It is a sham Native American tribe that anyone can join to try and avoid taxes
and government-imposed costs, such as auto registration fees. For example, news reports indicate
that in June 2010, a sheriff’s deputy in Florida pulled over John McCombs when the law
enforcement official noticed a Pembina Nation Little Shell license plate on the motorcycle
McCombs was driving. According to publicly available sources, McCombs presented a fraudulent
letter of diplomatic immunity and an invalid Pembina Nation Little Shell vehicle registration.221
Some sovereign citizen fraud appears to be motivated by economic opportunism rather than
ideology.222 This includes “pyramid schemes, other investment schemes, bogus trust scams, real
estate fraud, and various types of tax frauds [as well as] more esoteric scams ... ranging from
immigration fraud to malpractice insurance fraud.”223 In November 2011, husband and wife
Monty and Patricia Ervin were convicted in federal court of conspiring to defraud the United
States as well as three counts of tax evasion. In addition, the federal jury convicted Patricia of
structuring transactions to avoid bank reporting requirements.224 The couple allegedly had not
filed federal income tax returns between 2000 and 2008, denied their U.S. citizenship, and
dubbed themselves “sovereign” when the IRS investigated.225 The Ervins earned more than $9
million from investment properties they owned.226 A group of self-proclaimed sovereign citizens
in North Georgia was indicted in March 2011 for using sovereign schemes to allegedly steal
millions of dollars worth of real estate.227
Some avowed sovereign citizens have been involved in violent altercations with law enforcement
officers:
 In June 2016, Gavin Long shot and killed three police officers and wounded three
others in Baton Rouge, LA, before police killed him. He had articulated
sovereign citizen views online.228
 In May 2010, two self-professed sovereign citizens were involved in a violent
confrontation with West Memphis, TN, police officers. During a traffic stop, Joe
Kane fired an AK-47 assault rifle and killed two officers. Kane and his father
218
Department of Justice, “Jury Convicts Three Men of Conspiracy To Use Fake Diplomatic Identification,” press
release, August 31, 2009.
219
The group is not a federally recognized tribe.
220
Anti-Defamation League, The Lawless; Chris Gerbasi, “Tribal Claims Causing Charlotte Controversy,” Sarasota
Herald Tribune, July 25, 2010; “Punta Gorda Man Arrested for Driving with Pembina Nation Plate,” WINK News, June
1, 2010.
221
Ibid.
222
For a discussion of redemption as a scam, see Federal Bureau of Investigation, Common Fraud Schemes,
http://www.fbi.gov/scams-safety/fraud.
223
Anti-Defamation League, The Lawless, p. 24.
224
Department of Justice, “Self-Proclaimed ‘Governor’ of Alabama and Wife Convicted of Tax Fraud,” press release,
November 4, 2011. Hereinafter: Department of Justice, “Self-Proclaimed.”
225
Ibid; United States v. Patricia Ervin and Monty Ervin, Superseding Indictment, 1:11-CR-07-MHT, District Court,
Middle District of Alabama, February 17, 2011.
226
Department of Justice, “Self-Proclaimed.”
227
Megan Matteucci, “12 ‘sovereign citizens’ indicted,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, March 15, 2011.
228
Joshua Berlinger, “Gavin Long: Who is Baton Rouge Cop Killer?” CNN, August 4, 2016.

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Jerry fled the scene. Law enforcement sighted their vehicle in a nearby parking
lot 90 minutes later. The duo died in the ensuing shootout, which also wounded
two more officers.229 The FBI had investigated Jerry Kane five years before the
murders because he was allegedly traversing the United States peddling what the
FBI termed a “debt elimination scheme.”230
In June 2012, the FBI issued a bulletin suggesting that some sovereign extremists might move
away from more spontaneous violence simply in reaction to encounters with police and are
potentially preparing for conflict in advance, “making more specific plans to interfere with state
and local law enforcement officers during traffic stops and, in some cases, intentionally initiating
contact with law enforcement.”231 In August 2013, authorities in Las Vegas, NV, arrested two
reputed Sovereigns, David Allen Brutsche and Devon Campbell Newman, after a local
investigation uncovered the duo’s purported schemes to kidnap and kill police officers.
Reportedly, the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department ran an undercover investigation to nab
the two after they encountered Brutsche in what has been characterized as a series of vehicle
stops during which “Brutsche would espouse his Sovereign Citizen beliefs that he wasn’t bound
by the law Metro officers were enforcing.”232 Brutsche pled guilty to felony kidnapping
conspiracy in February 2014 after “prosecutors abandoned the two most serious charges—
conspiracy to murder and attempted armed kidnapping.”233
Other cases have garnered attention. For example, in July 2011 James M. Tesi allegedly shot at a
local police officer trying to arrest him near Fort Worth, TX. Tesi was reportedly wounded in the
altercation. Outstanding “arrest warrants for speeding, driving without a license in possession,
and failure to appear” prompted the attempted apprehension.234 Court documents described in
news reporting noted that Tesi linked himself to a sovereign citizen group.235 In February 2012,
Tesi was found “guilty of aggravated assault on a public servant with a deadly weapon.”236 In
June 2011, a police officer in Page, AZ, shot and killed William Foust while responding to a
domestic violence 911 call. The shooting reportedly occurred during a physical struggle in which
Foust attempted to “gain control of” the police officer’s Taser.237 According to a press account,
Foust had declared his sovereign citizen status in court proceedings in Kanab, UT (about 75 miles
from Page), related to a speeding ticket.238

229
Cindy Wolff, “West Memphis Police Sued by Widow of Man Killed in Shootout,” The Commercial Appeal, April
21, 2011; Kristina Goetz, Cindy Wolff, “Grieving West Memphis Chief Raises National Curtain on Sovereign
Citizens,” The Commercial Appeal, April 17, 2011.
230
Scott Knoll, “The Warning That Never Came: What the FBI Knew About Jerry Kane,” WREG, March 2, 2011.
231
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Recent Sovereign Citizen Extremist Targeting of Law Enforcement Highlights
Potential for Violence during Traffic Stops, June 1, 2012.
232
Jackie Valley, “Metro Infiltrates Sovereign Citizens Movement, Uncovers Plots to ‘Snatch,’ Execute Officers,” Las
Vegas Sun, August 22, 2013.
233
Ken Ritter, “Man Takes Plea Deal in Las Vegas ‘Sovereign Citizen’ Case,” Associated Press, February 7, 2014.
234
Domingo Ramirez Jr., “Man in ‘Sovereign Citizen’ Group is Wounded in Shootout,” July 22, 2011.
235
Ibid.
236
Steve Norder, “‘Sovereign Citizen’ Gets 35 Years for Assault on Officer,” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, February 1,
2012, http://www.star-telegram.com/2012/01/31/3702338/sovereign-citizen-found-guilty.html.
237
Todd Glasenapp and Larry Hendricks, “Page Officer Kills Man in DV Incident,” Arizona Daily Sun, June 21, 2011,
http://azdailysun.com/news/local/crime-and-courts/article_61e27d9d-6d47-5655-8a71-d28b846d8e3e.html.
238
Ibid. For other violent plots with alleged sovereign ties, see Alyssa Newcomb, “Suspects in Louisiana Cop Killings
Linked to Sovereign Citizens Movement,” ABC News, August 19, 2012, http://abcnews.go.com/US/alleged-louisiana-
cop-shooters-linked-sovereign-citizen-movement/story?id=17038353#.UL4plddrq1g; J.J. MacNabb, “Sovereign
Extremist Injured in Texas Bomb Explosion,” Forbes, July 3, 2012.

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Black Separatist Extremists

DOJ includes black separatism in its list of movements that potentially spawn domestic
terrorists.239 However, most black separatists solely engage in constitutionally protected behavior.
Since 9/11, there has been little public discussion of federal investigations involving black
separatist extremists. One group exhibiting what can be described as black separatist views, the
New Black Panther Party for Self Defense (NBPP), has received national attention over several
incidents.
The NBPP emerged in the early 1990s, and it is not tied to the Black Panthers from the 1960s.240
Watchdog groups have described the NBPP as “a virulently racist and anti-Semitic organization
whose leaders have encouraged violence against whites, Jews, and law enforcement officers,”241
as well as “the largest organized anti-Semitic and racist black militant group in America.”242 The
NBPP, which denies that it is a hate group, engages in “high-profile” rhetoric at rallies or
demonstrations intended to encourage confrontation with authorities. The group’s actions occur
“on behalf of the poor or disadvantaged, involving the ready display of firearms.”243 As an
example of the rhetoric the group uses, an NBPP representative characterized the March 2011
shooting death of a drug suspect in Jacksonville, FL, as “a violent act of terrorism” committed by
police.244 Soon after the shooting, the Jacksonville Sheriff’s Office said that the confrontation
involved undercover officers serving a search warrant at an apartment. Officers claimed that
inside the apartment, the victim—an alleged drug dealer with a criminal record—was holding a
firearm.245 In an infamous recent incident, Micah Johnson shot and killed five police officers in
Dallas, TX, in July 2015. He reportedly “liked” groups on Facebook tied to black separatism and
may have been involved at some point with the NBPP in Houston.246 Johnson purportedly told
police that he wasn’t affiliated with any groups at the time of the shooting.247 He died in the
altercation with police.
In 2008, the Philadelphia, PA, chapter of the NBPP was involved in a case that generated public
controversy. A 2009 civil suit filed by DOJ claimed that two NBPP members wearing the group’s
paramilitary uniforms loitered around the entrance to a 2008 federal general election polling
station in Philadelphia. One of the NBPP members allegedly carried a nightstick. According to
DOJ, some poll watchers feared for their safety because of this activity. Philadelphia police
officers responding to claims of voter intimidation removed the nightstick-wielding NBPP
member and allowed the other to remain (the latter was a certified poll watcher). Police asked
people at the polling station whether they had been threatened by the two individuals. All those
questioned replied that they had not. However, at least one individual claimed that the presence of
239
Department of Justice, White Paper, p. 59.
240
D.J. Mulloy, “New Panthers, Old Panthers, and the Politics of Black Nationalism in the United States,” Patterns of
Prejudice, vol. 44, no. 3 (2010), pp. 217, 219, 229-236. Hereinafter: Mulloy: “New Panthers.”
241
Southern Poverty Law Center, “New Black Panther Party.”
242
Anti-Defamation League, “New Black Panther Party for Self Defense,” June 1, 2011.
243
Mulloy: “New Panthers,” pp. 223, 233.
244
“Black Panthers Protest Police Shooting,” October 14, 2011; “Black Panthers Protest Police Shooting,” First Coast
News, March 19, 2011.
245
Ibid.
246
Melissa Jacobs, “Dallas Police Sniper Was Shunned by New Black Panthers, Says Group’s Leader,” Fox News, July
12, 2016. Brian Fung, “What You Need to Know about the Black Nationalists the Dallas Shooter Liked on Facebook,”
Washington Post, July 9, 2016; “Dallas Shooter Was Ex-Member of Houston’s New Black Panther Party,”
Click2Houston, website of NBC affiliate station in Houston, TX, July 7, 2016.
247
Ibid.

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the two NBPP members had been intimidating.248 The NBPP disavowed the actions of its two
members.249 In May 2009, DOJ voluntarily dismissed claims against defendants in the case, and a
July 2009 letter from 10 Members of Congress to DOJ’s Inspector General questioned the
decision to do so. DOJ’s Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR) investigated, and in March
2011, OPR issued a report which argued that DOJ officials did not act inappropriately regarding
the matter.250

Abortion Extremists
The vast majority of activists who either favor or oppose abortion engage in constitutionally
protected activity. However, abortion extremism involves crimes committed based on such
beliefs. Over the past two decades, most abortion-related violence appears to have targeted
abortion providers.251 Eighty-four instances of “extreme violence” targeting abortion providers
and clinics occurred in the United States from 1997 through 2015, according to one group that
supports abortion rights and tracks criminal activity intended to limit access to abortion
services.252 These cases involved shootings, bombings, arson incidents, and acid attacks.253 Since
1993, eight clinic workers have been murdered by anti-abortion extremists in the United States.254
Because of a wave of violence focused on abortion providers in the 1980s and early 1990s,
Congress passed and President Clinton signed into law the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances
Act (FACE Act) (18 U.S.C. §248) in 1994.255 As with other types of domestic terrorism
investigations, it is unclear exactly which incidents of violence perpetrated against abortion
providers the FBI considers terrorist acts.
Two violent incidents have been prominent in recent years. In 2015, Robert Dear Jr., allegedly
killed three people and wounded nine others in a shooting at a Planned Parenthood facility in
Colorado Springs, CO.256 The 2009 murder of George Tiller, an abortion provider, received

248
Department of Justice, Office of Professional Responsibility, Report, Investigation of Dismissal of Defendants in
United States v. New Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, Inc. et al., March 17, 2011, pp. 6-8. Hereinafter: DOJ,
OPR, Investigation of Dismissal.
249
Mulloy: “New Panthers,” pp. 217-218.
250
DOJ, OPR, Investigation of Dismissal, pp. 1-3.
251
There also has been at least one incident involving violence reportedly by anti-abortion activists. See Philip
Jankowski, “APD: Woman Threw Molotov Cocktail Near Anti-Abortion Protesters,” The American-Statesman,
(Austin, TX), March 24, 3015; “Woman Arrested for Throwing Molotov Cocktail in Front of Planned Parenthood,”
KXAN, NBC affiliate, Austin, TX, March 23, 2015.
252
National Abortion Federation, “Clinic Violence,” http://www.prochoice.org/about_abortion/violence/
history_extreme.asp. See also “NAF Violence and Disruption Statistics,” https://prochoice.org/education-and-
advocacy/violence/violence-statistics-and-history/.
253
Ibid.
254
NARAL Pro-Choice America Foundation, “Anti-Choice Violence and Intimidation,” press release.
255
This is not a terrorism-related statute. In fact, DOJ’s Civil Rights Division, prosecutes both criminal and civil cases
involving the FACE Act. See http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/crm/overview.php; http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/spl/
face.php. The FACE Act (18 U.S.C. §248), “protects the exercise of free choice in obtaining reproductive health
services, and the exercise of First Amendment religious freedoms. Section 248 makes it unlawful for a person to use
force, threat of force, or physical obstruction to intentionally injure or intimidate a person because he/she is or has been
obtaining or providing reproductive health services. Section 248 also makes it unlawful for a person to use force, threat
of force, or physical obstruction to intentionally injure or intimidate a person because he/she is lawfully exercising the
right of religious freedom at a place of worship. Finally, Section 248 makes it unlawful for a person to intentionally
damage or destroy the property of a facility because it provides reproductive health services, or because it is a place of
worship. Section 248 also prohibits anyone from attempting to commit any of the above.”
256
Julie Turkewitz, et al., “Robert Dear, Suspect in Colorado Killings, ‘Preferred to be Left Alone,’” New York Times,
(continued...)

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significant public attention. On January 29, 2010, Scott Roeder was convicted of first-degree
murder and two counts of aggravated assault for killing Tiller. Roeder shot Tiller while the latter
was at church on May 31, 2009. Roeder was sentenced to “life in prison with no possibility of
parole for 50 years.”257
A number of other unrelated schemes targeting abortion clinics have been uncovered since
Roeder’s arrest. These incidents appear to involve individuals largely operating alone.
 In January 2012, Bobby Joe Rogers was charged in the firebombing of a
Pensacola, FL, abortion clinic on New Year’s Day 2012. The bombing destroyed
the clinic, which had been targeted in the past.258 In February 2012, a federal
grand jury indicted him on two counts—arson and damaging a reproductive
health facility.259 He pled guilty to the charges in July 2012.260
 In May 2011, Ralph Lang was arrested after allegedly accidently firing his
handgun through the door of a hotel room in Madison, WI. He was reportedly
planning to kill abortion providers in the area.261
One underground network that supports attacks on abortion clinics is the Army of God (AOG).262
The loosely structured organization openly promotes anti-abortion violence.263 However, its
members deny that they are terrorists. They also deny that attacks against clinics and abortion
providers constitute violent activity, because they see it as “Godly work.”264 AOG first made
headlines with the 1982 kidnapping of a doctor and his wife, both of whom ran an abortion clinic
in Illinois. Three individuals who claimed membership in AOG were responsible.265 The group

(...continued)
November 28, 2015. Dear was found mentally incompetent to stand trial. Lance Benzel, “Robert Dear Remains
Mentally Incompetent to Stand Trial for Colorado Springs Planned Parenthood Attack,” Colorado Springs Gazette,
November 17, 2016.
257
Ron Sylvester, “Scott Roeder Gets Hard 50 in Murder of Abortion Provider George Tiller,” Wichita Eagle, April 1,
2010. Hereinafter: Sylvester, “Scott Roeder.” Roeder reportedly also adhered to anti-government beliefs beginning in
the 1990s. See Ron Sylvester, Abortion Issue Front and Center in Roeder Murder Trial,” January 10, 2010, Wichita
Eagle.
258
“Man Indicted for Abortion Clinic Firebombing,” Associated Press, February 23, 2012.
259
Department of Justice, “Arson Indictment Returned Regarding American Family Planning Clinic,” press release,
February 23, 2012.
260
Department of Justice, “Man Pleads Guilty to Arson of Reproductive Health Facility in Pensacola,” press release,
July 19, 2012.
261
Kevin Murphy, Feds Mull Felony Charge for Suspect Ralph Lang of Marshfield in Abortion Clinic Shooting Plot,”
Marshfield News, May 28, 2011; Department of Justice, “Wisconsin Man Charged with FACE Act Violations,” press
release, May 26, 2011, http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2011/May/11-crt-695.html. For other examples of individuals
involved in abortion-related violence, see Department of Justice, “Man Pleads Guilty to Civil Rights Violation in
Connection with Arson at Planned Parenthood and Vandalism of Mosque in Madera, California,” press release,
October 7, 2011. Mower also threw a brick at a mosque in Madera. Ryan Seals, “Update: Concord Man Charged in Plot
to Bomb Abortion Clinic,” Greensboro News and Record, September 9, 2010; “Man Guilty of Bombing Plot Gets 30
Months,” Salisbury Post, March 2, 2011.
262
National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), “Terrorist Organization
Profile: Army of God.” Hereinafter: START, “Army of God.”
263
Mireille Jacobson and Heather Royer, “Aftershocks: The Impact of Clinic Violence on Abortion Services,” National
Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 16603, (January 7, 2010), p. 6.
264
Jennifer Jefferis, Armed for Life: The Army of God and Anti-Abortion Terror in the United States (Santa Barbara,
CA: Praeger, 2011), p. xvi. Hereinafter: Jefferis, Armed for Life.
265
Ibid., p. 23. The victims were released unharmed after eight days of captivity. See; “Abortion Opposition Stressed in
Kidnapping Trial in Illinois,” New York Times, January 26, 1983.

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disseminates a manual that “is a ‘how to’ for abortion clinic violence. It details methods for
blockading entrances, attacking with butyric acid, arson, bomb making, and other illegal
activities. The manual contains anti-abortion language as well as anti-government and anti-
gay/lesbian language. The manual begins with a declaration of war on the abortion industry.”266
Eric Rudolph, who in the late 1990s bombed an abortion clinic near Atlanta, GA, and one in
Birmingham, AL, “published his writings on the Army of God website.”267

Protected Activities vs. Terrorism—Divergent Perceptions of

the ALF
The boundary between constitutionally protected legitimate protest and terrorist activity has
received much attention in public discussions of domestic terrorism. As an example of this, the
next several sections of this report explore such considerations regarding the ALF.

A Serious Domestic Concern or “Green Scare?”

U.S. law enforcement, some business groups, and some scientists—among others—have stressed
that animal rights extremists (and ecoterrorists) are a security and law enforcement concern. In
2008, the FBI stated that animal rights extremists and ecoterrorists together posed a serious
domestic terrorism threat for several reasons, including the number of crimes attributed to animal
rights extremists and ecoterrorists (between 1,800 and 2,000 incidents accounting for more than
$110 million268 in damages from 1979 to early 2009), the broad pool of victims (such as large
pharmaceutical corporations, scientific laboratories, ski resorts, automobile dealerships,
individual researchers, and lumber companies), and the movement’s rhetoric and destructive
tactics.269 In March 2012, the FBI suggested that the threat from ecoterrorists may be declining.270
As articulated by some scientific researchers, the monetary toll on legitimate businesses and
laboratories in the United States exacted by animal rights and eco-extremists is compounded by
less tangible issues. For example, animal rights extremists and ecoterrorists have impacted the
work of scientists. In some cases, special equipment and research materials have been destroyed

266
START, “Army of God.”
267
Beau Seegmiller, “Radicalized Margins: Eric Rudolph and Religious Violence,” Terrorism and Political Violence,
vol. 19, no. 4 (October 2007), p. 524. The 1998 bombing in Birmingham killed a police officer and injured a nurse. On
May 31, 2003, Rudolph was arrested and charged with the clinic bombings, bombing the Centennial Olympic Park
during the 1996 summer Olympic games in Atlanta (claiming one life), and attacking a gay club—Atlanta’s Otherside
Lounge—in 1997. Rudolph admitted to the bombing spree in April 2005. He claimed that the 1996 attack at Centennial
Olympic Park was intended to shame the U.S. government for what Rudolph saw as its support of abortion rights. See
“Rudolph Pleads Guilty in Series of Bombings,” Associated Press at MSNBC, April 13, 2005; “Rudolph Agrees to Plea
Agreement,” CNN, April 12, 2005, http://articles.cnn.com/2005-04-08/justice/rudolph.plea_1_emily-lyons-eric-robert-
rudolph-atlanta-attacks?_s=PM:LAW.
268
ELF claims that it has caused over $150 million in damages, although the geographic range and timeframe for this
figure are unknown. Earth Liberation Front.org, “What Is the Earth Liberation Front?” Hereinafter: ELF, “What Is the
Earth?” See also http://www.animalliberationfront.com/ALFront/ELF/ELFPressOffice.htm.
269
There is some imprecision in the FBI’s public statements regarding the number of crimes committed by animal
rights extremists and ecoterrorists. In April 2009, the FBI estimated that “to date [animal rights and eco-] extremists
have been responsible for more than 1,800 criminal acts.” Ten months earlier, in June 2008, the FBI placed the number
of criminal acts at “over 2,000 since 1979.” See Michael J. Heimbach, Assistant Director, Counterterrorism Division,
Federal Bureau of Investigation, press conference, April 21, 2009. Hereinafter: Heimbach, press conference. See also
FBI, “Putting Intel.” The $110 million figure remained the same in both publicly released documents.
270
Juliet Eilperin, “As Eco Terrorism Threat Wanes, Governments Keep Eyes on Activists,” Washington Post, March
11, 2012. Hereinafter: Eilperin, “As Eco Terrorism.”

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in attacks. The consequences of criminal activity in the name of movements such as the ALF can
also be more personal. Two advocates of animal research conducted strictly according to federal
regulations have noted that the actions of animal rights extremists have pushed some scientists to
quit lab work involving animals. Often, this work relates to products and procedures that some
maintain cannot feasibly be marketed without animal testing.271 In 2006, a UCLA professor of
behavioral neuroscience declared he was stopping his research on monkeys because of what he
described as harassment by animal rights groups.272 Additionally, animal rights extremists are said
to be driving out students from research programs.273
Critics of U.S. efforts to fight animal rights extremism and ecoterrorism have suggested that the
threat is overblown by law enforcement and that the government’s pursuit of purported extremists
perpetuates a “green scare,” chilling the exercise of protected speech by protesters.274 Some say
that the government conflates property crime with terrorism.275 Others add that people engaged in
what the government describes as animal rights extremism or ecoterrorism do not deserve the
terrorist label.

Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act (P.L. 109-374)

The Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act (P.L. 109-374; AETA) expanded the federal government’s
legal authority to combat animal rights extremists who engage in criminal activity. Signed into
law in November 2006, it amended the 1992 Animal Enterprise Protection Act (P.L. 102-346;
AEPA). Namely, the AETA
Amends the federal criminal code to revise criminal prohibitions against damaging or
interfering with the operations of an animal enterprise to include intentional damage or
loss to any real or personal property and intentional threats of death or serious bodily
injury against individuals (or their family members, spouses, or intimate partners) who
are involved with animal enterprises.276
The AETA expanded the AEPA to include both successful and attempted conspiracies. It also
prohibits intentionally placing a person in “reasonable fear” of death or serious bodily injury
while damaging or interfering in the operations of an animal enterprise. The AETA revised and
increased monetary and criminal penalties. It also stipulates that it does not prohibit First
Amendment-protected activity.

271
Conn and Parker, The Animal, pp. xii, xvi. See also 21 C.F.R. §314.610 (regarding approval based on evidence of
effectiveness from studies in animals).
272
Samantha Henig, “UCLA Professor Halts Monkey Research,” Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 53, no. 2
(September 1, 2006), p. 21.
273
Michael Conn and James Parker, “Winners and Losers in the Animal Research Wars,” American Scientist, vol. 96,
no. 3 (May-June 2008), p. 184.
274
See Will Potter, Green Is the New Red: An Insider’s Account of a Social Movement Under Siege, (San Francisco:
City Lights Books, 2011), p. 61.
275
Coalition to Abolish the AETA, “AETA v. AEPA: A Side-by-Side Comparison,” October 16, 2008,
http://abolishtheaeta.org/web/aeta-v-aepa-a-side-by-side-comparison/; Center for Constitutional Rights, factsheet, “The
Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act (AETA),” http://ccrjustice.org/learn-more/faqs/factsheet%3A-animal-enterprise-
terrorism-act-(aeta).
276
P.L. 109-374, CRS summary. Instead of damage and interference, the AEPA focused on the “physical disruption to
the functioning of an animal enterprise.” According to AETA, “animal enterprise” means: “(A) a commercial or
academic enterprise that uses or sells animals or animal products for profit, food or fiber production, agriculture,
education, research, or testing; (B) a zoo, aquarium, animal shelter, pet store, breeder, furrier, circus, or rodeo, or other
lawful competitive animal event; or (C) any fair or similar event intended to advance agricultural arts or sciences.”

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DOJ successfully prosecuted individuals on charges relating to animal enterprise terrorism for the
first time under the AEPA in 2006 (the case had been built before the AETA had been signed into
law).277 Six individuals were convicted for what DOJ described as “their roles in a campaign to
terrorize officers, employees, and shareholders of HLS [Huntingdon Life Sciences, a research
corporation that performs animal research and has U.K. and U.S. facilities].”278 These individuals
belonged to an animal rights campaign named Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty (SHAC) 279 and
the entity SHAC USA, Inc. SHAC involves both legal protests and criminal activity against HLS.
Reportedly, the six incited threats, harassment, and vandalism and on this basis were convicted of
violating the AEPA.280 DOJ has noted that SHAC’s stated mission was to work “outside the
confines of the legal system.”281 DOJ proved in court that the group managed websites that
encouraged others “to direct their intimidation, harassment, and violence against HLS and its
targeted employees, as well as secondary targets—companies and employees who did business
with HLS.”282
DOJ has also successfully applied the AETA. For example, on February 14, 2011, Scott DeMuth
was sentenced to six months in prison on one count of misdemeanor conspiracy to commit animal
enterprise terrorism. He was involved in a raid that released about 200 ferrets at a Minnesota farm
in 2006. Activists had claimed the action in the name of the ALF.283 In another case, William
James Viehl and Alex Hall were sentenced to 24 months and 21 months in prison, respectively,
under AETA. The duo had released 650 minks, destroyed breeding records, and vandalized
structures at the McMullin Ranch in South Jordan, UT, in 2008.284
DOJ has experienced at least one setback in its application of the AETA. In February 2009, the
FBI announced the arrests of what it described as “four animal rights extremists.” The four (two

277
Department of Justice, “Three Militant Animal Rights Activists Sentenced to Between Four and Six Years in
Prison,” press release, September 21, 2006.
278
Ibid. See also “The SHAC 7,” http://www.shac7.com/case.htm.
279
An undercover British television report on the treatment of animals at a British company, Huntingdon Life Sciences
(HLS), sparked the creation of Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty (SHAC) in the United Kingdom in 1999. Active in a
number of countries around the world, including the United States, the campaign has tried to compel business and
financial firms to cut ties to HLS. It has involved both legal protests and crime. John P. Martin, “Animal Rights and
Wrongs,” Newark Star-Ledger, November 28, 2004; Anti-Defamation League, Ecoterrorism. For more on SHAC from
a movement perspective, see “History of the Animal Liberation Front,” http://www.animalliberationfront.com/
ALFront/Premise_History/ALF_History.htm. The SHAC campaign made its way to the United States in 2000. See
Heimbach, press conference.
280
Four of the six were guilty of other charges related to the case as well. Department of Justice, “Militant Animal
Rights Group, Six Members Convicted in Campaign to Terrorize Company, Employees, and Others,” March 2, 2006.
Hereinafter: Department of Justice, “Militant Animal Rights.” Anti-Defamation League, “Animal Rights Group
Sentenced for Inciting Violence and Stalking.” Hereinafter: Anti-Defamation League, “Animal Rights Group.”
281
Department of Justice, White Paper, p. 60.
282
Ibid. The convictions in the case were upheld by a federal appeals court in 2009. See Lisa Coryell, “Convictions of
Animal Rights Activists Upheld,” Times of Trenton, October 14, 2009. Subsequently, the U.S. Supreme Court refused
to review the case. See Center for Constitutional Rights, “U.S. v. SHAC 7,” http://ccrjustice.org/us-v-SHAC7; Will
Potter, “Supreme Court Will Not Hear SHAC 7 Case,” March 7, 2011, http://www.greenisthenewred.com/blog/shac-7-
supreme-court/4447/.
283
Ryan J. Foley, “Minn. Man Gets 6 Months for Raid on Ferret Farm,” Associated Press, February 14, 2011. Jennifer
Kotila, “Minneapolis Man to Be Sentenced for Releasing HL Ferrets He Thought Were Mink,” Delano Herald Journal,
(Minnesota) December 20, 2010.
284
Dennis Romboy, “Man Who Raided South Jordan Mink Farm Sentenced,” Deseret News, July 1, 2010; Department
of Justice, “Viehl Pleads Guilty to Damaging, Interfering with Animal Enterprise in Connection with McMullin Mink
Farm Incident,” press release, September 3, 2009.

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women, two men, all in their 20s) allegedly violated the AETA by using “force, violence, or
threats to interfere with the operation of the University of California.”285 The incidents leading to
the indictment included protests at the houses of researchers from the University of California,
Berkeley and University of California, Santa Cruz. According to the FBI’s press release, in one
instance, three of the indicted individuals tried to forcibly enter the home of a researcher, whose
husband was hit by an object while confronting the protesters.286 In July 2010, a federal judge
dismissed the indictment against the four. According to the ruling, the indictment failed to
specifically describe crimes allegedly committed by the defendants.287 Opponents of the
prosecution stress that the case involved over-broad application of AETA to First Amendment-
protected behaviors.288
Criticisms of federal government efforts to counter animal rights extremists have focused on the
AETA itself and First Amendment-related issues. Opponents of the AETA suggest that it
expanded the AEPA too much by making it easier to prosecute individuals who wage protest
campaigns against secondary or tertiary targets—companies or people (such as insurers)
indirectly tied to an animal enterprise.289 Opponents also take issue with the inclusion of
“reasonable fear” in the AETA, suggesting that protected speech or activities may possibly be
interpreted as provoking “reasonable fear” in some instances. Echoing critiques of the AETA, one
observer emphasizes that while activities linked to U.S.-based animal rights extremists have
caused significant property damage, none of these criminal acts has physically harmed people.
This critic suggests that describing vandalism or arson as terrorism and not ordinary crime
dampens constitutionally protected protest activity by people who support animal rights or radical
environmentalism but do not engage in criminal activity.290 In essence, this position argues that
the U.S. government is encouraging a “green scare” by labeling the activity of movements such
as the ALF and the ELF as terrorism or extremism.291 After serving 40 months in prison for her
involvement with SHAC USA, Lauren Gazzola argued that she was not a terrorist, claiming, “I
hadn’t hurt anyone or vandalized any property. In fact, the indictment didn’t allege that I’d
committed any independent crime at all, only that I’d ‘conspired’ to publish a website that
advocated and reported on protest activity against a notorious animal testing lab in New
Jersey.”292
The U.S. Code’s definition of “domestic terrorism” has been seen by some as potentially chilling
to legitimate animal rights and environmental protest activities.293 As mentioned, the current

285
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Four Extremists Arrested for Threats and Violence Against UC Researchers,”
press release, February 20, 2009, http://sanfrancisco.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel09/sf022009.htm.
286
Ibid.
287
“S.C. Animal Activists Won’t Face Charges,” The Monterey County Herald, July 14, 2010.
288
Will Potter, “Breaking: AETA 4 Case Dismissed, But Re-Indictment Possible,” GreenIstheNewRed.com, July 12,
2010, http://www.greenisthenewred.com/blog/aeta-4-case-thrown-out-dismissed/3015/; Bill Quigley and Rachel
Meeropol, “Victory for Animal Rights Dissent,” Huffington Post, July 16, 2010. Hereinafter: Quigley and Meeropol,
“Victory for Animal.”
289
The AETA makes it illegal to damage or interfere with the operations of an animal enterprise. Presumably this
covers tertiary targets.
290
Will Potter, “The Green Scare,” Vermont Law Review, vol. 33, no. 4 (June 2009), pp. 672-673.
291
Ibid; Quigley and Meeropol, “Victory for Animal.”
292
Lauren Gazzola, “Animal Rights Activists Like Me Aren’t Terrorists,” EGP News, January 12, 2012,
http://egpnews.com/?p=33714.
293
American Civil Liberties Union, “How the USA PATRIOT Act Redefines “Domestic Terrorism,” December 6,
2002. For an additional view suggesting that the activities of movements such as the ALF and the ELF should not be
treated as terrorism, see DeMond Shondell Miller, Jason David Rivera, and Joel C. Yelin, “Civil Liberties: The Line
(continued...)

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delineation of domestic terrorism in the U.S. Code includes criminal acts “dangerous to human
life” that appear to intend to intimidate or coerce a civilian population or influence governmental
policy via intimidation or coercion. This line of reasoning suggests that the crimes committed by
animal rights extremists and ecoterrorists cannot be compared to clearly violent attacks by groups
such as Al Qaeda. An opposing commentary stresses that such discussion is irrelevant and
miss[es] the mark. The ALF ideology encourages members to instill fear in those who
engage in the activities that the ALF opposes: fear of harm to themselves and their
families, and fear of personal and professional economic loss. Additionally, these
arguments assume that “true terrorism” is fundamentally different from animal rights
terrorism. While it is true that animal rights terrorism, as a whole, does not engage in the
same scale of violence as other extremist groups, those working in academia, research,
agriculture, and food service industries are no less fearful when their homes and
workplaces are firebombed; violent tactics can instill fear even when they are used
infrequently.294

Assessing Domestic Terrorism’s Significance

Domestic terrorist attacks have come nowhere near the devastation of 9/11. However, it is worth
noting that (as mentioned above) Timothy McVeigh’s bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995, claimed 168 lives and injured more than 500
others. It ranks as the second-deadliest terrorist attack on U.S. soil, behind only the devastation
wrought by Al Qaeda on 9/11. Domestic terrorists feature prominently among the concerns of
some law enforcement officers. For example, Los Angeles Deputy Police Chief Michael P.
Downing recently described violent Islamists such as Al Qaeda, Hezbollah, and Hamas as Los
Angeles’s main terrorist threats “along with three other terrorist categories: black separatists,
white supremacist/sovereign citizen extremists, and animal rights terrorists.”295 A 2014 national
survey of state and local law enforcement officers found that among terrorist threats, sovereign
citizens were “the top concern.”296 In one 2008 study, state police agencies “overwhelmingly
reported” dangerous domestic extremist groups present in their jurisdictions.297 Of course, as one
expert reminds us, most followers of extremist viewpoints pose no threat: “Most of them are not
going to do anything but bore their relatives and friends with ridiculous papers and treatises.”298
Four broad themes speak to the threat posed by domestic terrorists. First, domestic terrorists
likely have been responsible for numerous incidents since 9/11. Second, a large number of those
labeled as domestic terrorists do not necessarily use major terrorist tactics such as bombings or
airplane hijackings. Third, domestic terrorists—much like their violent jihadist analogues—are
often Internet savvy and use the medium as a resource for their operations. Fourth, domestic

(...continued)
Dividing Environmental Protest and Ecoterrorists,” Journal for the Study of Radicalism, vol. 2, no. 1 (2008), pp. 109-
123.
294
Grubbs, “Saving Lives,” pp. 364-365.
295
Bill Gertz, “L.A. Police Use Intel Networks Against Terror,” Washington Times, April 11, 2011.
296
Jessica Rivinius, “Sovereign Citizen Movement Perceived as Top Terrorist Threat,” National Consortium for the
Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, July 30, 2014. For the report, see Carter, David, et al., “Understanding
Law Enforcement Intelligence Processes,” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to
Terrorism, 2014.
297
“Far Right Domestic Terrorism on Par with Foreign Threat, Experts Say,” CNN, July 25, 2011.
298
Ibid.

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terrorism can be seen as a somewhat decentralized threat often involving lone wolves and
movements operating under the model of leaderless resistance.

Counting Incidents
The U.S. government does not keep a publicly available list of domestic terrorist incidents (foiled
plots or attacks). This makes it especially challenging for anyone trying to develop a sense of this
particularly diverse threat.299 However, as of August 2017, the New America Foundation
reportedly has found that people who can be characterized as domestic terrorists have killed 75
people in the United States since 9/11, whereas jihadist terrorists have killed 95.300
Some U.S. government sources suggest levels of domestic terrorist activity. Examples of such
sources include the following:
 An unclassified 2008 DHS report includes a table that lists selected criminal acts
perpetrated by people involved in the animal rights extremist and ecoterrorist
movements. This list counts 74 criminal acts between 9/11 and March 2008.301
 As noted, the FBI estimated that animal rights extremist and ecoterrorists
together committed between 1,800 and 2,000 criminal incidents accounting for
more than $110 million in damages from 1979 to early 2009.302 In 2012, the FBI
also publicly discussed a decline in ecoterrorism, especially after a wave of
successful prosecutions in 2007. The Bureau reportedly attributes the perceived
dip to activists possibly viewing “a Democratic administration as more
sympathetic to their goals and [thus] be less inclined to take radical steps.”303
 An unclassified FBI intelligence bulletin estimates that 53 acts of violence were
committed by what it calls “white supremacist extremists” between 2007 and
2009 in the United States. Victims included other white supremacists, African
Americans, and Latinos. Most of the incidents involved assaults. The bulletin
bases these findings on law enforcement and media reporting.304

299
From 2004 to early 2012, the National Counterterrorism Center’s Worldwide Incidents Tracking System (WITS)
publicly captured information on terrorist incidents (attacks) worldwide, including in the United States. It is no longer
available. Prior to WITS, the FBI published regular reports of such activity. See https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/
terrorism/publications.
300
These figures are based on tallies available at the New America Foundation website. See
https://www.newamerica.org/in-depth/terrorism-in-america/what-threat-united-states-today/. The figure for domestic
terrorists combines the 67 people killed by “far right wing” terrorists as described by the New America Foundation
study with 8 deaths since 9/11 attributed to “black separatist/nationalist/supremacist” actors tabulated in the same
report.
301
Department of Homeland Security, Ecoterrorism: Environmental and Animal-Rights Militants in the United States,
Universal Adversary Dynamic Threat Assessment, May 7, 2008. Table 1 from the report is a “compilation of material
from ALF and ELF communiqués and publications, media reports, and law enforcement” listing selected criminal acts
perpetrated by the ALF and the ELF from 1984 to March 2008. Table 1 from the DHS report is not a comprehensive
list of crimes tied to the ALF and the ELF. Hereinafter: Department of Homeland Security, Ecoterrorism.
302
Heimbach, press conference; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Putting Intel.”
303
Eilperin, “As Eco Terrorism.”
304
Federal Bureau of Investigation, White Supremacist Extremist Violence, pp. 1-2. The FBI bulletin defines “acts of
violence” to include “arson; assaults and murders; and acts designed to threaten or intimidate due to a person’s
ethnicity, religious beliefs, or lifestyle.” See Federal Bureau of Investigation, Rage and Racism p. 5.

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 In February 2012, the FBI announced that sovereign citizen convictions

increased from 10 in 2009 to 18 in both 2010 and 2011.305
Additionally, a key caveat regarding estimates of domestic terrorist activity may be of
importance. Many domestic terrorist incidents have been linked to either animal rights extremists
or ecoterrorists. As highlighted elsewhere in this report, many animal rights extremists and
ecoterrorists claim to avoid violent acts that directly target people. The attacks by these
individuals can often be described as property crimes involving arson or vandalism.

“Nonviolent” Strategies
While some terrorists engage in violence, others commit much different crimes that do not
physically harm people. This latter group differs from their homegrown violent jihadist
counterparts, who are often bent on killing or harming people. Two types of activities that avoid
visiting violence upon people but are commonly associated with subjects of domestic terrorism
investigations stand out. First, many animal rights extremists, ecoterrorists, and anarchist
extremists believe in “direct action.” This typically involves what movement members would
characterize as nonviolent but criminal protest or resistance activities furthering the movement’s
ideology. While direct action has a long legacy among anarchists, in recent years the ALF and the
ELF have played a large role in articulating its meaning. Second, “paper terrorism” is a term used
to describe some of the nonviolent criminal activity committed by sovereign citizens involving
the filing of fraudulent documents in the hopes of harassing enemies or bilking state or federal tax
authorities.

Direct Action
Anarchist extremists, animal liberation extremists, and environmental extremists refer to much of
their operational activity as “direct action.” This term has a long history, and it can be used to
describe legitimate protest such as letter writing campaigns or work stoppages. However, this
report uses “direct action” to describe criminal activities such as sabotage and arson.306
ALF and ELF members understand that criminality and direct action are one and the same. The
Animal Liberation Primer, a movement resource, highlights criminality in the actions of
supporters: “anyone working in the ALF is a criminal. You have to begin to think like a criminal.”
ALF and ELF members also generally view direct action as nonviolent and heroic. Using
politically charged language, the ALF allegedly styles itself along the lines of the Underground
Railroad, freedom fighters in Nazi Germany, anti-Apartheid protestors, U.S. civil rights activists,
and Palestinian groups opposing Israel.307 The ELF views constitutionally protected protest as
“state sanctioned” and eschews such activity. The ELF, much like the ALF, also wraps itself in the

305
Patrick Temple-West, “Anti-Government Extremists Opposed to Taxes and Regulations Pose a Growing Threat to
Local Law Enforcement Officers in the United States, the FBI Warned on Monday,” Reuters, February 6, 2012.
306
According to the DOJ’s Office of the Inspector General, the FBI “generally” defines “direct action” as, “criminal
activity designed to cause economic loss or to destroy property or operations.” See Department of Justice, Office of the
Inspector General, Oversight and Review Division, A Review of the FBI’s Investigations of Certain Domestic Advocacy
Groups, (September 2010), p. 97; Darren Thurston, The ALF Primer, n.d. p. 4. DOJ believes Thurston authored the
Primer, although he is not attributed as an author in the document. Hereinafter: Thurston, The ALF Primer. See also
Guide to Direct Action, 2010, http://www.animalliberationfront.com/ALFront/Activist%20Tips/Direct_Action-
Guide.htm; Earth Liberation Front.org, “Earth Liberation Front Frequently Asked Questions,” Hereinafter: ELF,
“FAQs.” See also http://www.animalliberationfront.com/ALFront/ELF/elf_faq.pdf.
307
NAALPO, “History.”

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mantle of reformers and describes itself as inheriting the spirit of Luddites, abolitionists,
suffragists, and even the American revolutionary-era Boston Tea Party.308

The ALF: “Live Liberations” and “Economic Sabotage”

The ALF frames its version of direct action as “economic sabotage” or “ethical vandalism.” The
ALF supports the destruction of property and intimidation of individuals and businesses
considered by the movement to be involved in the exploitation of animals. Cells and individuals
linked to the ALF also engage in trespassing and theft, or what they perceive as “live liberations”
or “rescuing” animals from “the horrors of exploitation”309 and human use310 by stealing them
from places such as legitimate research facilities or farms. Economic sabotage can be virtual. The
North American Animal Liberation Press Office (NAALPO) has carried claims of cyber hacking
incidents in the name of animal rights.311 NAALPO is one of the web-based vehicles used by ALF
supporters to publicize criminal activities claimed on behalf of the movement.

The ELF: “Monkeywrenching”

Like the ALF, the ELF’s discussions of direct action also revolve around economic sabotage. The
ELF rejects legal protest tactics partly for what it views as pragmatic reasons—“because they
have been proven not to work, especially on their own.”312 Economic sabotage in the name of
environmentalism has a long history, perhaps stretching back to the 1950s,313 and has been called
“monkeywrenching,” a term taken from a 1975 novel, The Monkey Wrench Gang by Edward
Abbey. The book depicts such activity.314 A guidebook that describes monkeywrenching offers
what can be interpreted as a call to arms for would-be extremists:
It is time for women and men, individually and in small groups to act heroically in the
defense of the wild, to put a monkeywrench into the gears of the machine that is
destroying natural diversity. Though illegal, this strategic monkeywrenching can be safe,
easy, and—most important—effective.315
The guidebook also defines monkeywrenching as nonviolent by stressing that it should never
target people or “other forms of life.”316

Arson and Explosive Devices

Federal officials are especially concerned about the use of incendiary devices and explosives by
animal rights extremists and ecoterrorists. In congressional testimony from 2005, then-ATF

308
ELF, “FAQs.”
309
NAALPO, “History.” A section of The ALF Primer describes both economic sabotage and live liberation as
legitimate strategies. See Thurston, The ALF Primer, p. 2.
310
Conn and Parker, The Animal, p. xvii.
311
See North American Animal Liberation Press Office, communiqué, July 13, 2007.
312
ELF, “FAQs.”
313
Bron Taylor, “The Tributaries of Radical Environmentalism,” Journal for the Study of Radicalism, vol. 2, no. 1
(2008), p. 45.
314
Edward Abbey, The Monkey Wrench Gang, 3rd ed. (Salt Lake City, UT: Dream Garden Press, 1985).
315
Dave Foreman, “Strategic Monkeywrenching,” in Ecodefense: A Field Guide to Monkeywrenching, ed. Dave
Foreman and Bill Haywood, 3rd ed. (Chico, CA: Abzug Press, 1993), p. 8. Hereinafter: Foreman, “Strategic
Monkeywrenching.” Foreman was a founder of Earth First! See Anti-Defamation League, Ecoterrorism.
316
Dave Foreman, “Strategic Monkeywrenching,” p. 9.

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Deputy Assistant Director Carson Carroll stated that the “most worrisome” trend regarding
animal rights extremists and ecoterrorists was their “willingness to resort to incendiary and
explosive devices.”317
This pronouncement came on the heels of two related incidents that occurred near San Francisco,
CA, and involved explosive devices. An entity called the Revolutionary Cells of the Animal
Liberation Brigade claimed responsibility for both attacks, which the FBI has also linked to a man
named Daniel San Diego. In August 2003, two ammonium nitrate pipe bombs exploded at the
campus of the biotechnology firm Chiron but caused little damage and no injuries. In October
2003, a reputed 10-pound ammonium nitrate bomb damaged the offices of Shaklee, a health,
beauty, and household product company. No one was injured. The perpetrator(s) believed that
both companies did business with Huntingdon Life Sciences (the same firm targeted by SHAC
and discussed above). A related communiqué stressed that, “all customers and their families are
considered legitimate targets.”318
One commentator has suggested that the combination of “fire” as a tactic and instilling “fear” as a
goal ensures ecoterrorists will continue to warrant the terrorist label.319 Both animal rights
extremists and ecoterrorists have histories of using incendiary devices to damage or destroy
property—the Vail, CO, fire (mentioned elsewhere in this report) setting a prominent example for
extremists. In fact, one of the hallmark publications circulated in extremist circles is a handbook
on how to fashion incendiary devices titled Arson Around with Auntie ALF.320 A recent example
underscores this focus on arson.
 In January 2012, NAALPO issued a communiqué in which “unnamed activists”
claimed responsibility for setting fires that damaged 14 tractor trailer rigs at the
Harris Ranch, a cattle feedlot in Coalinga, CA. The perpetrators used containers
of accelerant, kerosene-soaked rope, and digital timers to set the blazes.
According to the communiqué, the fires apparently embodied a reaction to “the
horrors and injustices of factory farming.”321

317
Statement of Carson Carroll, p. 43.
318
Stacy Finz, “Militants Say They Planted Shaklee Bomb,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 1, 2003,
http://articles.sfgate.com/2003-10-01/bay-area/17512148_1_pipe-bombs-shaklee-chiron; Stacy Finz, Bernadette
Tansey, “2 Bombs Shatter Biotech Firm’s Windows,” August 29, 2003. The FBI assessed that the devices may have
been intended to harm people. The second Chiron bomb was timed to explode after the first, “an apparent strike at first
responders,” while the Shaklee bomb was wrapped in nails, “to significantly increase its lethality to anyone in the area
at the time of the detonation.” See U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, “Statement of
John E. Lewis, Deputy Assistant Director, Counterterrorism Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation,” Eco-Terrorism
Specifically Examining Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty (“SHAC”), 109th Cong., 1st sess., October 26, 2005, 109-1005
(Washington: GPO, 2008), p. 7. In April 2009, the FBI placed Daniel San Diego on its Most Wanted Terrorists List for
his involvement in the bombings. See Heimbach, press conference. The Bureau also tied him to SHAC. He had slipped
away from FBI surveillance in October 2003. See Federal Bureau of Investigation, “New Most Wanted Terrorist,”
April 21, 2009. Hereinafter: FBI, “New Most Wanted”; “Daniel Andreas San Diego,” America’s Most Wanted.
319
Grubbs, “Saving Lives,” p. 370.
320
Auntie ALF, Uncle ELF, and the Anti-Copyright Gang, Arson-Around with Auntie ALF: Your Guide for Putting the
Heat on Animal Abusers Everywhere, 2001. Hereinafter: Arson-Around.
321
See North American Animal Liberation Press Office, communiqué, January 10, 2012; Henry K. Lee, “14 Cattle
Trucks Burned in Arson at Harris Ranch,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 11, 2012. For other examples, see Peter
Young, “Fire and Explosions Rock Oregon Mink Farm,” July 28, 2010, North American Animal Liberation Press
Office; J.M. Brown, “A Year after Firebombings, No Arrests, Though Awareness Remains among Scientists,” Santa
Cruz Sentinel, August 2, 2009; John Coté, “Firebombings Suggest New Tactic for Animal Activists,” San Francisco
Chronicle, August 5, 2008; Shanna McCord, “FBI to Take Over Santa Cruz Firebombs Case,” Monterey County
Herald, August 4, 2008; Anti-Defamation League, ‘“Justice Department’ Claims Responsibility for Threats against
UCLA Animal Researcher,” December 3, 2010. Hereinafter: Anti-Defamation League, ‘“Justice Department.’”

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Some ELF adherents have focused on targets they perceive as emblematic of urban sprawl322 or
the excesses of industrialized society. Since 2000, a number of ELF actions have involved the
torching of housing developments as well as activities such as the damaging and destruction of
sports utility vehicles and other emblems of industrialized society and urban sprawl.323 Between
August and October 2002, three individuals tied to the ELF damaged construction vehicles and
sports utility vehicles, and vandalized fast food restaurants in Virginia. In one incident, these
individuals vandalized two homes under construction, spray painting “sprawl” on one of the
structures. In November 2005, the ELF claimed responsibility for fires set in five townhomes
under construction in Hagerstown, MD.324 Similar activity has occurred on the West Coast.325

Guidelines
Both the ALF and the ELF have established guidelines and posted them on the web for cells or
lone wolves to follow. The guidelines are straightforward and short for both movements (see
Figure 1). A key point in the guidelines for both the ALF and the ELF is to avoid harming any
animal, human and non-human.326 The ALF also stipulates that individuals professing affiliation
with the movement must be vegetarians or vegans.327
Interestingly, the ALF employs a number of caveats in its understanding of violence. On the one
hand, it supports intimidation as a tactic. On the other, the movement does not see intimidation as
potentially involving violence.328 The ALF also views arson as “violence against property,” not
people.329 Beyond this, ALF does not greatly elaborate on its notion of violence.

322
Brad Knickerbocker, “Firebrands of ‘Ecoterrorism’ Set Sights on Urban Sprawl,” Christian Science Monitor,
August 6, 2003. Hereinafter: Knickerbocker, “Firebrands.”
323
Anti-Defamation League, “Radical Environmentalist Group Suspected in San Diego Arson,” August 8, 2003;
Knickerbocker, “Firebrands”; Chris Dixon, “Arrest in Vandalism of S.U.V.s,” New York Times.
324
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Terrorism 2002-2005, http://209.235.0.153/publications/terror/
terrorism2002_2005.htm.
325
“Activists Topple Towers, Claim Dangers of AM Radio Waves,” CNN.com, September 4, 2009,
http://articles.cnn.com/2009-09-04/justice/washington.towers.terrorism_1_elf-radio-station-radio-waves?_s=
PM:CRIME; “Officials: No Explosive Devices Found at Scene of Seattle-Area House Fires,” Fox News, March 4,
2008; Debera Carlton Harrell, Aubrey Cohen, and Paul Shukovsky, “‘Street of Dreams’ Houses Torched; Eco-
Terrorists Suspected,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, March 4, 2008; “Camano Island Mansion Fire Ruled Ecoterrorist
Arson,” KOMO News.Com, January 20, 2006.
326
For ALF guidelines, see http://www.animalliberationfront.com/ALFront/alf_credo.htm. For ELF guidelines, see
http://www.animalliberationfront.com/ALFront/ELF/elf_faq.pdf.
327
Ibid.
328
Ibid.
329
See North American Animal Liberation Front, “Frequently Asked Questions about the North American Animal
Liberation Press Office.”

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Figure 1. ALF and ELF Guidelines

Source: CRS graphic based on ALF and ELF guidelines.

Notes: For ALF guidelines, see http://www.animalliberationfront.com/ALFront/alf_credo.htm. For ELF guidelines,
see http://www.animalliberationfront.com/ALFront/ELF/elf_faq.pdf.

Exceptions
Some animal rights extremists support violence. For example, in February 2012 Meredith Lowell
was arrested for allegedly using a Facebook page she created (under an assumed name) to solicit
a hit man to kill “someone who is wearing fur.”330 In the investigation, the FBI used an
undercover employee to pose as a hit man and communicate with Lowell online. She was arrested
before anyone could be harmed.331
An animal rights extremist entity named the “Justice Department” has argued for the efficacy of
violence against humans.332 Founded in the United Kingdom in 1993, the “Justice Department”
has been described as an offshoot of the ALF.333 In 1999, the first incident claimed in its name on
U.S. soil involved the mailing of more than 80 envelopes containing razor blades allegedly
positioned to cut recipients. Some of the razors may have been covered in rat poison. The letters
were received by animal researchers, hunting guides, and others in the United States and
Canada.334 In November 2010, individuals asserting ties to the “Justice Department” mailed two
communiqués to NAALPO. The missives claimed that “Justice Department” extremists had
mailed AIDS-tainted razors to two scientists at the University of California, Los Angeles.335 One
of the communiqués read:

330
James Ewinger, “Cleveland Heights Woman Charged with Using Facebook to Hire Killer,” Cleveland Plain Dealer,
February 21, 2012, http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2012/02/heights_woman_charged_with_usi.html.
331
Ibid.
332
North American Animal Liberation Press Office, “Liberationist Group ‘Justice Department’ Increasingly Vocal on
Animal Abuse,” press release, November 23, 2010. Hereinafter: NAALPO, “Liberationist Group.”
333
Anti-Defamation League, ‘“Justice Department.’”
334
Ibid; Southern Poverty Law Center, “Eco-Violence: The Record,” Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty Law
Center, no. 107 (Fall 2002).
335
NAALPO, “Liberationist Group.”

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We are the past generation of animal liberationists, but we will now be the future, striking
at the heart of the vivisection industry, and if we have to go back to egg timers and
insence [sic] sticks then we will. Mark our words, we will destroy all who fall into our
focus.336
Presumably, allusion to egg timers and incense sticks suggested timing devices and fuses for
explosive or incendiary devices.337

“Paper Terrorism”: Liens, Frivolous Lawsuits, and Tax Schemes

Sovereign citizens have committed nonviolent crimes based on their ideological underpinnings.338
These are often bundled under the concept of “paper terrorism.”339 This concept can include
forging documents (fake money orders and bad personal checks, for example), failing to pay
taxes, phony tax filings, and presenting sham legal arguments in court. Sovereign citizens have
filed fraudulent property liens against their foes.340 Some sovereigns hold illegal courts and target
officials with fake criminal indictments. They can also “issue warrants for judges and police
officers.”341

Retaliatory Filings
While these acts may not be violent, they are frequently “designed to intimidate or defraud
targeted individuals, private institutions, or government entities.”342 Thus, some sovereigns saddle
their opponents with time-consuming legal efforts to wipe out sham retaliatory court filings. As a
result, sovereign foes incur court fees and their credit ratings potentially suffer. In some cases,
these proceedings arise from what most citizens might consider fairly mundane run-ins with law
enforcement authorities. Some sovereigns do not necessarily see violations like parking tickets
and trespassing arrests as run-of-the-mill. They can react to such encounters with police by
challenging the very authority and jurisdiction of U.S. law enforcement and by harassing officials
with dubious liens, for example.

336
Ibid.
337
Arson-Around, pp. 16-17 describes assembly of an incendiary device incorporating incense sticks as a fuse. Incense
sticks have been used as fuses for incendiary devices by ELF and ALF activists. See Federal Bureau of Investigation,
Terrorism 2000-2001, 2004, p. 4, for an example of an ELF incident. For additional examples involving the cell known
as “The Family” active with both the ALF and the ELF, see U.S. v. Dibee et al. Kitchen timers are discussed in William
Rodgers and Stanislas Meyerhoff, Setting Fires with Electrical Timers: An Earth Liberation Front Guide, May 2001,
pp. 15-17. Although the document lists no authors, DOJ believes that Rodgers and Meyerhoff wrote it. They were
members of “The Family” which also used kitchen timers in its incendiary devices. See United States v. Joseph Dibee
et al, Indictment, CR 06-60011-AA, District Court, District of Oregon, January 19, 2006.
338
Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Sovereign Citizen Group Calls for
Removal of U.S. Governors, March 29, 2010, p. 2. Hereinafter: “Sovereign Citizen Group Calls.”
339
For an example of the use of this oft-used term, see Department of Justice, “Member of Anti-Government
Movement Pleads Guilty to Laundering Money for FBI Undercover Agents,” press release, March 25, 2011.
340
One source has defined a lien as “a claim encumbrance or charge on property for payment of a debt or obligation.”
Liens can be consensual or nonconsensual. They can be statutory or derive from common law. An example of a
nonconsensual common law lien is “when a mechanic refuses to return a car until repairs are paid for.” See Robert
Chamberlain and Donald P. Haider-Markel, “‘Lien on Me’: State Policy Innovation in Response to Paper Terrorism,”
Political Research Quarterly, vol. 58, no. 3 (September 2005), p. 450.
341
Ibid.; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Sovereign Citizen.” See also Christopher A. Young, “Minnesota Has New
Weapons in the Fight Against ‘Paper Terrorism,’” Hennepin Lawyer, August 28, 2007,
http://hennepin.timberlakepublishing.com/article.asp?article=1148.
342
“Sovereign Citizen Group Calls,” p. 2.

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 In November 2011, Kenneth W. Leaming, from Spanaway, WA, was arrested for
allegedly issuing billions of dollars in frivolous liens to intimidate public officials
enforcing laws against sovereign citizens. Reportedly, he had been tied to other
sovereign citizen adherents and groups. Also, he purportedly planned to harass
the children of U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts.343 In 2013,
Leaming was convicted of “three counts of filing false liens against federal
officials and one count of harboring federal fugitives and being a felon in
possession of firearms.”344

Redemption
Sovereign citizen guru Roger Elvick is the reputed founder of “redemption,”345 a concept that
blurs the line between sovereign citizen ideology and pure scam. Redemption suggests that when
the United States left the gold standard during the Great Depression, the nation found a way to
monetize people. According to the theory, each child who is born in the United States and has a
birth certificate also has a U.S. Treasury account “valued from $630,000 to more than $3
million”346 viewed as collateral against the nation’s debts. Redemption supporters hold that by
filing certain forms with state or federal authorities, people can draw money from these accounts.
To do so, they occasionally attempt to pass bogus checks.347
On a broad level, redemption can be viewed as an ideologically driven tactic meant to illegally
wrangle money from the U.S. government via the IRS. According to DOJ, in some instances this
involves the filing of “a series of false IRS forms, including tax returns, amended returns, and
Forms 1099 (including Form 1099-OID) or Forms W-2, to request fraudulent tax refunds based
on phony claims of large income tax withholding.”348
In addition, DOJ describes some redemption adherents as scammers who dupe customers into
filing false IRS forms to redeem money via the purported secret accounts the government holds
for its citizens.349 One guru recently pled guilty to money laundering charges.350 In another case,

343
Levi Pulkkinen, “FBI: Spanaway ‘Sovereign Citizen’ Planned to Track Down Justice’s Children,” Seattle Post-
Intelligencer, November 28, 2011; Anti-Defamation League, “Little Shell Pembina Band,” http://www.adl.org/learn/
ext_us/little_shell.asp?learn_cat=extremism&learn_subcat=extremism_in_america&xpicked=3&item=little_shell. For
other examples, see Rick Montgomery, “Sovereign Citizens: Crackpots, Crooks, or Defenders of Liberty?” Kansas City
Star, November 26, 2011. Hereinafter: Montgomery, “Sovereign Citizens.”
343
Marnie Eisenstadt, “Fringe Group Terrorizes Small-Town Officials with False Liens,” The Post Standard, May 23,
2011; Montgomery, “Sovereign Citizens;” Marnie Eisenstadt, “Fringe Group Terrorizes Small-Town Officials with
False Liens,” The Post Standard, May 23, 2011; “Two Admit Scheme to Defraud Public Employees,” Daily Freeman,
January 14, 2011, http://www.dailyfreeman.com/articles/2011/01/14/blotter/doc4d2fb54d3189f270459164.txt; Michael
Virtanen, “NY Man’s Sentencing Put Off in Liens Case,” Associated Press, July 12, 2011.
344
Department of Justice, “Four Convicted in Sovereign Citizen Investigation,” press release, March 7, 2013.
345
“His ‘Straw Man’ Free, a Scammer Finds the Rest of Him Isn’t,” Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty Law Center,
Issue 118, (Summer 2005). Hereinafter: Southern Poverty Law Center, “His Straw Man Free.”
346
FBI Counterterrorism Analysis Section, “Sovereign Citizens.”
347
Elvick promoted his ideas in the 1980s, and was jailed for much of the 1990s as well as in the next decade because
of passing bad checks, forgery, extortion, and corruption. See Ibid.; Southern Poverty Law Center, “His Straw Man
Free”; For a description of redemption, see Institute for Intergovernmental Research, Investigating Terrorism, pp. 70-
71.
348
Department of Justice, “Government Files Seven Lawsuits Nationwide to Block Alleged Scheme Involving
Fraudulent Tax-Refund Claims,” press release, October 28, 2009.
349
Ibid.
350
Carri Greer Thevenot, “Idaho Man Pleads Guilty to Money Laundering,” Las Vegas Review-Journal, March 25,
(continued...)

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in December 2009 Audie Watson received a 14-year prison sentence for his involvement in an
immigration benefit fraud scheme that sold membership in the Pembina Nation Little Shell Band
to illegal aliens. Watson and co-conspirators charged individuals $1,500 and couples $2,000.
They conned clients into believing that membership could be used to avoid removal from the
United States.351
 In March 2011, DOJ announced that the U.S. District Court for the Western
District of Missouri had permanently barred Gerald A Poynter “from preparing
tax returns for others and from promoting” a redemption scam.352 Poynter
informed his customers that he could obtain tax refunds for them, charged them
for his services, and then produced fraudulent IRS forms claiming $64 million in
refunds for 165 customers.353

The Internet and Domestic Terrorists

In the counterterrorism world, there has been much concern regarding violent jihadist use of the
Internet and social media.354 However, domestic terrorists also are computer savvy and active
online. A web presence may help extremist groups—some relatively small, with rosters in the
100s or fewer—educate their existing membership and forge a group identity. Also, in many
instances they can use websites to focus on outsiders to propagandize, socialize, and recruit new
adherents.355 A few domestic terrorists also have exploited the web to harm their targets.
White supremacists have long been using computer technology to communicate and interact. As
one study has suggested, white supremacists “were among the very early users of the electronic
communication network that eventually evolved into the Internet.”356 Among a variety of
findings, the study indicated that white supremacist extremist websites were possibly an effective
recruiting tool that the groups exploited. Membership forms are available on some sites. Others
exhibit multimedia material, and some actually retail items such as music and video games.357

(...continued)
2011.
351
Immigration and Customs Enforcement, “South Florida Man Sentenced to 14 Years in Prison for Immigration
Fraud,” press release, December 8, 2009.
352
Department of Justice, “Federal Court Shuts Down Missouri Tax Preparer Who Promoted Tax Scam,” press release,
March 28, 2011. For the injunction, see http://www.justice.gov/tax/Poynter_Injunction.pdf.
353
Ibid.
354
For example, see J.M. Berger, “The Social Apocalypse: A Forecast,” Intelwire, August 31, 2016; Edna Erez,
Gabriel Weimann, and A. Aaron Weisburd, “Jihad, Crime, and the Internet: Content Analysis of Jihadist Forum
Discussions,” October 31, 2011, Report submitted to the National Institute of Justice in fulfillment of requirements for
Award Number 2006-IJ-CX-0038; Akil N. Awan, “The Virtual Jihad: An Increasingly Legitimate Form of Warfare,”
CTC Sentinel, vol. 3, no. 5 (May 2010), p. 11; Gilbert Ramsay, “Relocating the Virtual War,” Defence Against
Terrorism Review, vol. 2, no. 1 (Spring 2009), p. 34; Tim Stevens, “Regulating the ‘Dark Web:’ How a Two-Fold
Approach Can Tackle Peer-to-Peer Radicalisation,” The RUSI Journal, vol. 154, no. 2 (April 2009), p. 29; Gabriel
Weimann, Terror on the Internet: The New Arena, the New Challenge (Washington, DC: United States Institute of
Peace Press, 2006); Maura Conway, “Terrorism and Mass Communication: Nitro to the Net,” The World Today, vol.
60, no. 8/9 (Aug/Sep 2004), pp. 19-22, http://doras.dcu.ie/513/1/nitro_to_net_2004.pdf.
355
Jeffrey Kaplan, Leonard Weinberg, and Ted Oleson, “Dreams and Realities in Cyberspace: White Aryan Resistance
and the World Church of the Creator,” Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 37, no. 2 (2003), pp. 149-150.
356
Phyllis B. Gerstenfeld, Diana R. Grant, Chau-Pu Chiang, “Hate Online: A Content Analysis of Extremist Internet
Sites,” Analysis of Social Issues and Public Policy, vol. 3, no. 1, (2003), p. 29. Hereinafter: Gerstenfeld et al., “Hate
Online.”
357
Ibid.

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The Internet allows individuals and groups to connect with one another and to disseminate
ideology.358 It also enables groups to manage how others perceive them. Many white supremacist
sites claim that their sponsoring groups are nonviolent and not even racist.359
Some white supremacists may be unwilling to affirm their views in public spaces such as work,
school, or in street demonstrations. To them, the virtual realm is an important antidote. As one
study has suggested, “free spaces” in both the real and virtual worlds—where conflict with non-
believers will be minimized—are important for adherents. In them they can “meet, articulate, and
support their views.”360 Supremacists can turn to virtual free spaces to receive indoctrination into
movement culture, key narratives outlining movement grievances, adopt ideologies, and “talk of
violence against ‘racial enemies.’”361 A 2016 study found that Americans espousing white
supremacist ideals on the social-media platform Twitter outnumber the supporters of the foreign
terrorist organization known as the Islamic State by many measures:
On Twitter, ISIS’s preferred social platform, American white nationalist movements have
seen their followers grow by more than 600% since 2012. Today, they outperform ISIS in
nearly every social metric, from follower counts to tweets per day.362
Much of this online ideological activity involves constitutionally protected speech. A number of
examples stand out.
 The ALF and the ELF have their long-established guidelines posted on the web
for independent groups or individuals to follow.363 Movement websites virtually
connect like-minded individuals. As mentioned elsewhere in this report, key
ideological texts are also made available online.364 The websites of animal rights
extremists and ecoterrorists also post press releases publicizing crimes
perpetrated on behalf of the movements.365
 Reverend Donald Spitz administers the Army of God’s website.366 Among other
things, the site includes lists of people who support “violent opposition to
abortion” as well as listing people incarcerated because of anti-abortion crimes
they committed.367

358
See Josh Adams and Vincent J. Roscigno, “White Supremacists, Oppositional Culture, and the World Wide Web,”
Social Forces, vol. 84, no. 2 (December 2005), pp. 759-778.
359
Gerstenfeld et al., “Hate Online,” pp. 33-41.
360
Pete Simi, Robert Futrell, “Cyberculture and the Endurance of White Power Activism,” Journal of Political and
Military Sociology, vol. 34, no. 1 (Summer 2006), p. 117. Hereinafter: Simi and Futrell, “Endurance.”
361
Ibid., 122-126, 131. Some free spaces exist in the real world. Examples include the privacy of the home,
supremacist events such as conferences, isolated compounds or communities, and ideologically-focused musical
concerts.
362
J.M. Berger, “Nazis vs. ISIS on Twitter: A Comparative Study of White Nationalist and ISIS Online Social Media
Networks,” George Washington University Program on Extremism, September 2016.
363
See http://www.animalliberationfront.com/ALFront/alf_credo.htm; ELF, “What Is the Earth?”
364
Anti-Defamation League, Ecoterrorism: Extremism in the Animal Rights and Environmentalist Movements.
Hereinafter: Anti-Defamation League, Ecoterrorism.
365
See http://www.animalliberationfront.com/; http://www.animalliberationpressoffice.org/; and
http://www.earthliberationfront.org/.
366
Jefferis, Armed for Life, p. 53.
367
Ibid., p. 77.

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 The National Socialist Movement sponsors its own social networking site, the
“New Saxon Social Network.”368
Some domestic terrorists also engage in cyberattacks. According to DOJ, an animal rights
extremist cell (SHAC USA, Inc.) active between 2001 and 2004 listed online the personal
information—names, addresses, phone numbers—of workers at a firm it was targeting. (The
business uses animals in its research.) The extremist cell likely devised the list to help focus the
activities of the group’s online followers. In some cases, the published information included the
names of spouses and children of employees, license plate numbers, churches attended by the
employees, as well as the schools their children attended. The websites used by the extremist cell
also posted suggestions for action by supporters—including what it described as the “top 20 terror
tactics.”369 Supporters across the United States vandalized victims’ homes and automobiles and
engaged in cyberattacks against the research firms and other companies tied to it, among other
activities.370

A Decentralized Threat
Domestic terrorism can be described as a decentralized threat. As this report has already
suggested, domestic terrorism suspects generally operate on their own or in small, independent
cells. In other words, they do not necessarily belong to organizations with cohesive, well-
articulated leadership structures or cadres.
However, independently acting domestic terrorism suspects are not necessarily isolated, adrift,
and cut off from any outside contact or influence. Some take ideological cues from broader
movements or groups espousing extremist ideas. These groups or movements publicly disavow
violent criminal behavior and engage in constitutionally protected activities. This dynamic—the
interplay between above-ground groups or movements proffering extremist dogma or ideology
(protected speech) that is then consumed and acted upon by independent underground groups or
cells who commit crimes—is a critical feature of domestic terrorism.

Leaderless Resistance
Within the domestic terrorism realm, the notions of decentralized activity received attention in the
1980s and early 1990s when white supremacist Louis Beam circulated his theories of “leaderless
resistance.”371 He saw leaderless resistance as a means to transform the white supremacy
movement. Beam described it as a means of avoiding law enforcement infiltration of white
supremacist groups, and he suggested two levels of leaderless movement activity. First, on an

368
See http://newsaxon.org/.
369
Department of Justice, White Paper, p. 60; United States v. Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty USA, Inc., et al,
Superseding Indictment, CR 04-373, District Court, District of New Jersey, n.d. Hereinafter: Department of Justice,
United States v. Stop Huntingdon. The “top 20 terror tactics” included activity such as: “demonstrations at one’s [a
target’s] home using a loudspeaker; abusive graffiti, posters and stickers on one’s car and house; invading offices and,
damaging property and stealing documents; chaining gates shut, and blocking gates; physical assault including spraying
cleaning fluid into one’s eyes; smashing the windows of one’s house while the individual’s family was at home;
flooding one’s home while the individual was away; vandalizing one’s car; firebombing one’s car; bomb hoaxes;
threatening telephone calls and letters including threats to kill or injure one’s partner or children; e-mail bombs in an
attempt to crash computers; sending continuous black faxes causing fax machines to burn out; telephone blockades by
repeated dialing to prevent the use of the telephone; and arranging for an undertaker to call to collect one’s body.”
370
According to the superseding indictment in the case, the cell also placed reports of intimidation and vandalism on its
websites to encourage its followers. See Department of Justice, United States v. Stop Huntingdon.
371
He was a Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and Aryan Nations activist.

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operational level, militant, underground, ideologically motivated cells or individuals (lone

wolves) engage in movement-related illegal activity without any centralized direction or control
from an organization that maintains traditional leadership positions and membership rosters.
Second, on another level, the above-ground public face (the “political wing”) of the movement
propagandizes and disseminates ideology—engaging in protected speech. In this system,
underground cells or lone wolves would be responsible for their own actions, and the public face
of the movement would not be held accountable.372
Online comments from the leadership of the neo-Nazi National Socialist Movement (NSM) offer
a specific example of an above-ground movement avoiding violence and the terrorist label. The
NSM’s leader has posted the following statement on the group’s website:
I want it made perfectly clear to all of our members, supporters, prospective members,
readers, etc. that the National Socialist Movement condemns illegal actions and in such
we do not endorse any acts of violence or terrorism. The NSM is a White Civil Rights
Movement that adheres to Political activism, and a legal means to restore America to its
former glory. Acts of violence or terrorism against America, or its Citizens is
unacceptable, and not tolerated within the ranks of the National Socialist Movement.373

“The Turner Diaries”

One of the key texts read by neo-Nazis and anti-government extremists is The Turner Diaries, a
1978 novel by William Pierce, the deceased founder of the neo-Nazi group National Alliance.374
This book can be seen as an above-ground product that motivates underground cells or
individuals to commit crimes. The book has partly inspired a number of violent acts by white
supremacist extremists and anti-government extremists.
The Turner Diaries predates the widespread acceptance of the “leaderless resistance” concept.
However, its lasting place in the neo-Nazi and anti-government extremist movements highlights
how leaderless resistance works. Pierce’s book has been described as “the most widely read book
among far-right extremists.”375 The novel reflects the author’s own racist religious
philosophies.376 Perhaps 500,000 copies of the book have been sold.377 In it, Pierce emphasized

372
Paul Joosse, “Leaderless Resistance and Ideological Inclusion: The Case of the Earth Liberation Front,” Terrorism
and Political Violence, vol. 19, no. 3 (September 2007), pp. 351-368. Hereinafter: Joosse, “Leaderless Resistance.”
Fred Burton, “The Challenge of the Lone Wolf,” STRATFOR, May 30, 2007; Hereinafter: Burton, “The Challenge.”
Southern Poverty Law Center, “Louis Beam,” http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-files/profiles/louis-
beam; Anti-Defamation League, “Louis Beam,” http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/beam.asp?xpicked=2&item=beam.
Beam secretly discussed leaderless resistance among white supremacists and anti-government extremists as early as
1983. See Wright, Patriots, p. 87. Forms of leaderless resistance likely have a long history. For example, late-
nineteenth-century anarchists can be seen as having engaged in a type of leaderless resistance in their rejection of
organized authority. See Jean-Marc Flükiger, “The Radical Animal Liberation Movement: Some Reflections on Its
Future,” Journal for the Study of Radicalism, vol. 2, no. 2 (2009), pp. 112. Hereinafter: Flükiger, “The Radical.” See
also Ramón Spaaij, “The Enigma of Lone Wolf Terrorism: An Assessment,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, vol. 33,
no. 9 (2010), p. 859. Hereinafter: Spaaij, “The Enigma.”
373
Jeff Schoep, “CDR Jeff Schoep Denounces Violence & Domestic Terrorism.”
374
Renee Brodie, “The Aryan New Era: Apocalyptic Realizations in The Turner Diaries,” Journal of American
Culture, vol. 21, no. 3, (fall 1998), pp. 13-22.
375
Anti-Defamation League, “The Turner Diaries,” 2005, http://www.adl.org/learn/Ext_US/turner_diaries.asp.
376
See Brad Whitsel, “The Turner Diaries and Cosmotheism: William Pierce’s Theology,” Nova Religio: The Journal
of Alternative and Emergent Religions, vol. 1, no. 2 (April 1998), pp. 183-197. Hereinafter: Whitsel, “The Turner
Diaries.”
377
Freilich, Chermak, and Caspi, “Critical Events,” p. 505. Another estimate dating back to 2001 places the number
sold at 300,000. See Rob McAlear, “Hate, Narrative, and Propaganda in The Turner Diaries,” The Journal of American
(continued...)

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that the current racial order of things had to be cataclysmically destroyed and reborn in
accordance with white supremacist ideals.378 To convey this message, he devised his book as the
edited diaries of neo-Nazi character Earl Turner. As such, Turner’s story is annotated by a
fictionalized editor, one Andrew Macdonald. The novel describes Turner leading a terrorist group
whose actions trigger a race war that results in the overthrow of the government—controlled by
Jews in Pierce’s construction. Turner also initiates a nuclear war that wipes out earth’s non-white
human inhabitants. The atomic apocalypse allows for the rebirth of a revitalized white race.379
The book has informed the activities of domestic terrorists. In September 1983, white supremacist
Robert Mathews formed a small underground group known as The Order. Its inspiration came
from passages in The Turner Diaries. The group planned for and engaged in what it viewed as a
revolution.380 Over the next 15 months, The Order went on a violent crime spree. Among other
crimes, it robbed banks, armored cars, electronic stores, a truck stop, and a video store, and
allegedly gave some of the spoils to Richard Butler, who was at the time the leader of the WSE
group Aryan Nations. The Order also bombed a synagogue and murdered a Jewish talk show
host, Alan Berg, before it was dismantled by federal law enforcement.381
Anti-government extremist Timothy McVeigh, an avid reader of the book, had passages from the
Turner Diaries with him when he was arrested. The 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah
federal building in Oklahoma City mimicked one described in the novel and involved a small cell
of underground conspirators.382 Sales of the book allegedly rose after the bombing.383

The ALF, the ELF

The concept of leaderless resistance has been mirrored by other extremist movements in the
United States. Both the ALF and the ELF have rejected recognizable leadership structures or
hierarchies and follow a leaderless resistance model instead, making their activities more difficult
for law enforcement to investigate.384 According to the model, above-ground elements in the
movements provide guidelines and an ideological platform that underground individuals (lone
wolves) or independent cells can draw upon to motivate their own criminal actions. Exercising
First-Amendment rights, the above-ground components of the ALF and the ELF lawfully
communicate shared identities largely via websites. As one scholar has suggested for the ELF,
this possibly creates a broad consensus focused on a very specific cause and avoids internecine

(...continued)
Culture, vol. 32, no. 3 (September 2009), p. 192. Hereinafter: McAlear, “Hate, Narrative.”
378
George Michael, “The Revolutionary Model of Dr. William L. Pierce,” Terrorism and Political Violence, vol. 15,
no. 3 (Autumn 2003), p. 75.
379
Whitsel, “The Turner Diaries,” p. 185; Terence Ball and Richard Dagger, “The Turner Diaries: Neo-Nazi
Scripture,” PS: Political Science and Politics, vol. 30, no. 4, (December 1997), pp. 717-718. McAlear, “Hate,
Narrative,” p. 196.
380
Wright, Patriots, pp. 87-88; Anti-Defamation League, “Richard Scutari,” http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/
scutari.asp?xpicked=2&item=scutari. Hereinafter: Anti-Defamation League, “Scutari.” Zeskind, Blood and Politics, pp.
96-100.
381
Balch, “The Rise and Fall,” 87, 109; Wright, Patriots, pp. 86-89.
382
McAlear, “Hate, Narrative,” p. 192; Wright, Patriots, pp. 6, 10.
383
Freilich, Chermak, and Caspi, “Critical Events,” p. 505.
384
Ackerman, “Beyond Arson,” p. 151.

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conflicts over ideological fine points.385 Much like the NSM, the above-ground elements of the
ALF take pains to distinguish themselves from criminal activity. For example, NAALPO states:
Disclaimer: The Animal Liberation Press Officers do not engage in illegal activities, nor
do they know any individuals who do. Rather, the Press Office receives and posts
communiqués from anonymous parties and provides comment to the media.386
Additionally, the above-ground literature of both the ALF and the ELF suggests that independent
cells avoid communication with one another.387 This leaderless format is followed to avoid law
enforcement infiltration and is based on models used by other domestic terrorists. As one scholar
has suggested, this parallels franchising in the business world.388

Lone Wolves
Some domestic terrorists are “lone wolves.” This can be seen as a form of leaderless resistance.
One scholar has offered a succinct conceptualization:
Lone wolf terrorism involves terrorist attacks carried out by persons who (a) operate
individually, (b) do not belong to an organized terrorist group or network, and (c) whose
modi operandi are conceived and directed by the individual without any direct outside
command hierarchy.389
Lone wolves have committed crimes in the names of a number of domestic terrorism movements.
For example, according to the FBI, when it comes to violence attributed to white supremacist
extremism, lone wolves play a prominent role. Lone wolves filter in and out of WSE groups.
They can either get dismissed from these groups because of their “violent tendencies” or
voluntarily leave because they find the organizations too passive.390 There is little research on the
lone wolf phenomenon and no universally accepted definition of the term. 391
The above definition stresses how lone wolves operate. Just as critical is what they believe. Lone
wolves can hew to broader ideological causes and use them to justify their actions.392 This
suggests that lone wolves potentially adopt the ideas of broader terrorist movements while not
claiming formal membership in them. Divining exactly what “formal membership” constitutes
leads to debate regarding whether or not some individuals acted as lone wolves or part of larger
movements. For example:
 On January 29, 2010, Scott Roeder (also discussed above) was convicted of first-
degree murder and two counts of aggravated assault for killing abortion provider
George Tiller.393 Roeder allegedly had “connections with militant abortion foes
but few formal ties with known groups.”394 Some supporters of abortion rights

385
Joosse, “Leaderless Resistance,” pp. 352, 354.
386
NAALPO, “History.”
387
Thurston, The ALF Primer, p. 1. See also United States v. Joseph Dibee et al, Indictment, CR 06-60011-AA,
District Court, District of Oregon, January 19, 2006; Leader and Probst, “The Earth Liberation Front,” pp. 37-58.
388
Flükiger, “The Radical,” pp. 111-119.
389
Ibid., p. 856.
390
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Rage and Racism, p. 8.
391
Spaaij, “The Enigma,” pp. 855-856.
392
Ibid.
393
Sylvester, “Scott Roeder.”
394
Judy L. Thomas, “Was Suspect in Tiller Case a Lone Wolf?” The Kansas City Star, June 14, 2009. Hereinafter:
Thomas, “Was Suspect?”

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consider his contacts among anti-abortion adherents as evidence of possible

conspiracy.395 Meanwhile, some anti-abortion activists have stressed that Roeder
was a lone wolf.396 He remains the only person convicted in Tiller’s murder.
 Described as a neo-Nazi and white supremacist, James von Brunn reportedly shot
and killed a security guard at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum in
Washington, DC, in June 2009. In January 2010, the 89-year-old von Brunn died
in federal prison before he could be tried.397
Because lone wolves are not plugged into terrorist organizations, distinguishing them from
individuals who commit hate crimes can also be difficult.398 In these cases, as mentioned above,
the FBI likely attempts to determine whether the motives involved were personal (hate crime) and
not focused on broader ideologies (domestic terrorism).

The Law Enforcement Challenges Posed by Lone Wolves

Lone wolves present particular challenges to law enforcement. Because lone wolves, by
definition, operate alone, it can be difficult for law enforcement to assess exactly which
radicalized individuals intend to turn their beliefs into action and pursue terrorist activity. One
former FBI counterterrorism official has said:
The lone wolf is arguably one of the biggest challenges to American law enforcement.
How do you get into the mind of a terrorist? The FBI does not have the capability to
know when a person gets up in middle America and decides: “I’m taking my protest
poster to Washington or I’m taking my gun.”399
Aside from intent, it is also hard to assess the operational capability of potential lone wolf
terrorists—knowledge of explosives, familiarity with firearms, or experience in surveillance, for
example.400 Lone wolves do not participate in terrorist networks or training camps that can be
infiltrated or whose communications can be traced. They do not rehearse their schemes or
practice their criminal skills with conspirators who can potentially act as cooperating witnesses.
To attempt to overcome these issues, the FBI asserted in 2009 that it was “beginning an extensive
study on identified lone offenders to come up with indicators and behavior predictors that
investigators can use to assess suspects.”401
Not all of the news for law enforcement regarding lone wolves is necessarily dire. They have
weaknesses. Their lack of tradecraft may make it harder for lone wolves to engage in large-scale
attacks. Likewise, lone wolves do not necessarily experience the reinforcement of a closely knit

395
Amanda Robb, “Not a Lone Wolf,” Ms. Magazine, vol. 20, no. 2 (Spring 2010), pp. 26-31.
396
Thomas, “Was Suspect?”
397
Anti-Defamation League, “James von Brunn: An ADL Backgrounder,” http://www.adl.org/main_Extremism/
von_brunn_background.htm.
398
Eric Boehlert, “Terrorism or Hate Crime?” Salon.com, April 17, 2003, http://dir.salon.com/story/news/feature/2003/
04/17/terrorist_act/index.html.
399
Gary Fields and Evan Perez, “FBI Seeks to Target Lone Extremists,” Wall Street Journal, June 15, 2009,
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124501849215613523.html.
400
Scott Stewart and Fred Burton, Lone Wolf Lessons, STRATFOR, June 3, 2009. Hereinafter: Stewart and Burton,
Lone Wolf. See also Steven M. Chermak, Joshua D. Freilich & Joseph Simone Jr., “Surveying American State Police
Agencies About Lone Wolves, Far-Right Criminality, and Far-Right and Islamic Jihadist Criminal Collaboration,”
Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, vol. 33 no. 11 (2010).
401
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Domestic Terrorism.”

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terrorist social network. They cannot rely on others to assist them in any type of complicated
plot.402
Regardless, apparent lone wolf attacks can be lethal. For example, in March 2017, James Harris
Jackson, allegedly acting alone, used a two-foot-long sword to stab to death Timothy Caughman,
an African American individual who Jackson is said to have encountered while trolling New York
City for victims. According to New York District Attorney Cyrus Vance Jr., Jackson “prowled the
streets of New York for three days in search of a black person to assassinate in order to launch a
campaign of terrorism....”403 Jackson, who reportedly espoused white supremacist beliefs, faces
state-level murder and terrorism charges.404 Aside from the 2016 shooting by Gavin Long, the
2010 actions of Scott Roeder, and the 2009 shooting involving James von Brunn (described
above), other evidence suggests the lethality of lone wolf violence:
 According to one scholarly examination, between 1990 and April 2009, “far-
rightists” were responsible for the deaths of 42 law enforcement officers—most
from state and local agencies in the United States. Most of the incidents involved
firearms, and most of the assailants acted alone.405
 Richard Poplawski shot and killed three Pittsburgh police officers in April 2009.
He has been described as a “white supremacist” lone wolf.406 He had posted anti-
government messages on racist websites.407
 On January 21, 2009, Keith Luke allegedly shot and killed two Cape Verdean
immigrants and raped and shot a third. Police arrested him before he could attack
a synagogue, as he planned.408 Luke purportedly informed police that he had
decided to go on his spree after reading about “the demise of the white race” on a
neo-Nazi website.409 He reputedly said that he was “fighting for a dying race”
and that he had been planning the attack for six months.410
Lone wolves do not necessarily have to focus on gun-related crimes. Kevin Harpham’s case
illustrates as much. On March 9, 2011, law enforcement officers arrested Kevin Harpham

402
Stewart and Burton, Lone Wolf.
403
Daniella Silva, “White Supremacist James Harris Jackson Charged with Terrorism for Killing Black Man in NYC,”
NBC News, March 27, 2017.
404
Ibid. See also Jean Marbella, “A Baltimore Man’s Inexplicable Path from Quaker School to Army to Rikers Island
Cell,” Baltimore Sun, April 14, 2017; Ashley Southall, “White Suspect in Black Man’s Killing Is Indicted on Terror
Charges,” New York Times, march 27, 2017; Colleen Long and Jennifer Peltz, “Police: White Sword Killer Went to NY
to Attack Black People,” Associated Press, March 22, 2017.
405
START, “Background Information: Far-Right Attacks on U.S. Law Enforcement,” press release, April 2009. The
scholars who developed the information in the press release defined “far-right ideology” as “principles such as fierce
nationalism, anti-globalization, suspicions of centralized Federal authority, support for conspiracy theories, and
reverence for individual liberties (including gun ownership.”
406
McNulty et al., “Jury Decides.” See also Anti-Defamation League, “Richard Poplawski.”
407
Hamill, “Man Accused.”
408
John Ellement, “DA Says Racism Drove Brockton Killings, Rape,” Boston Globe, January 23, 2009.
409
Phillip Martin, “Man Will Face Charges After Police Standoff,” WGBH, April 4, 2011, http://wwe.wgbh.org/
articles/-2503.
410
Maureen Boyle, “Prosecutor: Suspect in double slaying in Brockton hatched an ‘Evil Plan of Mass Murder and
Rape,’” Brockton Enterprise, January 22, 2009, updated June 9, 2010. The shootings perpetrated by Roeder and von
Brunn had been described by the federal government as terrorist acts. It is unclear whether the Poplawski and Luke
cases are considered as such. Both von Brunn and Roeder were included in the National Counterterrorism Center’s
open-source Worldwide Incidents Tracking System (WITS) database (now unavailable) that compiled worldwide
terrorist incidents between 2004 and early 2012. Poplawski and Luke were not.

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 Domestic Terrorism: An Overview

(discussed elsewhere) and charged him in connection to a bomb concealed in a backpack and
placed along the route of a Martin Luther King Jr. Day March in Spokane, WA. In September
2011, Harpham pled guilty to committing a federal hate crime and attempting to use a weapon of
mass destruction.411 Media reports and watchdog groups have indicated that Harpham had ties to
white supremacists. Allegedly, he was a member of the neo-Nazi National Alliance in 2004. The
group denied that he was still a member. Harpham had also been in contact with Paul Mullet,
leader of a white supremacist group active in Athol, ID. Mullet said that he and Harpham spoke
many times but that the latter never joined Mullet’s group.412 Harpham reportedly made postings
on white supremacist websites and read The Turner Diaries.413
Also, lone wolf activity is not solely the domain of purported white supremacists. Another case
illustrates the kind of attack a domestic lone wolf animal rights extremist can commit:
 In November 2010, Walter Bond pled guilty to two felonies stemming from an
April 2010 arson that destroyed a store known as the Sheepskin Factory in
Glendale, CO.414 Speaking from jail, Bond condemned the business, which sold
sheepskin products, as engaging in “blood trade” and drawing profits “from the
death and exploitation of suffering animals.”415 Bond worked alone. A web
posting claimed the arson “in defense and retaliation for all the innocent animals
that have died cruelly at the hands of human oppressors.”416 Apparently, Bond
strongly identified with the notion of being a lone wolf. The ATF, working with a
confidential informant, recorded Bond discussing the fire and the fact that he
actually used the nickname “Lone Wolf.”417 In a jailhouse letter, Bond stated, “I
used the name ‘ALF Lone Wolf’ in the media to convey to my ALF brothers and
sisters worldwide (whoever they are) the power of acting alone.”418

411
Department of Justice, “Attempted Bomber Pleads Guilty to Federal Hate Crime and Weapons Charge,” press
release, September 7, 2011; Department of Justice, “Attempted Bomber Arrested,” press release, March 9, 2011.
412
See Southern Poverty Law Center, “Spokane Bombing Arrest Details Emerge,” March 9, 2011. Hereinafter:
Southern Poverty Law Center, “Spokane Bombing.” Thomas Clouse and Meghann M. Cuniff, “White Supremacist
Arrested in MLK Bomb Plot,” Spokesman-Review, March 10, 2011. Hereinafter: Clouse and Cuniff, “White
Supremacist.” Joel Millman and Evan Perez, “Suspect Is Arrested in Spokane Bomb Case,” Wall Street Journal, March
10, 2011. Hereinafter: Millman and Perez, “Suspect Is Arrested.”
413
Federal Bureau of Investigation, “MLK Parade Bomber,” press release, January 13, 2012; Jessica Robinson, “Court
Documents Reveal Evolution Of MLK Day Bomber’s Racist Beliefs,” Northwest News Network, December 1, 2011,
http://kuow.org/northwestnews.php?storyID=143023416; Department of Justice, “Colville, Wash., Man Indicted for
Federal Hate Crime in Attempted Bombing of the MLK Unity March,” press release, April 21, 2011; “FBI: Bomb
Found on MLK March Route,” MSNBC, January 18, 2011.
414
Yesenia Robles, “Vegan Activist Pleads Guilty to Torching Sheepskin Factory,” Denver Post, November 19, 2010.
Hereinafter: Robles, “Vegan Activist.”
415
“Suspect in Arson at Sheepskin Factory in Glendale Decries Animal ‘Blood Trade,’” Denver Post, August 6, 2010.
416
Robles, “Vegan Activist.”
417
United States v. Walter Bond, Criminal Complaint, MJ-01120-MJW, District Court, District of Colorado, July 23,
2010. Hereinafter: U.S. v. Walter Bond.
418
Walter Bond, “I Am the ALF ‘Lone Wolf,’” December 4, 2010, (North American Animal Liberation Press Office).
He was also convicted for two other arsons. See “Walter Bond Sentenced to 7 years for two ALF Arsons,”
http://www.animalliberationfrontline.com/walter-bond-sentenced-to-7-years-for-animal-liberartion-front-arsons/; Scott
Stewart, Escalating Violence from the Animal Liberation Front,” STRATFOR, July 29, 2010. See also U.S. v. Walter
Bond.

Congressional Research Service 56

 Domestic Terrorism: An Overview

Scoping the Threat Remains Difficult for

Policymakers
As this report suggests, at least three factors may make it hard for policymakers to form a
baseline evaluation of the domestic terrorism threat from publicly available information. First,
federal agencies employ varying terminology to describe the threat. Second, the federal
government lacks a public and official method for either designating specific domestic groups as
terrorists or formally and openly describing particular extremist movements as threats. Finally,
there is no clear sense of how many domestic terrorism plots and attacks the government has
investigated in recent years.

Terminology
The federal government has used broad conceptualizations to describe domestic terrorism. DOJ
discusses the issue in terms of a handful of general “threats” such as animal rights extremists,
ecoterrorists, anarchists, and anti-government extremists—not specific groups. Additionally,
terms such as “terrorism” and “extremism” appear to be used interchangeably. Presumably, using
the term “extremist” allows lawyers, policymakers, and investigators the flexibility to discuss
terrorist-like activity without actually labeling it as “terrorism” and then having to prosecute it as
such. However, this may lead to inconsistencies in the development and application of the law in
the domestic terrorism arena. For example, policymakers may ponder why a specific terrorism
statute covers ideologically motivated attacks against businesses that involve animals,419 while
there are no other domestic terrorism statutes as narrow in their purview covering a particular
type of target and crime.

Designating Domestic Terrorist Groups

The federal government lacks a process for publicly designating domestic terrorist organizations.
In other words, there is no official open-source roster of domestic groups that the FBI or other
federal agencies target as terrorist organizations. The lack of such a designation may spring partly
from First Amendment concerns. Such a list might discourage speech and expression related to
the ideologies underpinning the activities of named groups. Regardless, this stands in stark
contrast to the world of international counterterrorism, where the United States maintains a well-
established—legally and procedurally proscribed—regimen regarding the identification of foreign
terrorist organizations (FTOs).420
Official FTO designation benefits counterterrorism efforts in a number of ways. Most
importantly, it facilitates the prosecution of those who provide material support421 to listed foreign
terrorist groups. Arguably, because there is no domestic terrorism equivalent of FTO designation,
it is more difficult to press material support charges against domestic terrorists. In 2010, one

419
The Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act (P.L. 109-374).
420
Department of State, “Foreign Terrorist Organizations.”
421
As described in U.S. Code, Title 18, Part I, Chapter 113B, 2339A and 2339B. For more information, see CRS
Report R41333, Terrorist Material Support: An Overview of 18 U.S.C. §2339A and §2339B, by Charles Doyle. DOJ
has used material support charges as a key component in its prosecutions against foreign terrorist organizations. See
CRS Report R41416, American Jihadist Terrorism: Combating a Complex Threat, by Jerome P. Bjelopera, for a
discussion of a number of these cases targeting homegrown jihadists.

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 Domestic Terrorism: An Overview

scholar was unable to identify any material support cases involving “a domestic terrorist group or
its supporters.”422 According to the Department of State, FTO designation has other effects. It
1. Supports [U.S.] efforts to curb terrorism financing and to encourage other nations to do
the same. 2. Stigmatizes and isolates designated terrorist organizations internationally. 3.
Deters donations or contributions to and economic transactions with named
organizations. 4. Heightens public awareness and knowledge of terrorist organizations. 5.
Signals to other governments our concern about named organizations.423
This description suggests that the absence of a designation regimen for domestic terrorist groups
makes it harder for the federal government to discredit such groups and simultaneously
strengthen public understanding of the domestic terrorist threat. Likewise, the lack of a list might
make it more difficult for the federal government to communicate exactly what the threat is to its
own agencies, let alone local or state entities.
While there is no official designation process for domestic terrorist organizations, as it stands,
DOJ and the FBI have publicly named and discussed domestic terrorism threats—such as animal
rights extremism or anarchist extremism—without illuminating exactly how they arrive at these
categories. Federal lawmakers may opt to consider the feasibility of officially formalizing this
process and/or opening it up to greater oversight. An attempt to render this process less
bureaucratically opaque might simultaneously (1) enhance federal efforts to combat domestic
terrorism and (2) help protect civil rights and civil liberties. For example, such a list may
potentially offer agencies outside of DOJ—including relevant players at the state and local
level—formal opportunities to provide input into ranking domestic terrorism threats while
enshrining mechanisms by which individuals who believe in the philosophies undergirding a
designated threat could petition to have that threat “de-listed.”424 On the other hand, making this
process more open may take away the FBI’s flexibility to rapidly adapt its domestic terrorism
priorities, especially if threats quickly mutate.

A Public Accounting of Plots and Incidents

A publicly available official accounting of domestic terrorist plots and incidents may help
policymakers understand the scope of the threat in lieu of a regimen designed to name domestic
terrorism organizations. However, the federal government does not produce such a document. The
National Counterterrorism Center’s (NCTC) Worldwide Incidents Tracking System (WITS) had
provided an official record of terrorism incidents around the globe, including the United States.
This was a publicly accessible database active from 2004 to early 2012. It included basic
information regarding terrorist incidents. Prior to the advent of WITS, the FBI used to publish
regular reports on terrorist activity in the United States.425
The lack of a publicly available federal accounting of domestic terrorism plots and attacks makes
it especially difficult to determine the scope of this diverse threat, which, for example, can be
investigated and prosecuted at the state, local, or federal level. Also, the lines between domestic
terrorism and other forms of criminality such as tax fraud or hate crimes can be blurry. A fuller

422
Heller, “Designating Domestic,” p. 70. It may be possible to use 18 U.S.C. 2339A to prosecute an individual
engaged in domestic terrorism. This statute “restricts aid to perpetrators of terrorism in general.” See Benjamin Yaster,
“Resetting Scales: An Examination of Due Process Rights in Material Support Prosecutions,” New York University
Law Review, vol. 83, no. 4 (October, 2008), p. 1364; and ibid.
423
Department of State, “Foreign Terrorist Organizations,” https://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/123085.htm.
424
The FTO designation process has such provisions. See ibid.
425
For example, see http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/terrorism-2002-2005.

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 Domestic Terrorism: An Overview

accounting of domestic terrorism plots and attacks may reveal the instances in which FBI
investigated individuals as domestic terrorists but DOJ did not prosecute them as such. This could
offer policymakers a clearer sense of the domestic terrorism threat.

Better Sense of Scope May Assist Policymakers

A better sense of domestic terrorism’s scope publicly proffered by the federal government may
assist policymakers. It may be of policymaking value for executive branch agencies to release
annual statistics on domestic terrorism prosecutions, naming individuals and movements
involved. Congress may also consider requesting an even more detailed annual public report that
counts and describes the domestic terrorist plots dismantled; the number of attacks investigated;
and the federal, state, and local agencies involved. The lack of such an accounting makes it
difficult for policymakers to exercise oversight by comparing the levels of domestic terrorist
activity against items such as homegrown violent jihadist activity and other threats to the
homeland. A regular public accounting could also help policymakers assess the effectiveness of
the government’s response to the domestic terrorist threat. It may also assist policymakers who
wish to compare one domestic terrorist threat against another. It can help inform the allocation of
resources to specific federal counterterrorism efforts, such as those designed to keep people from
radicalizing and becoming violent extremists in the first place. Finally, without a clear, publicly
available understanding of the domestic terrorist threat, it may be difficult to measure how much
federal funding is allocated to this issue.

Author Contact Information

Jerome P. Bjelopera
Specialist in Organized Crime and Terrorism
jbjelopera@crs.loc.gov, 7-0622

Congressional Research Service 59

 Behind the Black Bloc
An Overview of Militant Anarchism
and Anti-Fascism
FOUNDATION FOR DEFENSE OF DEMOCRACIES

Daveed Gartenstein-Ross, Samuel Hodgson, and Austin Blair

June 2021
 Behind the Black Bloc
An Overview of Militant Anarchism
and Anti-Fascism

Daveed Gartenstein-Ross
Samuel Hodgson
Austin Blair
June 2021

FDD PRESS
A division of the
FOUNDATION FOR DEFENSE OF DEMOCRACIES
Washington, DC
 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 7

ORIGINS OF CONTEMPORARY ANARCHISM AND ANTI-FASCISM ....................................... 8

KEY TENETS AND TRENDS OF ANARCHISM AND ANTI-FASCISM ........................................ 10

Anarchism .............................................................................................................................................................10
Anti-Fascism .........................................................................................................................................................11
Related Movements ..............................................................................................................................................13

DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN MILITANT GROUPS ........................................................................ 13

Anti-Fascist Groups .............................................................................................................................................14
Anarchist Groups .................................................................................................................................................17

VIOLENT ACTIVITIES ....................................................................................................................... 20

Street Violence and Riots.....................................................................................................................................21
Arson ......................................................................................................................................................................24
Bombings ...............................................................................................................................................................26
Assassination, Murder, and Targeted Assault ...................................................................................................27
Intimidation and Doxxing ..................................................................................................................................28

TRANSNATIONAL CONNECTIONS ............................................................................................... 29

Solidarity Through Violence ...............................................................................................................................29
Armed Conflict as a Transnational Nexus ........................................................................................................29
Transnational Protests and Activism .................................................................................................................30

BLURRED LINES: RECIPROCAL RADICALIZATION AND FRINGE FLUIDITY ...................... 31

CONCLUSION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................. 34

Page 5
 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Acronyms

BAMN By Any Means Necessary

CHAZ Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone

ELF Earth Liberation Front

FAI Informal Anarchist Federation (Federazione Anarchica Informale)

FRI International Revolutionary Front (Fronte Rivoluzionario Internazionale)

ICE U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

ISIS Islamic State (aka Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham)

ITS Individuals Tending Toward Savagery (Individualidades Tendiendo a lo Salvaje)

IWW International Workers of the World

NOS Nucleus of Opposition to the System

SDGT Specially Designated Global Terrorist

YLF Youth Liberation Front

YPG People’s Protection Units (Yekîneyên Parastina Gel)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Introduction to anarchism and anti-fascism. Ideologically, anarchism

and anti-fascism are similar but not identical. Anarchism
In 2020–2021, the United States saw a discernible is resolute in its opposition to the state, whereas anti-
rise in armed politics and violent activism. Multiple fascists focus on opposing institutions, groups, and
factions and movements resorted to violence or the individuals they perceive as fascist. However, the
threat of violence to pursue their objectives, and the two ideologies influence one another, and the two
United States witnessed scenes it had not experienced movements have notable commonalities. While neither
for decades, such as armed citizens patrolling the is inherently violent, both ideologies have adherents
streets in Georgia, Kentucky, Minnesota, Wisconsin, who embrace the use of violence to achieve their goals.
and elsewhere.1 Militant anarchists and anti-fascists This report examines why and how these groups carry
often took to the streets during this period. On August out violence, and how they interact with partners.
29, 2020, Michael Reinoehl became the first anti-
fascist responsible for a killing in the United States in Anti-fascism and anarchism are not new ideologies.
25 years when he shot Aaron Danielson, a member There is a rich history of global anti-fascist and anarchist
of the far-right group Patriot Prayer, at a rally in organizing. Militant anarchists and anti-fascists
Portland, Oregon.2 are active in Europe, Latin America, and beyond,
participating in acts of street violence similar to those
In 2020, Antifa became a household word and a recently seen in the United States. In some countries
contested topic in presidential debates. However, it – particularly in Chile, Greece, Italy, and Mexico –
is clearly difficult for many observers to differentiate militant anarchists also perpetrate violence outside
anti-fascist and anarchist efforts from a broader set of of protest situations, including arson, bombings,
protest activities. Militant anarchists and anti-fascists assassinations, and assaults. Fortunately, militant
see themselves as responding to an oppressive state anarchist and anti-fascist movements in the United
and the rise of fascist organizing. While militant anti- States have conducted such attacks less frequently.
fascists and anarchists view themselves as the protectors
of marginalized communities, other militant actors see Experts view militant anarchist and anti-fascist activity
anarchist and anti-fascist groups as the aggressors to as largely decentralized. Many of these militant groups
whom they are responding. exist solely at the local level, in small units called
affinity groups. Members largely focus on limited
This report analyzes militant anti-fascism and anarchism violence during protests and other mass actions rather
within the broader domestic tapestry of armed politics than carrying out targeted attacks. Militant anarchist
and also explores transnational movements connected and anti-fascist groups worldwide emphasize indirect
communication with one another. Public blogs

1. See, for example: Benjamin Fearnow, “Armed Black Militia Challenges White Nationalists at Georgia’s Stone Mountain Park,”
Newsweek, July 5, 2020. (https://www.newsweek.com/armed-black-demonstrators-challenge-white-supremacist-militia-georgias-
stone-mountain-park-1515494); Jared Goyette, “Citizen Patrols Organize Across Minneapolis as Confidence in the Police Force
Plummets,” The Washington Post, June 7, 2020. (https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/citizen-patrols-make-statement-in-
minneapolis/2020/06/06/cc1844d4-a78c-11ea-b473-04905b1af82b_story.html); Stephen Montemayor, “Inside Minnesota’s
Boogaloo Movement: Armed and Eager for Societal Collapse,” Star Tribune, July 18, 2020. (https://www.startribune.com/
inside-minnesota-s-boogaloo-movement-armed-and-eager-for-societal-collapse/571821151)
2. Reinoehl claims that the killing was an act of self-defense. Topher Gauk-Roger, “Portland Shooting Victim Wasn’t an Agitator or
Radical, Friend Says,” CNN, September 1, 2020. (https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/01/us/portland-shooting-victim-aaron-j-danielson/index.
html); Nigel Jaquiss, “Portland Police Arrest Warrant Includes New Details About Fatal Shooting of Aaron Danielson,” Willamette Week,
September 4, 2020. (https://www.wweek.com/news/2020/09/04/portland-police-search-warrant-includes-new-details-about-fatal-shooting-
of-aaron-danielson); Lois Beckett, “Anti-Fascists Linked to Zero Murders in the U.S. in 25 Years,” The Guardian (UK), July 27, 2020.
(https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/27/us-rightwing-extremists-attacks-deaths-database-leftwing-antifa)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

and news sites function as clearinghouses to issue that fall under this umbrella vociferously disagree
communiqués, claim attacks, and publicize violence. with many of the Biden administration’s policies,
Select conflict regions – particularly Rojava in Syria which they believe do not go far enough to the left.
and the Donbas region in Ukraine – and major protests Regardless, if militant anarchist and anti-fascist groups
present opportunities for in-person exchanges. try to maintain a similar operational tempo under the
Biden administration, they may attract less support.
Though militant anti-fascists and anarchists engage The biggest countervailing factor that may enable
in violent activity, both movements embrace some continued large-scale mobilizations is the information
elements of pacifism or nonviolence. Militant environment, which makes such mobilizations easier
anarchists, for example, typically prefer attacking than ever before.
property and infrastructure over people. For attacks
employing bombs, for example, they often strike at
times when fewer people are expected to be at the Origins of Contemporary
attack location. However, anarchist groups in Latin Anarchism and Anti-Fascism
America and Europe have intentionally engaged in
lethal violence. Anarchism emerged as a political ideology in Europe in
the 19th and early 20th centuries. Rooted in socialist
In the United States, the First Amendment protects ideals of class liberation, European anarchism offered an
advocacy of anarchist or anti-fascist goals and alternative to other constructs of the state: an association
ideologies decoupled from the use of violence. of autonomous communities bound by ideology.3 The
Individual members of a single group may vary in their anarchist movement spread to Latin America and the
willingness to deploy violence to achieve shared goals. United States, fueled by immigration and native anti-
Groups and individuals who engage in violent activity capitalist and anti-statist sentiments. In the United
may mingle with those who do not but espouse similar States and Europe, anarchists sought influence via the
rhetoric or beliefs. labor movement (anarcho-syndicalism).
There may be a shift in militant anarchist and anti- Central to the anarchist movement’s adoption of
fascist activities under the Biden administration. The violence was the concept of propaganda by deed, which
activity of these groups tends to be cyclical, dependent holds that violent action is the best way to draw attention
upon the degree to which “fascists” are thought to be to a political cause.4 Toward the final decades of the
gaining power. These groups saw former President 19th century, violence associated with the movement
Donald Trump as fitting into this category. As a result, hit an historical peak. High-profile attacks included
under his administration, the United States saw a the 1886 bombing in Chicago’s Haymarket Square
significant increase in activity by anarchist and anti- and the assassination of President William McKinley
fascist groups, reaching heights not seen in decades. in 1902. The federal government subsequently moved
Now that the apparent peak of civil unrest has passed to deport foreign anarchists and prevent immigrants
and Trump has left office, militant anarchist and with anarchist beliefs from entering the country.
anti-fascist activities may decline. That said, militant The Immigration Act of 1903, which made foreign
anarchists and anti-fascists are motivated by a wide anarchists an inadmissible class, was the “first measure
range of goals, many of which are unlikely to change to provide for the exclusion of aliens on the grounds of
under the new administration. Numerous groups

3. Martin A. Miller, Arif Dirlik, George Woodcock, and Franklin Rosemont, “Anarchism,” Encyclopedia Britannica Online, November 25,
2019. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/anarchism)
4. Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 3rd Edition (New York City: Columbia University Press, 2017), page 5.

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

proscribed opinions.”5 European governments similarly When anarchist militancy gradually re-emerged,
cracked down on the anarchist movement, causing the its greatest traction could be seen in Southern and
ideology to fade.6 Southeastern Europe. In Italy, insurrectionary anarchism
was first promulgated during the Years of Lead, a
Modern anti-fascism is inspired by opposition period of elevated violence by both left- and right-wing
to fascism in Europe in the inter-war period. extremist groups that began in the late 1960s.7 In
The movement of that era included anarchists, Greece, anarchism influenced resistance to the military
communists, socialists, and adherents of other left- junta that ruled from 1967 to 1975. Virulent anti-
wing ideologies. Many, though not all, anti-fascists American sentiments were common at the time, as
during that period were explicitly violent, fighting anarchists viewed the United States as supportive of the
their ideological opponents in the streets. As fascist regime. The 17 November Revolutionary Organization
parties took power in Spain, Italy, and Germany, anti- assassinated CIA station chief Richard Welch in 1975.8
fascism embraced forms of guerilla warfare. One such Militant anarchism in Greece found new vigor in popular
group was the German organization Antifaschistische resistance to austerity measures imposed by the European
Aktion, the namesake for contemporary “Antifa” Union and Greek government in response to the 2008
groups. Antifaschistische Aktion’s fight against financial crisis and subsequent Greek government-
Adolf Hitler’s genocidal Nazi party in the 1930s debt crisis (leading to the slightly paradoxical sight of
contributed to the enduring prominence of the anarchists violently protesting cuts to government).9
group’s name and symbology. German communists
and socialists who survived Nazi rule formed Antifa In the United States, militant anarchism lay largely
groups immediately after the war’s end, but these dormant until the 1990s. Militant groups regained
national prominence at the “Battle for Seattle” protests
were – like the contemporary Antifa movement
at the 1999 World Trade Organization (WTO)
– inspired by the pre-war group rather than direct
Ministerial Conference. The previous year’s WTO
successors to it. However, militant forms of anti-
ministerial in Geneva had been marked by riotous
fascism largely disappeared in the immediate post-
violence, but law enforcement saw the problem as
war period due to the Allied victory, the subsequent
“unique to Europe and highly unlikely to migrate to
division of Germany, and the dominance of Soviet
the U.S.”10 This proved to be a significant misreading.
communism in Eastern Europe. The emergence of
The raucous anti-WTO protests that gripped
neo-Nazi skinheads in the United Kingdom and
Seattle included a contingent of protesters bent on
the United States in the 1970s and 1980s led to the violent disruption.
return of street-level anti-fascism. In West Germany,
left-wing opposition to the government adopted the Police in Seattle observed the use of “non-criminal
name and symbology of Antifa. protesters to buffer smaller pockets of protesters

5. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Legislation from 1901-1940,” accessed January 17, 2021. (ilw.com/resources/Immigration_
Legal_History_Legislation_1901-1940.pdf )
6. Martin A. Miller, Arif Dirlik, George Woodcock, and Franklin Rosemont, “Anarchism,” Encyclopedia Britannica Online, November 25,
2019. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/anarchism)
7. Francesco Marone, “A Profile of the Informal Anarchist Federation in Italy,” CTC Sentinel, Volume 7, Issue 3, March 2014, pages 21–25.
(https://www.ctc.usma.edu/a-profile-of-the-informal-anarchist-federation-in-italy)
8. Geoge Papadopoulos, “Crisis in Greece: Anarchists in the Birthplace of Democracy,” The Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor,
Volume 10, Issue 14, July 2012. (https://jamestown.org/program/crisis-in-greece-anarchists-in-the-birthplace-of-democracy)
9. Ibid.
10. Seattle Police Department, “The Seattle Police Department After Action Report, World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference,
Seattle, Washington, November 29 – December 3, 1999,” April 4, 2000, pages 10 and 17–18. (http://media.cleveland.com/pdextra/other/
Seattle%20PD%20after%20action%20report.pdf )

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

engaging in significant criminal acts,” including contemporary anti-fascism is in some ways influenced
assaulting officers with laser pointers and rocks and by anarchist ideology and tactics; many anti-fascists are
smashing windows. Donning black clothing to also anarchists. But anti-fascism is a broader movement
obscure their identity (black bloc), the protesters seized that encompasses activists with vastly different visions
intersections, started fires, and assaulted officers with of an ideal government.
chemical irritants.11 While no deaths or serious injuries
occurred, the Seattle Police Department acknowledged Neither anarchism nor anti-fascism possess universally
that “tactically, it was taught a hard lesson by a well- accepted doctrines. The movements in some ways
trained and equipped adversary.”12 lend themselves to variegated definitions. As one
self-described anarchist put it, “anarchism allows for
After that, anarchist militancy in the United States spent absolute personal freedom.”14 Thus, the definitions
the next 15 years largely unnoticed, save for a few moments that follow are not the anti-fascist or anarchist
of public attention. In January 2002, for example, anti- positions. Rather, this report describes a collection of
fascist counter-protesters violently clashed with white prevailing beliefs among militant factions of highly
nationalists and white supremacist extremists marching diverse and largely decentralized movements. This
in York, Pennsylvania.13 Some contemporary anti-fascist report uses the term Antifa only in the context of
networks and organizers also mobilized as part of the groups that explicitly adopt that label. Anti-fascism
Occupy movement, which protested perceived economic better encapsulates both the core element of the
and social injustice. However, anarchist and anti-fascist ideology (opposition to perceived fascism) as well as
movements both became more active and gained national the range of groups that organize around this principle.
prominence during Trump’s candidacy and presidency. This distinction avoids the erroneous implication that
Key events during this period, including the Unite the there is a single, unified Antifa organization within
Right rally in Charlottesville (discussed subsequently in the United States or abroad with a coherent structure
this report) and racial justice protests galvanized both or defined ideology.
anarchists and anti-fascists across the United States.
Anarchism
Key Tenets and Trends of Anarchists, both militant and non-militant, believe that
individual freedom is paramount, and that hierarchies
Anarchism and Anti-Fascism of authority and power are generally infringements
upon that freedom. They oppose traditional forms of
Anarchism and anti-fascism, while often conflated, government, instead advocating for decision-making
are distinct ideologies and movements. Anarchism is by consensus, direct democracy, and the organization
defined by opposition to the modern state, generally of society by mutual association. Anarchists typically
seeking to replace it with alternative systems. Anti- oppose private property rights, which they view as an
fascism is shaped primarily by opposition to perceived element of centralized authority.15
fascism and racism. Despite its distinct characteristics,

11. Ibid., pages 36–39.

12. Ibid., page 3.
13. Rick Lee, “‘The Battle of York’ Was Here. Who Knew?” York Daily Record, August 13, 2017. (https://www.ydr.com/story/
news/2017/08/13/battle-york-here-who-knew/562969001)
14. Colin Clarke and Michael Kenney, “What Antifa Is, What It Isn’t, and Why It Matters,” War on the Rocks, June 23, 2020. (https://
warontherocks.com/2020/06/what-antifa-is-what-it-isnt-and-why-it-matters)
15. See, for example: “To Change Everything: An Anarchist Appeal,” CrimethInc, 2018. (https://crimethinc.com/tce); David Graeber, “Are
You an Anarchist?: The Answer May Surprise You!” The Anarchist Library, accessed December 9, 2020. (https://theanarchistlibrary.org/
library/david-graeber-are-you-an-anarchist-the-answer-may-surprise-you)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

or to local authorities.16 The term typically indicates

a degree of militancy that stops short of insurrection.
As David Graeber writes in a book published by an
anarchist press, “if one is doing more than marching
around with signs, but not yet ready to take to the
hills with AK-47s, then one is a direct actionist.”17
While direct action can be violent, the term refers to a
wide range of political activity, including community
organizing and mutual aid societies.18 For militant
anarchists, violence against state institutions, private
businesses, or other perceived institutions of power
The “Circle A” symbol is commonly associated with anarchism.
can be an element of direct action.
To achieve their goals, some anarchists, referred to
here as militant anarchists, employ violence. However, Anti-Fascism
anarchism is not an inherently violent ideology. The term anti-fascism also has diverse meanings. Simply
Anarchists embrace a wide range of tactics to achieve defined, anti-fascism is opposition to fascism and its
their goals, the majority of which are nonviolent. proponents. However, anti-fascists often target a wider
Some anarchists eschew violence in any form. Many array of political opponents than a literal definition
anarchists condone violence only as a means of self- of fascism would imply, either because they adopt
defense, believing they can dismantle the state through an overly broad definition of fascism or because they
nonviolent means. Other anarchists may accept seek to combat a broader array of ideologies that they
violence as necessary to achieve their political goals but see as “far-right.” The single-issue nature of the anti-
do not themselves engage in violence or directly support fascist movement brings together participants from
it. Peaceful activities by anarchist groups include civil
disparate political ideologies, typically on the political
disobedience, protest, and community organizing.
left, including socialism, communism, and anarchism.19

“Many anarchists condone violence only

as a means of self-defense, believing they
Organizers often intentionally keep the movement broad,
focusing on combating a set of beliefs rather than on
establishing a particular political program. Because the
can dismantle the state through nonviolent movement’s interpretation of fascism tends to be broad,
means.
”
A key element of many anarchist movements is direct
it may define numerous objectives as effectively anti-
fascist. For example, one anarchist, anti-fascist organizer
action. While the term has many meanings and and kickboxer with the Anti-Authoritarian Movement in
connotations, direct action is best understood as an Greece – where treatment of migrants is a major issue for
attempt to achieve concrete aims through specific the anti-fascist movement – claimed that “if you show
actions rather than by relying on appeals to the state solidarity with the refugees, you are an anti-fascist.”20

16. Direct action is distinct from civil disobedience, which is intended to pressure the state or another entity to take action.
Rob Sparrow, “Anarchist Politics and Direct Action,” The Anarchist Library, 1997. (https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/
rob-sparrow-anarchist-politics-direct-action)
17. David Graeber, Direct Action: An Ethnography (Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2009), page 204.
18. Rob Sparrow, “Anarchist Politics and Direct Action,” The Anarchist Library, 1997. (https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/
rob-sparrow-anarchist-politics-direct-action)
19. Colin Clarke and Michael Kenney, “What Antifa Is, What It Isn’t, and Why It Matters,” War on the Rocks, June 23, 2020. (https://
warontherocks.com/2020/06/what-antifa-is-what-it-isnt-and-why-it-matters)
20. Mark Bray, The Antifascist Handbook (Brooklyn: Melville House, 2017), page 103.

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

words, they assess the public’s willingness to tolerate

violence, which influences both the level of violence
and also the specific targets that militant anti-fascists
might consider.24

The growing number of domestic anti-fascist and

anti-racist groups dedicated to armed self-defense
is noteworthy. Numerous anti-fascist “gun clubs”
enthusiastically embrace the Second Amendment.
Most of these groups and their members are not
violent extremists and are not directly connected to
The logo of Antifaschistische Aktion, used by many violence. They see guns as an important element in
anti-fascist groups. defending themselves and marginalized communities
from fascists, racists, and other hostile groups.25
Within the anti-fascist movement, militants occupy a
small niche. Anti-fascism is not an inherently violent One such individual who did resort to violence was
ideology, and not all direct action by militant anti- Willem van Spronsen, a member of a John Brown
fascists is violent. However, when militant anti-fascists Gun Club chapter, a prominent anti-fascist gun
resort to violence, they wield three main rationales. club. In July 2019, he attacked a U.S. Immigration
First, anti-fascists believe that rational debate and and Customs Enforcement (ICE) detention center
government action have historically failed to halt in Washington state, armed with a gun and Molotov
fascism, and thus violent direct action – sometimes cocktails.26 He died in the attack. While his Gun
reactive, sometimes preemptive – is justified and Club chapter did not explicitly endorse his methods,
necessary. Second, anti-fascists argue that militant the group posted a commemoration of van Spronsen
organizing has historically succeeded in reducing on its website on the anniversary of his death:
fascists’ activity and disrupting their organizing
power.21 Finally, they hold that violent self-defense is He was a hero in many ways. There has not been a
appropriate in the face of fascist violence. Militants single event that we’ve attended where at least one
sometimes justify violence as speaking to fascists “in person doesn’t come up to us to tell us how Will
their own language.”22 has changed their life. Even those who didn’t know
him personally but who have read his words say his
The definition of self-defense adopted by militant anti- ideology has become a driving force in their lives.
fascists can be expansive. Some consider preemptive “you don’t have to burn the motherfucker down,
violence to be self-defense.23 Additionally, militant but are you going to just stand by?” … He lives on
anti-fascists recognize that the utility of violence must in those that loved him and those who continue
be measured in part by public perception. In other his work. Rest in power, Will.27

21. Ibid., page 169.

22. Ibid., page 65.
23. Ibid., page 169.
24. Ibid., page 185.
25. Ibid., page 120.
26. Hannah Allam, “‘I am Antifa’: One Activist’s Violent Death Became a Symbol for the Right and Left,” NPR, July 23, 2020. (https://
www.npr.org/2020/07/23/893533916/i-am-antifa-one-activist-s-violent-death-became-a-symbol-for-the-right-and-left)
27. “Rest in Power, Will, One Year Later,” Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club, July 13, 2020. (https://psjbgc.org/blog/
rest-in-power-will-one-year-later)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Related Movements Oil pipelines and other elements of the energy industry
– frequent targets of both environmental and indigenous
The militant anarchist and anti-fascist movements
activism – are sometimes a focus. American anarchists
intersect with ecological and animal-rights movements
were involved in protests opposing the Dakota Access
as well as with separatist and indigenous-resistance
Pipeline in North Dakota; participants clashed with
movements. Anarchist movements may embrace
police and burned construction vehicles.30 Anarchists in
ecological extremism as part of their broad program of
Canada have sabotaged rail infrastructure in solidarity
anti-state and anti-capitalist resistance.
with First Peoples activists opposing the oil industry.31
Militant environmentalist and animal-rights groups Recently, two women were arrested in Washington
use violence to disrupt business practices and industries state on terrorism charges for placing a series of shunts
they view as damaging the environment. This violence on railroads, devices that would have interrupted an
includes attacks on infrastructure and facilities, such as electrical current that enables the tracks’ safety features.
laboratories conducting animal research; government The attacks were claimed on an anarchist website in
facilities; banks; and other institutions symbolic of solidarity with the indigenous peoples of Canada.32
the capitalist system.28 Ecological and animal-rights
militant groups such as the Earth Liberation Front Domestic and Foreign
(ELF) and Animal Liberation Front have claimed
attacks on anarchist media outlets, and anarchist Militant Groups
groups express solidarity with imprisoned ecological
and animal-rights militants.29 Militant anarchist and anti-fascist networks have
historically emphasized local, community level-
organizing. Affinity groups – small, local groups of
“Anarchist movements may embrace ecological
extremism as part of their broad program of
individuals that organize actions – typically represent
the basic unit of organization for both movements.
Within anarchist networks, cells may form only
anti-state and anti-capitalist resistance.
” to carry out limited actions, often only one, before
disbanding. Thus, attributing violence to a single
Anarchists and anti-fascists also support numerous persistent organization can be difficult. When national
separatist and indigenous movements. For example, or international groups are formed, they are usually
they may act in support of American Indian and First (but not always) informal, demonstrating limited
Peoples movements in the United States and Canada. coordination over time.

28. For more on environmental and animal-rights militancy in the United States, see: Jerome P. Bjelopera, “Domestic Terrorism: An
Overview,” Congressional Research Service, August 21, 2017. (https://fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/R44921.pdf )
29. See, for example: Synapses of Ignition for the Polymorphous Anarchist Struggle - ELF, “Athens: The Earth Liberation Front Takes
Responsibility for an Incendiary Attack Against a Poultry Company in Solidarity with the Prisoners Struggle (Greece),” 325, April 13, 2015.
(https://325.nostate.net/2015/04/19/athens-the-earth-liberation-front-takes-responsibility-for-an-incendiary-attack-against-a-poultry-
company-in-solidarity-with-the-prisoners-struggle-greece); see also the entry for Marius Mason in: “Prisoner List,” International Week of
Solidarity with Anarchist Prisoners, June 2020. (https://solidarity.international/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/prisoner-list-en-2020.pdf )
30. “Report Back from the Battle for Sacred Ground,” CrimethInc, November 1, 2016. (https://crimethinc.com/2016/11/01/
feature-report-back-from-the-battle-for-sacred-ground)
31. See, for example: “Toronto: Explorations in Rail Disruption in Solidarity with the Wet’suwet’en (Kanada),” 325, January 16, 2020.
(https://325.nostate.net/2020/01/16/toronto-explorations-in-rail-disruption-in-solidarity-with-the-wetsuweten-kanada)
32. U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Western District of Washington, Press Release, “Pair
Charged with Interfering with Safety on Railroad Tracks,” November 30, 2020. (https://www.justice.gov/usao-wdwa/pr/
pair-charged-interfering-safety-railroad-tracks)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Anti-Fascist Groups
This section identifies a selection of anti-fascist
organizations and collectives that have engaged in
violence or have members who have participated in
militant activity. The level of these groups’ organization
varies within and between countries.33 Prior to 2020,
membership attributed to U.S.-based affinity groups
was typically no greater than 15 per group.34 However,
the recent emergence of militant anti-fascist groups
with large online followings suggests that this model
has the potential to change and, in fact, could be Logo of the Pacific Northwest Youth Liberation Front.
changing already.35
for issuing threats. While the group can be viewed
The most notable of the new anti-fascist networks with as part of the broader anti-fascist movement in the
large online followings is the Youth Liberation Front, United States, it has no close organizational ties
sometimes referred to by the name of its original that could be determined through open sources and
Portland-based chapter, the Pacific Northwest Youth appears to operate exclusively in Washington, DC.
Liberation Front. First appearing on Twitter in May In addition to helping organize a protest against
2018, the group now has affiliates in multiple cities.36 Trump’s inauguration, which involved multiple violent
Its founders embrace militant action.37 incidents, members have doxxed government officials,
Republican politicians, and Fox News hosts.38 In one
While many other militant affinity groups intentionally instance, members appeared at Fox News host Tucker
remain obscure, Smash Racism DC has gained Carlson’s house and shouted threats, prompting a
attention for its involvement in militant protests and police investigation.39

33. See: “Forming an Antifa Group,” It’s Going Down, July 2012. (https://itsgoingdown.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/howtoantifa-
revised.pdf ); “How to Set Up an Anti-Fascist Group,” Anti-Fascist Network, accessed December 9, 2020. (https://antifascistnetwork.org/
how-to-set-up-an-anti-fascist-group)
34. Matt Zapotosky, Robert Klemko, and Jacqueline Alemany, “In Trump’s Campaign Against Antifa, Observers See an Attempt to Distract
from Protesters’ Genuine Outrage,” The Washington Post, May 31, 2020. (https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/trump-antifa-
minneapolis-protests/2020/05/31/4f66c7a6-a36a-11ea-b473-04905b1af82b_story.html)
35. Joel Finkelstein, Alex Goldenburg, Sean Stevens, Pamela Paresky, Lee Jussim, John Farmer, and John K. Donohue, “Network-Enabled
Anarchy: How Militant Anarcho-Socialist Networks Use Social Media to Instigate Widespread Violence Against Political Opponents and
Law Enforcement,” Network Contagion Research Institute, September 14, 2020. (https://ncri.io/wp-content/uploads/NCRI-White-Paper-
Network-Enabled-Anarchy-25-Sept-259pm.pdf )
36. Hal Bernton, “Meet the Youth Liberation Front Behind a Militant Marathon of Portland Protests,” The Seattle Times, July 13, 2020.
(https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/meet-the-youth-liberation-front-the-militant-group-promoting-a-marathon-of-angry-
portland-protests)
37. Ibid.
38. See, for example: Smash Racism DC, Facebook, January 19, 2017. (https://www.facebook.com/events/national-press-club-529-14th-
street-nw-washington-dc-20045/protest-the-fascist-alt-right-deploraball/913163212152908); Lauren Gambino, “DeploraBall: Trump
Lovers and Haters Clash at Washington DC Event,” The Guardian (UK), January 20, 2017. (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/
jan/20/deploraball-trump-lovers-and-haters-clash-at-washington-dc-event)
39. Brian Stelter, “Police Launch Investigation After Antifa Activists Descend on Fox Host Tucker Carlson’s Home,” CNN, November 8,
2018. (https://www.cnn.com/2018/11/08/media/tucker-carlson-protestors/index.html); Allyson Chiu, “‘They Were Threatening Me and
My Family’: Tucker Carlson’s Home Targeted by Protesters,” The Washington Post, November 8, 2018. (https://www.washingtonpost.com/
nation/2018/11/08/they-were-threatening-me-my-family-tucker-carlsons-home-targeted-by-protesters)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

The Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, inter-group coordination and cooperation. Regardless
Integration and Immigrant Rights and Fight for of the level of activity at the network level, individual
Equality By Any Means Necessary (commonly chapters have a high degree of independence in their
known as By Any Means Necessary, or BAMN), activities and ideology.
has similarly gained national attention for its use of
violence. BAMN is an anti-racist group founded in In the United States, the most notable and long-standing
1995 in Southern California that focuses on racism, network is the Torch Network, a loose confederation
immigration, and youth issues.40 The group is opposed of anti-fascist organizations. It was born out of the
to “fascist” forces possessing anti-immigration beliefs.41 now-dormant Anti-Racist Action and has chapters
BAMN views racism and anti-immigration as “twin across the United States, including the country’s oldest
temptations.”42 Opposition to fascism does not extant Antifa organization, Rose City Antifa.45 Torch
feature in BAMN’s stated foundational beliefs, though Network was founded in 2013 by various groups,
BAMN frequently protests against “fascists” whom including the Hoosier Antiracist Movement, some
the group believes espouse racism. The group has been of whose members served prison sentences for their
involved in riots and violent clashes with some groups role in a 2012 assault on members of a white identity
that can legitimately be defined as fascist, including politics group at a restaurant in Tinley Park, Illinois.46
the white supremacist extremist groups Golden State The Torch Network is, in practice, an idea-sharing
Skinheads and Traditionalist Workers Party.43 In network that gathers for certain actions or events.47
2016, one BAMN leader was charged with felony Member organizations commit to five core “points of
assault and inciting a riot.44 The group has utilized unity,” which emphasize opposition to fascism and “all
violent “deplatforming” tactics in the past, denying its forms of oppression and exploitation” through direct
opponents physical space for speech and assembly. action.48 The group’s core points allow for significant
autonomy in ideology and activity.
Affinity groups may form larger networks or federations
with varying degrees of organization and coordination. Similar networks exist throughout Europe. The
Some networks merely share a commitment to certain Anti-Fascist Network is a network of UK anti-
ideals and principles, while others may facilitate fascist organizations, likely the largest in the country

40. “BAMN Pledge to Become a Leader of the New, Independent, Integrated, Youth-Led, Civil Rights/Immigrant Rights Movement,” By
Any Means Necessary, accessed December 9, 2020. (https://www.bamn.com/bamnpledge)
41. “Yearning to Breathe Free: BAMN Declaration on Immigrant Rights,” By Any Means Necessary, May 26, 2006. (https://www.bamn.
com/yearningtobreathefree)
42. Ibid.
43. Josh Meyer, “FBI, Homeland Security Warn of More ‘Antifa’ Attacks,” Politico, September 1, 2017. (https://www.politico.com/
story/2017/09/01/antifa-charlottesville-violence-fbi-242235)
44. See: Madeleine Gregory, “Judge Denies Request to Drop Felony Charges Against Berkeley Teacher, Activist Yvette Felarca,”
The Daily Californian, May 10, 2018. (https://www.dailycal.org/2018/05/10/judge-denies-request-drop-felony-charges-berkeley-teacher-
activist-yvette-felarca)
45. “Chapters,” Torch City, accessed December 9, 2020. (https://torchantifa.org); Colin Clarke and Michael Kenney, “What
Antifa Is, What It Isn’t, and Why It Matters,” War on the Rocks, June 23, 2020. (https://warontherocks.com/2020/06/
what-antifa-is-what-it-isnt-and-why-it-matters)
46. Wes Enzinna, “Inside the Underground Antiracist Movement that Brings the Fight to White Supremacists,” Mother Jones, May/June
2017. (https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2017/04/anti-racist-antifa-tinley-park-five)
47. Colin Clarke and Michael Kenney, “What Antifa Is, What It Isn’t, and Why It Matters,” War on the Rocks, June 23, 2020. (https://
warontherocks.com/2020/06/what-antifa-is-what-it-isnt-and-why-it-matters)
48. “Points of Unity,” Torch Network, accessed December 9, 2020. (https://torchantifa.org/points-of-unity)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

today.49 Much of Anti-Fascist Network’s activity has

been carried out in opposition to the right-of-center
English Defence League. The name Anti-Fascist
Action (Antifascistische Aktion) is commonly used
by local anti-fascist chapters in Northern Europe and
was previously used by larger multi-chapter networks.
In its current form, however, Anti-Fascist Action is
best understood as a loose anti-fascist movement that
emerged from the German tradition.50
Logo of the Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club.
Some anti-fascist groups are militant labor guards
who defend workers’ right to organize and who draw Right MN arrived at the museum and argued with
membership from the labor movement and existing IWW supporters. The members of Alt Right MN then
unions. Some such groups also work to combat “fascist” entered the museum, only to be attacked by members
organizing, seeking to proactively defend workers and of Twin Cities GDC who followed them.55 Kaywin
minorities. The most notable is the Industrial Workers Feldman, the institute’s director, later observed that
of the World (IWW) General Defense Committee “the IWW fellows were going through the galleries
(GDC), a subsection of the broader IWW.51 While looking for them, for their opponents.”56
the GDC primarily focuses on labor issues, it has also
developed an anti-fascist organizing capacity.52 GDC’s Another subset of anti-fascists organizes around armed
most prominent branch is in Minnesota’s Twin Cities self-defense. For the minority of anti-fascists who join
metropolitan area. The Twin Cities branch takes a these organizations, gun ownership is seen as a right
proactive and sometimes violent approach.53 GDC and as essential for defense against fascists. The most
sees itself as bridging the gap between anti-fascism and notable anti-fascist gun clubs are Redneck Revolt and
working-class self-defense and employs a strategy that John Brown Gun Clubs. Redneck Revolt is a national
allows for physical confrontation.54 coalition of local gun clubs that formed in 2009 and,
though dormant for a few years, was revived in 2016.57
In February 2017, Twin Cities GDC members gathered Redneck Revolt grew out of the first John Brown Gun
for an IWW rally outside the Minneapolis Institute of Club, which formed in Kansas in 2004. Many Redneck
Art. Individuals from a right-wing group known as Alt Revolt chapters refer to themselves as John Brown Gun

49. “Anti-Fascist Network: Independent & grassroots groups fighting fascism around the UK,” Anti-Fascist Network, accessed December 9,
2020. (https://antifascistnetwork.org)
50. Federal Republic of Germany Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution, “Verfassungsschutzbericht 2019 [Constitutional
Protection Report 2019],” July 2019, pages 119–120. (https://www.verfassungsschutz.de/embed/vsbericht-2019.pdf )
51. The IWW itself is not a militant organization. Only limited elements within the General Defense Committee embrace violence.
52. Mark Bray, The Antifascist Handbook (Brooklyn: Melville House, 2017), page 201.
53. Ibid., page 117.
54. Ibid., page 118.
55. Randy Kennedy, “Two Groups Scuffle Amid Art Inside a Minneapolis Museum,” The New York Times, February 27, 2017. (https://
www.nytimes.com/2017/02/27/arts/design/anti-trump-protest-minneapolis-institute-of-art.html)
56. Ibid.
57. Mawa Iqbal, “Left-Wing Groups Take Up Arms in Name of Abolitionist John Brown,” Flatland KC, July 23, 2020. (https://www.
flatlandkc.org/news-issues/left-wing-groups-take-up-arms-in-name-of-abolitionist-john-brown)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Clubs.58 The name Redneck Revolt represents an effort Anarchist Groups

to reclaim the term redneck from individuals the group
Militant anarchists, like anti-fascists, organize into
perceives as racist, and to emphasize the term’s origins
small affinity groups.65 These groups are sometimes
within the working class.59 Redneck Revolt has about
connected to larger, possibly transnational, networks.
40 chapters nationwide.60
While some cells coordinate, others are linked only by
The organization believes that poor workers of all races violent acts committed under a common name. The
share a common enemy in the rich – and that the broader networks do not appear to exercise centralized
division between rich and poor is exacerbated by an control. The extent to which cells interact beyond
inherently white supremacist capitalist system.61 The public communiqués is also unclear.
group holds that borders, capitalism, and all elements of
Through early 2020, violence perpetrated by militant
the law enforcement system should not exist, and that
anarchists in the United States was primarily attributable
these structures serve only the rich and exacerbate class
to individuals or small groups engaged in direct action
differences.62 Redneck Revolt’s members are dedicated to
at protests. Militant anarchists seem to coordinate
arming themselves in part because they believe it is their
closely when conducting direct action at protests.
duty to overthrow the state if doing so becomes necessary.63
Isolated cells or individuals are more commonly the
Chapters in border states tend to be involved in perpetrators of arson attacks and bombings.
migration issues. These chapters assist with what they
Outside the United States, numerous militant
describe as “humanitarian efforts,” including asylum
anarchist networks engage in overtly violent activities.
support and search and rescue.64 They seek to provide
While some of these networks are strictly national in
an alternative presence to other militias that patrol
scope, several have affiliated cells in multiple countries,
these areas, organizations that these chapters associate
sometimes on multiple continents. However, it is
with the far right. As is true of the broader anarchist
possible that cells claiming affiliation with the same
and anti-fascist movements, anti-fascist gun clubs are
network – particularly those in different regions or on
not inherently violent. However, there are exceptions,
different continents – do not have direct links and are
including the previously noted incident in which
instead connected largely or entirely by shared ideology.
Willem van Spronsen attacked an ICE facility.

58. Virginia Bridges, “They’re Leftists with Guns. Meet the Redneck Revolt,” The Herald Sun, September 1, 2017. (https://www.heraldsun.
com/news/local/counties/durham-county/article170840742.html); Teal Ruthschild, “Multiplicity in Movements: The Case for Redneck
Revolt,” Contexts, Volume 18, Issue 3, 2019, pages 57–59. (https://docs.rwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1362&context=fcas_fp)
59. Teal Ruthschild, “Multiplicity in Movements: The Case for Redneck Revolt,” Contexts, Volume 18, Issue 3, 2019, pages 57–59. (https://
docs.rwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1362&context=fcas_fp)
60. Kalli Holloway, “Six Gun Groups That Are Expanding Gun Culture Beyond White Right Wingers,” Redneck Revolt, September 4, 2017.
(https://www.redneckrevolt.org/single-post/2017/09/03/SIX-GUN-GROUPS-THAT-ARE-EXPANDING-GUN-CULTURE-BEYOND-
WHITE-RIGHT-WINGERS)
61. Teal Ruthschild, “Multiplicity in Movements: The Case for Redneck Revolt,” Contexts, Volume 18, Issue 3, 2019, pages 57–59. (https://
docs.rwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1362&context=fcas_fp)
62. “Principles,” Redneck Revolt, accessed December 9, 2020. (https://www.redneckrevolt.org/principles)
63. Teal Ruthschild, “Multiplicity in Movements: The Case for Redneck Revolt,” Contexts, Volume 18, Issue 3, 2019, pages 57–59. (https://
docs.rwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1362&context=fcas_fp)
64. Beth Strano, “‘Camobagging’ in the Desert,” Redneck Revolt, May 25, 2019. (https://www.redneckrevolt.org/single-post/
Camobagging-in-the-Desert)
65. Jerome P. Bjelopera, “Domestic Terrorism: An Overview,” Congressional Research Service, August 21, 2017, page 14. (https://fas.org/sgp/
crs/terror/R44921.pdf )

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

In Italy, the most active network is the insurrectionary Fotias, also translated as Conspiracy of Cells of Fire,
Informal Anarchist Federation (Federazione and abbreviated as CCF). The U.S. State Department
Anarchica Informale, or FAI).66 FAI is likely the world’s has designated CCF as a Specially Designated Global
largest anarchist network, based on the number of cells Terrorist (SDGT). The group has conducted attacks
claiming attacks. The group’s public materials say it against both individuals and property. CCF launched
embraces leaderless resistance, with no hierarchy or a firebombing campaign in 2008 and sent a series
formal membership. Rather than holding meetings, of parcel bombs to various targets in 2010.70 The
communication within the group ostensibly occurs group targets installations and symbols of the Greek
through “an anonymous and horizontal debate government and foreign governments, including the
between groups or individuals who communicate European Union and United States. In addition to its
through practice.”67 FAI cells have engaged in attacks domestic activities, CCF propaganda indicates that
on individuals, infrastructure, and property. Other cells cells affiliated with CCF, sometimes in conjunction
claiming affiliation with FAI have been active in the with FAI/FRI, have been active in Belarus, Mexico, the
United Kingdom, Greece, and Russia, with additional Netherlands, and Russia.71
activity in Belarus, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany,
the Netherlands, Spain, Turkey, and Ukraine.68 FAI Greece is also home to numerous other anarchist
also established the International Revolutionary groups that are notable for their violence but do not
Front (Fronte Rivoluzionario Internazionale, or FRI) have an international presence. Some, such as the
in early 2011. Cells often proclaim allegiance to both insurrectionary Organization of Revolutionary Self
groups simultaneously.69 Defense (Organosi Epanastatiki Aftoamyna) and
the Durruti Brigade, have proven short-lived, with
Another notable network operates in Greece: members arrested following a small number of attacks.72
Conspiracy of Fire Nuclei (Synomosia Pyrinon tis Others, such as the Group of Popular Fighters (Omada

66. Insurrectionary anarchism refers to a particularly violent trend in anarchism that emphasizes immediate, violent direct action over formal
organization and other forms of resistance. Francesco Marone, “A Profile of the Informal Anarchist Federation in Italy,” CTC Sentinel,
Volume 7, Issue 3, March 2014, pages 21–25. (https://www.ctc.usma.edu/a-profile-of-the-informal-anarchist-federation-in-italy)
67. Informal Anarchist Federation, “Open Letter to the Anarchist and Anti-Authoritarian Movement,” Escalation: Some Texts
Concerning the Informal Anarchist Federation (FAI) and the Insurrectionist Project, “Redux” Edition (2012), page 2. (Archived version
available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20200829210543/https://325.nostate.net/library/escalation1.pdf ); see also: “Interview by
CCF – Imprisoned Members Cell with Alfredo Cospito (Greece, Italy),” 325, December 1, 2014. (https://325.nostate.net/2014/12/01/
interview-by-ccf-imprisoned-members-cell-with-alfredo-cospito-greece-italy)
68. CCF-FAI/FRI, “PDF: New Flyposter Mapping the Attacks of the Informal Anarchist Federation / International Revolutionary
Front (Global),” 325, October 2014. (Archived version available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20191112015240/https://325.nostate.
net/2014/10/22/pdf-new-flyposter-mapping-the-attacks-of-the-informal-anarchist-federation-international-revolutionary-front-global)
69. Informal Anarchist Federation/Conspiracy of Cells of Fire, “Informal Anarchist Federation / Conspiracy of Cells of Fire Claim
Responsibility for the Incendiary Package Sent to the Minister of Justice (Greece),” 325, February 2011. (Archived version available at:
https://web.archive.org/web/20200922013102/https://325.nostate.net/2011/02/16/informal-anarchist-federation-conspiracy-of-cells-of-
fire-claim-responsibility-for-the-incendiary-package-sent-to-the-minister-of-justice-greece)
70. U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, Media Note, “Terrorist Designation of Conspiracy of Fire Nuclei,” October 13,
2011. (https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2011/10/175362.htm)
71. CCF-FAI/FRI, “PDF: New Flyposter Mapping the Attacks of the Informal Anarchist Federation / International Revolutionary
Front (Global),” 325, October 2014. (Archived version available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20191112015240/https://325.nostate.
net/2014/10/22/pdf-new-flyposter-mapping-the-attacks-of-the-informal-anarchist-federation-international-revolutionary-front-global)
72. Europol, “European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2020,” June 23, 2020, page 59. (https://www.europol.europa.eu/
activities-services/main-reports/european-union-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report-te-sat-2020); “Greek Far-Left Group Claims French
Embassy Grenade Attack,” Associated Press, November 14, 2016. (https://apnews.com/article/2352864d228341c786ed2c4d63f84ad5);
“Greece: 2 Arrested for Attacks on Extreme-Right Party,” Associated Press, December 17, 2019. (https://apnews.com/
article/6bdca09e99e45ae1e7f9e27acfa15480)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Laikon Agoniston, alternatively translated as either Peru.75 In addition, several countries have local-origin
Group of Popular Rebels or Popular Fighters Group), anarchist networks or independent cells not known to
remain active.73 These groups have targeted foreign be affiliated with any network.
embassies, opposing political parties, media outlets,
banks, and government institutions in shootings and Mexico is a significant hub of recent anarchist activity.
bombings. Revolutionary Struggle, an insurrectionist Between 2008 and 2016, about 50 Mexico-based
anarchist group, was also designated as an SDGT by the anarchist groups carried out at least 220 attacks.76 In
State Department. The group claimed its most recent addition to hosting cells aligned with FAI/FRI and
attack, a car bombing targeting a bank, in 2014 after CCF, Mexico saw the rise of Individuals Tending
a five-year period of inactivity and its leader’s escape Towards Savagery (Individualidades Tendiendo a
from prison (he has since been recaptured).74 lo Salvaje, or ITS, also translated as Individualists
Tending Toward the Wild). ITS is a green anarchist
group sometimes referred to as eco-anarchist.77
“Latin America, too, is home to a number of
anarchist cells responsible for arson, bombings,
ITS departs from other anarchist networks in its
adoption of an extreme outlook that embraces
and murder. Numerous cells in Latin America nihilistic violence.
claim affiliation to FAI/FRI, CCF, or both.
” ITS opposes technology, especially nanotechnology,
Latin America, too, is home to a number of anarchist believing that it harms the Earth and robs humans of
cells responsible for arson, bombings, and murder. their freedom.78 In 2011, an ITS cell sent parcel bombs
Numerous cells in Latin America claim affiliation to two researchers at the Instituto Tecnológico y de
to FAI/FRI, CCF, or both. These cells have carried Estudios Superiores de Monterrey. The group also sent
out attacks against people and property, including bombs to another university research facility that year.
shootings, bombings, and arson attacks. FAI-affiliated The attacks, which targeted nanotechnology facilities,
cells have conducted attacks in Argentina, Bolivia, injured a number of people but did not kill anyone.79
Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, and While the majority of ITS activity takes place in Latin

73. Niki Kitsantonis, “Greek Militants Say They Bombed Media Offices to Protest ‘Capitalist’ Agenda,” The New York Times,
January 9, 2019. (https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/09/world/europe/greece-bombing-group-of-popular-fighters.html)
74. U.S. Department of State, “Country Reports on Terrorism 2019,” June 2020, pages 297–298. (https://www.state.gov/wp-content/
uploads/2020/06/Country-Reports-on-Terrorism-2019-2.pdf )
75. CCF-FAI/FRI, “PDF: New Flyposter Mapping the Attacks of the Informal Anarchist Federation / International Revolutionary
Front (Global),” 325, October 2014. (Archived version available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20191112015240/https://325.
nostate.net/2014/10/22/pdf-new-flyposter-mapping-the-attacks-of-the-informal-anarchist-federation-international-
revolutionary-front-global)
76. This figure includes attacks by ecologically focused groups heavily influenced by anarchism, including ELF and ALF.
Zósimo Camacho, “XI. 50 Células Anarquistas en Guerra Contra el Capitalismo y el Estado Ed. 510 [XI. 50 Anarchist Cells at
War Against Capitalism and the State Ed. 510],” Contralínea (Mexico), October 16, 2016. (https://www.contralinea.com.mx/
archivo-revista/2016/10/16/50-celulas-anarquistas-en-guerra-contra-el-capitalismo-y-el-estado)
77. Zachary Kallenborn and Philipp C. Bleek, “Avatars of the Earth: Radical Environmentalism and Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
and Nuclear (CBRN) Weapons,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Volume 43, Issue 5, May 3, 2018, page 364. (https://doi.org/10.1080/10
57610X.2018.1471972); Leigh Phillips, “Anarchists Attack Science,” Nature, Volume 485, Issue 7400, May 31, 2012, page 561. (https://
www.nature.com/news/anarchists-attack-science-1.10729)
78. Zachary Kallenborn and Philipp C. Bleek, “Avatars of the Earth: Radical Environmentalism and Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
and Nuclear (CBRN) Weapons,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Volume 43, Issue 5, May 3, 2018, page 364. (https://doi.org/10.1080/105
7610X.2018.1471972)
79. Leigh Phillips, “Anarchists Attack Science,” Nature, Volume 485, Issue 7400, May 31, 2012, page 561. (https://www.nature.com/news/
anarchists-attack-science-1.10729)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

America, it has a presence in continental Europe and arson attacks targeting property, U.S.-based anarchists
has falsely claimed murders in the United States.80 and anti-fascists largely eschew assassinations, murder,
bombings, and targeted violence outside of protests.
Chile is also home to a number of anarchist groups. At From 1994 to early 2020, American anti-fascists were
least 80 cells claimed around 200 attacks in Santiago not linked to any victim deaths in politically motivated
between 2005 and 2014, almost none of which injured attacks.83 However, that changed in August 2020, when
anybody. While some cells have claimed association an anti-fascist killed a participant during a Trump rally
with FAI/FRI or CCF, the Chilean government in Portland, Oregon.
has struggled to determine whether other cells are
independent or part of networks.81 Anarchist cells in That killing aside, the use of violence by militant
Chile may also be playing a role in the ongoing protests anarchists and anti-fascists may be constrained by their
and violence initially sparked in 2019 by an increase ideological commitments. Militant anarchists and
in Santiago transit fares. While anarchists are almost anti-fascists are generally more likely to engage in what
certainly attempting to exploit the protest movement, they dub “defensive” violence, or violence intended to
their ability to shape the movement or push it toward protect protesters from interference or harm by political
violence is unclear.82 opponents or law enforcement.84 Militant anarchists
target property more often than they target people,
viewing attacks against property as a less violent means
Violent Activities of combating capitalism and the state. When using
While militant anarchists and anti-fascists engage in tactics intended to cause property damage or draw
a range of violent activity, the kinds of violence and public attention, such as bombings or arson, many
the targets against which violence is employed vary by anarchist groups do so late at night at locations likely to
group, location, and ideology. While militant anarchists be devoid of people, thus mitigating the risk of injury
and anti-fascists in the United States, Europe, and or death. These groups sometimes attempt to evacuate
Latin America engage in militant street actions and potential casualties prior to carrying out bombings.85

80. Individualists Tending Toward the Wild-Spain, “[En] (Spain) 52 Communique of the ITS,” Maldición Eco-Extremista, April 23, 2018.
(http://maldicionecoextremista.altervista.org/en-spain-52-communique-of-the-its); Individualists Tending Toward the Wild-USA, “[En]
(USA) 90 Communique of ITS,” Maldición Eco-Extremista, November 9, 2019. (http://maldicionecoextremista.altervista.org/en-usa-90-
communique-of-its). The reasons the authors assess their claims of carrying out murders in the United States as false can be found in: Mike
Moffitt, “Police: Tushar Atre was Murdered by People Who Worked for Him,” SF Gate, May 21, 2020. (https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/
article/Police-Tushar-Atre-murder-arrests-suspects-15287085.php); Melia Russell, “A 33-year-old Tech Founder Went to Silicon Valley on
Business and was Found Dead in Her Car a Week Later. Her Cause of Death Was Just Identified as ‘Natural Causes’ Following ‘an Acute
Manic Episode,’” Business Insider, February 6, 2020. (https://www.businessinsider.com/erin-valenti-cause-of-death-2020-2)
81. Gideon Long, “Chileans Baffled by Persistent Bomb Attacks,” BBC News (UK), August 20, 2014. (https://www.bbc.com/news/
world-latin-america-28850708)
82. Sebastian Pinera, “Chile Protesters: ‘The Rich and Powerful Threw the First Stone,’” Al Jazeera (Qatar), December 6, 2019. (https://
www.aljazeera.com/features/2019/12/06/chile-protesters-the-rich-and-powerful-threw-the-first-stone); Federación Anarquista Santiago,
“Chile Bajo Estado de Emergencia [Chile Under State of Emergency],” A Las Barricadas (Spain), October 21, 2019. (https://www.
alasbarricadas.org/noticias/node/42361)
83. Lois Beckett, “Anti-Fascists Linked to Zero Murders in the U.S. in 25 Years,” The Guardian (UK), July 27, 2020. (https://www.
theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/27/us-rightwing-extremists-attacks-deaths-database-leftwing-antifa); see also: Seth G. Jones, “Who
Are Antifa, and Are They a Threat?” Center for Strategic and International Studies, June 4, 2020. (https://www.csis.org/analysis/
who-are-antifa-and-are-they-threat)
84. In the case of law enforcement, this may include using violence to block arrests or attempts to disperse protests.
85. See, for example: Luis Andrews Henao, “Arrests in Chile Bomb Attack Focus on Anarchists,” WTOP News, September 18, 2014.
(https://wtop.com/news/2014/09/arrests-in-chile-bomb-attack-focus-on-anarchists). Following two bombings in Chile claimed by CCF, the
group stated, “We called (the emergency number) more than 10 minutes before the blast, waiting for police to react by evacuating.”

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Groups that have employed lethal violence, particularly famously punched white nationalist Richard Spencer
nihilist groups such as ITS, are generally rejected by as he was giving an on-camera interview.
the broader anarchist community, including by other
militant anarchists.86 The following month, a violent march that included
militant anarchists and anti-fascists prevented the
Street Violence and Riots controversial right-wing speaker Milo Yiannopoulos
from appearing at the University of California at
The most common anti-fascist and anarchist violence in Berkeley. The group destroyed equipment, broke
the United States and Europe is street fighting at marches windows, and attacked police officers with fireworks,
and protests. Such activity can be an attempt to advance ultimately leading to the event’s cancellation. Five
a cause (such as anti-capitalism or environmentalism), people were injured.88 The violence was a textbook
to counter political opponents, or to prevent or retaliate example of violent deplatforming. Militant protesters
against law enforcement interference in anarchist or anti- physically denied Yiannopoulos a platform from
fascist projects and spaces (such as squats). which to speak, viewing him as a fascist spreading
dangerous ideas.
Street violence is of growing concern in the United
States and intersects heavily with the trend toward In August 2017, a coterie of individuals, a number
armed domestic politics. The tactic does not of whom were prominently identified with far-
often command the fear or destructive power of right or white nationalist movements, gathered in
assassinations or bombings, but its capacity to inflict Charlottesville, Virginia, for the “Unite the Right”
harm remains potent. In 2016 and 2017, a number of rally, dedicated in part to protesting the removal of
major protests and rallies were disrupted by militant a statue of Confederate General Robert E. Lee. The
anarchists and anti-fascists assaulting demonstrators rally quickly became a national show of force for the
and law enforcement. Three people were stabbed far right and white nationalists. Counter-protesters
in clashes between anti-fascists and Ku Klux Klan included militant anti-fascists who used homemade
members in February 2016. Anarchists and anti- weapons and chemical irritants to fight rallygoers.
fascists took to the streets of Washington, DC, during The rally ended in tragedy when white supremacist
Trump’s inauguration on January 20, 2017. They extremist James Alex Fields drove his car into a crowd
damaged property, committed arson, and attacked of counter-protesters, killing Heather Heyer and
police officers.87 During these protests, a demonstrator injuring 19 others.89 Berkeley saw further violence the

86. See, for example: “‘ITS, or the Rhetoric of Decay’ (Joint Statement of Insurrectional Groups in Mexican Territory),” 325, July 12, 2017.
(https://325.nostate.net/2017/08/03/its-or-the-rhetoric-of-decay-joint-statement-of-insurrectional-groups-in-mexican-territory). In this
statement, militant anarchist groups state that “ITS undertook a totally opposite route to the fundamental principles of Anarchy, moving
away from the ethics of freedom and the radical critique of power; Renouncing not only the ‘air of family’ but everything that exalts us as
anarchists.” They claim that ITS is not committed to anarchist principles, but rather is characterized by “proto-fascist decadence.”
87. Farah Stockman, “Anarchists Respond to Trump’s Inauguration, by Any Means Necessary,” The New York Times, February 2, 2017.
(https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/02/us/anarchists-respond-to-trumps-inauguration-by-any-means-necessary.html); Keith L. Alexander
and Paul Duggan, “Inauguration Protesters Were ‘Playing a Role in the Violence and Destruction,’ Prosecutor Says,” The Washington
Post, November 20, 2017. (https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/trial-begins-for-six-charged-with-rioting-during-trump-
inauguration/2017/11/20/f0587738-ce04-11e7-9d3a-bcbe2af58c3a_story.html)
88. Veronica Rocha and Peter H. King, “UC Berkeley Blames Violent ‘Black Bloc’ Protesters for ‘Unprecedented Invasion,’” Los Angeles
Times, February 3, 2017. (https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-black-bloc-uc-berkeley-protest-20170203-story.html)
89. For an overview of violent activities surrounding the rally, see: Joe Heim, “Recounting a Day of Rage, Hate, Violence and Death,”
The Washington Post, August 14, 2017. (https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2017/local/charlottesville-timeline). For discussion
of violence carried out by white supremacist extremists at this rally, see: Daveed Gartenstein-Ross and Samuel Hodgson, “Skinheads,
Saints, and (National) Socialists,” Foundation for Defense of Democracies, June 2021. (https://www.fdd.org/analysis/2021/06/14/
skinheads-saints-and-national-socialists/)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

same month, when militant anti-fascists fought Trump Offensively, they can beat opponents. Defensively,
supporters at a protest.90 they can counter advancing law enforcement or
counter police batons and other weapons in the
The threat of violence by militant anarchists and hands of opponents. Bricks, bottles, cans, and other
anti-fascists at protests extended into 2020, most makeshift projectiles are common.94 Pepper spray
prominently coinciding with racial justice protests. or other chemical irritants are sometimes used, both
Portland, Oregon, was gripped by violence involving for personal protection and for assault.95 Militant
anarchists for several months, and this violence extended anarchists and anti-fascists also frequently make use of
well into 2021. The Los Angeles Times noted that the makeshift shields.96 Some groups use shields together
violence produced tension with black community to form a wall.
leaders, who “denounced an arson attack by protesters
on a building that houses a police station and Black- In addition to simple weapons, some anarchists and
owned businesses on Northeast Martin Luther King anti-fascists use more novel tools, including low-grade
Jr. Boulevard.”91 It is clear that some perpetrators of explosives or incendiary devices such as Molotov
violence during the 2020 civil unrest were militant cocktails, fireworks, and lasers.97 Fireworks are often
anarchists or anti-fascists,92 but the amount of violence used at protests to disorient law enforcement and
attributable to anarchists or anti-fascists or to specific can cause bodily harm. Protesters frequently engage
networks is unclear.93 in simple arson, burning trash cans, debris, or other
objects, often to attract attention.98 Lasers may be
Militant anti-fascists and anarchists have used a number directed at the eyes of opponents, especially law
of low-grade, commercially available weapons or self- enforcement. This tactic can cause physical harm and is
modified tools for offensive and defensive purposes. illegal in many places. In Chile, lasers have reportedly
Clubs, poles, and bats can serve multiple purposes. been used to bring down police drones.99

90. James Queally, Paige St. John, Benjamin Oreskes, and David Zahniser, “Violence by Far-Left Protesters in Berkeley Sparks Alarm,” Los
Angeles Times, August 27, 2017. (https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-berkeley-protests-20170827-story.html)
91. Richard Read, “Portland’s Anarchists Say They Support Racial Justice. Black Activists Want Nothing to Do with Them,” Los Angeles
Times, November 16, 2020. (https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-11-16/portland-protests-anarchists-backlash)
92. See, for example: U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Attorney’s Office for the District of Massachusetts, Press Release, “Worcester
Man Charged with Civil Disorder and Possession of a Destructive Device,” June 3, 2020. (https://www.justice.gov/usao-ma/pr/
worcester-man-charged-civil-disorder-and-possession-destructive-device)
93. Alanna Durkin Richer, Colleen Long, and Michael Balsamo, “AP Finds Most Arrested in Protests Aren’t Leftist Radicals,” Associated
Press, October 20, 2020. (https://apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-race-and-ethnicity-suburbs-health-racial-injustice-7edf9027af1878283
f3818d96c54f748)
94. William Gagan, “Black Bloc Protesters Hurl Pepsi Cans at Police, Set Newspaper Boxes on Fire in the Portland Street,” Willamette Week,
May 1, 2017. (https://www.wweek.com/news/2017/05/01/black-bloc-protesters-hurl-pepsi-cans-at-police-set-newspaper-boxes-on-fire-in-
the-portland-street)
95. “Black-Clad Anarchists Storm Berkeley Rally, Assaulting 5,” CNBC, August 28, 2017. (https://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/28/berkeley-
protest-rally-stormed-by-anarchists.html)
96. u/Tomek_Hermsgavorden, “This Would be Horrible,” Reddit, June 6, 2020. (https://www.reddit.com/r/PraxisGuides/comments/
gxm20p/this_would_be_horrible)
97. “Neo-Nazis and Anti-Fascists Clash in Sweden on Yom Kippur,” Deutsche Welle (Germany), September 30, 2017. (https://www.
dw.com/en/neo-nazis-and-anti-fascists-clash-in-sweden-on-yom-kippur/a-40760414)
98. William Gagan, “Black Bloc Protesters Hurl Pepsi Cans at Police, Set Newspaper Boxes on Fire in the Portland Street,” Willamette
Week, May 1, 2017. (https://www.wweek.com/news/2017/05/01/black-bloc-protesters-hurl-pepsi-cans-at-police-set-newspaper-boxes-
on-fire-in-the-portland-street)
99. Gustavo Rodríguez, “Desde Algún Lugar: Carta a Un(a) Chileno(a) Sobre la Situación Actual (II) [From somewhere: Letter
to a Chilean about the current situation (II)],” Contra Info, December 2, 2019. (https://es-contrainfo.espiv.net/2019/12/02/
desde-algun-lugar-carta-a-un-a-chileno-a-sobre-la-situacion-actual-ii)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

“autonomous movement” (Autonomen) during the

late 1970s and 1980s and received attention in the
United States following the 1999 Battle for Seattle.104

Black bloc is useful for militant actors. Defensively,

it protects both nonviolent activists and extremists
from surveillance and possible law enforcement
action. It allows disparate groups to create larger,
more powerful units and affords them mobility.105
Offensively, militant anarchists and anti-fascists
can use the anonymity that black bloc affords to
carry out various forms of direct action, ranging
from vandalism to assaults on law enforcement and
Black Bloc formation at a 2019 rally in Portland, Oregon. political opposition.
(Stephanie Keith/Getty Images)
Black blocs also facilitate “de-arresting” tactics
Militant anti-fascists and anarchists committing reportedly deployed in the Battle for Seattle in 1999,
violent acts at protests often do so as part of black in protests by the Occupy movement in 2012, and
blocs. Black bloc is an organizational tactic often in racial justice protests in 2020.106 According to one
employed by anarchists and anti-fascists when anarchist, de-arresting can be summarized as “the very
engaging in protests or direct action.100 When in basic principle of no comrade left behind, that we do
black bloc, individuals wear masks, bandanas, and not leave people in the police lines and decide to flee,
head-to-toe black clothing to project strength and and for that the black block is deeply courageous.”107
group uniformity while maintaining anonymity.101 When law enforcement officers try to detain or arrest
The primary rationale for black bloc is to prevent a member of the black bloc, other members will
identification of individual actors by authorities or intervene by engaging the officers, often violently. This
other opponents.102 Black blocs form and disassemble intervention theoretically allows individuals being
within the marches and protests; they are often detained to escape back to the anonymous mass of the
formed by a coalition of groups rather than by a single black bloc, where they are protected and cannot be
organization.103 The tactic originated with Germany’s identified again.

100. Mark Bray, The Antifascist Handbook (Brooklyn: Melville House, 2017), page 194.
101. Francis Dupuis-Deri, Who’s Afraid of the Black Blocs? (Montreal: Lux Editeur, 2007), page 2.
102. Mark Bray, The Antifascist Handbook (Brooklyn: Melville House, 2017), page 194.
103. Francis Dupuis-Deri, Who’s Afraid of the Black Blocs? (Montreal: Lux Editeur, 2007), page 2.
104. Heather Gilligan, “The Black Bloc Protestors in Hoodies Started in Germany in the Late 1970s,” Timeline, February 17, 2017.
(https://timeline.com/black-bloc-started-1980s-e228bf3981b4)
105. Ibid.
106. ACME Collective, “A Communique from One Section of the Black Bloc of N30 in Seattle,” The WTO History Project, December
4, 1999. (https://depts.washington.edu/wtohist/documents/black_bloc_communique.htm); “Battle for the Soul of Occupy: Round 7 –
The Black Bloc Anarchist Turn,” Adbusters, May 7, 2012. (Archived version available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20120604014710/
http://www.adbusters.org/blogs/adbusters-blog/black-bloc-anarchist-turn.html); blazedroots, “Occupy Congress Protesters De-Arrest
Fellow Protester,” YouTube, January 18, 2012. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eFjG7wD8DXQ); Teetron 9000 News, “BLM
Protesters ‘De-Arrest’ One of Their Own in Portland, OR, on Aug 24 2020,” YouTube, August 25, 2020. (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=kFaLc7fwOfI)
107. Harsha Walia, “10 Points on the Black Bloc,” Rise Like Lions, accessed December 9, 2020. (Archived version available at: https://web.
archive.org/web/20120202041954/http://riselikelions.net/pamphlets/14/10-points-on-the-black-bloc)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

In rare instances, street violence, or the threat of burglary ultimately drew Seattle police back to the
it, allows militant anarchists and anti-fascists to zone on July 1, spelling a quick end to CHAZ.113
establish control of small, autonomous spaces.
These spaces may then be used for protest activities,
community organizing, or as a refuge for populations
they believe to be victimized (such as undocumented
immigrants). Autonomous spaces have been formed
in both the United States and Europe. The most
prominent in Europe – and the one most closely
associated with anarchists and anti-fascists – is the
Exarcheia neighborhood in Athens, an area from
which law enforcement is largely excluded, and
which has become home to numerous undocumented
immigrants.108 In the United States, anarchists helped
violently defend protest camps established in 2016
to block the Dakota Access Pipeline against attempts A sign marking the boundary of Seattle’s Capitol Hill
by law enforcement to clear them.109 On June 8, Autonomous Zone. (David Ryder/Getty Images)
2020, street violence and political pressure led the
Seattle Police Department to withdraw from its East Arson
Precinct, allowing protesters to occupy the building
Beyond using incendiary devices during protests,
and establish the Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone
anarchists in the United States, Europe, and Latin
(CHAZ).110 The zone was defended by members of the
America have employed arson. Past targets in the
Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club.111 CHAZ was
United States have included:
marred by violence in the absence of law enforcement.
While its most visible areas were home to murals and • Vehicles. In 2012, an anarchist in Portland threw a
community gardens, two teenagers were murdered Molotov cocktail at an empty police cruiser.114 On
just blocks away. In total, four people were shot May Day in 2020, militant anarchists firebombed
with firearms in CHAZ during its short existence.112 an Amazon delivery vehicle in Los Angeles County
In addition to these incidents, a rape, arson, and in retaliation for Amazon’s provision of cloud
servers to ICE.115

108. Molly Crabapple, “The Attack on Exarchia, an Anarchist Refuge in Athens,” The New Yorker, January 20, 2020. (https://www.
newyorker.com/news/dispatch/the-attack-on-exarchia-an-anarchist-refuge-in-athens)
109. “Report Back from the Battle for Sacred Ground,” CrimethInc, November 1, 2016. (https://crimethinc.com/2016/11/01/
feature-report-back-from-the-battle-for-sacred-ground)
110. Ashitha Nagesh, “This Police-Free Protest Zone Was Dismantled – But Was It the End?” BBC News (UK), July 11, 2020. (https://
www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53218448)
111. Kim Kelly, “Meet the Gun Club Patrolling Seattle’s Leftist Utopia,” The Daily Beast, June 14, 2020. (https://www.thedailybeast.com/
seattles-capitol-hill-autonomous-zone-chaz-has-armed-guards)
112. Ezra Marcus, “In the Autonomous Zones,” The New York Times, July 1, 2020. (https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/01/style/
autonomous-zone-anarchist-community.html)
113. Deborah Horne, “‘This is About Life or Death’: City Says SPD Will Return to East Precinct,” KIRO, June 22, 2020. (https://www.
kiro7.com/news/local/this-is-about-life-or-death-city-says-spd-will-return-east-precinct/IS6LKAKPCVBV3PQZBUDOPGSVXA)
114. “Man Who Threw Molotov Cocktail at Portland Police Car Gets 30 Months,” KOMO News, April 1, 2014. (https://komonews.com/
news/local/man-who-threw-molotov-cocktail-at-portland-police-car-gets-30-months-11-21-2015)
115. “Incendiary Attack Against Amazon in Los Angeles County (U$A),” 325, May 4, 2020. (https://325.nostate.net/2020/05/04/
incendiary-attack-against-amazon-in-los-angeles-county-ua)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

• Political Offices, Government Officials, and Law “Some Anarchists” claimed responsibility for the
Enforcement. On September 11, 2014, an anarchist February 2014 burning of a housing development
attempted to firebomb the local office of a member under construction in Seattle.119 In Philadelphia,
of Congress in Kansas City using Molotov cocktails a May 2017 fire at a housing development may
that failed to ignite. The attack took place early have similarly been the work of anti-gentrification
in the morning, and the office was unoccupied at anarchists. While no one directly claimed the attack,
the time.116 Illinois state prosecutors accused three it was noted in a Philadelphia anarchist periodical.
anarchists of plotting to use Molotov cocktails and The attack also occurred around the same time as
other incendiary devices to attack law enforcement, other anti-gentrification activity likely committed
President Barack Obama’s campaign office, and by Philadelphia anarchists.120
Mayor Rahm Emanuel’s home during the 2012
NATO summit in Chicago.117 The men were In European countries with significant militant
ultimately acquitted of the most serious charges anarchist or anti-fascist activity, arson is more common
– providing material support for terrorism and and is aimed against a more diverse array of targets.
conspiracy to commit terrorism – but were convicted Here are some examples:
of mob action and possession of an incendiary device. • In Germany in 2020, militant anarchists burned an
• Infrastructure. An anarchist group calling itself the Amazon construction site, a vehicle belonging to the
Bristling Badgers Brigade set fire to a cell tower at French Embassy, telecommunications infrastructure
Philadelphia’s Navy Yard.118 used by a company developing a coronavirus tracking
• Construction Sites. Housing developments have application, and a police station.121
been targeted in areas where gentrification is a • In Greece in 2019, militant anarchists set fire to
concern. A group referring to itself simply as NATO barracks, vehicles, a small business, ATMs,

116. Tony Rizzo, “Man Who Threw Molotov Cocktails at Rep. Emanuel Cleaver’s KC Office Gets 10-Year Sentence,” The Kansas City Star,
June 28, 2016. (https://www.kansascity.com/news/local/crime/article86417757.html)
117. Steve Schmadeke, “NATO 3 Found Guilty of Mob Action and Arson, but Not Terror Charges,” The Chicago Tribune,
February 6, 2014. (https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/breaking/chi-closing-arguments-underway-in-nato-3-trial-20140206-story.
html); “Who Are the ‘NATO 3?’” The Chicago Tribune, February 18, 2014. (https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/breaking/chi-who-are-
the-nato-3-20140121-htmlstory.html)
118. Bristling Badger Brigade, “Philadelphia (USA) – Anarchist Group ‘Bristling Badger Brigade’ Burns Cell Tower,” The Plague and the Fire,
accessed December 9, 2020. (https://plagueandfire.noblogs.org/philadelphia-usa-anarchist-group-bristling-badger-brigade-burns-cell-tower)
119. “Attack on Seattle ‘Green’ Development,” Puget Sound Anarchists, March 3, 2013. (Archived version available at:
https://web.archive.org/web/20130607204925/http://pugetsoundanarchists.org/content/attack-seattle-green-development);
“Anarchists Claim Responsibility for Judkins Park Arson,” KIRO 7, March 5, 2013. (https://www.kiro7.com/news/
anarchists-claim-responsibility-judkins-park-arson/246221291)
120. “What Went Down,” Anathema, May/June 2017, page 2. (https://anathema.noblogs.org/files/2017/05/Issue-IV-Print-final.pdf );
Jillian Kay Melchior, “Anarchy in the Streets of Philadelphia,” The Wall Street Journal, June 15, 2020. (https://www.wsj.com/articles/
anarchy-in-the-streets-of-philadelphia-11592264144); Sam Newhouse, “So-Called Summer of Rage Anarchists Arrested for Allegedly
Trashing Developing Block,” Metro Philly, May 2, 2017. (https://philly.metro.us/so-called-summer-of-rage-anarchists-arrested-
for-allegedly-trashingdeveloping-block)
121. “Incendiary Sabotage of an Amazon Construction Site in Achim, Germany,” Abolition Media Worldwide, August 20, 2020. (https://
www.amwenglish.com/articles/incendiary-sabotage-of-an-amazon-construction-site-in-achim-germany); “Berlin, Germany: French Embassy
Vehicle Torched in Schöneberg,” Act for Freedom Now!, July 5, 2020. (https://actforfree.nostate.net/?p=38136); “Bremen, Germany:
Police Station Attacked in Solidarity with Linksunten Indymedia,” Act for Freedom Now!, February 7, 2020. (https://actforfree.nostate.
net/?p=36353); “Berlin, Germany: Arson Sabotage Attack Against Developers of the New ‘Corona-App,’” Act for Freedom Now!, April 20,
2020. (https://actforfree.nostate.net/?p=37180)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

and the offices of the far-right Golden Dawn party, By contrast, explosives are a frequent – and often
which the Greek judiciary has since banned.122 preferred – tool of militant anarchists abroad. They are
• In Italy in 2019, insurrectionary anarchists carried out used in attacks targeting people and property. Most
at least 16 arson attacks, targeting commercial and are crude improvised explosive devices, used to destroy
government vehicles, telecommunications and rail property. Designs vary, but some have been as simple
infrastructure, government buildings, and ATMs.123 as gunpowder placed inside a fire extinguisher.126 Some
The previous year, FAI set fire to a robotics lab.124 attacks in Latin America and Europe have involved
dynamite.127 European anarchists have on rare occasion
Bombings used grenades and rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs).
Revolutionary Struggle used an RPG to attack the
Militant anarchists and anti-fascists in the United States U.S. Embassy in Athens in January 2007.128 The rocket
rarely use explosive devices beyond Molotov cocktails flew past its target – a large American seal on the
and fireworks. However, one notable exception was embassy’s façade – and exploded inside the embassy’s
an attempt by five anarchists to detonate C-4 on a third floor in the early morning. While the attack did
bridge near Cleveland, Ohio, in 2012. The plotters had not cause casualties, it served as a reminder of Greek
considered numerous other targets, including financial anarchists’ lethal capabilities. In March 2019, an FAI/
institution signs on rooftops throughout the Cleveland FRI cell detonated a grenade outside the Russian
metropolitan area, before settling on their final plan.125 Consulate in Athens.129
The plot was foiled by federal investigators.

122. The barracks attack occurred shortly before the U.S. ambassador was scheduled to arrive in the city. “Greek Anarchist Group Claims
Arson Attack Against NATO Barracks,” SITE Intelligence Group, December 3, 2019. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-
Threat/greek-anarchist-group-claims-arson-attack-against-nato-barracks.html); “Anarchists Claim Multiple Arson Attacks In Greece,” SITE
Intelligence Group, December 30, 2019. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/anarchists-claim-multiple-arson-attacks-
in-greece.html); “Anarchists in Thessaloniki, Greece Claim Arson Attack Against ATMs and Vehicle in Solidarity with Prisoner,” SITE
Intelligence Group, February 25, 2019. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/anarchists-in-thessaloniki-greece-claim-
arson-attack-against-atms-and-vehicle-in-solidarity-with-prisoner.html); “Greece: 2 Arrested for Attacks on Extreme-Right Party,” Associated
Press, December 17, 2019. (https://apnews.com/article/6bdca09e99e45ae1e7f9e27acfa15480)
123. Arson was the most common form of terrorist attack conducted by left-wing extremist groups in that year. In Italy, groups and
individuals belonging to the insurrectionist anarchist milieu represented the most significant threat in the left-wing and anarchist terrorist
scene. Europol, “European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2020,” June 23, 2020, page 59. (https://www.europol.europa.eu/
activities-services/main-reports/european-union-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report-te-sat-2020)
124. Europol, “European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2019,” June 27, 2019,” page 57. (https://www.europol.
europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/tesat_2019_final.pdf ); “Saronno, Italy: ATM Torched in Solidarity with Anarchist
Prisoners Silvia, Anna and Nat,” Anarchists Worldwide, July 13, 2019. (https://anarchistsworldwide.noblogs.org/post/2019/07/13/
saronno-italy-atm-torched-in-solidarity-with-anarchist-prisoners-silvia-anna-and-nat)
125. U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Northern District of Ohio, Press Release, “Cleveland Man Guilty
of Trying to Destroy a Bridge with Explosives,” June 13, 2013. (https://www.justice.gov/usao-ndoh/pr/cleveland-man-
guilty-trying-destroy-bridge-explosives)
126. Gideon Long, “Chileans Baffled by Persistent Bomb Attacks,” BBC News (UK), August 20, 2014. (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-
america-28850708); “Anarchists Claim Explosive Devices Targeting Buses & Gas Station in Chile,” SITE Intelligence Group, June 26, 2020.
(https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/anarchists-claim-explosive-devices-targeting-buses-gas-station-in-chile.html)
127. Gustavo Rodríguez, “Desde Algún Lugar: Carta a un(a) Chileno(a) Sobre la Situación Actual (II),” Contra Info,
December 2, 2019. (https://es-contrainfo.espiv.net/2019/12/02/desde-algun-lugar-carta-a-un-a-chileno-a-sobre-la-situacion-actual-ii);
“Anti-Fascist Group Claims Greek Far-Right Party Bombing,” Reuters, December 8, 2012. (https://www.reuters.com/article/
us-greece-bomb/anti-fascist-group-claims-greek-far-right-party-bombing-idUSBRE8B708A20121208)
128. Ian Fisher and Anthee Carassava, “U.S. Embassy in Athens Is Attacked,” The New York Times, January 12, 2007. (https://www.
nytimes.com/2007/01/12/world/europe/12cnd-greece.html)
129. The consulate was closed at the time, and there were no injuries. “Greek Anarchists Claim Russian Consulate Grenade Blast,” Voice of
America, April 18, 2019. (https://www.voanews.com/world-news/europe/greek-anarchists-claim-russian-consulate-grenade-blast)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Anarchists in Europe and Latin America have used Assassination, Murder, and
parcel bombs to target political officials, finance and Targeted Assault
energy executives, foreign embassies, politicians, and
military bases. This tactic has also been used by some Some militant anarchists and anti-fascists engage in
groups, particularly FAI cells in Italy, to conduct attacks targeted assaults against specific individuals or groups.
abroad. In 2010–2011, FAI cells attacked targets in Italy, Other militant groups, particularly abroad, have
including the Italian tax agency, a military installation attempted to assassinate their enemies. In the United
in Tuscany, and three embassies in Rome as well as States, such incidents are rare. When preplanned
foreign targets, including the director of Deutsche attacks against specific individuals have occurred, they
Bank in Frankfurt, the headquarters of a Swiss nuclear have typically targeted political opponents (usually
industry group, and IBM’s nanotechnology facility perceived fascists) with non-lethal violence. The most
in Switzerland.130 notable incident was the 2012 assault by members of
the Hoosier Anti-Racist Movement against a white
power organization in a Chicago restaurant.134
“Anarchists in Europe and Latin America have
used parcel bombs to target political officials, Assassinations and targeted assaults are more frequently
finance and energy executives, foreign carried out by insurrectionary anarchists in Southern
embassies, politicians, and military bases.
” Europe and Latin America, including cells associated
with CCF, FAI/FRI, and ITS. Common targets include
In November 2010, CCF attacked EU offices in business executives and employees, political opponents,
Germany and Italy along with embassies in Greece.131 and politicians or government officials. For example,
In March 2017, CCF sent a parcel bomb to the in Greece, two militant anti-fascists from the group
German finance ministry. That same month, CCF People’s Struggling Revolutionary Powers murdered
sent a parcel bomb to the International Monetary two members of Greece’s Golden Dawn party in a
Fund’s European representative in France.132 ITS drive-by shooting in retaliation for the murder of an
has used parcel bombs to target scientific research anti-fascist rapper.135 In Chile, anarchists have broken
facilities in Mexico.133 into the homes of police officers, with the intention of

130. “Rome Parcel Bomb Injures Equitalia Tax Official,” BBC News (UK), December 9, 2011. (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-
europe-16120156); Rachel Donadio, “Mail Bomb Defused at Rome Embassy,” The New York Times, December 27, 2010. (https://
www.nytimes.com/2010/12/28/world/europe/28italy.html); “Anarchist Group Says Behind Swiss Parcel Bomb,” Reuters, April 1, 2011.
(https://www.reuters.com/article/us-swiss-nuclear/anarchist-group-says-behind-swiss-parcel-bomb-idUSTRE73035V20110401); Leigh
Phillips, “Anarchists Attack Science,” Nature, Volume 485, Issue 7400, May 31, 2012, page 561. (https://www.nature.com/news/
anarchists-attack-science-1.10729)
131. See, for example, the U.S. State Department’s designation of CCF as an SDGT following the group’s transnational parcel bomb
attacks targeting EU officials and attacks on foreign embassies: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, Media Note,
“Terrorist Designation of Conspiracy of Fire Nuclei,” October 13, 2011. (https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2011/10/175362.htm)
132. “Greek Militants Claim Parcel Bomb Sent to German Ministry,” The Local (Germany), March 16, 2017. (https://www.thelocal.
de/20170316/explosive-parcel-at-german-ministry-sent-from-greece); Lizzie Dearden, “Anarchist Terror Threat Emerges Across Europe
After Parcel Bombs Sent to French and German Officials,” The Independent (UK), March 17, 2017. (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/
world/europe/imf-france-paris-letter-parcel-bombing-german-finance-ministry-anarchists-terror-greece-conspiracy-fire-cells-a7636116.html)
133. Leigh Phillips, “Anarchists Attack Science,” Nature, Volume 485, Issue 7400, May 31, 2012, page 561. (https://www.nature.com/
news/anarchists-attack-science-1.10729)
134. Mark Bray, The Antifascist Handbook (Brooklyn: Melville House, 2017), page 113.
135. “Greek Leftist Group Claims Golden Dawn Assassinations,” Deutsche Welle (Germany), November 17, 2013. (https://www.dw.com/
en/greek-leftist-group-claims-golden-dawn-assassinations/a-17232477); Colin Clarke and Michael Kenney, “What Antifa Is, What It
Isn’t, and Why It Matters,” War on the Rocks, June 23, 2020. (https://warontherocks.com/2020/06/what-antifa-is-what-it-isnt-and-why-it-
matters). In October 2020, a Golden Dawn supporter was found guilty of fatally stabbing the rapper, Pavlos Fyssas.

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

attacking them. In one instance, an anarchist stabbed of guns and have used them (for example, in the attack
an officer.136 ITS has attempted murder in Latin on the ICE detention center in Washington state).141
America, including targeting the president of Metro de
Santiago in Chile and a priest in Mexico.137 Intimidation and Doxxing
Targeted attacks by militant anarchists and anti- “We have the names, the addresses and the photos of
fascists rarely involve firearms. In Europe, however, the faces of the fascist scum. We can start visiting them
one example of firearm usage is the aforementioned in person… We are not peaceful, we are not tolerant…
murder of two Golden Dawn members by Greek anti- and we interact with them with the only language they
fascists. In Mexico, an FAI cell (Insurrectional Cell understand: force, violence and intimidation.”142 This
Mariano Sanchez Añon) used firearms in attacks on law statement by Brazilian anarchist group Nucleus of
enforcement.138 Some firearm attacks were apparently Opposition to the System (NOS) is emblematic of how
not intended to be lethal. An FAI cell member shot an militant anti-fascists and anarchists can use doxxing to
executive from an Italian nuclear company in Genoa intimidate and incite violence against opponents.
in May 2012, aiming at the victim’s leg.139 This tactic,
Doxxing involves publishing private or personal
which still represented an escalation in violence, may
information about an individual or organization (such
have aimed to echo the “kneecapping” tactic used
as home addresses, the names of the target’s children,
by the earlier Italian Red Brigades, a communist
and the schools they attend). It is commonly used by
militant group.140
both violent and nonviolent anti-fascists and anarchists
Guns play a unique role in American anarchism and in America to neutralize opponents. Doxxing can be
anti-fascism. The United States has a prevalent gun used to “out” violent extremists to their employer,
culture that is often associated with the political right. community, and law enforcement, but it can also be
But, as discussed earlier, some within the American used to incite or invite violence against people due
anti-fascist movement promote the use and ownership solely to their beliefs.

136. Gustavo Rodríguez, “Desde Algún Lugar: Carta a un(a) Chileno(a) Sobre la Situación Actual (II) [From Somewhere: Letter
to a Chilean About the Current Situation (II)],” Contra Info, December 2, 2019. (https://es-contrainfo.espiv.net/2019/12/02/
desde-algun-lugar-carta-a-un-a-chileno-a-sobre-la-situacion-actual-ii)
137. “Eco-Nihilist Group Claims Responsibility for Attempted Murder of Chilean Mass Transit Official,” SITE Intelligence Group, May
10, 2019. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/eco-nihilist-group-claims-responsibility-for-attempted-murder-of-
chilean-mass-transit-official.html); “(Mexico) Black April for the Catholic Church,” Maldición Eco-Extremista, May 16, 2018. (http://
maldicionecoextremista.altervista.org/en-mexico-black-april-for-the-catholic-church/?doing_wp_cron=1528461790.667622089385
9863281250)
138. “Reportan Tres Muertos y un Policía Desaparecido en Valle de Chalco [Three Dead and a Missing Police Officer Reported
in Valle de Chalco],” Zócalo (Mexico), September 18, 2020. (http://www.zocalo.com.mx/seccion/articulo/reportan-tres-
muertos-y-un-policia-desaparecido-en-valle-de-chalco); Insurrectional Cell Mariano Sanchez Añon - Fraction of the Informal
Anarchist Federation of Mexico, “Mexico: Responsibility Claim for Armed Attack on a Municipal Police Patrol Car in the
Municipality of Valle de Chalco in EdoMex,” Contra Info, September 21, 2012. (https://en-contrainfo.espiv.net/2012/09/21/
mexico-responsibility-claim-for-armed-attack-on-a-municipal-police-patrol-car-in-the-municipality-of-valle-de-chalco-in-edomex)
139. Leigh Phillips, “Anarchists Attack Science,” Nature, Volume 485, Issue 7400, May 31, 2012, page 561. (https://www.nature.com/
news/anarchists-attack-science-1.10729)
140. Tom Kington, “Kneecapping of Italian Nuclear Power Firm Boss Prompts Terrorism Fears,” The Guardian (UK), May 7, 2012.
(https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/07/kneecapping-italian-boss-terrorism-fears)
141. Hannah Allam, “‘I Am Antifa’: One Activist’s Violent Death Became a Symbol for The Right and Left,” NPR, July 23, 2020. (https://
www.npr.org/2020/07/23/893533916/i-am-antifa-one-activist-s-violent-death-became-a-symbol-for-the-right-and-left)
142. “Brazilian Anarchists Dox Army General Over Government COVID-19 Failures,” SITE Intelligence Group, June 26, 2020. (https://
ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/brazilian-anarchists-dox-brazilian-general-over-government-covid-19-failures.html)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Doxxing has been utilized across the extremist Transnational Connections

spectrum. It was used recently in advance of January’s
Capitol Hill riots. A now-banned Facebook page Transnational networks of militant anarchists and
called “Red-State Secession,” which helped organize anti-fascists reflect the role of affinity groups and
the January 6 protests, featured calls for violence. Page horizontal organizing within the movement. Bound
members listed the addresses of “enemies,” including together by shared ideals, these groups stress indirect
federal judges, members of Congress, and progressive communication via public statements and the exchange
politicians.143 NOS has doxxed prominent military of information at a distance.
and government officials as part of its efforts to make
Brazil’s government accede to the group’s demands Solidarity Through Violence
related to the COVID-19 pandemic.144
Militant anarchists and anti-fascists use violent actions
to express solidarity with their comrades. Particular
“Militant anarchists and anti-fascists often
accompany doxxing with direct threats against
actions and accompanying statements demonstrate
commitment to a common cause. The U.S.-based
individuals and organizations.
” group Bristling Badger Brigade committed arson in
solidarity with fugitive British anarchist Huw Norfolk,
Militant anarchists and anti-fascists often accompany known as Badger.146 The group set fire to a Philadelphia
doxxing with direct threats against individuals and cell tower (cell towers and other telecommunications
organizations. As noted above, members of Smash infrastructure were frequent targets of Badger’s).
Racism DC descended upon Fox News host Tucker FAI/FRI and CCF also style some of their attacks as
Carlson’s house and shouted threats, including, “We solidarity measures with imprisoned anarchists.147 The
know where you sleep at night.” The group previously frequency of violent actions on May Day broadcasts a
publicly shared Carlson’s home address.145 message of support for the labor movement.148

143. Sheera Frenkel, “Facebook Bans a Page Used to Coordinate Pro-Trump Protests After Calls for Violence,” The New York Times, January
6, 2021. (https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/06/us/politics/facebook-bans-a-page-used-to-coordinate-pro-trump-protests-after-calls-for-
violence.html)
144. “Brazilian Anarchists Dox Army General Over Government COVID-19 Failures,” SITE Intelligence Group, June 26, 2020.
(https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/brazilian-anarchists-dox-brazilian-general-over-government-covid-19-
failures.html)
145. Brian Stelter, “Police Launch Investigation After Antifa Activists Descend on Fox Host Tucker Carlson’s Home,” CNN, November 8,
2018. (https://www.cnn.com/2018/11/08/media/tucker-carlson-protestors/index.html); Allyson Chiu, “‘They Were Threatening Me and
My Family’: Tucker Carlson’s Home Targeted by Protesters,” The Washington Post, November 8, 2018. (https://www.washingtonpost.com/
nation/2018/11/08/they-were-threatening-me-my-family-tucker-carlsons-home-targeted-by-protesters)
146. Bristling Badger Brigade, “Philadelphia (USA) – Anarchist Group ‘Bristling Badger Brigade’ Burns Cell Tower,” The Plague and
the Fire, accessed December 9, 2020. (https://plagueandfire.noblogs.org/philadelphia-usa-anarchist-group-bristling-badger-brigade-burns-
cell-tower)
147. Jake Hanrahan, “Meet the Nihilist-Anarchist Network Bringing Chaos to a Town Near You,” Vice, February 13, 2013. (https://www.
vice.com/en_uk/article/mvpyyy/the-fai-are-the-worlds-true-anarchists)
148. Avi Selk, “Anarchists Crash May Day Rally in Paris, Burning Cars and Smashing Shop Windows,” The Washington Post, May 1, 2018.
(https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/05/01/anarchists-crash-may-day-rally-in-paris-burning-cars-and-smashing-
shop-windows); Sandhya Somashekhar, “Marches, Sit-Ins and Arrests at May Day Protests,” The Washington Post, May 1, 2017. (https://
www.washingtonpost.com/national/marches-sit-ins-and-a-few-arrests-for-may-day-protests/2017/05/01/2243377e-2ea0-11e7-9dec-
764dc781686f_story.html)

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Armed Conflict as a Transnational Nexus but expelled a handful of anarchists who, as Rolling
Stone writer Seth Harp noted, “didn’t want to submit to
Anti-fascists and anarchists, including Americans, have
military discipline.” The group also added to its ranks
traveled abroad to fight in armed conflicts that attract
Western ex-soldiers who were markedly less ideological
militants from other foreign countries. Connections
than the original cadre.150
forged between militant anarchists and anti-fascists
fighting in these conflicts may form the basis for future The Antifa platoon made a name for itself in the fight
transnational coordination. against ISIS. The platoon’s leader, Karim Franceschi,
was admitted to the YPG’s council of generals, and the
Rojava, a predominantly Kurdish area in northeastern
platoon contributed to the YPG’s anti-ISIS fight.151
Syria, ranks among the most important foreign
Even if platoon fighters provided hyperbolized accounts
nexuses for these movements. Anarchists and anti-
of their victories to media outlets (a common habit
fascists from the United States and Europe have
for foreign fighters), they saw legitimate action in
traveled there to fight with the Kurdish People’s
the anti-ISIS war.
Protection Units (Yekîneyên Parastina Gel, or YPG)
against the Islamic State (ISIS) and to participate A smaller number of anti-fascists and anarchists
in the “Rojava Revolution.” Since Syrian dictator have traveled to Ukraine to take part in the fighting
Bashar al-Assad withdrew his troops from Kurdish there, with militant antifascist and anarchist fighters
areas of Syria in 2012, YPG members have worked joining both sides of the conflict. Some fighters who
to establish their own structures of governance. The joined the pro-Moscow side told reporters they were
YPG’s principles of direct democracy, feminism, motivated by opposition to ultranationalist and fascist
and egalitarianism are drawn from the ideals of ideologies held by certain pro-Kyiv factions.152 A few
imprisoned Kurdish nationalist ideologue Abdullah volunteers from the Antifa International Tabur who
Öcalan.149 The Rojava Revolution has become a fought in Syria have made their way to Ukraine.153
beacon for anti-fascists and anarchists globally. They
liken it to the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s. Transnational Protests and Activism
Not all of the YPG’s foreign fighters have been anarchists, Major protests, particularly in Europe, attract militant
anti-fascists, or even left-leaning. However, a contingent anarchists from multiple countries. These protests are
of left-wing American and European foreign fighters typically organized around multi-day international
organized their own English-speaking platoon, called conferences, such as NATO and G20 summits.
“Antifa International Tabur.” Scrounging equipment Protests may involve street violence, primarily
from the YPG and sometimes from battlefield rubble, between the protesters and law enforcement. The
the Antifa platoon fought in the battle to seize the protests’ use of black bloc tactics, their collaborative
Taqba Dam from ISIS. Over time, the Antifa group’s and relatively leaderless nature, and their wide mix
ideological purity moderated in the face of pragmatic of actors varying in group size and compliance with
need. The platoon maintained its anti-fascist orientation the law all complicate attribution. Regardless of the

149. Seth Harp, “The Untold Story of Syria’s Antifa Platoon,” Rolling Stone, July 10, 2018. (https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/
politics-features/untold-story-syria-antifa-platoon-666159)
150. Ibid.
151. Ibid.
152. See, for example: Sara Merger, “War Junkies: Why Foreign Fighters Are Flocking to Ukraine,” ABC (Australia), May 3, 2019. (https://
www.abc.net.au/news/2019-05-04/ukraine-foreign-fighters-meger/11054728)
153. Seth Harp, “The Untold Story of Syria’s Antifa Platoon,” Rolling Stone, July 10, 2018. (https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/
politics-features/untold-story-syria-antifa-platoon-666159)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

opacity inherent in these protests – and the difficulty Anti-fascist groups, in particular, tend to be reactive.
of identifying specific participants – they present They most often mobilize when the movement
opportunities for networking and collaboration perceives a fascist or racist threat. In the late 1980s
between militant anarchists and anti-fascists from and early 1990s, for example, the United States
different countries. saw a significant increase in anti-fascist groups that
challenged racist skinheads and the Ku Klux Klan.155
In 2016 and 2017, anti-fascists mobilized in a similar
Blurred Lines: Reciprocal fashion in response to perceived “fascist” threats. The
Radicalization and Fringe emergence of the alt-right, the Trump presidency,
and the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville all
Fluidity served as catalysts for anti-fascist activity.156

One set of challenges related to militant anarchists and Conversely, right-of-center extremist groups use
anti-fascists stems from the way extremists interact public awareness of anti-fascism, including militant
with each other. In the current polarized climate, the anti-fascists at violent protests, to recruit and
presence of opposite extremes tends to strengthen both mobilize followers. The Proud Boys, a controversial
sides and provides average people a reason to drift group that has a history of engaging in street violence
toward extremes. Theories of reciprocal radicalization and embraces what it calls “Western chauvinism,”
and fringe fluidity reveal how this dynamic impacts the has been particularly effective in organizing marches
ecosystem of extremism. and rallies aimed at countering anti-fascists.157 White
supremacist extremists and militia groups have
The concept of reciprocal radicalization describes similarly leveraged anti-fascist activity to promote
how the increased power of groups aligned with one public events.158
extremist ideology will fuel recruitment and encourage
activity by groups aligned with ostensibly opposing Opposing extremists can reinforce each other’s worst
ideologies, in what becomes a mutually reinforcing fears, drive each other’s recruitment, and provoke
cycle. Interactions between groups locked in reciprocal one another into “tit-for-tat” retaliation.159 They can
radicalization can result in “a bizarre mixture of confirm one another’s narratives by telling the same
cooperation, competition, and overt fighting between stories, with the role of victim and demon reversed.
different groups.”154

154. Julia Ebner, The Rage: The Vicious Circle of Islamist and Far-Right Extremism (London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, 2017), page 215.
155. Mark Bray, The Antifascist Handbook (Brooklyn: Melville House, 2017), pages 66–71
156. Ibid., page 106; Colin Clarke and Michael Kenney, “What Antifa Is, What It Isn’t, and Why It Matters,” War on the Rocks,
June 23, 2020. (https://warontherocks.com/2020/06/what-antifa-is-what-it-isnt-and-why-it-matters)
157. For more information on the Proud Boys, see: “Proud Boys,” Anti-Defamation League, accessed December 9, 2020. (https://www.adl.
org/proudboys); “Far-Right Group Organizes Protest Against Antifascists, Counter Protestors Prepare,” SITE Intelligence Group, August 15,
2019. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/far-right-group-organizes-protest-against-antifascists-counter-protestors-
prepare.html)
158. See, for example: “Far-Right Advertises Upcoming Protest in Seattle Against Autonomous Zone,” SITE Intelligence Group, June 15,
2020. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/far-right-advertises-upcoming-protest-in-seattle-against-autonomous-
zone.html); “Promoting Police Disbandment, Far-Right Community Calls on Whites to take ‘Defensive Action,’” SITE Intelligence Group,
June 15, 2020. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/promoting-police-disbandment-far-right-community-calls-on-
whites-to-take-defensive-action.html)
159. Julia Ebner, The Rage: The Vicious Circle of Islamist and Far-Right Extremism (London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, 2017), page 33.

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

For example, in Europe, militant Islamists and far- opposition to the state in order to advance racist ideals
right extremists have opposing perspectives (that is, – a combination antithetical to most other anarchists’
The West is at war with Islam or Islam is at war with outlooks. National anarchists view anarchy as an
the West), but the story they tell is the same. They opportunity to advance an ideology of white separatism
provide one another with a raison d’être. For this and to create new white ethno-states from the chaos.
reason, some observers call them opposite “sides of They desire racially divided “national autonomous
the same coin.”160 zones.” National anarchists also emphasize elements of
environmentalism. The most prominent group in the
When extremes answer extremes in this manner, United States is the Bay Area National Anarchists,
society writ large suffers. Neutral parties can be drawn which claims to have members from both far-right and
to militant groups. The media, including online far-left political persuasions. National anarchist groups
echo chambers, may amplify material that reinforces have previously formed in Europe and Australia.162
and provokes the extremes, thus normalizing their
narratives. Extremists can thus dictate the conversation
and push neutral parties into the same dichotomous “Militant anarchism advocates violent rejection
of the state, capitalism, and other principles of
camps the extremists inhabit.
contemporary liberal democratic society. Some
Another dynamic at play in the extremist ecosystem forms of militant anarchism intersect with
is fringe fluidity, a radicalization pathway in which other ideologies that reject similar principles,
individuals who come to accept and act on an extremist
ideology transition from the embrace of one form of
forming hybrid ideologies.
”
violent extremism to another. In cases of fringe fluidity, ITS, an anarchist and ecological extremist group,
the pathway to the new form of violent extremism can openly expresses admiration for terrorists and terrorist
be understood in the context of the individual’s prior groups subscribing to ideologies very different from its
ideology. Often, the perception of a shared enemy forms own. ITS, as previously discussed, is distinct from most
an important commonality between the two ideologies.161 anarchist groups in its attitude toward indiscriminate
violence. Fueled by nihilism, the group applauds mass
Militant anarchism advocates violent rejection of the violence of all kinds. Thus, ITS has praised members of
state, capitalism, and other principles of contemporary ISIS and issued calls for jihadist attacks, writing that they
liberal democratic society. Some forms of militant “call on the mujahadin [sic] to attack indiscriminately. If
anarchism intersect with other ideologies that reject you lone wolves have the ability, do it, against Christian
similar principles, forming hybrid ideologies. One such targets or any other objective of Western civilization.”163
hybrid ideology is national anarchism, which advocates At the same time, ITS has celebrated anti-Muslim

160. Ibid., page 185.

161. Daveed Gartenstein-Ross and Madeleine Blackman, “Fluidity of the Fringes: Prior Extremist Involvement as a Radicalization
Pathway,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, January 2019. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1531545)
162. “California Racists Claim They’re Anarchists,” SPLC Intelligence Report, May 2009. (https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/
intelligence-report/2009/california-racists-claim-they%E2%80%99re-anarchists)
163. “ITS Releases Seventy-First Communique, Promising to ‘Indiscriminately Kill’ Until Stopped by Force,” SITE Intelligence Group,
January 7, 2019. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/its-releases-seventy-first-communique-promising-to-
indiscriminately-kill-until-stopped-by-force.html); “Eco-Extremist Says That Groups Should Learn Strategy from Islamic State,” SITE
Intelligence Group, November 23, 2016. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/eco-extremist-says-that-groups-should-
learn-strategy-from-islamic-state.html)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

terrorist attacks, including the March 2019 mosque dividing the world into camps of good and evil. They
shootings in Christchurch, New Zealand.164 may share a common search for identity, belief in an
inevitable civil war, or goal of state collapse. They may
Technophobia and eco-extremism provide a potential share a common enemy or common target audiences.
nexus between violent right-wing and left-wing Such patterns may enable the switch from one extreme
extremism. Individuals with a wide range of political to another despite the apparent paradox of doing so.
beliefs have planned, threatened, or executed attacks
against 5G cell towers and advanced technology
laboratories.165 Stated justifications for these attacks “Extremists of differing ideologies share a
susceptibility to overgeneralizing and dividing
vary, from purported environmental and health
impacts to antisemitic conspiracy theories, but they
share a skepticism of the rapid advance of science
the world into camps of good and evil.
”
and technology, and of their impact on human Individuals may shift between extremes before
society. Both Brenton Tarrant, the perpetrator of the ultimately carrying out violent acts. For example,
2019 Christchurch attack, and Patrick Crusius, who Brenton Tarrant shifted between several extremist
killed 22 people in a racially motivated attack at a ideologies, ultimately declaring himself an ecofascist
Walmart in El Paso, Texas, in August 2019, expressed at the time of the Christchurch mosque attack.168
ecofascist beliefs, merging violent racism with Pittsburgh-area anarchist Brian Bartels co-opted a
environmental extremism.166 protest in his city on May 30, 2020, focused on racial
justice, spray-painting the anarchist “A” symbol on a
Fringe fluidity demonstrates how extremists can police car before jumping on its hood and smashing its
prioritize common grievances and goals even when windshield. This triggered further violence during an
their overarching ideologies conflict. As scholars Jacob event that had been peaceful up until that point.169 In
Davey and Julia Ebner put it, “ideological pragmatism an era of heightened political polarization, extremists
increasingly blurs the lines between traditionally may seize the opportunity to draw recruits and mobilize
separate movements.”167 Extremists of differing from a growing menu of overlapping and sometimes
ideologies share a susceptibility to overgeneralizing and conflicting militant ideologies.

164. ITS-Mexico, “(Mexhico) 77 Comunicado de ITS: Sobre la Macacre Eco-Fascista En Nueva Zelanda [(Mexico) 77th ITS Statement:
On the Eco-Fascist Massacre In New Zealand],” Maldición Eco-Extremista, March 27, 2019. (http://maldicionecoextremista.altervista.org/
mexhico-77-comunicado-de-its-sobre-la-macacre-eco-fascista-en-nueva-zelanda)
165. See, for example: “Phoenix Project #14: ‘Live Wires FAI/ELF’ take responsibility for 4 Arsons against Bristol’s cellular transmission
infrastructure over 24 Hours (UK),” 325, June 11, 2014. (https://325.nostate.net/2014/06/11/phoenix-project-14-live-wires-faielf-take-
responsibility-for-4-arsons-against-bristols-cellular-transmission-infrastructure-over-24-hours-uk); Leigh Phillips, “Anarchists Attack
Science,” Nature, Volume 485, Issue 7400, May 31, 2012, page 561. (https://www.nature.com/news/anarchists-attack-science-1.10729);
“Neo-Nazi Channel Promotes Attacks Against 5G Towers,” SITE Intelligence Group, May 20, 2020. (https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-
Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/neo-nazi-channel-promotes-attacks-against-5g-towers-2.html)
166. Joel Achenbach, “Two mass killings a world apart share a common theme: ‘ecofascism,’” The Washington Post, August 18, 2019.
(https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/two-mass-murders-a-world-apart-share-a-common-theme-ecofascism/2019/08/18/0079a676-
bec4-11e9-b873-63ace636af08_story.html)
167. Jacob Davey and Julia Ebner, “The Fringe Insurgency: Connectivity, Convergence and Mainstreaming of the Extreme Right,” Institute
for Strategic Dialogue, 2017, page 29. (https://www.isdglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/The-Fringe-Insurgency-221017_2.pdf )
168. Tarrant details his various inspirations and beliefs in his manifesto, in which he observes that “when I was young I was a communist,
then an anarchist, and finally a libertarian before coming to be an eco-fascist.” He attributes his inspiration to a number of ideologies,
figures, and cultures, some of which are seemingly in conflict with one another.
169. U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Western District of Pennsylvania, Press Release, “Suburban Pittsburgh
Man Pleads Guilty to Destroying a Pittsburgh Police Vehicle During May 30th Protest,” September 22, 2020. (https://www.justice.gov/
usao-wdpa/pr/suburban-pittsburgh-man-pleads-guilty-destroying-pittsburgh-police-vehicle-during-may)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Conclusion and Policy Work With International Partners to

Disrupt Transnational Collaboration
Recommendations
Compared to other spheres of extremism, militant anti-
Militant anarchists and anti-fascists present a fascists and anarchists are seemingly less internationalized.
challenging issue set. Countering the growing Nevertheless, the transnational elements of these
propensity for a variety of militant groups to movements deserve attention. The U.S. government
dictate the American political conversation raises should collaborate with international partners to
challenging questions in a democratic society. While study transnational activity among both groups and
militant groups may imperil public safety, much of individuals. A number of militant anarchist groups
their activity – including their advocacy of extreme have cells or affinity groups in multiple countries, while
ideas and engagement in aggressive protest activity – individual anti-fascists and anarchists have traveled to
is constitutionally protected. To address the growing combat zones. The highest levels of anarchist violence are
set of domestic challenges, this section outlines currently in Europe and Latin America, and the United
concrete steps that the U.S. government and society States could see an uptick in violence if these foreign
more broadly can take to curb the pull of violent groups increasingly penetrate U.S.-based activism.
extremism and the threat that it poses.
The U.S. government should study relevant trends
to prepare for potential new avenues for the
Legally Address Doxxing Tactics internationalization of militant activity and possible
Designed to Threaten Violence transnational collaboration by these groups, with an
Doxxing is a gray-area tactic employed by militant eye toward disrupting such efforts. Such awareness
anarchists, anti-fascists, and extremists of other would empower U.S. law enforcement and intelligence
ideological persuasions. The difficulty in prosecuting agencies to respond more effectively to future acts of
doxxing lies with proving intent. In many cases, anarchist and anti-fascist violence.
the legality of doxing can hinge on the presence of
malicious intent, which, if not proven, can leave Resist Deplatforming Under Threat of Force
the victim with no recourse.170 Doxxing can be Deplatforming, or physically denying platforms to
employed to intimidate and to threaten violence – individuals with whom one disagrees, is a tactic used
for example, by exposing personal information (such by anarchist and anti-fascist extremists, sometimes
as home addresses) of individuals targeted by these violently. To prevent this tactic from being normalized,
campaigns. The U.S. government must better protect efforts must be mounted to resist it. While the initial
against harmful doxxing. While there are complex effect of physical deplatforming may be to deny speech
speech-related issues at play, doxxing increasingly to a single individual, deplatforming has broader
stifles speech. Tech companies can also play a role impacts. First Amendment-protected speech is denied
in countering doxxing by rapidly responding on under threats of violence, due to the perspective
their platforms.171 of the speaker.

170. Megan Frank, “Dangers of Doxing: Internet Users Release Addresses, Phone Numbers of Election Officials,” WLVT, December 11,
2020. (https://www.wlvt.org/blogs/warren/dangers-of-doxing-internet-users-release-addresses-phone-numbers-of-election-officials)
171. See the recent example of Facebook’s removal of a group that featured “direct calls for violence” and doxxing, including sharing
“addresses of perceived ‘enemies’ in the nation’s capital”: Sheera Frenkel, “Facebook Bans a Page Used to Coordinate Pro-Trump Protests
After Calls for Violence,” The New York Times, January 6, 2021. (https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/06/us/politics/facebook-bans-a-page-
used-to-coordinate-pro-trump-protests-after-calls-for-violence.html)

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

A whole-of-society approach is needed to protect Washington should devote resources to studying these
speech and resist deplatforming. The tactic can also be phenomena. Doing so would afford an understanding of
a driver of reciprocal radicalization. Denying speech how extremist organizations and ideologies can overlap
and operating space, sometimes by force, serves only and interact with each other, and could open new
to further radicalize and galvanize those who have been avenues for reducing the size of extremist ecosystems.
deplatformed or support the denied perspective. The
potential for such activities to spark violence should Resist the Temptation to Pick Sides
be apparent. It is important that institutions, be they Between Extremist Groups
universities, government offices, or other entities,
protect people’s right to free speech, including those In recent years, U.S. government officials have spoken
who are controversial. ambiguously and unclearly about extremist violence.
This is highly problematic. Political leaders must
Understand the Influence of Reciprocal recognize the role they play in furthering extremist
narratives. Reacting to violent extremism by choosing
Radicalization and Fringe Fluidity a side to make a political point serves to prioritize
As noted, fringe fluidity and reciprocal radicalization goals and enemies as the extremists would. As political
deserve attention. In the current age of extremism factions and movements in the United States resort
and armed politics, fringe fluidity may become an to the use or threat of violence, politicians must
increasingly powerful force. Likewise, evidence of be unified and precise in their messaging: Political
reciprocal radicalization among extremist groups violence is intolerable in a democratic society. Such
demands attention. In today’s political climate, language would deny political legitimacy to extremist
extremists of one political persuasion have no shortage groups and individuals seeking to use violence to
of opposing actors and events to radicalize them. advance political goals.

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 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

About the Authors

Dr. Daveed Gartenstein-Ross is a scholar, practitioner, author, and entrepreneur
who is the founder and chief executive officer of Valens Global. Valens, a private
firm focused on fashioning creative solutions to complex 21st-century challenges in
the national security domain and beyond, has twice been named to Entrepreneur
Magazine’s E360 list of the top small businesses in the United States. Dr. Gartenstein-
Ross is a senior advisor on asymmetric warfare at the Foundation for Defense of
Democracies, where he previously served as a senior fellow. He also previously held
positions in the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, at Google’s tech incubator
Jigsaw, and at Georgetown University. He has been described as “a rising star in the
counterterrorism community” by The International Herald Tribune.
As a scholar, Dr. Gartenstein-Ross is the author or volume editor of over 25 books
and monographs, with a book on jihadist groups’ organizational learning processes
forthcoming from Columbia University Press. He has also published widely in the
academic and popular press. He holds a Ph.D. in world politics from the Catholic
University of America and a J.D. from the New York University School of Law.

Samuel Hodgson is an analyst at Valens Global, where he focuses on domestic

extremist organizations. In this role, he works on a series of projects for a U.S.
government client that involve granular, forward-looking analysis about a variety of
violent non-state actors. In addition, Mr. Hodgson has worked on several other projects
at Valens, including co-authoring an article addressing the causes of insurgent group
fragmentation, published in Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. Before joining Valens,
Mr. Hodgson was a senior analyst with the project management office at Jenner &
Block LLP. He holds a B.A. in political science from the University of Chicago.

Austin Blair is an analyst at Valens Global, where he focuses on a number of issues

involving violent non-state actors. He also works on wargames and game design for
Valens. Mr. Blair is currently pursuing an M.A. in Security Studies at Georgetown
University’s School of Foreign Service. Mr. Blair has previously published on terrorist
propaganda, including on terrorist use of video games. He holds a B.A. in peace, war
& defense from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

About the Foundation for Defense of Democracies

FDD is a Washington, DC-based, nonpartisan policy institute focusing on foreign policy and national security.
For more information, please visit www.fdd.org.

FDD values diversity of opinion and the independent views of its scholars, fellows, and board members. The views of the authors
do not necessarily reflect the views of FDD, its staff, or its advisors.
 Behind the Black Bloc: An Overview of Militant Anarchism and Anti-Fascism

Cover Illustration: Daniel Ackerman/FDD

Editorial images in cover background (clockwise from top left):

Counter-protesters wear black clothes during an Antifa gathering in Portland, Oregon, on August 17, 2019.
(Photo by Stephanie Keith/Getty Images);
Members of Antifa in Charlottesville, Virginia, on August 11, 2018.
(Photo by Logan Cyrus/AFP via Getty Images);
Members of Antifa line up during an alt-right rally in Portland, Oregon, on August 17, 2019.
(Photo by Stephanie Keith/Getty Images);
Black bloc protesters prepare for the start of a march in Grant Park during the NATO Summit in Chicago, Illinois, in 2012.
(Photo by Al Podgorski/Sun-Times);
A person wearing a gas mask waves a flag during an anti-fascist rally in Boston, Massachusetts, on July 11, 2020.
(Photo by Jonathan Wiggs/The Boston Globe via Getty Images);
Members of Antifa line up during an alt-right rally in Portland, Oregon, on August 17, 2019.
(Photo by Stephanie Keith/Getty Images).
P.O. Box 33249
Washington, DC 20033-3249
(202) 207-0190
www.fdd.org
FAR-LEFT EXTREMIST GROUPS
IN THE UNITED STATES
AUGUST 2022

www.counterextremism.com | @FightExtremism
EXTREME LEFT GROUPS IN THE
UNITED STATES
Key Points

Far-left groups in the United States in the 20th century largely

focused on issue-specific causes such as Puerto Rican
independence or environmentalism.

Modern far-left groups largely focus on social justice issues such

as racial equality, immigration rights, and abortion. These groups
often align with socialist or anti-capitalist values out of protest
against wealth inequity.

Gun ownership is a central characteristic of far-left groups such as

the John Brown Gun Club and Redneck Revolt, which believe they
must arm themselves for protection from the far right. These groups
appear at protests brandishing firearms and serving as security
forces while instructing others on how to use guns.

Today’s far-left groups largely do not have hierarchal or even

organizational structures like their far-right counterparts. Then-U.S.
President Donald Trump called Antifa a terrorist group, but it is less
a cohesive group and more a broad ideological opposition to
perceived fascism. Antifa’s lack of a uniform doctrine or
organization results in followers presenting sometimes opposing
ideals.

1
Far-left extremism in the United States largely centers around the notion of correcting
an injustice but is otherwise broad in its ideological catchment. In the 20th century, U.S.
left-wing extremism was synonymous with either communism or causes such as
environmentalism. In the 1960s and ’70s, the Weather Underground declared war
against the U.S. government and carried out a campaign of political violence.1
According to the FBI, far-left extremism in the United States was most active during the
period between the 1960s and 1980s. Special-interest extremism began to emerge on
the far-left in the 1990s, resulting in the promulgation of groups such as the Animal
Liberation Front (ALF) and Earth Liberation Front (ELF). The FBI estimated that between
1996 and 2002, these two groups were responsible for 600 criminal acts in the United
States that caused more than $42 million in damages.2

Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, ALF and ELF targeted animal research facilities
and corporations for acts of vandalism and destruction of property. After the September
11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the U.S. government reevaluated how it approached
terrorism abroad and at home. While the government focused on al-Qaeda as the
primary foreign threat, federal authorities—partly in response to government lobbying by
corporations victimized by ecoterrorists—considered ALF and ELF to be the primary

1
Arthur M. Eckstein, “How the Weather Underground Failed at Revolution and Still Changed the World,”
Time, November 2, 2016, http://time.com/4549409/the-weather-underground-bad-moon-rising/.
2
Testimony of Dale L. Watson, Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence
Division
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC , FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.

2
domestic terrorism threat in what media dubbed the Green Scare.3 By 2010, however,
federal authorities had shifted their domestic focus to the threat of the far right, which
continued to overshadow the radical far left in violent attacks while ALF and ELF
focused on property damage.4 A July 2020 report by the Center for Strategic and
International Studies (CSIS) reviewed almost 900 politically motivated attacks since
1994. Researchers found that far-left attacks had resulted in only one fatality in that 25-
year span, compared with 329 fatalities in attacks by the far right.5 In recent years,
however, the radical far left has seen a resurgence in response to the rise of the far
right, particularly since the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, when
far-right protesters clashed with far-left counter-protesters. A revitalized American far
left has emerged to lead protest movements against the far right and perceived
injustices. Armed groups such as the John Brown Gun Club formed to directly confront
the violent far right and a broad interpretation of fascism, which often include symbols
of capitalism and corporations. These manifestations have been on display during 2020

3
Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/; Juliet Eilperin, “As eco-terrorism
wanes, governments still target activist groups seen as threat,” Washington Post, March 10, 2012,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/as-eco-terrorism-wanes-governments-still-
target-activist-groups-seen-as-threat/2012/02/28/gIQAA4Ay3R_story.html; Testimony of Dale L. Watson,
Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence Division
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC , FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.
4
Kristina Davis, “Ecoterror arsons unsolved 10 years later,” San Diego Union-Tribune, September 14, 2013,
https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/public-safety/sdut-ecoterror-arsons-elf-fbi-2013sep14-
htmlstory.html; Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/.
5
Lois Beckett, “Anti-fascists linked to zero murders in the US in 25 years,” Guardian (London), July 27,
2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/27/us-rightwing-extremists-attacks-deaths-
database-leftwing-antifa.

3
protests against police brutality, during which the far left have become increasingly
visible and destructive, leading then-President Donald Trump in May 2020 to call for
designating the broad anti-fascist ideology Antifa a terrorist organization.6

The image of armed leftist groups such as the John Brown Gun Club can also invoke
concern. In November 2020, counterinsurgency and military strategy expert David
Kilcullen told Salon that while groups such as Redneck Revolt and the John Brown Gun
Club claim to be largely defensive and seek to protect people on the streets from
violence, the fear they evoke can also be a trigger for violence.7 This can spark conflict
with police or violent far-right groups seeking an excuse to strike a blow to the far left.8

The president’s desire to label Antifa a terrorist organization highlighted the problematic
nature of modern far-left groups in the United States, which are largely less organized
than their predecessors. During the mid- to late 20th century, far-left groups dedicated to
causes such as Puerto Rican independence carried out bombings and other violent
attacks across the United States. By the 1990s, however, authorities had largely
dismantled the leadership infrastructure of these groups.9 Today, the far left largely

6
“Antifa: Trump says group will be designated ‘terrorist organization,’” BBC News, May 31, 2020,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52868295.
7
Chauncey Devega, “Doomsday? Nearly half of "strong Republicans" believe it's almost time for armed
violence,” Salon, July 27, 2022, https://www.salon.com/2022/07/27/doomsday-nearly-half-of-strong-
republicans-believe-its-almost-time-for-armed-violence/.
8
Jason Lange, “U.S. Capitol riot to try to make then-President Donald Trump look bad,” Reuters, June 9,
2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/us/half-us-republicans-believe-left-led-jan-6-violence-reutersipsos-
2022-06-09/.
9
Testimony of Dale L. Watson, Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence
Division

4
coalesces around ideologies and not specific individuals or structured organizations.
Antifa and black bloc, for example, are centered around a broad opposition to fascism
but are otherwise left open for individual interpretation, which results in varying tactics
and even beliefs among adherents who may disagree on what is included under the
fascist label. There are multiple groups in the United States that affiliate with the Antifa
ideology, but they have no formal organizational relationship, formal leadership
structure, or shared tactical approach. Similarly, black bloc is primarily a tactic used by
far-left protesters rather than an actual group. But because of the tendency for black
bloc agitators to dress all in black, including helmets, they draw more attention.

The far left encompasses multiple ideologies, but security experts believe that a large
percentage of far-left radicals subscribe to at least one of three main classifications:
anarchism, communism/socialism/Marxism, and autonomous radicals.10 Far-left
groups have largely embraced social justice as a raison d’être in protest of perceived
restrictions on liberty by the state. In the early and mid-20th century, the Communist
Party USA (CPUSA) played a subversive role in promoting communism in the United
States and aligned itself with the Soviet Union. Today, CPUSA promotes its dedication

Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC , FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.
10
Jefferson Chase, “After G20: A look at left-wing radicalism in Europe,” Deutsche Welle, July 10, 2017,
https://www.dw.com/en/after-g20-a-look-at-left-wing-radicalism-in-europe/a-39629507.

5
to human rights and personal liberties alongside communism, which it heralds as the
only guarantor of those freedoms.11

Combined with a desire for violent confrontation and rejection of state authority, some
on the far left have used social justice issues such as racial equality and immigration
rights as a pretext to engage in violent retribution against symbols of the state. This is
most prominently seen today in the use of black bloc tactics during protests, which
ideological opponents have seized on to cast black bloc and Antifa as organized and
unified groups. Anarchist groups such as the Youth Liberation Front are more organized
on a local level but have no cohesive national network linking chapters across the
country.12 With the May 2022 leak of a U.S. Supreme Court decision to overturn the
1973 Roe v. Wade decision, which established the constitutional right to abortion, a new
autonomous network emerged called Jane’s Revenge. Named after the Jane Collective,
an underground organization in Chicago that helped women obtain abortions prior to
the 1973 decision, the anonymous network has claimed responsibility for vandalism
and attacks on anti-abortion clinics around the United States since May 2022.13 Online
communiques from the network cite a history of extremist violence against abortion

11
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.
12
“About,” PNW Youth Liberation Front, accessed September 21, 2020,
https://pnwylf.noblogs.org/about/.
13
Judith Levine, “Beyond Revenge, What Does Jane’s Revenge Want?,” Intercept, June 16, 2022,
https://theintercept.com/2022/06/16/janes-revenge-abortion-rights/; Alice Reid, “Report: Group claims
credit for Madison anti-abortion office attack, warns of more,” NBC 26, May 11, 2022,
https://www.nbc26.com/news/state/report-group-claims-credit-for-madison-anti-abortion-office-attack-
warns-of-more.

6
clinics forcing the adoption of extreme tactics to maintain their bodily autonomy.14 Like
ALF and ELF, the members of Jane’s Revenge justify their extremism as the pursuit of
the greater good.

Anarchism is a millennia-old philosophy that advocates a stateless society.15 French

writer Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was the first to label himself an anarchist in 1840.16
Today’s anarchists often cite modern anarchist writer Alfredo M. Bonanno as an
inspiration. In his 1977 essay “Armed Joy,” Bonanno exhorted followers to “shoot the
policeman, the judge, the boss….”17 Bonanno’s works derided capitalism and
encouraged followers to tear down its symbols.18 In his 1993 essay “For An Anti-
authoritarian Insurrectionalist International,” Bonanno wrote that conservative voices
had sidelined the radical left, causing it to regress. In response, Bonanno called for
Mediterranean groups to coordinate an anti-authoritarian insurrection.19

14
Robert Evans, Twitter post, May 10, 2022, 3:24 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/IwriteOK/status/1523926941572550656.
15
Kory Flowers, “Understanding the Black Bloc,” Police Magazine, January 30, 2015,
http://www.policemag.com/channel/patrol/articles/2015/01/understanding-the-black-bloc.aspx.
16
Arif Dirlik, George Woodcock, Franklin Rosemont, and Martin A. Miller, “Anarchism,” Encyclopaedia
Britannica, accessed November 19, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/topic/anarchism.
17
Alfredo M. Bonanno, “Armed Joy,” The Anarchist Library, accessed November 19, 2018,
https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-m-bonanno-armed-joy.
18
Alfredo M. Bonanno, “Armed Joy,” The Anarchist Library, accessed November 19, 2018,
https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-m-bonanno-armed-joy.
19
Alfredo M. Bonanno, “For An Anti-authoritarian Insurrectionalist International,” The Anarchist Library,
accessed November 19, 2018, http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-m-bonanno-for-an-anti-
authoritarian-insurrectionalist-international.

7
The far left has not uniformly embraced anarchism. A common theme between
anarchist and non-anarchist groups, however, is a rejection of authority. This manifests
itself as opposition to colonialism, authoritarianism, and—in common with anarchism—
state authority. The far left opposes state oppression and believes that strengthening
government and security institutions is a path toward a police state or fascism, which
should be confronted.20 According to German authorities, the extreme left believes that
it can goad the state into revealing its true fascist nature by eliciting violent reactions. 21
Far-left protesters have also engaged in violence against the far right as part of a self-
declared opposition to racism and fascism, as can be seen by Antifa and black bloc
actions during 2020 protests. According to Germany’s Bundesamt für
Verfassungsschutz, however, the extreme left only superficially opposes fascist
movements, focusing more on undermining the capitalist system.22 U.S. Attorney
General William Barr has directly accused Antifa and related groups of hijacking
peaceful protests in the United States to promote anarchism.23

20
“Left-wing extremists’ fields of activity,” Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz, accessed August 20, 2018,
https://www.verfassungsschutz.de/en/fields-of-work/left-wing-extremism/figures-and-facts-left-wing-
extremism/left-wing-extremists-fields-of-activity-2014.
21
“Brief summary 2017 Report on the Protection of the Constitution,” Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz,
2017, 20, https://www.verfassungsschutz.de/embed/annual-report-2017-summary.pdf
22
“Left-wing extremists' fields of activity,” Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz, accessed August 20, 2018,
https://www.verfassungsschutz.de/en/fields-of-work/left-wing-extremism/figures-and-facts-left-wing-
extremism/left-wing-extremists-fields-of-activity-2014.
23
Claire Hansen, “White House Addresses Trump Pledge to Designate Antifa a Terrorist Group,” U.S.
News & World Report, June 1, 2020, https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2020-06-
01/white-house-addresses-trump-pledge-to-designate-antifa-a-terrorist-group.

8
CEP has profiled

11
Far-left movements either
previously or currently active
in the United States

Organizations

Animal Liberation Front

Base of Operations: International.
Website: Not determined.
Social Media Presence: Not determined.
Leadership: ALF is a leaderless organization.
Membership Size and Relevance: ALF has no formal membership. It is
comprised of anonymous, autonomous cells bound by a central ideology
to halt animal testing and promote animal rights.24 ALF organizes into
these cells to prevent infiltration by law enforcement and accused

24
“Animal Liberation Front,” PetSide, accessed August 5, 2020, https://www.petside.com/animal-
liberation-front/.

9
 animal abusers. ALF is present in at least 40 countries around the
world.25 In April 2022, Joseph Mahmoud Dibee pleaded guilty to
involvement in multiple arsons committed by a cell of ALF and Earth
Liberation Front (ELF) members known as “the family.” Dibee was
arrested in 2018 and his case renewed public interest in the group.26

The Animal Liberation Front (ALF) is a far-left extremist group focused on animal
rights.27 The group originated in the United Kingdom but has a presence in 40 countries
around the world. In the United States, ALF has claimed responsibility for arson and
vandalism against animal research facilities, farms, restaurants, and other businesses
the group considers harmful to animals.

25
“Frequently Asked Questions About the North American Animal Liberation Press Office,” North
American Animal Liberation Press Office, accessed August 5, 2020,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/f-a-q-s/#2.
26 26
“Pacific Northwest Environmental Extremist and Arsonist Pleads Guilty,” U.S. Department of Justice,
April 22, 2022, https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/pacific-northwest-environmental-extremist-and-arsonist-
pleads-guilty; Christine Chung, “Man Who Fled U.S. in 2005 Pleads Guilty to Environmental Arson
Conspiracies,” New York Times, April 25, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/25/us/joseph-dibee-
environmental-arson-fugitive.html; Sam Raskin, “‘Environmental extremist’ group leader Joseph Dibee
pleads guilty to arson,” New York Post, April 24, 2022, https://nypost.com/2022/04/24/environmental-
extremist-joseph-dibee-pleads-guilty-to-arson/; Conrad Wilson, “Trial Will Decide Who Can Be Labeled A
Domestic Terrorist,” NPR, July 6, 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/07/06/1013496140/trial-will-decide-
who-can-be-labeled-a-domestic-terrorist.

27
Testimony of Dale L. Watson, Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence
Division
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC , FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.

10
ALF emerged in England in the 1970s. British animal rights activist Ronnie Lee was a
member of the Hunt Saboteurs Association (HSA) in England, a group that worked to
sabotage hunting expeditions. He later formed an offshoot called the Band of Mercy,
which changed its name to the Animal Liberation Front in 1976.28 Lee served three
years in prison after his 1974 arrest for a raid on Oxford Laboratory Animal Colonies in
Bicester, England, with Cliff Goodman. Upon his release, Lee became press officer of
the Animal Liberation Front Supporters Group, for which he was arrested in 1986 and
sentenced to 10 years in prison for conspiracy to damage property connected with
animal abuse. After his release in 1992, Lee began speaking publicly on his own about
animal rights and eventually veganism.29

ALF’s core ideology is built on four basic tenets: free animals from abuse; damage
those profiting from the suffering and exploitation of animals; expose hidden cruelties
against animals through non-violent actions and freeing of animals; and take all
necessary precautions to prevent hard to animals or humans.30 Despite this
commitment to avoiding harm, ALF’s actions have included bombings, arson, and other

28
“Ronnie Lee,” International Animal Rights Conference, accessed June 17, 2022, https://ar-
conference.org/2012/ronnie_lee.php; “RONNIE LEE: ENCOURAGING VEGAN EDUCATION,” VegfestUK,
October 14, 2019, https://www.vegfest.co.uk/2019/10/14/ronnie-lee-encouraging-vegan-education/#;
29
“Ronnie Lee,” International Animal Rights Conference, accessed June 17, 2022, https://ar-
conference.org/2012/ronnie_lee.php; “RONNIE LEE: ENCOURAGING VEGAN EDUCATION,” VegfestUK,
October 14, 2019, https://www.vegfest.co.uk/2019/10/14/ronnie-lee-encouraging-vegan-education/#;
Maria Chiorando, “Animal Liberation Front Founder Proposes New Definition Of Veganism,” Plant Based
News, August 20, 2018, https://plantbasednews.org/news/animal-liberation-front-founder-proposes-new-
definition-veganism/; Grace Hwang, “Examining Extremism: Violent Animal Rights Extremists,” Center for
Strategic & International Studies, August 20, 2021, https://www.csis.org/blogs/examining-
extremism/examining-extremism-violent-animal-rights-extremists.
30
“Animal Liberation Front,” PetSide, accessed August 5, 2020, https://www.petside.com/animal-
liberation-front/.

11
attacks that have resulted in injuries. In the 1980s and 1990s, several letter bombs and
car bombs were attributed to ALF. ALF distanced itself from those attacks and they
were later claimed by ALF breakaway groups called the Justice Department and Animal
Rights Militia. Both groups allegedly broke from ALF because they sought more direct
action, but some researchers believe the three groups maintain close ties and ALF uses
the other two to maintain plausible deniability of violent activities.31

The FBI closely associates ALF with the tactic of arson and accuses ALF of setting fire
to several animal research facilities, fur companies, mink farms, and restaurants
resulting in losses of more than $45 million during the 1990s.32 Specifically, a cell of
ALF and Earth Liberation Front (ELF) members known as “the Family” were responsible
for a series of fires between 1995 and 2001.33 The group set approximately 20 fires in
Oregon, Washington, California, Wyoming, and Colorado blamed by federal investigators
on the Family. The alleged ringleader, William C. Rodgers, a.k.a. Avalon, was arrested in
December 2005 and committed suicide in an Arizona jail that month.34

31
“Violent Extremism,” AREInfo, accessed August 5, 2020,
http://www.animalrightsextremism.info/animal-rights-extremism/history-of-animal-rights-
extremism/violent-extremism/.
32
Testimony of Dale L. Watson, Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence
Division
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC, FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.
33
Conrad Wilson, “Eco-activist and former international fugitive Joseph Dibee pleads guilty in 1997
Oregon arson,” OPB, April 21, 2022, https://www.opb.org/article/2022/04/21/joseph-dibee-
environmental-terrorism-oregon-washington-earth-liberation-front-animal/.
34
Associated Press, “2 plead guilty in 1998 arson of Vail ski resort; attack caused $12M in damage,” USA
Today, December 14, 2006, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-12-14-vail-arsons_x.htm;
Vanessa Grigoriadis, “The Rise and Fall of the Eco-Radical Underground,” Rolling Stone, June 21, 2011,

12
ALF has also released animals from farms and other facilities, such as in August 2003
when ALF claimed responsibility for releasing more than 10,000 mink from a farm in
Washington state.35 ALF allegedly believes it must break “the unjust laws” that allow the
exploitation of animals.36 Further, ALF justifies violent acts such as arson because they
financially hurt those ALF classifies as animal abusers.37 Between 1995 and 2010, ALF
was responsible for 45 percent of 239 arson and bombing attacks recorded by the
Department of Homeland security and attributed to environmental terrorists.38 After the
9/11 terror attacks, the FBI focused its efforts on domestic terrorist threats, while
corporate lobbying pushed the government to take decisive action against ecoterrorists
specifically. The FBI labeled ALF a domestic terrorist organization and the Justice
Department began a campaign pursuing ecoterrorists as the nation’s top domestic

https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-eco-radical-underground-
245345/.
35
Christopher Schwarzen and Jennifer Sullivan, “10,000 mink released from Sultan farm cages,” Seattle
Times, August 26, 2003, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=20030826&slug=mink26m.
36
“Frequently Asked Questions About the North American Animal Liberation Press Office,” North
American Animal Liberation Press Office, accessed August 5, 2020,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/f-a-q-s/#2.
37
“Frequently Asked Questions About the North American Animal Liberation Press Office,” North
American Animal Liberation Press Office, accessed August 5, 2020,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/f-a-q-s/#2.
38
Steven M. Chermak, Joshua Freilich, Celinet Duran, and William S. Parkin, “An Overview of Bombing and
Arson Attacks by Environmental and Animal Rights Extremists in the United States, 1995-2010,” Final
Report to the Resilient Systems Division, Science and Technology Directorate, U.S. Department of
Homeland Security, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/OPSR_TP_TEVUS_Bombing-
Arson-Attacks_Environmental-Animal%20Rights-Extremists_1309-508.pdf.

13
terrorist threat.39 In 2009, an ALF spokesman said some members had turned to
violence following the failure of years of peaceful campaigning.40

Following the 9/11 attacks, the FBI ramped up its surveillance and other activities
against ALF and ELF. In December 2001, domestic terrorism section chief of the FBI,
James Jarboe, called ALF and ELF “the No. 1 priority in the domestic terrorism
program.”41 In congressional testimony in 2004, John Lewis, deputy assistant director
of the FBI Counterterrorism Division, called the investigation of animal rights extremists
and ecoterrorism matters the FBI’s highest domestic terrorism investigative priority. 42

39
Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/; Juliet Eilperin, “As eco-terrorism
wanes, governments still target activist groups seen as threat,” Washington Post, March 10, 2012,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/as-eco-terrorism-wanes-governments-still-
target-activist-groups-seen-as-threat/2012/02/28/gIQAA4Ay3R_story.html; Testimony of Dale L. Watson,
Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence Division
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC , FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.
40
Daniel B. Wood, “Animal-rights activists get personal in wave of California attacks,” Christian Science
Monitor, March 13, 2009, https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2009/0313/p02s01-usgn.html.
41
Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/; Juliet Eilperin, “As eco-terrorism
wanes, governments still target activist groups seen as threat,” Washington Post, March 10, 2012,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/as-eco-terrorism-wanes-governments-still-
target-activist-groups-seen-as-threat/2012/02/28/gIQAA4Ay3R_story.html; Testimony of Dale L. Watson,
Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence Division
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC , FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.
42
Sivan Hirsch-Hoefler and Cas Mudde, “Ecoterrorism: threat or political ploy?,” Washington Post,
December 19, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-
cage/wp/2014/12/19/ecoterrorism-threat-or-political-ploy/.

14
Individuals affiliated with the ALF ideology continue to organize protests and carry out
acts of sabotage and vandalism of animal research, agriculture, and hunting facilities,
resulting in thousands of dollars in damage.43 A November 2004 raid on an animal
research lab at the University of Iowa, for example, resulted in $450,000 in damage after
ALF released more than 400 animals.44 In December 2016, ALF members vandalized a
fur store in Ontario, Canada.45 In 2019, ALF members launched a vandalism campaign
against McDonald’s restaurants in Colorado and Wisconsin.46 In June 2022, ALF
claimed responsibility for sabotaging 26 hunting towers in Belgium.47

43
“ALF Destroys 29 Hunting Towers (Belgium),” North American Animal Liberation Press Office, June 11,
2022, https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2022/06/11/alf-destroys-29-hunting-towers-
belgium/; “Animal Liberation Front Retaliates for the Murder of Activist Regan Russell,” North American
Animal Liberation Press Office, July 12, 2020,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2020/07/12/animal-liberation-front-retaliates-for-the-
murder-of-activist-regan-russell/; “Animal Liberation Front Liberates 21 Mice from Louisiana State
University,” North American Animal Liberation Press Office, April 26, 2005,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2005/04/26/animal-liberation-front-liberates-21-mice-
from-louisiana-state-university/.
44
“University of Iowa Claims $450K Loss in November ALF Raid,” North American Animal Liberation
Press Office, March 18, 2005, https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2005/03/18/university-of-
iowa-claims-450k-loss-in-november-alf-raid/; Associated Press, “Investigation into 2004 UI lab attack
apparently stalls,” Gazette, November 30, 2010, https://www.thegazette.com/news/investigation-into-
2004-ui-lab-attack-apparently-stalls/.
45
“Fur Outlet Sabotaged by ALF in Ontario, Canada,” North American Animal Liberation Press Office,
December 29, 2016, https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2016/12/29/fur-outlet-sabotaged-
by-alf-in-ontario-canada/.
46
ALF Defaces McDonalds in Delafield, Wisconsin,” North American Animal Liberation Press Office,
October 12, 2019, https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2019/10/12/alf-defaces-mcdonalds-
in-delafield-wisconsin/; “McDonalds Continues to Incur the Wrath of ALF (Firestone, Colorado),” North
American Animal Liberation Press Office, July 26, 2019,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2019/07/26/mcdonalds-continues-to-incur-the-wrath-
of-alf-firestone-colorado/.
47
“ALF Destroys 29 Hunting Towers (Belgium),” North American Animal Liberation Press Office, June 11,
2022, https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2022/06/11/alf-destroys-29-hunting-towers-
belgium/.

15
 Recruitment and Propaganda
A website called the North American Animal Liberation Press Office (NAALPO) relays
information from ALF. The website’s operators claim they are unaffiliated with ALF and
do not know the people in charge of ALF, as it is an anonymous organization.
Nonetheless, the NAALPO outlines ALF’s agenda and how to get involved. The website
also publishes ALF claims of responsibility and defends the group against accusations
of terrorism.48

According to the NAALPO, those who wish to join ALF should join with other like-minded
individuals and start taking direct action. The NAALPO provides links to information on
how to take direct action in line with ALF’s ideology.49

Violent Activities
− January 8, 2012
ALF activists set fire to a truck storage area at Harris Farms in Fresno County,
California. The NAALPO issued ALF’s claim of responsibility.

48
“Frequently Asked Questions About the North American Animal Liberation Press Office,” North
American Animal Liberation Press Office, accessed August 5, 2020,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/f-a-q-s/#2.
49
“Frequently Asked Questions About the North American Animal Liberation Press Office,” North
American Animal Liberation Press Office, accessed August 5, 2020,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/f-a-q-s/#2.

16
− March 7, 2009
Unknown individuals firebomb the car of University of California, Los Angeles
professor David Jentsch outside his home because of his animal research. There
were no casualties. ALF claimed responsibility.50

− October 2011
Joseph Mahmoud Dibee and others attempted to destroy the U.S. Bureau of Land
Management’s Wild Horse Corrals, a government-owned facility used to remove wild
horses from public lands located near Litchfield, California. The attack destroyed a
barn and its contents.51

− October 19, 1998

Members of ALF and ELF, known as “the Family,” ignited diesel firebombs at the
Two Elk Resort in Vail Mountain, Colorado, destroying the lodge. ELF claims told the
fire was intended to deter development in Blue Sky Basin, which they said was
habitat for the Canada lynx. In December 2006, two of the conspirators, Chelsea
Dawn Gerlach and Stanislas Gregory Meyerhoff, pleaded guilty to federal arson
charges. Another conspirator, Rebecca Rubin, fled to Canada. After five years as a
fugitive, Rubin turned herself over to the FBI in November 2012. In February 2014,

Daniel B. Wood, “Animal-rights activists get personal in wave of California attacks,” Christian Science
50

Monitor, March 13, 2009, https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2009/0313/p02s01-usgn.html.

51
“Pacific Northwest Environmental Extremist and Arsonist Pleads Guilty,” U.S. Department of Justice,
April 21, 2022, https://www.justice.gov/usao-or/pr/pacific-northwest-environmental-extremist-and-
arsonist-pleads-guilty.

17
 Rubin was sentenced to five years in prison. Josephine Sunshine Overaker remains
at large. Authorities believe she fled to Europe.52

− July 21, 1997

Joseph Mahmoud Dibee and others destroyed the Cavel West Meat Packing Plant in
Redmond, Oregon, causing $1.2 million in damages. In April 2022, Dibee pleaded
guilty to arson and conspiracy to commit arson in the District of Oregon and
conspiracy to commit arson in the Eastern District of California.53

− March 11, 1997

Douglas Joshua Ellerman set fire to the Fur Breeders Agricultural co-op in Sandy,
Utah. He later turned himself in and was sentenced to seven years in prison and
restitution of approximately $750,000. ALF did not officially claim the incident but
Ellerman admits that he belongs to the group.54

52
Associated Press, “2 plead guilty in 1998 arson of Vail ski resort; attack caused $12M in damage,” USA
Today, December 14, 2006, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-12-14-vail-arsons_x.htm;
Randy Wyrick, “Two Elk eco-terrorist sentenced to prison,” Post Independent, February 2, 2014,
https://www.postindependent.com/news/local/two-elk-eco-terrorist-sentenced-to-prison/; “MOST
WANTED –JOSEPHINE SUNSHINE OVERAKER,” FBI, accessed June 16, 2022,
https://www.fbi.gov/wanted/dt/josephine-sunshine-overaker; “Pacific Northwest Environmental
Extremist and Arsonist Pleads Guilty,” U.S. Department of Justice, April 22, 2022,
https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/pacific-northwest-environmental-extremist-and-arsonist-pleads-guilty.
53
“Pacific Northwest Environmental Extremist and Arsonist Pleads Guilty,” U.S. Department of Justice,
April 21, 2022, https://www.justice.gov/usao-or/pr/pacific-northwest-environmental-extremist-and-
arsonist-pleads-guilty; Zane Sparling, “Suspected Earth Liberation Front arsonist captured after 12 years
on the run,” Portland Tribune, August 10, 2018, https://pamplinmedia.com/pt/9-news/403164-300186-
suspected-earth-liberation-front-arsonist-captured-after-12-years-on-the-run.
54
Testimony of Dale L. Watson, Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence
Division

18
− October 1996 – December 2005
At least 16 individuals affiliated with ALF and ELF conspire to damage or destroy
various commercial and government-owned properties.55

− June 1991
ALF claimed responsibility for arson attacks on an Oregon State University mink
research farm near Corvallis, Oregon, and the Northwest Farm Food Cooperative in
Edmonds, Washington, which produces feed for mink farms.56

− February 28, 1992

Rodney Coronado broke into the Michigan State University (MSU) office of
researcher Richard Aulerich in East Lansing, Michigan, and set off a pre-dawn
firebomb. Coronado reportedly believed Aulerich’s research was funded by the
commercial fur industry. The bomb destroyed Aulerich’s office and damaged three
others. The attack led to the loss of more than 30 years of research for Aulerich and
caused more than $1 million in damage. The morning of the attack, Coronado also
vandalized an MSU-run mink farm near campus. ALF claimed responsibility in a

Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC, FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.
55
“Pacific Northwest Environmental Extremist and Arsonist Pleads Guilty,” U.S. Department of Justice,
April 21, 2022, https://www.justice.gov/usao-or/pr/pacific-northwest-environmental-extremist-and-
arsonist-pleads-guilty.
56
Christopher Schwarzen and Jennifer Sullivan, “10,000 mink released from Sultan farm cages,” Seattle
Times, August 26, 2003, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=20030826&slug=mink26m;
Associated Press, “Fedex Shipment Led To Animal Rights Activist Delinquent Account, Phone Records
Helped Catch Fugitive Rodney Coronado,” Spokesman-Review, August 16, 1995,
https://www.spokesman.com/stories/1995/aug/16/fedex-shipment-led-to-animal-rights-activist/.

19
 press release, which Coronado admitted to writing. Coronado pleaded guilty in 1995
but claimed he was not the one who set off the bomb. He was sentenced to four
years and nine months in prison and ordered to pay $2.5 million in restitution to MSU
and other universities and farms he had targeted. In 2017, he admitted to acting
alone on behalf of ALF.57

− 1987
An arson attack destroyed an animal diagnostics laboratory under construction at
the University of California, Davis. It is the first arson attack claimed by ALF.58

Rhetoric
− ALF statement, July 12, 2020
“We want to dedicate this action to Regan Russell, murdered under the truck wheels
in front of a Toronto slaughterhouse, and we are hoping from our comrades
worldwide to wake up to the reality that animal liberation is a war. Regan, like Jill or
Mike, fell martyr in the fight for animal liberation. Don’t let their names be forgotten
and fight back the oppressor until we win.”59

57
R.J. Wolcott, “Ecoterrorist admits firebombing MSU 25 years ago,” Detroit Free Press, February 23,
2017, https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2017/02/23/ecoterrorist-rodney-coronado-
firebombing-msu/98295732/.
58
Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/.
59
“Animal Liberation Front Retaliates for the Murder of Activist Regan Russell,” North American Animal
Liberation Press Office, July 12, 2020,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2020/07/12/animal-liberation-front-retaliates-for-the-
murder-of-activist-regan-russell/.

20
− ALF statement, November 1, 2019:
“For ‘World Vegan Day’, Ben & Jerry’s decided to advertise free plant based ice
cream for a day. So we decided to show them that this advertising attracts actual
vegans as well.

“The paint on the side of their building ensures that anyone who walks by will know
what they are walking by; a company whose massive profits come from the sexual
violation of millions of persons, all while pretending to ‘resist’ and be ‘woke’ in their
online presence.

“We do not want your vegan capitalism. We don’t want vegan options. We want
animal liberation. Take your cash grab and shove it.

“Until all your exploitative business fronts and factories are rubble.”60

− ALF statement, October 12, 2019:

“Anti speciesist action was taken against a McDonalds in ‘America’s Dairyland’.

“The locals are some of the most grim, unfeeling, and uncaring speciesists in the
states. We are doing what little we can to throw a wrench in their gears.

“Multiple messages were painted on the sides of this location, and we planned on

60
“ALF Targets Ice Cream Store in Denver (USA),” North American Animal Liberation Press Office,
November 2, 2019, https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2019/11/02/alf-targets-ice-cream-
store-in-denver-usa/.

21
 destroying some windows hadn’t there been a sudden police presence nearby.

“In solidarity with those caught in the ‘terrorist’ spotlight and spending decades of
their life behind bars for victimless ‘crimes’.

“None of us are free until we are all free.”61

− ALF statement, July 23, 2019:

“Solidarity with our comrades facing trial.

“Some activist showed up late in the week of solidarity action to redecorate and give
a friendly knock to a local McDonalds. The bright red painted messages of peace
were washed away quickly, but that window will take a few days to replace.

“We must use our privilege as humans to fight back against the system that keeps
animals oppressed.

“Calling out everyone who talks the animal liberation talk but does not take action.
You have temporary freedom to lose, the animals lose their entire lives. You feel
nervous about getting caught, they feel nervous on their way to see their friends
murdered in front of them.

61
“ALF Defaces McDonalds in Delafield, Wisconsin,” North American Animal Liberation Press Office,
October 12, 2019, https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2019/10/12/alf-defaces-mcdonalds-
in-delafield-wisconsin/.

22
 “They can’t wait. The earth can’t wait. Get off your ass and FIGHT.”62

− Rodney Coronado, newspaper interview, 2017:

“I won’t sugar coat it; we were about psychological warfare. We wanted researchers
like Aulerich never to know when they came to work and opened their office door
whether there had been an attack. We wanted them to live in fear.”63

− Craig Rosebraugh, ALF spokesman, October 2001:

“If the U.S. government is truly concerned with eradicating terrorism in the world,
then that effort must begin with abolishing U.S. imperialism. Members of this
governing body, both in the House and Senate as well as those who hold positions in
the executive branch, constitute the largest group of terrorists and terrorist
representatives currently threatening life on this planet.”64

62
“McDonalds Continues to Incur the Wrath of ALF (Firestone, Colorado),” North American Animal
Liberation Press Office, July 26, 2019,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/2019/07/26/mcdonalds-continues-to-incur-the-wrath-
of-alf-firestone-colorado/.
63
R.J. Wolcott, “Ecoterrorist admits firebombing MSU 25 years ago,” Detroit Free Press, February 23,
2017, https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2017/02/23/ecoterrorist-rodney-coronado-
firebombing-msu/98295732/.
64
Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/.

23
 Antifa
Base of Operations: International.
Website: Various Antifa groups have created individual websites. One
group for example, New York City Antifa, has a site at
https://nycantifa.wordpress.com/. Antifa Philadelphia has a site at
https://phillyantifa.org/.
Social Media Presence: Various Antifa groups have created accounts on
Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr, and other social media platforms.65
Leadership: Antifa has no central leadership or organizational structure.
Individual Antifa groups exist but they are unrelated to each other and
act independently.
Membership Size and Relevance: Antifa has no central organizational
structure and thus no membership rolls. Multiple Antifa groups have
formed across the United States, but they are largely independent of
each other. These groups have turned to social media to spread their
messages. Among them, New York City Antifa had more than 70,000
followers on Twitter as of June 2022.66 ANTIFA Philadelphia had almost
20,000 followers on Twitter as of June 2022.67 A group calling itself
Antifa International had more than 40,000 followers on Twitter as of

65
Zack Beauchamp, “Antifa, explained,” Vox, June 8, 2020, https://www.vox.com/policy-and-
politics/2020/6/8/21277320/antifa-anti-fascist-explained; Peter Beinart, “The Rise of the Violent Left,”
Atlantic, September 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/09/the-rise-of-the-
violent-left/534192/?utm_content=edit-promo&utm_campaign=the-
atlantic&utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=social&utm_term=2020-06-01T16%253A31%253A00.
66
New York City Antifa, Twitter account, accessed June 24, 2022, https://twitter.com/NYCAntifa.
67
ANTIFA Philadelphia, Twitter account, accessed June 24, 2022, https://twitter.com/PhillyANTIFA.

24
 June 2022.68 Hub City Antifa in New Brunswick, New Jersey, had more
than 5,200 followers on Twitter as of June 2022.69

Antifa rose to national prominence in the United States following the

2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, when Antifa activists
violently confronted far-right marchers. U.S. media has since reported on
numerous protests by Antifa that have turned violent.70 In May 2020, U.S.
President Donald Trump tweeted that the United States would soon
designate Antifa as a terrorist organization.71

As of June 2022, the U.S. government had taken no such action. Further,
while the U.S. government accused Antifa of driving violence during anti-
police and social justice protests in recent years—particularly in
Portland, Oregon, during anti-police riots in the summer of 2020—
subsequent U.S. government investigations have not found evidence to

68
Antifa International, Twitter account, accessed June 24, 2022, https://twitter.com/antifaintl.
69
Hub City Antifa, Twitter account, accessed June 24, 2022, https://twitter.com/HubCityAntifa.
70
Jennifer Williams, “Antifa clashes with police and journalists in Charlottesville and DC,” Vox, August 12,
2018, https://www.vox.com/identities/2018/8/12/17681986/antifa-leftist-violence-clashes-protests-
charlottesville-dc-unite-the-right; Kyle Swenson, “Black-clad antifa members attack peaceful right-wing
demonstrators in Berkeley,” Washington Post, August 28, 2017,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/08/28/black-clad-antifa-attack-right-
wing-demonstrators-in-berkeley/?noredirect=on.
71
Maggie Haberman and Charlie Savage, “Trump, Lacking Clear Authority, Says U.S. Will Declare Antifa a
Terrorist Group,” New York Times, May 31, 2020,
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/politics/trump-antifa-terrorist-group.html.

25
 corroborate such allegations.72 In September 2020, acting Department
of Homeland Security (DHS) Secretary Chad Wolf announced the DHS
was investigating prosecuting leaders of Antifa and Black Lives Matter
over the Portland riots.73 On January 6, 2021, however, DHS released an
internal report that concluded senior leadership had promoted
unfounded conspiracies about antifascists, encouraged staff to violate
constitutional rights, and falsely connected Antifa to protesters who
engaged in criminal activity. According to the report, DHS frequently
used the term “Violent Antifa Anarchists Inspired” in intelligence reports,
but a review team could find no intelligence to support that conclusion a
“core set of threat actors” inspired by Antifa were leading the protests.74
While individuals who associate with the Antifa ideology have engaged

72
Bill Gertz, “Antifa planned anti-government insurgency before George Floyd protests: law enforcement
official,” Washington Times, June 3, 2020, https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2020/jun/3/antifa-
planned-anti-government-insurgency-george-f/
73
Andrew Blake, “Chad Wolf, acting DHS chief: DOJ ‘working on’ bringing charges against leadership of
BLM, Antifa,” Washington Times, September 1, 2020,
https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2020/sep/1/chad-wolf-acting-dhs-chief-doj-working-on-
bringing/.
74
Maxine Bernstein, “DHS compiled intelligence reports on protesters arrested in Portland without legal
justification, report finds,” Oregonian, October 2, 2021,
https://www.oregonlive.com/portland/2021/10/dhs-compiled-intelligence-reports-on-protesters-arrested-
in-portland-without-legal-justification-report-finds.html;
“DHS compiled intelligence reports on protesters arrested in Portland without legal justification, report
finds,” Oregon Live, last updated October 2, 2021, https://www.oregonlive.com/portland/2021/10/dhs-
compiled-intelligence-reports-on-protesters-arrested-in-portland-without-legal-justification-report-
finds.html; Department of Homeland Security, “Report on DHS Administrative Review into I&A Open
Source Collection and Dissemination Activities During Civil Unrest Portland, Oregon, June through July
2020,” DocumentCloud, January 6, 2021, https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/21074152-dhs-
intelligence-internal-review-report-20210930.

26
 in violence during protests, the evidence that a specific Antifa
organization is driving such violence remains unfounded.

Antifa (an abbreviation of anti-fascism) is one of the most prominent far-left

movements in the United States. Additionally, Antifa adherents in the United States are
often associated with violent riots and confrontations with the far right, which has led
U.S. officials to call for designating it a terrorist organization. The U.S. Antifa movement
is rooted in anti-authoritarianism, which often pushes back against many symbols of
authority, such as the police, that protesters perceive have exceeded their authority.
Nonetheless, Antifa is not a coherent, centralized group but a broad ideology centered
around the so-called opposition to fascism. While there are some formalized groups
that call themselves Antifa, Antifa has no centralized and overarching leaders,
membership rolls, or structure. Individual Antifa groups are thus unrelated to each other
and, at times, promote differing tactics and ideologies.75 In the United States, Antifa is

75
Maggie Haberman and Charlie Savage, “Trump, Lacking Clear Authority, Says U.S. Will Declare Antifa a
Terrorist Group,” New York Times, May 31, 2020,
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/politics/trump-antifa-terrorist-group.html; Jennifer Williams,
“Antifa clashes with police and journalists in Charlottesville and DC,” Vox, August 12, 2018,
https://www.vox.com/identities/2018/8/12/17681986/antifa-leftist-violence-clashes-protests-
charlottesville-dc-unite-the-right; Daniel Funke, “Despite Trump talk, antifa has not been designated as a
terrorist organization,” PolitiFact, July 21, 2020,
https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2020/jul/21/instagram-posts/despite-trump-talk-antifa-has-not-

27
largely made up of decentralized groups and individuals whose interests may or may
not align with anarchism, socialism, communism, environmentalism, indigenous rights,
gay rights, or other social justice causes. The lack of ideological cohesion also
translates to the lack of a common enemy among Antifa groups and activists, who may
at times find themselves opposing causes other Antifa adherents support.76

Antifa has its roots in Germany, where the Communist Party formed Antifaschistische
Aktion (“Antifascist Action,” sometimes abbreviated as antifa) in 1932 as a response to
fascism and the rising Nazi Party. The group engaged in direct action against the Nazis,
including street brawls. After Hitler’s rise to power in 1933, the Nazi regime forcibly
disbanded Antifaschistische Aktion.77 The modern Antifa movement began in Europe in
the 1960s and spread to the United States by the following decade. For years, U.S.
Antifa activists largely remained a subset of anarchist and the punk rock movements,
maintaining vigilance to keep far-right extremists from disrupting events.78 U.S. anti-
racists mobilized in the 1980s against the Ku Klux Klan, skinheads, and other racists.79
Antifa groups began coalescing and gaining national attention in 2015 with the rise of

been-designated-/; Zack Beauchamp, “Antifa, explained,” Vox, June 8, 2020, https://www.vox.com/policy-

and-politics/2020/6/8/21277320/antifa-anti-fascist-explained.
76
“Antifa – Background,” Congressional Research Service, March 1, 2018,
https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10839/2.
77
Zack Beauchamp, “Antifa, explained,” Vox, June 8, 2020, https://www.vox.com/policy-and-
politics/2020/6/8/21277320/antifa-anti-fascist-explained.
78
Zack Beauchamp, “Antifa, explained,” Vox, June 8, 2020, https://www.vox.com/policy-and-
politics/2020/6/8/21277320/antifa-anti-fascist-explained; “Who are Antifa?,” Anti-Defamation League,
accessed August 6, 2020, https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/who-are-antifa.
79
“Antifa – Background,” Congressional Research Service, March 1, 2018,
https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10839/2.

28
U.S. populism and a reinvigorated far right.80 Antifa rose to national prominence in the
United States following the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, when
Antifa activists violently confronted far-right marchers. U.S. media has since reported
on numerous Antifa protests that have turned violent. Antifa activists commonly
consider the views of neo-Nazis, white nationalists, and similar far-right extremists to be
repugnant and dangerous and therefore justify violence as a means to silence and
delegitimize them. Antifa has also attacked journalists and police who defend far-right
protest activities.81 In addition to violence, Antifa groups largely utilize the tactic of
doxing—publicly revealing personal identification details of opponents.82

With a wave of protests against police brutality sweeping across the United States in
2020, various Antifa groups have denounced the police as representatives of a fascist
system. Antifa protesters have accused police of shielding neo-Nazis and thus
denounced police as collaborators.83 In July 2020, the political advocacy group
American Police Officers Alliance released a report accusing Antifa of contributing to

80
Zack Beauchamp, “Antifa, explained,” Vox, June 8, 2020, https://www.vox.com/policy-and-
politics/2020/6/8/21277320/antifa-anti-fascist-explained.
81
Jennifer Williams, “Antifa clashes with police and journalists in Charlottesville and DC,” Vox, August 12,
2018, https://www.vox.com/identities/2018/8/12/17681986/antifa-leftist-violence-clashes-protests-
charlottesville-dc-unite-the-right; Kyle Swenson, “Black-clad antifa members attack peaceful right-wing
demonstrators in Berkeley,” Washington Post, August 28, 2017,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/08/28/black-clad-antifa-attack-right-
wing-demonstrators-in-berkeley/?noredirect=on.
82
“Peyton Turner: SMU fitness fascist,” ANTIFA Dallas, April 3, 2019,
https://antifadallas.wordpress.com/2019/04/03/peyton-turner-smu-fitness-fascist/; “Kieran P. Morris,”
New York City Antifa, March 13, 2020, https://nycantifa.wordpress.com/2020/03/13/kieran-p-morris/.
83
New York City Antifa, Twitter post, August 16, 2020, 12:07 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/NYCAntifa/status/1294848335854149632; Antifa International, Twitter post, August
15, 2020, 12:39 p.m., https://twitter.com/antifaintl/status/1294675052139618307.

29
political and social unrest in the United States with a goal of disbanding the police. 84
However, police reports, FBI intelligence, and court records have recorded little evidence
of Antifa’s participation in the anti-police protests across the country.85

Despite its broad opposition to fascism, Antifa itself stands accused of promoting
antisemitism because of vocalized opposition to Zionism as part of a broader
opposition to racism and inequality. In 2017, the Canadian Jewish News (CJN)
interviewed three activists about Antifa views on Jews and Israel. Each responded
differently but the commonality was that all three felt safe and welcome as Jews within
the Antifa movement. Views on Israel varied, however, with some calling it fascist and
others saying it is not. One Jewish Antifa member said that Jews do tend to avoid
Antifa events because they feel Antifa is demanding that all Jews abandon Israel. That
same activist told CJN that “Nazis support the State of Israel” because they use the
example of a Jewish ethno-state to argue that whites should also have their own ethno-
state and Jews expelled from this ethno-state could just go to Israel.86 In 2020, Jewish

84
“American Police Officers Alliance Announces Antifa Facts Campaign,” PR Newswire, July 22, 2020,
https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/american-police-officers-alliance-announces-antifa-facts-
campaign-301097351.html.
85
Isaac Stanley-Becker, “Scant evidence of antifa shows how sweeping the protests for racial justice
have become,” Washington Post, June 13, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/protests-
antifa-absent/2020/06/13/7f14b8fa-ab80-11ea-9063-e69bd6520940_story.html; Sarah N. Lynch, Mark
Hosenball, Mica Rosenberg, and Brad Heath, “Little evidence of antifa links in U.S. prosecutions of those
charged in protest violence,” Reuters, June 9, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-minneapolis-
police-extremists/little-evidence-of-antifa-links-in-u-s-prosecutions-of-those-charged-in-protest-violence-
idUSKBN23H06J; ArLuther Lee, “FBI finds no evidence of Antifa’s involvement in national unrest,” Atlanta
Journal Constitution, June 6, 2020, https://www.ajc.com/news/fbi-finds-evidence-antifa-involvement-
national-unrest/qVI3U9wb8Q6u1QEvVsJ7AJ/.
86
Evan Balgord, “Anti-Fascist and Anti-Israel; Jewish Antifa Talks Views on Israel and Jews,” Canadian
Jewish News, November 22, 2017, https://www.cjnews.com/news/international/anti-fascist-anti-israel-
jewish-antifa-talks-views-israel-jews.

30
Antifa activist Daniel Sieradski told media that Jews are welcome in Antifa as its
primary goal is to fight a common enemy, the Nazis. Antisemitism is “the prime
ideological viewpoint of Nazis,” he said.87

Israeli antifa groups have also organized and claimed credit for actions against far-right
groups internationally. In January 2021, a group called Hayalim Almonim—Hebrew for
“Anonymous Soldiers”—hacked the website of the Patriotic Brigade of the Ku Klux Klan,
doxing its members and posting anti-fascist messages on the site. The group has
promised to strike a death blow to the KKK in the United States. Representatives of the
group told Newsweek they do not object to being labeled as Antifa, which they said has
been “unfairly demonized” in the United States by a media ignoring the growing threat of
white supremacy.88 Another Israeli Antifa activist acknowledged to the Jerusalem Post
in March 2022 that leftists tend to criticize Israel more but Antifa “is an idea, not an
NGO,” and it includes a broad spectrum including “communists, social democrats,
liberals, and even religious conservatives who oppose the toxic and inflammatory
rhetoric of” far-right hate groups.89

The Torch Network, a collective of Antifa chapters, lists in its “Points of Unity”
opposition to antisemitism, as well as racism, sexism, nativism, Islamophobia,

87
Jewish Telegraphic Agency, “Here’s what you need to know about the anti-fascist group Antifa,”
Jerusalem Post, June 1, 2020, https://www.jpost.com/international/heres-what-you-need-to-know-about-
the-anti-fascist-group-antifa-629975.
88
Ewan Palmer, “What is Jewish Antifa? Meet the Israeli Activists Set to Strike a ‘Death Blow to Fascism,’”
Newsweek, February 9, 2021, https://www.newsweek.com/kkk-jewish-antifa-hacking-hayalim-almonim-
1567893.
89
Michael Starr, “Is Antifa bad for Israel?,” Jerusalem Post, last updated March 17, 2022,
https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-701442.

31
homophobia, transphobia, and discrimination against the disabled in its “Points of
Unity.”90 The Points of Unity do not mention Zionism. The only reference to Zionism on
the Torch Network’s website is in a May 30, 2021, post by a Texas affiliate that primarily
focuses on the Proud Boys, though it does negatively cite “love of Zionism” as a trait of
the Proud Boys’ manifesto alongside hatred of Muslims.91

In May 2020, U.S. President Donald Trump tweeted that the United States would soon
designate Antifa as a terrorist organization.92 Following Trump’s announcement, the
state-owned Turkish media outlet TRT World alleged that Antifa had been in Syria since
2014 aiding Kurdish militants and received training from them.93 Representatives of the
United Nations condemned Trump’s declaration on Antifa as harmful to peaceful
assembly and freedom of expression.94 Despite Trump’s declared intention, actually
branding Antifa as a domestic terrorist organization faces legal hurdles as the United
States has no method to designate domestic terrorist groups. Antifa’s decentralized
structure further complicates the issue.95 Trump did not follow through on his proposal

90
“Points of Unity,” Torch Network, accessed June 21, 2022, https://torchantifa.org/points-of-unity/.
91
Central Texas ARA, “Biker Cops, Latino Proud Boys and the Struggle against Imperialism,” Torch
Network, May 30, 2021, https://torchantifa.org/biker-cops-latino-proud-boys-and-the-struggle-against-
imperialism/.
92
Maggie Haberman and Charlie Savage, “Trump, Lacking Clear Authority, Says U.S. Will Declare Antifa a
Terrorist Group,” New York Times, May 31, 2020,
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/politics/trump-antifa-terrorist-group.html.
93
“Antifa: Trained by terrorist PKK in Syria, may end up outlawed in the US,” TRT World, May 31, 2020,
https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/antifa-trained-by-terrorist-pkk-in-syria-may-end-up-outlawed-in-the-
us-36817.
94
“UN experts decry US rhetoric on designation of terrorist group,” U.N. Office of the High Commissioner
for Human Rights, June 19, 2020,
https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25980&LangID=E.
95
Daniel Funke, “Despite Trump talk, antifa has not been designated as a terrorist organization,”
PolitiFact, July 21, 2020, https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2020/jul/21/instagram-posts/despite-

32
to designate Antifa. Two months before his election in November 2020, President Joe
Biden issued a condemnation of Antifa, saying he condemned violence on both sides of
the political spectrum.96

Recruitment and Propaganda

As there is no central, unified Antifa organization, various Antifa groups have largely
adopted two primary symbols: a circle containing three downward-facing arrows and
two side-by-side flags, one black and one red. The circle with the arrows is known as
anti-fascist circle and was originally designed in the 1930s for the German anti-fascist
paramilitary organization Iron Front. The black flag traditionally represents anarchy
while the red flag represents communism or socialism. Both symbols have been
adopted by various groups, including Antifa, which do not necessarily assign the same
meaning to the symbols.97 In order to appear more intimidating, Antifa protesters
typically dress all in black with black masks to obscure their identities.98

trump-talk-antifa-has-not-been-designated-/; Zack Beauchamp, “Antifa, explained,” Vox, June 8, 2020,

https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2020/6/8/21277320/antifa-anti-fascist-explained.
96
Barbara Barr, “One-on-one interview with Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden,” WGAL NBC 8,
last updated September 7, 2020, https://www.wgal.com/article/one-on-one-interview-with-joe-biden-in-
harrisburg/33944090#.
97
Sarah Friedmann, “This Is What The Antifa Flag Symbols Mean,” Bustle, August 15, 2017,
https://www.bustle.com/p/what-do-the-antifa-symbols-mean-the-flags-often-feature-three-arrows-76629.
98
Rick Paulas, “Why Antifa Dresses Like Antifa,” New York Times, November 29, 2017,
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/29/style/antifa-fashion.html.

33
In terms of recruitment, each individual Antifa group has its own procedures for
contacting and joining. Many of them offer methods to contact them online, where they
also promote their own activities and ideologies.

Violent Activities
− August 22, 2021
Antifascist counter-protesters violently clashed with members of the Proud Boys
and other far-right groups at a far-right rally in Portland, Oregon, called “Summer of
Love.” Some of the counter-protesters openly identified themselves as Antifa. One
recording picked up a far-right protesters saying, “Antifa, come on. Let’s play, let’s
play.” In video foots of the clashes, protesters were filmed shooting paintball guns at
each other, destroying a white van, detonating what appear to be small gas grenades
and spraying chemicals at each other. During street fighting, Dennis G. Anderson
fired a handgun toward a group of anti-fascists. No injuries were reported from the
shooting and Anderson was arrested on charges of unlawful use of a weapon and
unlawful possession of a firearm.99

− August 7, 2021

99
Ryan Haas and Jonathan Levinson, “Gunfire erupts after Proud Boys and anti-fascists openly brawl in
Portland without police intervention,” OPB, last updated August 23, 2021,
https://www.opb.org/article/2021/08/22/far-right-activists-counterprotesters-gather-in-portland/;
Andrew Jeong, “Portland protests descend into violence as opposing groups clash with paintballs,
weapons, chemical spray,” Washington Post, August 23, 2021,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/08/23/portland-protests-descend-into-violence-
opposing-groups-clash-with-paintballs-weapons-chemical-spray/.

34
 Antifa protesters clashed with members of the Proud Boys at a rally hosted by
Canadian anti-LGBT Pastor Artur Pawlowski at Tom McCall Waterfront Park in
Portland, Oregon. The Proud Boys were acting as event security. In a recording of
the clashes, black-clad protesters carrying shields, identified as Antifa, set off smoke
grenades and attempted to dismantle the public address system. The opposing
protesters fired paintball guns and pepper spray at each other. In a Twitter post, far-
right commentator Andy Ngo accused Antifa of trying to “attack & shut down a
family Christian prayer & worship event on the waterfront.” A Portland minister
responded the event was no “family Christian prayer event” but a far-right political
rally.100

− March 28, 2021

A group of Proud Boys and Trump supporters traveled to Salem, Oregon, for a rally
to support “freedom.” The right-wing protesters clashed with a group of about 150
anti-fascist counter-protesters, who threw objects and paint at vehicles attempting
to drive through the crowds. Police broke up the rally hours later, declaring it
unlawful assembly. One man was arrested after he exited a truck and pointed a gun
at anti-fascist protesters. Oregon police reportedly arrested several anti-fascist
activists as well.101

100
“Fact Check-Black Lives Matter and Antifa did not disappear after the election,” Reuters, August 16,
2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/factcheck-antifa-blm-idUSL1N2PN1WT; Alia Shoaib, “Proud Boys
and Antifa exchanged paintball gunfire and pepper spray at rally by controversial pastor in downtown
Portland,” Insider, August 8, 2021, https://www.insider.com/watch-proud-boys-and-antifa-clash-in-
portland-2021-8.
101
Sergio Olmos, “Proud Boys clash with anti-fascists in Salem,” OPB, March 28, 2021,
https://www.opb.org/article/2021/03/28/proud-boys-clash-with-anti-fascists-in-salem/.

35
− January 9, 2021
About 100 protesters gathered for a pro-Trump “Patriot March” in San Diego’s
Pacific Beach, while another group of about 100 counter-protesters also assembled.
The protests devolved into clashes between the two groups, resulting in the arrest of
at least three people who refused to disperse. A video recorded a group of black-
clad protesters chanting “racists go home.” One of the protesters carried an
“Antifascist Action” banner. Eleven protesters were arrested and later indicted in
June 2022. According to the indictment, the defendants were “all affiliated with
Antifa” and responded to social media posts calling for “counterprotesting” about
one week before the Patriot March and arrived in Pacific Beach “dressed in black
clothing, and armed with weapons and protective gear.” The indictment further
accused the defendants of using “force, fear, and violence to further their interests
and suppress the interests of others.”102

− August 29, 2020

Following a pro-Trump parade, self-described Antifa activist Michael Forest Reinoehl
followed attendee Aaron “Jay” Danielson in a parking garage in Portland, Oregon.
Danielson was wearing a hat for the far-right group Patriot Prayer. On September 3,
Reinhoehl told Vice News he had acted in self-defense because he believed he and a
friend were about to be stabbed, but police claimed the murder was premeditated

102
Debbie L. Sklar, “3 Reportedly Arrested After Pro- and Anti-Trump Rallies Face Off in Pacific Beach,”
Times of San Diego, January 9, 2021, https://timesofsandiego.com/politics/2021/01/09/unlawful-
assembly-declared-as-pro-and-anti-trump-rallies-face-off-in-pacific-beach/; Elizabeth Ireland, “11 Indicted
by Grand Jury on Violent Antifa Attack Charges During PB Demonstration,” Times of San Diego, June 7,
2022, https://timesofsandiego.com/politics/2022/06/07/11-indicted-by-grand-jury-on-violent-antifa-
attack-charges-during-pb-demonstration/.

36
 based on security footage of Reinoehl waiting in the parking garage. Later that day,
police tracked Reinoehl to an apartment in Lacey, Washington, where they shot and
killed him after an exchange of fire. Reinoehl’s Twitter account declared he was a
proud supporter of Antifa. He told Vice that he was not a member but supported
Antifa. A U.S. Marshals task force in Washington state shot and killed Reinoehl on
September 3 as they moved in to arrest him. The Trump administration praised the
removal of a “violent agitator.” A months-long investigation determined Reinoehl
had likely fired at police first, but a New York Times document review from the
Thurston County Sheriff’s Office revealed the sheriff’s office dismissed contradicting
evidence indicating Reinoehl may never have fired or pointed a gun at officers.103

− August 12, 2018

Antifa activists protesting the Unite the Right Rally 2 in Washington, D.C., threw eggs

Eileen AJ Connelly, “Antifa-linked Portland shooter appeared to target victim, images show,” New York
103

Post, September 5, 2020, https://nypost.com/2020/09/05/antifa-shooter-michael-reinoehl-appeared-to-

target-victim-photos/; Neil MacFarquhar, Mike Baker, and Adam Goldman, “In His Last Hours, Portland
Murder Suspect Said He Feared Arrest,” New York Times, September 4, 2020,
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/04/us/portland-shooting-michael-reinoehl.html; “Man Linked to
Killing at a Portland Protest Says He Acted in Self-Defense,” Vice, September 3, 2020,
https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/v7g8vb/man-linked-to-killing-at-a-portland-protest-says-he-acted-in-
self-defense; Brie Stimson, “Portland's Antifa-supporting gunman appeared to target victim, police say,”
Fox News, September 6, 2020, https://www.foxnews.com/us/portlands-antifa-gunman-appeared-to-
target-victim-police-say; Mike Baker and Evan Hill, “Police Say an Antifa Activist Likely Shot at Officers.
His Gun Suggests Otherwise.,” New York Times, April 10, 2021,
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/10/us/michael-reinoehl-killing-investigation.html; “Fact check: Joe
Biden has condemned Antifa, violent protests,” Reuters, October 16, 2020,
https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-factcheck-biden-condemned-antifa-idUSKBN2712ZA.

37
 and water bottles and shot firecrackers at police and reporters.104

− August 27, 2017

About 100 protesters, including Antifa, broke off from a peaceful counter-protest to
attack attendees at a far-right “No to Marxism” rally in Berkeley, California. Five
individuals were physically assaulted, according to media reports.105

− February 2, 2017
Ahead of a speech at University of California, Berkeley by right-wing commentator
Milo Yiannopoulos, 150 black-clad and masked protesters threw rocks, M-80 flares,
and Molotov cocktails at police and university facilities, causing $100,000 worth of
damage to the student union center and other parts of campus and injuring at least
six people. Two protesters were arrested after physically attacking two members of
College Republicans. The university canceled the speech in response. The university
largely blamed black bloc but some members of Antifa are also among the
protesters.106

104
Jennifer Williams, “Antifa clashes with police and journalists in Charlottesville and DC,” Vox, August 12,
2018, https://www.vox.com/identities/2018/8/12/17681986/antifa-leftist-violence-clashes-protests-
charlottesville-dc-unite-the-right.
105
Kyle Swenson, “Black-clad antifa members attack peaceful right-wing demonstrators in Berkeley,”
Washington Post, August 28, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-
mix/wp/2017/08/28/black-clad-antifa-attack-right-wing-demonstrators-in-berkeley/?noredirect=on.
106
Kyle Swenson, “Black-clad antifa members attack peaceful right-wing demonstrators in Berkeley,”
Washington Post, August 28, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-
mix/wp/2017/08/28/black-clad-antifa-attack-right-wing-demonstrators-in-berkeley/?noredirect=on;
Madison Park and Kyung Lah, “Berkeley protests of Yiannopoulos caused $100,000 in damage,” CNN,
February 2, 2017, https://www.cnn.com/2017/02/01/us/milo-yiannopoulos-berkeley/index.html.

38
 Rhetoric
− Antifa International, tweet in response to a post promising violence against those
opposing LGBT rights and bodily autonomy, May 8, 2022:
“RESPECT EXISTENCE OR EXPECT RESISTANCE!”107

− New York City Antifa, tweet, August 16, 2020:

“stop believing the copaganda version of what policing is, if you still do. television
shows lied to you. policing is about maintaining power and social control.”108

− Antifa International, tweet, August 15, 2020:

“Cops & the Klan go hand-in-hand. #kkkops”109

− ANTIFA Philadelphia, tweet, March 15, 2019:

“People critique us and what Antifa does but we exist to confront fascism in all it’s
forms. Fascism breeds days like this, where scores of people are taken away from
us all in the most repulsive of acts.

107
Antifa International, Twitter post, May 8, 2022, 8:39 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/antifaintl/status/1523462545238990848.
108
New York City Antifa, Twitter post, August 16, 2020, 12:07 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/NYCAntifa/status/1294848335854149632.
109
Antifa International, Twitter post, August 15, 2020, 12:39 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/antifaintl/status/1294675052139618307.

39
 We will not sit on the sidelines, we will not allow fascists to be normal.”110

Black Bloc

Base of Operations: International.

Website: Not determined.
Social Media Presence: Not determined.
Leadership: Black bloc has no organized leadership structure.
Membership Size and Relevance: Black bloc does not have a formal
membership or organizational structure. The far right has attempted to
portray black bloc as a more formal organization, like it has with antifa.
Some have also portrayed black bloc as a more militant version of
antifa. Black bloc protesters have physically clashed with the Proud
Boys on several occasions. In August 2021, about 30 protesters dressed
in black bloc clothing confronted a Proud Boys “Summer of Love” rally in
Portland, Oregon.111 After a September 2021 protest by the Proud Boys

110
ANTIFA Philadelphia, Twitter post, March 15, 2019, 10:39 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/PhillyANTIFA/status/1106565478028398592.
111
Jason Wilson, “Hundreds clash in Portland as Proud Boys rally descends into violence,” Guardian
(London), August 23, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/aug/23/portland-oregon-
clashes-protests-proud-boys-antifascist.

40
 in Newberg, Oregon, one Proud Boy accused black bloc of being antifa’s
“hard frontline fighters.”112

Black bloc is an international protest movement of violent anarchists who largely want
to eliminate the power of governments and financial institutions in the global system.
Black bloc is primarily a tactic, not a cohesive group.113 Groups of protesters dress in
all-black and don helmets to conceal their identity and then violently confront symbols
of authority and capitalism. The protest movement began in the 1970s in Germany with
the goal of direct action against police brutality, economic inequality, and other
perceived injustices. It has since spread worldwide through anarchist websites and
online forums.114

The black bloc ideology is centered around anarchism and creating chaos.115 According
to U.S. officials, black bloc protesters tend to target businesses as representations of
capitalism. Black bloc protesters often imbed themselves in larger demonstrations to
conceal their presence, which led to the label of black bloc as piggyback protesters.116

112
Gary Allen, “Black Lives Matter backers face Proud Boys at Newberg rally,” Portland Tribune,
September 28, 2021, https://pamplinmedia.com/pt/9-news/523301-418186-black-lives-matter-backers-
face-proud-boys-at-newberg-rally.
113
Martin Kaste, “Who Are The Protesters Who Make The Anti-Police Movement Not Entirely Peaceful?,”
Wyoming Public Media, July 30, 2020, https://www.wyomingpublicmedia.org/post/who-are-protesters-
who-make-anti-police-movement-not-entirely-peaceful#stream/0.
114
Paige St. John, “Inside the black bloc militant protest movement as it rises up against Trump,” Los
Angeles Times, February 12, 2017, https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc-20170212-
story.html.
115
Kory Flowers, “Understanding the Black Bloc,” Police, January 30, 2015,
https://www.policemag.com/341767/understanding-the-black-bloc.
116
Keith L. Alexander, “D.C. prosecutors link violent protests on Inauguration Day to ‘black bloc’ tactics,”
Washington Post, February 21, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/dc-

41
Protesters have used black bloc tactics in Europe since the 1980s,117 but the tactic
gained national attentions in the United States starting in 1999 during protests against
the World Trade Organization in Seattle, Washington. Since then, black bloc protesters
have fomented violence at protests of President Donald Trump’s 2017 inauguration and
2020 protests against police brutality.118 Following the November 2021 acquittal of Kyle
Rittenhouse in a 2020 shooting, demonstrators dressed in black bloc attire appeared
around the United States in protest.119 Black bloc protesters have also appeared at
multiple rallies held by the far-right Proud Boys, often engaging in physical altercations
with the Proud Boys.120

Black bloc protesters have no formal hierarchy and cells are typically temporary as
protesters adopt black bloc tactics in protest against symbols of financial and political

prosecutors-link-violent-protests-on-inauguration-day-to-black-bloc-tactics/2017/02/21/91463da0-f87d-
11e6-be05-1a3817ac21a5_story.html?utm_term=.9267c3c4e886&itid=lk_inline_manual_13.
117
“Autonomia and the Origin of the Black Bloc,” A-Infos Project, June 10, 2001,
https://www.ainfos.ca/01/jun/ainfos00170.html.
118
Martin Kaste, “Who Are The Protesters Who Make The Anti-Police Movement Not Entirely Peaceful?,”
Wyoming Public Media, July 30, 2020, https://www.wyomingpublicmedia.org/post/who-are-protesters-
who-make-anti-police-movement-not-entirely-peaceful#stream/0.
119
Justin Yau, “Portland Crowd Eggs Justice Center, Clashes With Sheriff’s Deputies After Kyle
Rittenhouse Verdict,” Willamette Week, November 20, 2021,
https://www.wweek.com/news/courts/2021/11/20/portland-crowd-eggs-justice-center-clashes-with-
sheriffs-deputies-after-kyle-rittenhouse-verdict/;“Small protests on Capitol Hill mark Rittenhouse acquittal
in Seattle,” Capitol Hill Seattle Blog, November 22, 2021,
https://www.capitolhillseattle.com/2021/11/small-protests-on-capitol-hill-mark-rittenhouse-acquittal-in-
seattle/; Dean Balsamini, Joe Marino, and Rich Calder, “Rioters wreak havoc in pro-cop NYC neighborhood
after Kyle Rittenhouse verdict,” New York Post, November 20, 2021,
https://nypost.com/2021/11/20/rioters-wreak-havoc-in-nyc-after-kyle-rittenhouse-verdict/.
120
Gary Allen, “Black Lives Matter backers face Proud Boys at Newberg rally,” Portland Tribune,
September 28, 2021, https://pamplinmedia.com/pt/9-news/523301-418186-black-lives-matter-backers-
face-proud-boys-at-newberg-rally; Jason Wilson, “Hundreds clash in Portland as Proud Boys rally
descends into violence,” Guardian (London), August 23, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/us-
news/2021/aug/23/portland-oregon-clashes-protests-proud-boys-antifascist.

42
authority.121 Media and police have prominently linked black bloc to the 2017 G20
protests in Germany and anti-Trump protests in the United States.122 German politicians
across the political spectrum called for renewed focus on Europe’s radical left after
violent black bloc protests at the 2017 G20.123 Protesters have destroyed property,
specifically targeting symbols of capitalism, such as during summer 2020 anti-police
protests that have targeted courthouses, prison construction sites, and other symbols
of authority and capitalism in the United States. In August 2020, for example, black-clad
protesters broke windows and vandalized private property during riots in Seattle,
Washington.124 Protesters organize on anarchist websites and online forums.125 Groups

121
Rebecca Staudenmaier, “G20: What is the black bloc?” Deutsche Welle, July 7, 2017,
https://www.dw.com/en/g20-what-is-the-black-bloc/a-39598505; Paige St. John, “Inside the black bloc
militant protest movement as it rises up against Trump,” Los Angeles Times, February 12, 2017,
http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc-20170212-story.html; Francis Dupuis-Déri, “How
Black Blocs have changed protest movements around the world,” The Conversation, August 24, 2017,
https://theconversation.com/how-black-blocs-have-changed-protest-movements-around-the-world-
80856.
122
Rebecca Staudenmaier, “G20: What is the black bloc?” Deutsche Welle, July 7, 2017,
https://www.dw.com/en/g20-what-is-the-black-bloc/a-39598505; Paige St. John, “Inside the black bloc
militant protest movement as it rises up against Trump,” Los Angeles Times, February 12, 2017,
http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc-20170212-story.html; Francis Dupuis-Déri, “How
Black Blocs have changed protest movements around the world,” The Conversation, August 24, 2017,
https://theconversation.com/how-black-blocs-have-changed-protest-movements-around-the-world-
80856.
123
“We must stop ignoring left-wing extremism in Germany, Merkel's party declares,” The Local, July 10,
2017, https://www.thelocal.de/20170710/we-must-stop-ignoring-left-wing-extremism-in-germany-
merkels-party-declares.
124
Jon Levine, “Antifa rioters storm through Seattle in night of mayhem while police do nothing,” New
York Post, August 15, 2020, https://nypost.com/2020/08/15/antifa-rioters-storm-through-seattle-while-
police-remain-inactive/; Martin Kaste, “Who Are The Protesters Who Make The Anti-Police Movement Not
Entirely Peaceful?,” NPR, July 30, 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/07/30/897345070/who-are-the-
protesters-who-make-the-anti-police-movement-not-entirely-peaceful.
125
Paige St. John, “Inside the black bloc militant protest movement as it rises up against Trump,” Los
Angeles Times, February 12, 2017, https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc-20170212-
story.html.

43
on both the right and the left have condemned violent black bloc tactics and the
cooption of protest movements.126

Recruitment and Propaganda

Black bloc has no formal membership or recruitment process. Recruits are united by a
broad ideology and organize independently while adopting black bloc tactics in protest
against symbols of financial and political authority.127 Black bloc protesters are unified
by dressing in black as an intimidation tactic and attempt to appear unified.128

Violent Activities
− July 4, 2022
Several black bloc protesters joined Black bloc protesters reportedly clashed with
police during a reproductive rights march in Washington, D.C.129

126
Martin Kaste, “Who Are The Protesters Who Make The Anti-Police Movement Not Entirely Peaceful?,”
Wyoming Public Media, July 30, 2020, https://www.wyomingpublicmedia.org/post/who-are-protesters-
who-make-anti-police-movement-not-entirely-peaceful#stream/0.
127
Rebecca Staudenmaier, “G20: What is the black bloc?” Deutsche Welle, July 7, 2017,
https://www.dw.com/en/g20-what-is-the-black-bloc/a-39598505; Paige St. John, “Inside the black bloc
militant protest movement as it rises up against Trump,” Los Angeles Times, February 12, 2017,
http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc-20170212-story.html; Francis Dupuis-Déri, “How
Black Blocs have changed protest movements around the world,” The Conversation, August 24, 2017,
https://theconversation.com/how-black-blocs-have-changed-protest-movements-around-the-world-
80856.
128
Kory Flowers, “Understanding the Black Bloc,” Police, January 30, 2015,
https://www.policemag.com/341767/understanding-the-black-bloc.
129
DC Media Group, Twitter post, July 4, 2022, 9:40 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/DCMediaGroup/status/1544134065800069120.

44
− June 24, 2022
Several black bloc protesters joined a larger protest in Portland, Oregon, against the
Supreme Court decision to overturn its 1973 Roe v. Wade decision legalizing
abortion. The black bloc protesters broke away from the main protest to break store
windows at Pioneer Place mall and spray paint government buildings while chanting
anti-police slogans.130

− November 19, 2021

During a protest in Portland Oregon, against Kyle Rittenhouse’s not-guilty verdict,
about 150 protesters in black bloc attire threw eggs at the Multnomash County
Justice Center and clashed with riot police. Protesters also broke windows and
chased after people leaving the Justice Center, reportedly believing they were police
at the end of their shift. Police forcefully pushed protesters back at times. Some
protesters also attacked a KATU-TV news crew and damaged a camera while
attempting to get the news crew to stop filming.131

130
Alex Zielinski, “Thousands of Portlanders Gather to Oppose End of Roe,” Portland Mercury, June 24,
2022, https://www.portlandmercury.com/news/2022/06/24/43532460/thousands-of-portlanders-gather-
to-oppose-end-of-roe.
131
Justin Yau, “Portland Crowd Eggs Justice Center, Clashes With Sheriff’s Deputies After Kyle
Rittenhouse Verdict,” Willamette Week, November 20, 2021,
https://www.wweek.com/news/courts/2021/11/20/portland-crowd-eggs-justice-center-clashes-with-
sheriffs-deputies-after-kyle-rittenhouse-verdict/; Deputies declare riot near Justice Center; KATU crew
attacked,” KATU 2 ABC, November 20, 2021, https://katu.com/news/local/police-declare-riot-near-justice-
center.

45
− November 19, 2021
A group of about 75 protesters dressed in black bloc attire as well as helmets,
shields, face coverings, and protective eyewear gathered in Seattle’s Cal Anderson
Park to protest the Kyle Rittenhouse verdict. Seattle police arrived en masse but
made no arrests and reported no significant property damage.132

− November 19, 2021

A group of approximately 40 protesters dressed in black and wearing face masks in
the style of black bloc destroy cars and American flags in Queens, New York, in
protest against the Kyle Rittenhouse verdict. One rioter also attacked a police officer
who was arresting another protester in the middle of damaging a car. Five were
arrested and charged with rioting.133

− September 4, 2021
Local Proud Boys leader Tusitala “Tiny” Toese was shot in the foot during clashes
between the Proud Boys and black bloc and antifa protesters at an anti-mask and
anti-Covid vaccination “Medical Freedom” rally in Olympia, Washington.134

132
“Small protests on Capitol Hill mark Rittenhouse acquittal in Seattle,” Capitol Hill Seattle Blog,
November 22, 2021, https://www.capitolhillseattle.com/2021/11/small-protests-on-capitol-hill-mark-
rittenhouse-acquittal-in-seattle/.
133
Dean Balsamini, Joe Marino, and Rich Calder, “Rioters wreak havoc in pro-cop NYC neighborhood after
Kyle Rittenhouse verdict,” New York Post, November 20, 2021, https://nypost.com/2021/11/20/rioters-
wreak-havoc-in-nyc-after-kyle-rittenhouse-verdict/.
134
Bethany Dawson, “Video captures a wounded Proud Boys leader who was reportedly shot following
clashes with Antifa at a COVID-19 protest,” Insider, September 5, 2021,
https://www.businessinsider.com/washington-proud-boys-leader-shot-in-antifa-clash-at-covid-19-protest-
2021-9; Zane Sparling, “Proud Boy leader ‘Tiny’ Toese held without bail on riot, assault charges in 2021
clash with left-wing protesters in east Portland,” Oregonian, last updated March 25, 2022,

46
− August 22, 2021
Approximately 30 protesters, mostly wearing black bloc-style clothing, confront a
Proud Boys “Summer of Love” rally in Newberg, Oregon. One man fired a handgun at
anti-fascist protesters who returned fire with their own guns. Some black bloc
protesters also fired air pistols at the Proud Boys, who slashed tires, broke windows,
and attacked a pickup truck driver.135

−
− May 1, 2021
A group of black bloc protesters marched on Capitol Hill in Seattle, Washington,
damaging a Starbucks and fighting with police.136

− September 23, 2020

After a Kentucky grand jury failed to bring charges against police officers in the
March 2020 killing of Breonna Taylor, a large group of protesters gathered in Seattle,
Washington, for vigils in protest. Some of the protests turned violent as

https://www.oregonlive.com/crime/2022/03/proud-boy-leader-tiny-toese-held-without-bail-on-riot-
assault-charges-in-2021-clash-with-left-wing-protesters-in-east-portland.html.
135
Jason Wilson, “Hundreds clash in Portland as Proud Boys rally descends into violence,” Guardian
(London), August 23, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/aug/23/portland-oregon-
clashes-protests-proud-boys-antifascist.
136
“May Day 2022 in Seattle: Workers’ rights, signs and marches, ‘zero arrests,’” Capitol Hill Seattle Blog,
May 2, 2022, https://www.capitolhillseattle.com/2022/05/may-day-2022-in-seattle-workers-rights-signs-
and-marches-zero-arrests/.

47
 demonstrators clashed with police, resulting in at least 13 arrests. Several people
were injured including officers and demonstrators. In March 2022, Jacob Greenberg
was sentenced to five years in prison for attacking Officer Jose Jimenez with a
baseball bat. He was also charged with arson in relation to Molotov cocktail attacks
at Seattle’s East Precinct. Danielle McMillan agreed to a plea bargain on a lesser
charge of reckless burning. Both wore black bloc attire during the 2020 protest.137

− August 2020
Protesters using black bloc tactics instigated violence and riots during
demonstrations against police brutality in Seattle, Washington.138

− June 20, 2017

Masked protesters in Washington, D.C., smashed windows at a McDonald’s and a
Starbucks, set fire to a limousine, and attacked at least one police officer during the

137
“Rage and frustration bring marches in Seattle and clash with police on Capitol Hill over Breonna
Taylor injustice — UPDATE,” Capitol Hill Seattle Blog, September 24, 2020,
https://www.capitolhillseattle.com/2020/09/rage-and-frustration-bring-marches-in-seattle-and-clash-
with-police-on-capitol-hill-over-breonna-taylor-injustice/; “Black bloc demonstrators sentenced in baseball
bat attack on cop and East Precinct fires,” Capitol Hill Seattle Blog, March 13, 2022,
https://www.capitolhillseattle.com/2022/03/black-bloc-demonstrators-sentenced-in-baseball-attack-on-
cop-and-east-precinct-fires/; “From an infamous night of protest on Capitol Hill, suspension in
investigation of cop who biked over protester’s head, plea deal in case of black bloc demonstrator
accused of baseball bat assault,” Capitol Hill Seattle Blog, December 14, 2021,
https://www.capitolhillseattle.com/2021/12/from-an-infamous-night-of-protest-on-capitol-hill-
suspension-in-investigation-of-cop-who-biked-over-protesters-head-plea-deal-in-case-of-black-bloc-
demonstrator-accused-of-baseball-bat-assault/.

138
Joseph Guzman, “Several officers injured and 18 arrested following riot in Seattle,” Hill, August 17,
2020, https://thehill.com/changing-america/respect/512380-several-officers-injured-and-18-arrested-
following-riot-in-seattle.

48
 inauguration of President Donald Trump. Some protesters carried hammers,
crowbars, bricks, rocks, flares, and firecrackers. Washington police later referred to
“black bloc” tactics used during the protest. Police arrested 231 people, 214 of
whom were linked to black bloc tactics. 139

− February 2, 2017
Ahead of a speech at University of California, Berkeley by right-wing commentator
Milo Yiannopoulos, 150 black-clad and masked protesters threw rocks, M-80 flares,
and Molotov cocktails at police and university facilities, causing $100,000 worth of
damage to the student union center and other parts of campus and injuring at least
six people. Two protesters were arrested after physically attacking two members of
College Republicans. The university canceled the speech in response. The university
largely blamed black bloc but some members of Antifa were also among the
protesters.140

139
Keith L. Alexander, “D.C. prosecutors link violent protests on Inauguration Day to ‘black bloc’ tactics,”
Washington Post, February 21, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/dc-
prosecutors-link-violent-protests-on-inauguration-day-to-black-bloc-tactics/2017/02/21/91463da0-f87d-
11e6-be05-1a3817ac21a5_story.html?utm_term=.9267c3c4e886&itid=lk_inline_manual_13.
140
Kyle Swenson, “Black-clad antifa members attack peaceful right-wing demonstrators in Berkeley,”
Washington Post, August 28, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-
mix/wp/2017/08/28/black-clad-antifa-attack-right-wing-demonstrators-in-berkeley/?noredirect=on;
Madison Park and Kyung Lah, “Berkeley protests of Yiannopoulos caused $100,000 in damage,” CNN,
February 2, 2017, https://www.cnn.com/2017/02/01/us/milo-yiannopoulos-berkeley/index.html; Paige
St. John, “Inside the black bloc militant protest movement as it rises up against Trump,” Los Angeles
Times, February 12, 2017, https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc-20170212-story.html.

49
 Rhetoric
− Anonymous black bloc protester, February 2017:
“I subscribe to self-defense in the very same sense that the Black Panther Party does
and that Malcolm X does.”141

− Anonymous black bloc protester, February 2017:

“Which means for me to recognize one type of violence, which is people being beat
up for having certain types of political views and being brazen about them, compared
to the everyday violence ... like I go through the Bay Area and there are people
sleeping in the doorways of million-dollar condos that are empty. ... Is that not
violent? That is the most cruel and violent thing I think I have ever seen.”142

− Anonymous black bloc protester after protesters targeted bank machines and a
Starbucks on the University of California, Berkeley campus, February 2017:
“Starbucks is a symbol of global capitalization.”143

Paige St. John, “Inside the black bloc militant protest movement as it rises up against Trump,” Los
141

Angeles Times, February 12, 2017, https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc-20170212-

story.html.
142
Paige St. John, “Inside the black bloc militant protest movement as it rises up against Trump,” Los
Angeles Times, February 12, 2017, https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc-20170212-
story.html.
143
Paige St. John, “Inside the black bloc militant protest movement as it rises up against Trump,” Los
Angeles Times, February 12, 2017, https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc-20170212-
story.html.

50
 Communist Party USA
Base of Operations: New York, New York, USA144
Website: https://www.cpusa.org/
Social Media Presence: Facebook, Twitter, YouTube
Leadership: CPUSA is led by co-chairs Joe Sims and Rossana
Cambron.145
Membership Size and Relevance: CPUSA is headquartered in New York
City and has 30 chapters across the United States.146 CPUSA claims to
have 2,000 to 3,000 members around the country.147 As of September 8,
2020, CPUSA had 4,730 subscribers on YouTube and 176 videos.148 As
of the same date, CPUSA had 31,500 followers on Twitter and 185,820
followers on Facebook.149 By July 20, 2022, CPUSA’s YouTube channel

144
Communist Party USA, Facebook account, accessed September 8, 2020,
https://www.facebook.com/cpusa.
145
“Remarks: CPUSA co-chair Joe Sims,” Communist Party USA, July 10, 2019,
https://www.cpusa.org/article/remarks-cpusa-co-chair-joe-sims/; John Wojcik and C.J. Atkins, “U.S.
Communists elect new leaders to begin party’s second century,” People’s World, June 25, 2019,
https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/u-s-communists-elect-new-leaders-to-begin-partys-second-
century/.
146
“Contact,” Communist Party USA, accessed July 22, 2022, https://www.cpusa.org/contact/.
147
Aidan Lewis, “The curious survival of the US Communist Party,” BBC News, May 1, 2014,
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-26126325.
148
Communist Party USA, YouTube account, accessed September 8, 2020,
https://www.youtube.com/user/TheCommunistpartyUSA.
149
Communist Party USA, Twitter account, accessed September 8, 2020,
https://twitter.com/communistsusa; Communist Party USA, Facebook account, accessed September 8,
2020, https://www.facebook.com/cpusa.

51
 had almost doubled to 8,260 subscribers.150 CPUSA’s Twitter account
had increased to 55,800 followers,151 while its Facebook account had
decreased to 183,000 followers.152

The Communist Party USA (CPUSA) is a U.S.-based communist political organization

founded in 1919 in Chicago, Illinois, to promote the interests of the American working
class.153 CPUSA formed from the merger of two breakaway groups from the Socialist
Party of America—the Communist Labor Party and the Communist Party of America.154
CPUSA purports to be a “political party for the working class” and advocates for the
implementation of socialism. According to the party’s program, the survival of the
United States depends on its transformation to socialism. CPUSA blames the capitalist
system, and the U.S. government specifically, for the exploitation of workers,
widespread oppression, the destruction of the environment, and imperialism. CPUSA
advocates socialism as the only system that can ensure human rights and peace in the
United States and around the world.155

150
Communist Party USA, YouTube account, accessed January 20, 2022,
https://www.youtube.com/user/TheCommunistpartyUSA.
151
Communist Party USA, Twitter account, accessed July 20, 2022, https://twitter.com/communistsusa.
152
Communist Party USA, Facebook account, accessed July 20, 2022, https://www.facebook.com/cpusa.
153
“Authors: Communist Party USA,” Communist Party USA, accessed September 8, 2020,
https://www.cpusa.org/authors/communist-party-usa/.
154
Daeha Ko, “Communism in Washington State,” University of Washington, accessed September 8, 2020,
https://depts.washington.edu/labhist/cpproject/ko.shtml.
155
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.

52
U.S. authorities arrested several CPUSA members during the first so-called Red Scare,
when federal authorities targeted communists between 1919 and 1921.156 Between
1949 and 1957, dozens of CPUSA members were convicted of plotting to overthrow the
U.S. government.157 Most notable among these convictions were those of Julius and
Ethel Rosenberg, CPUSA members who were convicted and executed in 1953 for
conspiring to pass U.S. nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union.158 CPUSA belonged to an
international network that advocated communism and defended the Soviet Union, the
Communist International or COMINTERN.159 In the 1950s, the CIA dubbed CPUSA a
“Russian-inspired, Moscow-dominated, anti-American, quasi-military conspiracy against
our Government, our ideal, and our freedom.”160 Today, CPUSA emphasizes its efforts in
promoting civil rights and democracy, including what it calls a “Bill of Rights” socialism
that protects civil liberties and adheres to the Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution.161

156
Daeha Ko, “Communism in Washington State,” University of Washington, accessed September 8, 2020,
https://depts.washington.edu/labhist/cpproject/ko.shtml.
157
“CPUSA - 1950s - Red Scare,” Global Security, accessed September 8, 2020,
https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/usa/government/political-parties-cpusa-07.htm.
158
Joe Helm, “Sons of executed spies Julius and Ethel Rosenberg ask Obama to exonerate their mother,”
Washington Post, December 1, 201t6, https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/sons-of-
executed-spies-julius-and-ethel-rosenberg-ask-obama-to-exonerate-mom/2016/12/01/a654c7ca-b7e6-
11e6-b8df-600bd9d38a02_story.html.
159
Emile Schepers, “A brief history of the world communist movement,” Communist Party USA, October 3,
2018, https://www.cpusa.org/article/a-brief-history-of-the-world-communist-movement/.
160
“The Communist Party of the United States of America: What It Is, How It Works – A Handbook for
Americans,” CIA, 1956, 1, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP78-
00915R000600140037-0.pdf.
161
Eric Lutz, “‘A leftward shift’: Communist party USA sees chance as progressives surge,” Guardian
(London), June 23, 1919, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/23/communist-party-usa-
chicago-cpusa-convention; Roberta Wood and Dee Miles, “Bill of Rights Socialism,” Communist Party
USA, May 1, 2016, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/socialism-in-the-usa/.

53
CPUSA refers to itself as a Marxist organization, indicating that communism is its end
goal. CPUSA’s platform posits that communism will result in “a society without
exploitation, without social classes, without war, without constant attacks on our shared
environment, and without any coercive apparatus,” while guaranteeing full democratic
freedom and the “humane development of society and the individual—for human
happiness.”162 Nonetheless, CPUSA claims to fully support democracy and the
guarantee of personal liberties, including voting rights and full democratic
representation. According to CPUSA, capitalism presents the greatest danger to
democratic freedom.163

Recruitment and Propaganda

CPUSA’s propaganda centers around combating two primary ideological enemies:
capitalism and the extreme right. According to CPUSA’s platform, the extreme right has
influenced the Republican Party and injected Islamophobia, ultra-nationalism, and
authoritarianism into the U.S. government. CPUSA accuses the Trump Administration of
being authoritarian while the extreme right seeks to use capitalism to extend its control
over the entire country. Further, CPUSA alleges the U.S. government uses the threat of
terrorism to curtail individual freedoms, including free speech and assembly.164 CPUSA
obligates all party members to fight against racist ideologies and for full political and

162
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.
163
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.
164
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.

54
social rights for all. CPUSA opposes anti-Semitism and discrimination based on race,
religion, nationality, or color.165

CPUSA offers a membership option through its website to individuals over the age of 18
who live in the United States.166 The party charges annual dues of $60 per year, or $24
per year for low-income individuals.167 CPUSA holds an annual convention for its
members168 and also supports the online magazine People’s World, though it is
published independently.169

CPUSA promotes democracy and human rights as core values. In June 2014, CPUSA
adopted a new constitution, which declared the group’s dedication to democratic
principles, particularly within its own governance. According to the constitution, CPUSA
“is of and for the U.S. working class.”170 The constitution also calls on members to vote
in all public elections and obligates all members to fight for full social and civil rights for
all—particularly immigrants and women—without regard for sexual orientation or gender
identity.171

165
“New CPUSA Constitution (final draft),” Communist Party USA, June 10, 2014,
https://cpusa.org/party_voices/draft-new-constitution/.
166
“Join Us,” Communist Party USA, accessed July 21, 2022, https://www.cpusa.org/join-us/.
167
“Pay Dues,” Communist Party USA, accessed July 21, 2022, https://www.cpusa.org/paydues/.
168
Eric Lutz, “‘A leftward shift’: Communist party USA sees chance as progressives surge,” Guardian
(London), June 23, 1919, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/23/communist-party-usa-
chicago-cpusa-convention.
169
“About People’s World,” People’s World, accessed September 8, 2020,
https://www.peoplesworld.org/about-the-peoples-world/.
170
“CPUSA Constitution,” Communist Party USA, September 20, 2014,
https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/cpusa-constitution/.
171
“CPUSA Constitution,” Communist Party USA, September 20, 2014,
https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/cpusa-constitution/.

55
CPUSA propaganda presents capitalism as the greatest danger to democratic
freedom.172 According to CPUSA, capitalism is responsible for “endless wars” and
“institutionalizes racism and women’s oppression” while fueling discrimination against
minorities.173 The greatest driver of capitalism is the United States. While CPUSA
pledges its support to democracy, it accuses the United States of threatening the world
peace and even the future existence of humanity through its policies. CPUSA’s solution
is to transform the United States into a socialist society.174

Citing its support for human rights, CPUSA has also taken a critical position of Israel
and Zionism, labeling Zionism a “virulent form of racism” supported by U.S. and British
imperialism.175 While CPUSA has condemned the violent extremism of Hamas and
Hezbollah, its statements acknowledge Hamas as a legitimate political representative
of the Palestinian people and minimize the role Hamas and Hezbollah terrorism play in
instigating Israeli military responses. At the core of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,
according to CPUSA, is Israel’s “systematic denial of Palestinian rights and the

172
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.
173
“CPUSA Constitution,” Communist Party USA, September 20, 2014,
https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/cpusa-constitution/.
174
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.
175
Gary Hicks, “Convention Discussion: Zionism is a form of racism, and racism has no place in our
Communist Party!,” Communist Party USA, April 20, 2010,
https://www.cpusa.org/party_voices/convention-discussion-zionism-is-a-form-of-racism/.

56
unrelenting campaign to destroy the political and civic institutions and economic
infrastructure in the West Bank and Gaza.”176

Violent Activities
− CPUSA is not linked to recent specific acts of violence.

Rhetoric
− CPUSA statement, May 12, 2021:
“The capitalist world stays silent in the face of the many crimes being committed by
the Israeli regime, but we must speak up.”177

− CPUSA Program, April 13, 2020:

“There is growing recognition that U.S. policies threaten not only world peace and
the environment but the very existence of humanity.”178

176
“The Middle East in Crisis,” Communist Party USA, July 28, 2006, https://www.cpusa.org/article/the-
middle-east-in-crisis/.
177
“Demand action against Israeli attack on Gaza,” Communist Party USA, May 12, 2021,
https://cpusa.org/article/demand-action-against-israeli-attack-on-gaza/.
178
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.

57
− CPUSA Program, April 13, 2020:
“U.S. imperialism is home to the bulk of the dominant transnational corporations. It
seeks control over the entire world, including over other imperialist powers. Under
extreme right political leadership, U.S. imperialism has immense instruments for
winning its aims—ranging from its direct military power to its various means of
economic domination and political pressure, from sanctions to bribery to ideological
attacks. But even with all of these instruments, U.S. domination is slowly
weakening.”179

− CPUSA Program, April 13, 2020:

“The problems facing humankind—of exploitation, oppression, environmental
degradation and human survival—can only be solved, ultimately, by the elimination of
the exploitative system of capitalism. Our survival depends on a transformation to
socialism.”180

− CPUSA Program, April 13, 2020:

“Exploitation of workers for profit is inherent in capitalism and causes or
exacerbates all the major social and environmental ills of our times.”181

179
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.
180
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.
181
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.

58
− CPUSA Program, April 13, 2020:
“The appeal of a communist society is a response to the real human needs of the
masses of people. Communism will enable people to set aside worries about health
care and education, about losing their livelihood and their dignity. Communism will
eliminate the economic insecurity of the masses of working people. Instead, it will
offer us the opportunity to reach our full human potential.”182

− CPUSA Program, April 13, 2020:

“U.S. colonialism has forced Puerto Rico’s economy into dependency. For Puerto
Ricans to exercise their right to independence they must be able to break with the
colonial dependency forced on them by the U.S.; otherwise independence would be a
sham. We support the full transfer of all powers to the Puerto Rican nation and
monetary compensation with no strings attached to Puerto Rico to make up for the
super-exploitation of Puerto Ricans and for colonial oppression.”183

− CPUSA Program, April 13, 2020:

“As a result of U.S. aggression throughout the Middle East, especially in Afghanistan
and Iraq, a substantial majority of Arabs, Muslims, and South Asian peoples in the
U.S. have become active opponents of the extreme right. The U.S. has close
relationships with the most reactionary forces in the region, supports Israeli

182
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.
183
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.

59
 occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, refuses to accept the rights of the
Palestinian people to form their own autonomous state, and demonizes Muslims.”184

− CPUSA Constitution, June 14, 2014:

“Capitalism has cast billions of people around the world into poverty. It afflicts
humanity with endless wars. It institutionalizes racism and women’s oppression,
denies youth the hope of a future, and fuels discrimination against gay, lesbian and
transgender people, religious minorities, immigrants and people with disabilities.
Capitalism pits worker against worker in a global race to the bottom. Corporate
interests wage a never-ending campaign to roll back people’s hard-won democratic
rights. Capitalism’s insatiable drive for profits has poisoned the Earth’s land, sea,
and air. Capitalism treats people and nature as disposable commodities in order to
transfer the wealth of the planet to a handful of multi-billionaires.”185

− CPUSA convention discussion, April 20, 2010:

“Yet somehow the ideological seepage of racism has slipped under our doors and
into our lives in the form of kowtowing to Zionism, the all-sided political-theoretical-
ideological and organizational justification -backed by United States and British
imperialism – for the historical oppression of the Palestinian people, and the theft of
their land.
“Zionism is more than bourgeois nationalism; it is a virulent form of racism. It was

184
“CPUSA Program,” Communist Party USA, April 13, 2020, https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/party-
program/#Capitalism.
185
“CPUSA Constitution,” Communist Party USA, September 20, 2014,
https://www.cpusa.org/party_info/cpusa-constitution/.

60
 racism early on when – at the end of the 1800s – Theodor Herzl, one of its major
ideologues, wrote Die Judenstaat, essentially a fundraising proposal addressed to
British colonialist Cecil Rhodes, stating that since the Jewish population of Europe
has not, does not, never will get along with non-Jews, then the Jews should be given
land on which to create a society of like people. Even then, the political forces
around Herzl and others were settling in what was historically called Palestine, and
buying Palestinian land from Turks who had generations earlier stolen it from the
inhabitants. The history of Zionism has since been an orgy of land-grabbing, largely
by military means, resulting in the displacement of original owners –
Palestinians.”186

− CPUSA convention discussion, April 20, 2010:

“To reiterate and conclude: Zionism is a form of racism, and racism has no place in
our Communist Party.”187

− CPUSA statement, July 4, 2006:

“Apparently waiting for an excuse to try and overthrow the Hamas government, Israels
aggressive acts have moved events further from a peaceful settlement.”188

186
Gary Hicks, “Convention Discussion: Zionism is a form of racism, and racism has no place in our
Communist Party!,” Communist Party USA, April 20, 2010,
https://www.cpusa.org/party_voices/convention-discussion-zionism-is-a-form-of-racism/.
187
Gary Hicks, “Convention Discussion: Zionism is a form of racism, and racism has no place in our
Communist Party!,” Communist Party USA, April 20, 2010,
https://www.cpusa.org/party_voices/convention-discussion-zionism-is-a-form-of-racism/.
188
“Communist Party Statement on Crisis in Palestine,” Communist Party USA, July 4, 2006,
https://www.cpusa.org/article/communist-party-statement-on-crisis-in-palestine/.

61
− CPUSA statement, January 22, 2002:
“In the midst of this growing right-wing danger, both the Israeli and the U.S.
governments are cynically exploiting the attacks of September 11 to reframe the
Palestinian struggle for liberation as nothing more than ‘terrorism’. But no amount of
Zionist propaganda can conceal the true history and ideology behind this
conflict.”189

Earth Liberation Front

Base of Operations: International.
Website: Not determined.
Social Media Presence: Not determined.
Leadership: ELF is a leaderless organization.190

189
“The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: Prospects for Peace,” Communist Party USA, January 22, 2002,
https://www.cpusa.org/article/the-israeli-palestinian-conflict-prospects-for-peace/.
190
“Frequently Asked Questions About the North American Animal Liberation Press Office,” North
American Animal Liberation Press Office, accessed August 5, 2020,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/f-a-q-s/#2.

62
 Membership Size and Relevance: ELF does not maintain membership
records. It is decentralized into anonymous, autonomous cells to prevent
infiltration by law enforcement and accused animal abusers.191 ELF cells
act independently of each other192

In December 2001, domestic terrorism section chief of the FBI, James

Jarboe, called ALF and ELF “the No. 1 priority in the domestic terrorism
program.”193 In congressional testimony in 2004, John Lewis, deputy
assistant director of the FBI Counterterrorism Division, called the
investigation of animal rights extremists and ecoterrorism matters the
FBI’s highest domestic terrorism investigative priority.194 The ELF was
the subject of a 2011 documentary film called “If a Tree Falls: A Story of
the Earth Liberation Front,” which documented the group’s ideology and
terrorist tactics.195

191
“Frequently Asked Questions About the North American Animal Liberation Press Office,” North
American Animal Liberation Press Office, accessed August 5, 2020,
https://animalliberationpressoffice.org/NAALPO/f-a-q-s/#2.
192
North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, “Frequently Asked Questions About The Earth
Liberation Front,” Internet Archive, March 18, 2012, 2,
https://archive.org/details/FrequentlyAskedQuestionsAboutTheEarthLiberationFront.
193
Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/.
194
Sivan Hirsch-Hoefler and Cas Mudde, “Ecoterrorism: threat or political ploy?,” Washington Post,
December 19, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-
cage/wp/2014/12/19/ecoterrorism-threat-or-political-ploy/.
195
John Anderson, “Activist or Terrorist, Rendered in Red, White and Green,” New York Times, June 8,
2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/12/movies/if-a-tree-falls-documentary-by-marshall-curry.html,

63
The Earth Liberation Front (ELF) is an ecoterrorist group made up of autonomous cells
that carry out attacks on those the group accuses of damaging the environment. ELF
emerged in 1992 in Brighton, England, as an offshoot of the British Earth First
movement. ELF began operations in the United States later that decade with an October
1996 arson attack on a U.S. Forest Service truck in Oregon.196

ELF’s primary tactic is arson. It has set fire to research labs, homes, and businesses.
ELF has also engaged in vandalism, including breaking windows and graffiti.197 Between
1996 and 2002, the FBI estimated that ELF and the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) were
together responsible for some 600 criminal acts in the United States totaling more than
$42 million in damages.198 Between 1995 and 2010, ELF was responsible for 55 percent
of 239 arson and bombing attacks recorded by the Department of Homeland security
and attributed to environmental terrorists.199 Specifically, a cell of ELF and ALF

196
North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, “Frequently Asked Questions About The Earth
Liberation Front,” Internet Archive, March 18, 2012, 1,
https://archive.org/details/FrequentlyAskedQuestionsAboutTheEarthLiberationFront; “ECO-TERRORISM
SPECIFICALLY EXAMINING THE EARTH LIBERATION FRONT AND THE ANIMAL LIBERATION FRONT –
HEARING BEFORE THE COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND PUBLIC WORKS UNITED STATES SENATE
ONE HUNDRED NINTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION,” Govinfo, May 18, 2005,
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-109shrg32209/html/CHRG-109shrg32209.htm.
197
John Stossel, “Give Me a Break: E.L.F. and Arson,” New York Times, January 6, 2006,
https://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=124096&page=1; Al Baker, “Police Say an Anti-Sprawl Group
Burned New Long Island Homes,” New York Times, January 3, 2001,
https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/03/nyregion/police-say-an-anti-sprawl-group-burned-new-long-island-
homes.html.
198
Testimony of Dale L. Watson, Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence
Division
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC , FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.
199
Steven M. Chermak, Joshua Freilich, Celinet Duran, and William S. Parkin, “An Overview of Bombing
and

64
members known as “the Family” were responsible for a series of fires between 1995
and 2001.200 The group set approximately 20 fires in Oregon, Washington, California,
Wyoming, and Colorado blamed by federal investigators on the Family. The alleged
ringleader, William C. Rodgers, a.k.a. Avalon, was arrested in December 2005 and
committed suicide in an Arizona jail that month.201

After the 9/11 terror attacks, the FBI focused its efforts on domestic terrorist threats,
while corporate lobbying pushed the government to take decisive action against
ecoterrorists specifically. The FBI labeled ELF a domestic terrorist organization and the
Justice Department began a campaign pursuing ecoterrorists as the nation’s top
domestic terrorist threat.202 ELF mouthpiece North American Earth Liberation Front

Arson Attacks by Environmental and Animal Rights Extremists in the United States, 1995-2010,” Final
Report to the Resilient Systems Division, Science and Technology Directorate, U.S. Department of
Homeland Security, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/OPSR_TP_TEVUS_Bombing-
Arson-Attacks_Environmental-Animal%20Rights-Extremists_1309-508.pdf.
200
Conrad Wilson, “Eco-activist and former international fugitive Joseph Dibee pleads guilty in 1997
Oregon arson,” OPB, April 21, 2022, https://www.opb.org/article/2022/04/21/joseph-dibee-
environmental-terrorism-oregon-washington-earth-liberation-front-animal/.
201
Associated Press, “2 plead guilty in 1998 arson of Vail ski resort; attack caused $12M in damage,” USA
Today, December 14, 2006, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-12-14-vail-arsons_x.htm;
Vanessa Grigoriadis, “The Rise and Fall of the Eco-Radical Underground,” Rolling Stone, June 21, 2011,
https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-eco-radical-underground-
245345/.
202
Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/; Juliet Eilperin, “As eco-terrorism
wanes, governments still target activist groups seen as threat,” Washington Post, March 10, 2012,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/as-eco-terrorism-wanes-governments-still-
target-activist-groups-seen-as-threat/2012/02/28/gIQAA4Ay3R_story.html; Testimony of Dale L. Watson,
Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence Division
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC, FBI,
February 6, 2002, https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-
united-states.

65
Press Office (NAELFPO) called the FBI’s focus on the ELF a “clear sign that the ELF is
successfully threatening that nation state which is destroying life on the planet.”203

ELF no longer carries out as many actions as it did in the 1990s or early 2000s, but
federal agencies continue to be vigilant of the group.204 In April 2022, Joseph Mahmoud
Dibee pleaded guilty to involvement in multiple arsons committed by a cell of ELF and
ALF members known as “the Family.” Dibee was arrested in 2018 and his case renewed
public interest in the group.205

Recruitment and Propaganda

The North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office (NAELFPO) distributed press
materials on behalf of the ELF. The NAELFPO claimed to be “a legal, above ground news
service dedicated to exposing the political and social motives behind the direct actions

203
North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, “Frequently Asked Questions About The Earth
Liberation Front,” Internet Archive, March 18, 2012, 31,
https://archive.org/details/FrequentlyAskedQuestionsAboutTheEarthLiberationFront.
204
Kristina Davis, “Ecoterror arsons unsolved 10 years later,” San Diego Union-Tribune, September 14,
2013, https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/public-safety/sdut-ecoterror-arsons-elf-fbi-
2013sep14-htmlstory.html; Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/.
205
“Pacific Northwest Environmental Extremist and Arsonist Pleads Guilty,” U.S. Department of Justice,
April 22, 2022, https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/pacific-northwest-environmental-extremist-and-arsonist-
pleads-guilty; Christine Chung, “Man Who Fled U.S. in 2005 Pleads Guilty to Environmental Arson
Conspiracies,” New York Times, April 25, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/25/us/joseph-dibee-
environmental-arson-fugitive.html; Sam Raskin, “‘Environmental extremist’ group leader Joseph Dibee
pleads guilty to arson,” New York Post, April 24, 2022, https://nypost.com/2022/04/24/environmental-
extremist-joseph-dibee-pleads-guilty-to-arson/; Conrad Wilson, “Trial Will Decide Who Can Be Labeled A
Domestic Terrorist,” NPR, July 6, 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/07/06/1013496140/trial-will-decide-
who-can-be-labeled-a-domestic-terrorist.

66
of the ELF.”206 The NAELFPO admitted public support for the ELF and “acts of economic
sabotage against those who profit from the destruction of the natural environment.”207
Craig Rosebraugh and Leslie James Pickering founded the NAELFPO in 1999.
Rosebraugh became known as the national spokesman for the ELF until he stepped
down in the early 2000s while claiming disappointment with the escalation of the
group’s recent attacks.208 The NAELFPO’s website is now offline.

Violent Activities
− March 3, 2008
Five “green” luxury homes were destroyed or heavily damaged by arson in Maltby,
Washington. ELF signs were found at the site. There were no reported casualties.209

− August 1, 2003
Suspected ELF members set fire to the construction site of a University City housing
project in San Diego, California, resulting in $50 million worth of damage. It was the

206
North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, “Frequently Asked Questions About The Earth
Liberation Front,” Internet Archive, March 18, 2012,
https://archive.org/details/FrequentlyAskedQuestionsAboutTheEarthLiberationFront.
207
North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, “Frequently Asked Questions About The Earth
Liberation Front,” Internet Archive, March 18, 2012,
https://archive.org/details/FrequentlyAskedQuestionsAboutTheEarthLiberationFront.
208
Bryan Denson, “Once the ‘Face of Eco-Terrorism,’ former Portlander Craig Rosebraugh is now lawyer,
filmmaker,” Oregonian, last updated January 10, 2019,
https://www.oregonlive.com/portland/2013/03/once_the_face_of_eco-terrorism.html.
209
William Yardley, “Ecoterrorism Suspected in House Fires in Seattle Suburb,” New York Times, March 4,
2008, https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/04/us/04homes.html.

67
 costliest act of ecoterrorism in the United States. ELF banners were found at the
scene. There were no reported casualties.210
−
− October 2001
Joseph Mahmoud Dibee and others attempted to destroy the U.S. Bureau of Land
Management’s Wild Horse Corrals, a government-owned facility used to remove wild
horses from public lands located near Litchfield, California. The attack destroyed a
barn and its contents.211
−
− January 2, 2001
ELF members set fire to Superior Lumber Company in Glendale, Oregon, causing
$400,000 in damages. There were reported no casualties.212

− January 2001
ELF members set fire to new homes under construction in Suffolk County, Long
Island, New York. The homes were constructed on what was previously farmland.
There were no reported casualties.213

210
Kristina Davis, “Ecoterror arsons unsolved 10 years later,” San Diego Union-Tribune, September 14,
2013, https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/public-safety/sdut-ecoterror-arsons-elf-fbi-
2013sep14-htmlstory.html.
211
“Pacific Northwest Environmental Extremist and Arsonist Pleads Guilty,” U.S. Department of Justice,
April 21, 2022, https://www.justice.gov/usao-or/pr/pacific-northwest-environmental-extremist-and-
arsonist-pleads-guilty.
212
Mindy Sink, “Radicals Take Responsibility for Burning Oregon Timber Office,” New York Times, January
11, 2001, https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/11/us/radicals-take-responsibility-for-burning-oregon-
timber-office.html.
213
John Stossel, “Give Me a Break: E.L.F. and Arson,” New York Times, January 6, 2006,
https://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=124096&page=1; Al Baker, “Police Say an Anti-Sprawl Group

68
− November 2000
ELF claimed credit for burning down a $2 million home under construction in
Colorado. There were reported no casualties.214

− October 19, 1998

Members of ALF and ELF, known as “the Family,” ignited diesel firebombs at the
Two Elk Resort in Vail Mountain, Colorado, destroying the lodge. ELF claims told the
fire was intended to deter development in Blue Sky Basin, which they said was
habitat for the Canada lynx. In December 2006, two of the conspirators, Chelsea
Dawn Gerlach and Stanislas Gregory Meyerhoff, pleaded guilty to federal arson
charges. Another conspirator, Rebecca Rubin, fled to Canada. After five years as a
fugitive, Rubin turned herself over to the FBI in November 2012. In February 2014,
Rubin was sentenced to five years in prison. Josephine Sunshine Overaker remains
at large. Authorities believe she fled to Europe.215

Burned New Long Island Homes,” New York Times, January 3, 2001,
https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/03/nyregion/police-say-an-anti-sprawl-group-burned-new-long-island-
homes.html.
214
Mindy Sink, “Radicals Take Responsibility for Burning Oregon Timber Office,” New York Times, January
11, 2001, https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/11/us/radicals-take-responsibility-for-burning-oregon-
timber-office.html.
215
Associated Press, “2 plead guilty in 1998 arson of Vail ski resort; attack caused $12M in damage,” USA
Today, December 14, 2006, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-12-14-vail-arsons_x.htm;
Randy Wyrick, “Two Elk eco-terrorist sentenced to prison,” Post Independent, February 2, 2014,
https://www.postindependent.com/news/local/two-elk-eco-terrorist-sentenced-to-prison/; “MOST
WANTED –JOSEPHINE SUNSHINE OVERAKER,” FBI, accessed June 16, 2022,
https://www.fbi.gov/wanted/dt/josephine-sunshine-overaker; “Pacific Northwest Environmental

69
− November 29, 1997
ELF members released wild horses and burned down a Bureau of Land Management
Horse Corral in Oregon, causing approximately $450,000 in damage. There were no
reported casualties.216

− July 21, 1997

Joseph Mahmoud Dibee and other members of ELF and ALF destroyed the Cavel
West Meat Packing Plant in Redmond, Oregon, causing $1.2 million in damages. In
April 2022, Dibee pleaded guilty to arson and conspiracy to commit arson in the
District of Oregon and conspiracy to commit arson in the Eastern District of
California.217
−

− October 1996
ELF activists carry out an arson attack on a U.S. Forest Service truck in Oregon. 218

Extremist and Arsonist Pleads Guilty,” U.S. Department of Justice, April 22, 2022,
https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/pacific-northwest-environmental-extremist-and-arsonist-pleads-guilty.
216
North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, “Frequently Asked Questions About The Earth
Liberation Front,” Internet Archive, March 18, 2012, 1,
https://archive.org/details/FrequentlyAskedQuestionsAboutTheEarthLiberationFront.
217
“Pacific Northwest Environmental Extremist and Arsonist Pleads Guilty,” U.S. Department of Justice,
April 21, 2022, https://www.justice.gov/usao-or/pr/pacific-northwest-environmental-extremist-and-
arsonist-pleads-guilty; Zane Sparling, “Suspected Earth Liberation Front arsonist captured after 12 years
on the run,” Portland Tribune, August 10, 2018, https://pamplinmedia.com/pt/9-news/403164-300186-
suspected-earth-liberation-front-arsonist-captured-after-12-years-on-the-run.
218
“ECO-TERRORISM SPECIFICALLY EXAMINING THE EARTH LIBERATION FRONT AND THE ANIMAL
LIBERATION FRONT – HEARING BEFORE THE COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND PUBLIC WORKS

70
 Rhetoric
− Craig Rosebraugh, ELF spokesman, October 2001:
“If the U.S. government is truly concerned with eradicating terrorism in the world,
then that effort must begin with abolishing U.S. imperialism. Members of this
governing body, both in the House and Senate as well as those who hold positions in
the executive branch, constitute the largest group of terrorists and terrorist
representatives currently threatening life on this planet.”219

− ELF banner left at arson site in California, September 2003:

“Environmental murder. Nature demands justice. The E.L.F.s are mad.” 220

− ELF banner left at site of firebombed construction site in San Diego, California,
August 1, 2003:
“If you build it, we will burn it. The E.L.F.s are mad.” 221

UNITED STATES SENATE ONE HUNDRED NINTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION,” Govinfo, May 18, 2005,
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-109shrg32209/html/CHRG-109shrg32209.htm.
219
Alleen Brown, “The Green Scare,” Intercept, March 23, 2019,
https://theintercept.com/2019/03/23/ecoterrorism-fbi-animal-rights/.
220
Kristina Davis, “Ecoterror arsons unsolved 10 years later,” San Diego Union-Tribune, September 14,
2013, https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/public-safety/sdut-ecoterror-arsons-elf-fbi-
2013sep14-htmlstory.html.
221
Kristina Davis, “Ecoterror arsons unsolved 10 years later,” San Diego Union-Tribune, September 14,
2013, https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/public-safety/sdut-ecoterror-arsons-elf-fbi-
2013sep14-htmlstory.html.

71
− Frequently Asked Questions about the Earth Liberation Front, North American ELF
Press Office, 2001:
“This hypocrisy and genocide against the horse nation will not go unchallenged! The
practice of rounding up and auctioning wild horses must be stopped.”222

− Frequently Asked Questions about the Earth Liberation Front, North American ELF
Press Office, 2001:
“The choice to use economic sabotage is a very deliberate and purposeful strategy
to target the real underlying threat to life – the quest for profit and power. The ELF
does not engage in state sanctioned tactics or those which physically harm people
or life in general due to the group’s belief that economic sabotage is the best, most
direct way to take the profit motive out of destroying the planet.”223

− Frequently Asked Questions about the Earth Liberation Front, North American ELF
Press Office, 2001:
“The real violence and danger comes from businesses clear-cutting forests and
destroying ecosystems, from pollutants carelessly pumped into our air by industrial
and consumer society, from water being poisoned to the point of being undrinkable,
by people eating commercially grown non-organic food, and many, many more. Very
often by labeling the ELF as violent it is a means by which mainstream society,

222
North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, “Frequently Asked Questions About The Earth
Liberation Front,” Internet Archive, March 18, 2012, 2,
https://archive.org/details/FrequentlyAskedQuestionsAboutTheEarthLiberationFront.
223
North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, “Frequently Asked Questions About The Earth
Liberation Front,” Internet Archive, March 18, 2012, 28,
https://archive.org/details/FrequentlyAskedQuestionsAboutTheEarthLiberationFront.

72
 government, and big business can attempt to forget about the real true violence
which occurs everyday, the violence against life.”224

Independent Media Center

Base of Operations: IndyMedia initially launched in Seattle, Washington,
but has since grown into an international network of linked-but-
independent sites.225
Website: https://indymedia.org/ is the network’s primary website.
Social Media Presence: The IndyMedia network maintains multiple
accounts on Twitter and Facebook. The primary IndyMedia site also
maintains a Facebook account.
Leadership: Each IndyMedia site is independently run. There is no
leadership structure in place.
Membership Size and Relevance: The IndyMedia network has more than
60 affiliated websites around the world.226

Independent Media Center (a.k.a. IndyMedia or IMC) is a loose international network of

far-left news websites that international legal authorities accuse of promoting violence

224
North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, “Frequently Asked Questions About The Earth
Liberation Front,” Internet Archive, March 18, 2012, 28,
https://archive.org/details/FrequentlyAskedQuestionsAboutTheEarthLiberationFront.
225
Homepage, Independent Media Center, accessed August 14, 2020, https://indymedia.org/.
226
Homepage, Independent Media Center, accessed August 14, 2020, https://indymedia.org/.

73
in pursuit of anti-globalist and anti-capitalist positions. U.S., Swiss, British, and other
European authorities have all taken legal action against affiliated IMC sites for
promoting violence.227

In 2004, the FBI shut down 20 U.S.-based IndyMedia sites at the request of European
police, though the exact reason was not made clear to journalists.228 European far-left
militant groups such as Greece’s Revolutionary Self-Defense have used Indymedia
websites to post claims of responsibility for terrorist attacks.229 In December 2014,
Nikos Maziotis, the jailed leader of Greek guerilla group Revolutionary Struggle, posted a
document on IndyMedia entitled “Elections are not the answer, armed struggle is.”230
The German government linked IMC’s Germany platform, Linksunten.indymedia.org, to
violent protests at the 2017 G20 summit and shut down the site for “sowing hate
against different opinions and representatives of the country.”231 In December 2017,
IndyMedia posted pictures of 54 German police officers in response to a police

227
“US seizes independent media sites,” BBC News, October 11, 2004,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3732718.stm.
228
“US seizes independent media sites,” BBC News, October 11, 2004,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3732718.stm.
229
“Guerrilla group claims responsibility for attack at French embassy in Athens,” Reuters, November 14,
2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-france-diplomacy-attack/guerrilla-group-claims-
responsibility-for-attack-at-french-embassy-in-athens-idUSKBN1392M6.
230
“Greek Police Fear Politicians, Judges Targets,” National Herald, December 16, 2014,
https://www.thenationalherald.com/69107/greek-police-fear-politicians-judges-now-terrorist-next-
targets/.
231
Ben Knight, “Interior Ministry shuts down, raids left-wing German Indymedia site,” Deutsche Welle,
August 25, 2017, https://www.dw.com/en/interior-ministry-shuts-down-raids-left-wing-german-
indymedia-site/a-40232965; Chloe Farand and Jon Stone, “Germany bans far-left extremist online
platform accused of inciting violence at G20 summit in Hamburg,” Independent (London), August 25,
2017, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/germany-far-left-extremists-g20-summit-
hamburg-violence-incite-online-platform-linksunten-a7913066.html.

74
investigation of the G20 protests earlier that year. The authors asked for information
regarding where the officers lived or “could be met privately.”232 In January 2019, the
European far-left militant Group of Popular fighters posted a claim of responsibility for a
December 17, 2018, bombing on IndyMedia.233 After banning IndyMedia in 2017,
German Interior Minister Thomas de Maizière accused the network of inciting violence
and spreading criminal content. He called the network the “most influential online
platform for vicious left-wing extremists in Germany.”234
As of July 22, 2022, IndyMedia’s main website remained active but with a message that
it is being rebuilt. Several of the page’s links to international and regional U.S.-affiliated
pages were dead. Others had not been updated in months or years. Some of the
affiliated sites did, however, have new content, primarily about women’s rights and the
Supreme Court’s decision to overturn Roe v. Wade.235

232
“Far-left post photos of police officers online, leading to accusation of ‘terrorism,’” The Local,
December 18, 2017, https://www.thelocal.de/20171218/far-left-lash-out-at-police-by-posting-photos-of-
them-online.
233
Niki Kitsantonis, “Greek Militants Say They Bombed Media Offices to Protest ‘Capitalist’ Agenda,” New
York Times, January 9, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/09/world/europe/greece-bombing-
group-of-popular-fighters.html.
234
Edmund Heaphy, “Germany, in a First, Shuts Down Left-Wing Extremist Website,” New York Times,
August 25, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/25/world/europe/germany-bans-far-left-antifa-
website.html.
235
Homepage, Independent Media Center, accessed July 22, 2022, https://indymedia.org/.

75
 Recruitment and Propaganda
IndyMedia bills itself as “a network of collectively run media outlets for the creation of
radical, accurate, and passionate tellings of the truth.” 236 The main IndyMedia site
allows visitors to publish content.

Violent Activities
− IndyMedia itself has not executed violent attacks, but the network stands accused of
fomenting violence through propaganda, primarily in Europe. For example, after
violent protests at the G20 summit in Hamburg, Germany, in August 2017, German
Interior Minister Thomas de Maizière accused IndyMedia of mobilizing violent
protesters. Germany banned IndyMedia soon after.237 IndyMedia website continue to
post calls for rioting and criminal acts.238 Violent far-left groups have also used the
IndyMedia platforms to publicize their own violent activities. For example, French
anarchist group Révolte Anarchiste des Gendarmes Exilés (Anarchist Revolt Against
Exiled Gendarmes) claimed responsibility on a French IndyMedia site for an arson
attack on a police parking lot in September 2017.239

236
“About IndyMedia,” Independent Media Center, accessed November 20, 2018,
https://indymedia.org/en/static/about.shtml.
237
Edmund Heaphy, “Germany, in a First, Shuts Down Left-Wing Extremist Website,” New York Times,
August 25, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/25/world/europe/germany-bans-far-left-antifa-
website.html.
238
Simon Osborne, “Far left extremists urge riots, looting and violent uprising amid coronavirus chaos,”
Express (London), March 19, 2020, https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1257518/coronavirus-
germany-far-left-extremists-riot-looting-violence.
239
Henry Samuel, “Ultra-Left group torch 50 police vehicles on day of anti-Macron protests,” Telegraph
(London), September 21, 2017, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/09/21/ultra-left-group-torch-50-
police-vehicles-day-anti-macron-protests/.

76
 Rhetoric
− Statement on state oppression of Indymedia sites, September 28, 2017:
“For years, the sites in the Indymedia network have, among other things, lent visibility
to the political nature of direct action. This new attack against free media outlets
seeks to silence radical political opposition, and to criminalize the collectives and
individuals who would communicate their political objectives without the distorting
filter of traditional media outlets. This attack must also be viewed in light of the
raids that, this week, targeted the anti-nuclear activists at Bure. Their computers,
along with the photocopier that they had been using to print flyers were seized by
the police. All means seem to have been mobilized to repress the autonomous
expression of movements of struggle.”240

− Statement on the German government shutdown of Linksunten Indymedia, August

28, 2017:
“On August 25, the German government raided and shut down Linksunten
Indymedia, an integral part of the global Independent Media Center network, and the
most widely used German-language platform for radical politics and organizing. In
Freiburg, riot police seized computers and harassed those they accuse of
maintaining the site, justifying their actions on the grounds that the alleged
administrators constitute an illegal organization intent on destroying the German

240
“State Repression Against IMC Grenoble and IMC Nantes,” Independent Media Center, September 28,
2017, https://indymedia.org/or/2017/09/988319.shtml.

77
 Constitution. This represents a massive escalation in state repression against what
the authorities call ‘left-wing extremism,’ disingenuously suggesting an equivalence
between those who seek to build communities beyond the reach of state violence
and Neo-Nazis organizing to carry out attacks and murders.”241

Jane’s Revenge
Base of Operations: Jane’s Revenge’s first arson took place in Madison,
Wisconsin, but the group has claimed to be “all over the US.”242
Website: Not determined.
Social Media Presence: Not determined.
Leadership: Jane’s Revenge has no known hierarchal structure. Its
messaging support autonomous networks and the group’s driving
leadership has not publicly revealed itself.243
Membership Size and Relevance: Jane’s Revenge began releasing
statements and claiming credit for arsons and vandalism in May 2022.
While the first arson on May 8 was covered in the New York Times and
local media, the group has since largely been covered nationally by Fox
News and other right-wing media. Since the Supreme Court overturned

241
“GERMAN GOVERNMENT SHUTS DOWN LINKSUNTEN INDYMEDIA: WHAT IT MEANS AND WHAT TO
DO,” Independent Media Center, August 28, 2017, https://indymedia.org/or/2017/08/988264.shtml.
242
Robert Evans, Twitter post, May 10, 2022, 3:24 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/IwriteOK/status/1523926979333918720.
243
Jane’s Revenge, “Jane’s Revenge – Night of Rage,” Anarchist Federation, May 31, 2022,
https://www.anarchistfederation.net/janes-revenge-night-of-rage/.

78
 Roe v. Wade on June 24, 2022, the group’s national profile has risen
among other media sources as well.244

Jane’s Revenge is a militant pro-abortion rights group that emerged after the May 2022
leak of a U.S. Supreme Court draft opinion overturning its 1973 Roe v. Wade decision,
which established abortion as a constitutional right.245 Ahead of the Supreme Court’s
decision to overturn Roe v. Wade the following month, Jane’s Revenge issued warnings
of violent responses. The group has since claimed responsibility for acts of vandalism
and fire bombings of anti-abortion offices and clinics. The name is a reference to the
Jane Collective, an underground organization in Chicago that helped women obtain
abortions prior to the 1973 decision.246

A May 6, 2022, public leak of a draft opinion in the Supreme Court case Dobbs v.
Jackson Women’s Health Organization revealed the court’s intention to overturn the
landmark 1973 case of Roe v. Wade. The draft ruling determined that it was up to

244
Luke Vander Ploeg and Addison Lathers, “Anti-Abortion Group in Wisconsin Is Hit by Arson, Authorities
Say,” New York Times, May 8, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/08/us/madison-anti-abortion-
center-vandalized.html; Alice Reid, “Report: Group claims credit for Madison anti-abortion office attack,
warns of more,” NBC 26, May 11, 2022, https://www.nbc26.com/news/state/report-group-claims-credit-
for-madison-anti-abortion-office-attack-warns-of-more; Adam Sabes, “Minnesota pregnancy center
vandalized by ‘Jane’s Revenge’: ‘We should’ve done more,’” Fox News, June 17, 2022,
https://www.foxnews.com/us/minnesota-pregnancy-center-vandalized-janes-revenge.
245
Jack Dutton, “What Is Jane’s Revenge? Abortion Rights Group Vows ‘Night of Rage’ Over Roe,”
Newsweek, June 24, 2022, https://www.newsweek.com/what-janes-revenge-abortion-rights-group-vows-
night-rage-over-roe-1718919.
246
Judith Levine, “Beyond Revenge, What Does Jane’s Revenge Want?,” Intercept, June 16, 2022,
https://theintercept.com/2022/06/16/janes-revenge-abortion-rights/.

79
individual states to decide whether to make abortion legal.247 On May 8, the Madison,
Wisconsin, office of the anti-abortion Wisconsin Family Action was set on fire after a
Molotov cocktail thrown through a window failed to ignite. Police also found graffiti that
read, “If abortions aren’t safe then you aren’t either.” The building was empty at the time
and no injuries were reported.248 On May 10, a group calling itself Jane’s Revenge sent a
message to Bellingcat’s Robert Evans claiming responsibility for the attack and
promising more. The message began by acknowledging it was not a declaration of war
but a response to a war that had been forced on them for decades and they were
fighting for their lives. The group called the Madison arson a warning and demanded the
disbanding of all “anti-choice establishments” within 30 days.249

In its graffiti and online messaging, Jane’s Revenge promised, “If abortions aren’t safe,
you’re not either.”250 Jane’s Revenge’s first communique claimed anti-abortion
extremists bombing abortion clinics and shooting at doctors had forced them to “adopt

247
Josh Gerstein and Alexander Ward, “Supreme Court has voted to overturn abortion rights, draft opinion
shows,” Politico, last updated May 3, 2022, https://www.politico.com/news/2022/05/02/supreme-court-
abortion-draft-opinion-00029473.
248
Luke Vander Ploeg and Addison Lathers, “Anti-Abortion Group in Wisconsin Is Hit by Arson, Authorities
Say,” New York Times, May 8, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/08/us/madison-anti-abortion-
center-vandalized.html; Alice Reid, “Report: Group claims credit for Madison anti-abortion office attack,
warns of more,” NBC 26, May 11, 2022, https://www.nbc26.com/news/state/report-group-claims-credit-
for-madison-anti-abortion-office-attack-warns-of-more.
249
Robert Evans, Twitter post, May 10, 2022, 3:24 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/IwriteOK/status/1523926913806336000.
250
Jack Dutton, “What Is Jane's Revenge? Abortion Rights Group Vows 'Night of Rage' Over Roe,”
Newsweek, June 24, 2022, https://www.newsweek.com/what-janes-revenge-abortion-rights-group-vows-
night-rage-over-roe-1718919; Catholic News Agency, “WHO, OR WHAT, IS ‘JANE’S REVENGE’? A LOOK AT
THE GROUP INVOKED IN PRO-ABORTION VANDALISM,” Catholic Telegraph, June 13, 2022,
https://www.thecatholictelegraph.com/who-or-what-is-janes-revenge-a-look-at-the-group-invoked-in-pro-
abortion-vandalism/81507.

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increasingly extreme tactics to maintain freedom over our bodies.”251 The group further
explained the Madison arson was a warning they intended to target “the infrastructure
of the enslavers,” which the group promised would not survive.252 On May 31, in
anticipation of the Supreme Court overturning Roe v. Wade, Jane’s Revenge issued a
call for a “night of rage” on the night the ruling is revealed. The group told supporters
their anger has been stolen from them for decades and it is time to bring their anger out
into the world and express it physically.253

Recruitment and Propaganda

Jane’s Revenge graffiti and online messaging have utilized the slogan, “IF ABORTIONS
AREN’T SAFE, YOU’RE NOT EITHER. JANE’S REVENGE”254 Jane’s Revenge has called on
all who are sympathetic to their cause to physically express their anger. The group has
endorsed the creation of “autonomously organized self-defense networks” to confront
“misogynistic violence directly.”255

251
Robert Evans, Twitter post, May 10, 2022, 3:24 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/IwriteOK/status/1523926941572550656.
252
Robert Evans, Twitter post, May 10, 2022, 3:24 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/IwriteOK/status/1523926979333918720.
253
Jane’s Revenge, “Jane’s Revenge – Night of Rage,” Anarchist Federation, May 31, 2022,
https://www.anarchistfederation.net/janes-revenge-night-of-rage/.
254
Jack Dutton, “What Is Jane’s Revenge? Abortion Rights Group Vows ‘Night of Rage’ Over Roe,”
Newsweek, June 24, 2022, https://www.newsweek.com/what-janes-revenge-abortion-rights-group-vows-
night-rage-over-roe-1718919.
255
Jane’s Revenge, “Jane’s Revenge – Night of Rage,” Anarchist Federation, May 31, 2022,
https://www.anarchistfederation.net/janes-revenge-night-of-rage/.

81
 Violent Activities

− Jane’s Revenge has been linked to multiple attacks on and vandalization of anti-
abortion crisis pregnancy centers since May 2022.

− June 22, 2022

June 22, 2022: Police in Jackson, Michigan, responded to reports of overnight
vandalism at a building hosting Jackson Right to Life, which also shares space with
the campaign office of pro-life Republican U.S. Rep. Tim Walberg. Police found two
broken windows and messages declaring, “If abortion isnt safe niether r u! (sic)”

− June 14, 2022

June 14, 2022: Unknown vandals graffitied and broke windows at the office of
Minnesota Citizens Concerned for Life overnight. Jane’s Revenge claimed
responsibility online for the vandalism committed “in a small gesture of defiance
and joy.”256

− June 7, 2022
Vandals broke windows and set a fire the Eggertsville, New York, office of pro-life
group CompassCare. Graffiti was left on the outside wall declaring, “Jane Was
Here.” No injuries were reported as the building in the Buffalo area was empty at the

256
Adam Sabes, “Minnesota pregnancy center vandalized by ‘Jane’s Revenge’: ‘We should’ve done more,’”
Fox News, June 17, 2022, https://www.foxnews.com/us/minnesota-pregnancy-center-vandalized-janes-
revenge.

82
 time of the fire. The CEO of CompassCare likened attacks on anti-abortion clinics to
“the pro-abortion ‘Kristallnacht,’” drawing a comparison to the 1938 pogroms
destroying Jewish homes, synagogues, and businesses across Germany.257

− May 8, 2022
The Madison, Wisconsin, office of the anti-abortion Wisconsin Family Action was set
on fire after a Molotov cocktail thrown through a window failed to ignite. Police also
found graffiti that read, “If abortions aren’t safe then you aren’t either.” The building
was empty at the time and no injuries were reported. Planned Parenthood of
Wisconsin condemned the attack. Jane’s Revenge sent a message to Bellingcat’s
Robert Evans claiming responsibility for the attack.258

257
“Kristallnacht,” U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, accessed June 28, 2022,
https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/kristallnacht; “CompassCare’s Buffalo Office
Firebombed by Abortion Terrorists,” CompassCare, June 7, 2022,
https://www.compasscarecommunity.com/2022/06/compasscares-buffalo-office-firebombed-by-
abortion-activists/?fbclid=IwAR2y36JG4eWXLCqcof34fizJgM0ksywjn00v6mcOIhC8fYnk55tRrq2vf_w;
Stephen T. Watson, “Political violence blamed in arson at anti-abortion group's center in Amherst,” Buffalo
News, last updated June 20, 2022, https://buffalonews.com/article_9da26e5e-e669-11ec-babe-
cbbbcb6659a2.html.
258
Luke Vander Ploeg and Addison Lathers, “Anti-Abortion Group in Wisconsin Is Hit by Arson, Authorities
Say,” New York Times, May 8, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/08/us/madison-anti-abortion-
center-vandalized.html; Judith Levine, “Beyond Revenge, What Does Jane’s Revenge Want?,” Intercept,
June 16, 2022, https://theintercept.com/2022/06/16/janes-revenge-abortion-rights/; Alice Reid, “Report:
Group claims credit for Madison anti-abortion office attack, warns of more,” NBC 26, May 11, 2022,
https://www.nbc26.com/news/state/report-group-claims-credit-for-madison-anti-abortion-office-attack-
warns-of-more.

83
 Rhetoric
− Claim of responsibility for vandalization of the Minnesota Citizens Concerned for
Life, June 14, 2022:
“Minnesota Citizens Concerned For Life" [sic] or MCCL is the largest anti-abortion
organization in so-called Minnesota and responsible for untold amounts of suffering
as a result of their anti-science propaganda campaigns, ghoulish legislative
attempts at social control and support for hateful bigoted politicians. So, in a small
gesture of defiance and joy, we decided to smash all their windows and leave them a
message from our friend Jane.

“Their offices and infrastructure deserve the same fate if not worse than that of the
dozens of fake pregnancy clinics in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area that carry out the
vision of MCCL toward a hellscape in which pumping out the ‘domestic supply of
infants’ is the only thing people with a uterus are good for. Fuck them – the time of
us reluctantly permitting their hatred for actual living people is over. We should’ve
done more.”259

− Online post, June 14, 2022:

“From here forward, any anti-choice group who closes their doors, and stops
operating will no longer be a target. But until you do, it’s open season, and we know
where your operations are. The infrastructure of the enslavers will not survive. We

259
Adam Sabes, “Minnesota pregnancy center vandalized by ‘Jane’s Revenge’: ‘We should’ve done more,’”
Fox News, June 17, 2022, https://www.foxnews.com/us/minnesota-pregnancy-center-vandalized-janes-
revenge.

84
 will never stop, back down, slow down, or retreat. We did not want this; but it is upon
us, and so we must deal with it proportionally. We exist in confluence and solidarity
with all others in the struggle for complete liberation.”260

− Statement, May 31, 2022:

“Within the month we anticipate a verdict will be issued that overturns Roe v. Wade,
setting in motion an evisceration of abortion access across the so-called United
States.

“This is an event that should inspire rage in millions of people who can get
pregnant…and yet, the response thus far has been tepid.

“We have agonized over this apparent absence of indignation. Why is it that we are
so afraid to unleash hell upon those who are destroying us? Fear of state repression
is valid, but this goes deeper than that.

“Your anger has been stolen from you.

“To this we say: no more. We need to get angry.

“We need the state to feel our full wrath.

260
Adam Sabes, “Minnesota pregnancy center vandalized by ‘Jane’s Revenge’: ‘We should’ve done more,’”
Fox News, June 17, 2022, https://www.foxnews.com/us/minnesota-pregnancy-center-vandalized-janes-
revenge.

85
 “We need to express this madness fully and with ferocity. We need to quit containing
ourselves.

“We need them to be afraid of us.

…
“Whatever form your fury takes, the first step is feeling it.

“The next step is carrying that anger out into the world and expressing it physically.

“Consider this your call to action.

“On the night the final ruling is issued——a specific date we cannot yet predict, but
we know is arriving imminently——we are asking for courageous hearts to come out
after dark.

“Whoever you are and wherever you are, we are asking for you to do what you can to
make your anger known.
…
“To those who work to oppress us: If abortion isn’t safe, you aren’t either. We are
everywhere.”261

− Communique sent to Bellingcat’s Robert Evans, May 10, 2022:

261
Jane’s Revenge, “Jane’s Revenge – Night of Rage,” Anarchist Federation, May 31, 2022,
https://www.anarchistfederation.net/janes-revenge-night-of-rage/.

86
 “This was only a warning. We demand the disbanding of all anti-choice
establishments, fake clinics, and violent anti-choice groups within the next thirty
days. … As you continue to bomb clinics and assassinate doctors with impunity, so
too shall we adopt increasingly extreme tactics to maintain freedom over our
bodies.”262

− Communique sent to Bellingcat’s Robert Evans, May 10, 2022:

“We are forced to adopt the minimum military requirement for a political struggle.
Again, this was only a warning. Next time the infrastructure of the enslavers will not
survive. Medical imperialism will not face a passive enemy. Wisconsin is the first
flashpoint, but we are all over the US, and we will issue no further warnings.” 263

− Communique sent to Bellingcat’s Robert Evans, May 10, 2022:

“And we will not stop, not back down, nor will we hesitate to strike until the
inalienable right to manage our own health is returned to us.”264

− Flyer distributed following the leak of a U.S. Supreme Court draft decision
overturning Roe v. Wade, May 2022:

262
Robert Evans, Twitter post, May 10, 2022, 3:24 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/IwriteOK/status/1523926941572550656.
263
Robert Evans, Twitter post, May 10, 2022, 3:24 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/IwriteOK/status/1523926979333918720.
264
Robert Evans, Twitter post, May 10, 2022, 3:24 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/IwriteOK/status/1523926986883706880.

87
− “THE NIGHT SCOTUS OVERTURNS ROE V. WADE HIT THE STREETS YOU SAID
YOU’D RIOT. TO OUR OPPRESSORS: IF ABORTIONS AREN’T SAFE, YOU’RE NOT
EITHER. JANE’S REVENGE”265

John Brown Gun Club

Base of Operations: National
Website: https://psjbgc.org/, http://www.midmojbgc.org/
Social Media Presence: Facebook (Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club)
(deleted), Twitter (Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club), Twitter (Mid-
Missouri John Brown Gun Club), Twitter (Steel City John Brown Gun
Club), Twitter (Spokane John Brown Gun Club), Twitter (Connecticut
John Brown Brown Gun Club), Twitter (Bay State John Brown Gun Club),
Twitter (Rhode Island John Brown Gun Club), Twitter (Elm Fork John
Brown Club), Twitter (Green Mountain John Brown Club), Twitter (PDX
John Brown Club), Twitter (Cedar Breaks John Brown Club), Twitter
(DMV John Brown Club), Twitter (John Brown Mountaineer Gun Club),
Medium (Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club)
Leadership: The John Brown Gun Club chapters act independently and

265
Jack Dutton, “What Is Jane's Revenge? Abortion Rights Group Vows 'Night of Rage' Over Roe,”
Newsweek, June 24, 2022, https://www.newsweek.com/what-janes-revenge-abortion-rights-group-vows-
night-rage-over-roe-1718919.

88
 have no formal hierarchy.266 Members who have spoken publicly,
including chapter founders, did not provide their full names.267
Membership Size and Relevance: Gun Club chapters do not publish their
membership numbers. In August 2020, Facebook deleted multiple
accounts affiliated with John Brown Gun Clubs as part of a purge of
extremist groups.268 Various Gun Club chapters maintain a presence on
Twitter. As of September 1, 2020, the Mid-Missouri chapter had 1,039
followers.269 By July 26, 2022, the account had 1,376 followers.270 As of
September 1, 2020, the Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club had 12,700
followers.271 By July 26, 2022, it had increased to 14,100 followers.272
The Steel City John Brown Gun Club had 3,248 followers as of
September 1, 2020.273 It had increased to 4,281 followers by July 26,

266
“About,” Mid-Missouri John Brown Gun Club, accessed September 1, 2020,
http://www.midmojbgc.org/about/; “Say Hello to Spokane John Brown Gun Club!,” Puget Sound John
Brown Gun Club, accessed September 1, 2020, https://psjbgc.org/blog/say-hello-to-spokane-john-brown-
gun-club/.
267
Kim Kelly, “‘If others have rifles, we’ll have rifles’: why US leftist groups are taking up arms,” Guardian
(London), July 22, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jul/22/if-others-have-rifles-well-
have-rifles-why-leftist-groups-are-taking-up-arms.
268
Alan Buddug, “The Great FB Purge of 2020,” Mid-Missouri John Brown Gun Club, August 20, 2020,
http://www.midmojbgc.org/2020/08/20/the-great-fb-purge-of-2020/; Natasha Lennard, “Facebook’s Ban
on Far-Left Pages Is an Extension of Trump Propaganda,” Intercept, August 20, 2020,
https://theintercept.com/2020/08/20/facebook-bans-antifascist-pages/.
269
Mid-Missouri John Brown Gun Club, Twitter account, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://twitter.com/MidMoJBGC.
270
Mid-Missouri John Brown Gun Club, Twitter account, accessed July 26, 2022,
https://twitter.com/MidMoJBGC.
271
Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club, Twitter account, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://twitter.com/PugetSoundJBGC.
272
Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club, Twitter account, accessed July 26, 2022,
https://twitter.com/PugetSoundJBGC.
273
Steel City John Brown Gun Club, Twitter account, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://twitter.com/SteelCityJBGC.

89
 2022.274 The Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club in Texas has one of the
network’s largest Twitter followings with 16,800 as of August 31,
2022.275 The Elm Fork chapter also runs a page on Medium, but that had
only 18 followers as of August 31, 2022.276 The Gun Club’s presence at
protests across the United States has garnered international media
attention.277 New John Brown Gun Club chapters continue to emerge
across the country. A chapter in West Virginia, John Brown’s
Mountaineer Gun Club, launched in August 2022 and had amassed 754
Twitter followers by August 31.278

Rightwing political candidates and pundits, as well as those on the far-

right, blame groups like the John Brown Gun Club, Redneck Revolt, and
Antifa for organizing riots and other violent protests against police and
municipal authorities while promoting anarchy and societal
breakdowns.279 In November 2020, counterinsurgency and military
strategy expert David Kilcullen told Salon that while groups such as

274
Steel City John Brown Gun Club, Twitter account, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://twitter.com/SteelCityJBGC.
275
Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, Twitter account, accessed August 31, 2022,
https://twitter.com/EFJBGC.
276
Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, Medium account, accessed August 31, 2022,
https://medium.com/@efjbgc.
277
Kim Kelly, “‘If others have rifles, we’ll have rifles’: why US leftist groups are taking up arms,” Guardian
(London), July 22, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jul/22/if-others-have-rifles-well-
have-rifles-why-leftist-groups-are-taking-up-arms.
278
John Brown’s Mountaineer Gun Club, Twitter account, accessed August 31, 2022,
https://twitter.com/mountaineer_gc.
279
David Weigel, “On the campaign trail, many Republicans talk of violence,” Washington Post, July 23,
2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/07/24/republicans-civil-war-midterms/.

90
 Redneck Revolt and the John Brown Gun Club claim to be defensive and
seek to protect people on the streets from violence, the fear they evoke
can also be a trigger for violence.280

The John Brown Gun Club is a leftist gun-rights group originally based in Kansas. The
original club was active between 2002 and 2008, but it has since given rise to spinoff
groups such as the Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club. The original club sought to
militarize the white working class and spur it toward a social-justice revolution.281 Gun
Club chapters claim to promote racial equality and social justice while seeking to
abolish the police and other perceived symbols of oppression. The Gun Club firmly
supports members’ rights to bear arms for their own protection and as a safeguard
against state overreach.282 The Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club in Texas, in particular,
has taken a hard anti-police position, casting all police as mass shooters who harass
minorities and seek out excuse to unload their weapons.283 The Puget Sound John

280
Chauncey Devega, “Doomsday? Nearly half of "strong Republicans" believe it's almost time for armed
violence,” Salon, July 27, 2022, https://www.salon.com/2022/07/27/doomsday-nearly-half-of-strong-
republicans-believe-its-almost-time-for-armed-violence/.
281
Devon Douglas-Bowers, “WHITE WORKERS RESISTING CAPITALISM AND WHITE SUPREMACY: AN
INTERVIEW WITH REDNECK REVOLT,” Redneck Revolt, July 29, 2016,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/single-post/2016/07/28/WHITE-WORKERS-RESISTING-CAPITALISM-AND-
WHITE-SUPREMACY-AN-INTERVIEW-WITH-REDNECK-REVOLT.
282
Mawa Iqbal, “Left-Wing Groups Take Up Arms in Name of Abolitionist John Brown,” Flatland, July 23,
2020, https://www.flatlandkc.org/news-issues/left-wing-groups-take-up-arms-in-name-of-abolitionist-
john-brown/.
283
Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, August 18, 2022, 8:23 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/EFJBGC/status/1560422053605433345; Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, Twitter
post, August 18, 2022, 4:08 p.m., https://twitter.com/EFJBGC/status/1560357990208782337.

91
Brown Club in Washington state is one of the most visible chapters. According to that
group, the John Brown Gun Club seeks to disrupt fascists and fascist organizations and
events. The Gun Club arms itself to defend against far-right violence and often appears
as a security force at protests to protect against expected far-right violence.284

John Brown was a 19th-century abolitionist who was part of the Underground Railroad
and helped create the League of Gileadites, which helped protect escaped enslaved
people from slave catchers. He eventually began leading guerilla raids in pro-slavery
towns that resulted in multiple deaths. In 1859, Brown was convicted of treason in
South Carolina and executed for his role in the failed raid on the federal arsenal at
Harpers Ferry.285 The affiliates of the John Brown Gun Club have dedicated themselves
to emulating Brown’s brand of direct action in support of ideals of freedom and
equality.286 One of the spinoffs of the original John Brown Gun Club is Redneck Revolt,
which formed in 2009 after the original Gun Club disbanded.287 The Puget Sound John
Brown Gun Club in Washington state was founded in 2017 as part of the Redneck Revolt
Network and broke away from Redneck Revolt in 2019. It claims to be a “public facing,

284
Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club, homepage, accessed August 19, 2020, https://psjbgc.org/; Kim
Kelly, “‘If others have rifles, we’ll have rifles’: why US leftist groups are taking up arms,” Guardian (London),
July 22, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jul/22/if-others-have-rifles-well-have-rifles-
why-leftist-groups-are-taking-up-arms.
285
“John Brown 1800-1859,” PBS, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p1550.html.
286
Mid-Missouri John Brown Gun Club, homepage, accessed September 1, 2020,
http://www.midmojbgc.org/; Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club, homepage, accessed August 19, 2020,
https://psjbgc.org/.
287
Redneck Revolt, homepage, accessed September 1, 2020, https://www.redneckrevolt.org/; Cecilia
Saixue Watt, “Redneck Revolt: the armed leftwing group that wants to stamp out fascism,” Guardian
(London), July 11, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jul/11/redneck-revolt-guns-anti-
racism-fascism-far-left.

92
above ground, armed community defense group” that seeks to disrupt fascist
activities.288 Other independent John Brown Gun Clubs have since organized.

To date, Gun Club members have reportedly not engaged anyone with their weapons
during one of these protests. Unlike other groups under the Antifa umbrella, Gun Club
members typically do not cover their faces to maintain the appearance of an open,
lawful organization rather than a militia.289 One Gun Club member did engage in a
violent attack on an Immigration and Customs Enforcement facility in 2019. He was
killed after attempting to blow up the detention center.290

Recruitment and Propaganda

John Brown Gun Club chapters promote themselves as community defense
organizations dedicated to direct action and mutual aid.291 The Puget Sound John
Brown Gun Club offers firearms classes and distributes literature at community events

288
“Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club Leaves Redneck Revolt Network,” Puget Sound John Brown Gun
Club, January 23, 2019, https://psjbgc.org/blog/puget-sound-john-brown-gun-club-leaves-redneck-revolt-
network/.
289
Kim Kelly, “‘If others have rifles, we’ll have rifles’: why US leftist groups are taking up arms,” Guardian
(London), July 22, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jul/22/if-others-have-rifles-well-
have-rifles-why-leftist-groups-are-taking-up-arms.
290
Claudia Koerner, “Police Shot And Killed An Armed Man Allegedly Attempting To Set Fire To An ICE
Detention Facility,” BuzzFeed News, last updated July 14, 2019,
https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/claudiakoerner/tacoma-ice-shooting; “Rest in Power, Will, One
Year Later,” Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club, July 13, 2020, https://psjbgc.org/blog/rest-in-power-will-
one-year-later/.
291
“About,” Mid-Missouri John Brown Gun Club, accessed September 1, 2020,
http://www.midmojbgc.org/about/; “Say Hello to Spokane John Brown Gun Club!,” Puget Sound John
Brown Gun Club, accessed September 1, 2020, https://psjbgc.org/blog/say-hello-to-spokane-john-brown-
gun-club/.

93
around Washington, including at the Anarchist Book Fair and other events aligned with
the group’s far-left ideology.292

Violent Activities
− July 13, 2019
69-year-old Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club member Willem Van Spronsen snuck
into the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s Northwest Detention Center
facility in Tacoma, Washington, with a rifle. He set his car on fire and threw
incendiary devices at propane tanks on the facility’s grounds. Van Sponsen was
killed by Washington State Police. There were no other casualties.293

Rhetoric
− Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, tweet, August 21, 2022:
“Without cops, who would ignore heinous crimes and harass minorities?”294

− Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, tweet, August 21, 2022:

292
“PSJBGC at the Seattle Anarchist Bookfair 2019!,” Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club, November 16,
2019, https://psjbgc.org/blog/psjbgc-at-the-seattle-anarchist-bookfair-2019/; “See Us Today at Debbie
Bookchin's Speaking Tour!,” Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club, November 2, 2019,
https://psjbgc.org/blog/see-us-today-at-debbie-bookchin-s-speaking-tour/.
293
Claudia Koerner, “Police Shot And Killed An Armed Man Allegedly Attempting To Set Fire To An ICE
Detention Facility,” BuzzFeed News, last updated July 14, 2019,
https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/claudiakoerner/tacoma-ice-shooting; “Rest in Power, Will, One
Year Later,” Puget Sound John Brown Gun Club, July 13, 2020, https://psjbgc.org/blog/rest-in-power-will-
one-year-later/.
294
Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, August 21, 2022, 3:57 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/EFJBGC/status/1561442268388671488.

94
 “It’s a great day for @AFLCIO to recognize cops are the enemies of labor.”295

− Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, tweet, August 18, 2022:
“Police are a danger to the community. Every single one is a mass shooter in
waiting. Just like Miramar. Just like Denver.”296

− Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, tweet, August 18, 2022:
“Cops sure look uncomfortable when they’re caught doing their everyday duties of
upholding a violent capitalist system that throws families out on the street and then
chases them around smashing their shelter until they die.”297

− Connecticut John Brown Gun Club, tweet, July 28, 2022:

“Never forget, merely the threat of violence, the demonstration of the CAPACITY for
violence is enough to keep most fascists and cops in check. We hope to never need
to act on that capacity, and we train so we won’t miss if we have to.”298

− DMV John Brown Gun Club, tweet, July 18, 2022:

295
Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, August 21, 2022, 11:48 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/EFJBGC/status/1561379764669218818.
296
Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, August 18, 2022, 8:23 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/EFJBGC/status/1560422053605433345.
297
Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, August 18, 2022, 4:08 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/EFJBGC/status/1560357990208782337.
298
Connecticut John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, July 28, 2022, 1:13 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/ctjbgc/status/1552703914943864835.

95
 “Fuck Jason Bagshaw. He is consistently doing shitty things (because he is a cop),
and now he has murdered a Black man. We need to abolish the police.”299

− Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, tweet, July 9, 2022:

“The John Brown Gun club is at it's core founded on abolitionist points of unity.
From a safety and ideological perspective we cannot support events where police
have involvement in organizing. This both invites violence on those attending and
renders community aid ineffective.”300

− DMV John Brown Gun Club, tweet, July 8, 2022:

“The supreme court justices should not know a moment of comfort.”301

− Spokane John Brown Gun Club, tweet, August 29, 2020:

“If there is a standoff against the cops, stick together to form a cohesive front.
Stragglers are more susceptible to getting arrested, but it’s hard to do that to a larger
group. De-arresting is also important, if someone is getting dragged off, don’t just
stand and watch.”302

− Connecticut John Brown Gun Club, tweet, July 8, 2022:

299
DMV John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, July 18, 2022, 1:39 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/dmv_jbgc/status/1549086534262996992.
300
Elm Fork John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, July 9, 2022, 7:38 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/EFJBGC/status/1545915293758898176.
301
DMV John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, July 8, 2022, 11:15 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/dmv_jbgc/status/1545426444691484674.
302
Spokane John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, August 29, 2020, 5:16 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/SPKJBGC/status/1299637136996663297.

96
 “Randy Cox was brutalized by the New Haven PD and then, when he told them he
couldn’t move, they brutalized him some more. Hundreds rallied to demand police
accountability and we were there promoting community defense. #ACAB
#JusticeforRandyCox”303
−
− DMV John Brown Gun Club, tweet, June 30, 2022:
“ACAB”304

− Connecticut John Brown Gun Club, tweet, May 30, 2022:

“Cops don’t keep us safe. They, quite obviously, make us less safe. The phrase
#WeKeepUsSafe is a rallying cry of community self-defense but also an
acknowledgment of the terrors and ineptitude of the systems of power designed to
control and not protect us.”305

− Cedar Breaks John Brown Gun Club, tweet, August 28, 2021:
“Fuck the pigs and give people money is the only acceptable political position.”306

− Spokane John Brown Gun Club, tweet, August 8, 2020:

“Why is the SPKJBC necessary? Put simply: racists, fascists, and cops. Below will be

303
Connecticut John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, July 8, 2022, 9:48 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/ctjbgc/status/1545585707518918656.
304
DMV John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, June 30, 2022, 12:56 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/dmv_jbgc/status/1542371539177332737.
305
Connecticut John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, May 30, 2022, 12:52 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/ctjbgc/status/1531317615402307585.
306
Cedar Breaks John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, August 28, 2021, 4:11 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/cbjbgc/status/1431711121749299209.

97
 a regularly updated list of fascist/racist violence and threats, police brutality, and the
bigotry of public officials. It won’t be a complete list, but it will show why solidarity is
key.”307

− Willem Van Spronsen, final statement, July 2019:

“Fascism serves the needs of the state serves the needs of business and at your
expense. Who benefits? Jeff Bezos, Warren Buffet, Elon Musk, Tim Cook, Bill Gates,
Betsy de Vos, George Soros, Donald Trump, and need I go on? Let me say it again:
rich guys (who think you’re not really all that good), really dig government (every
government everywhere, including ‘communist’ governments), because they make
the rules that make rich guys richer.”308

307
Spokane John Brown Gun Club, Twitter post, August 8, 2020, 7:05 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/SPKJBGC/status/1292235389458173957.
308
“On Willem Van Spronsen’s Action against the Northwest Detention Center in Tacoma,” CrimethInc,
July 14, 2019, https://crimethinc.com/2019/07/14/on-willem-van-spronsens-action-against-the-
northwest-detention-center-in-tacoma-including-the-full-text-of-his-final-statement.

98
 Redneck Revolt
Base of Operations: National309
Website: https://www.redneckrevolt.org/
Social Media Presence: Facebook (deleted), Twitter, Twitter (San Diego
RR), Twitter (North Country RR), Twitter (Lake Ontario Redneck Revolt)
Leadership: Redneck Revolt’s leadership remains largely anonymous in
public.
Membership Size and Relevance: Redneck Revolt claims to have more
than 30 chapters across the United States.310

Rightwing political candidates and pundits, as well as those on the far-

right, blame groups like Redneck Revolt, Antifa, and the John Brown Gun
Club for organizing riots and other violent protests against police and
municipal authorities while promoting anarchy and societal
breakdowns.311 In November 2020, counterinsurgency and military
strategy expert David Kilcullen told Salon that while groups such as
Redneck Revolt and the John Brown Gun Club claim to be defensive and

309
Madison Pauly, “A New Wave of Left-Wing Militants Is Ready to Rumble in Portland—and Beyond,”
Mother Jones, May/June 2017, https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2017/06/antifa-movement-anti-
trump-politics-nazi/.
310
Madison Pauly, “A New Wave of Left-Wing Militants Is Ready to Rumble in Portland—and Beyond,”
Mother Jones, May/June 2017, https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2017/06/antifa-movement-anti-
trump-politics-nazi/.
311
David Weigel, “On the campaign trail, many Republicans talk of violence,” Washington Post, July 23,
2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/07/24/republicans-civil-war-midterms/.

99
 seek to protect people on the streets from violence, the fear they evoke
can also be a trigger for violence.312

Redneck Revolt is leftwing pro-gun club that claims basic knowledge of weaponry is
necessary for self-defense and to confront the far right and fascists, bringing it under
the wide umbrella of Antifa (anti-fascist) groups. Redneck Revolt members provided
security for protesters in Charlottesville, Virginia, and other rallies against the far right
and Confederate symbols.313 Redneck Revolt first launched in 2009 as an offshoot of
the John Brown Gun Club. Its founding members watched the nascent Tea Party of the
Republican Party attract working-class people but saw this as a contradiction because
of a belief that the Tea Party promoted the values of the wealthy.314

Redneck Revolt claims to be a community defense group against racism and fascism.
Its two main goals are to counter the growth of white supremacy while strengthening
community defense initiatives in marginalized communities. The group claims that
physical defense is increasingly necessary to defend minorities and houses of worship
under physical threat, though the group insists its members use physical force

312
Chauncey Devega, “Doomsday? Nearly half of "strong Republicans" believe it's almost time for armed
violence,” Salon, July 27, 2022, https://www.salon.com/2022/07/27/doomsday-nearly-half-of-strong-
republicans-believe-its-almost-time-for-armed-violence/.
313
Virginia Bridges, “They’re leftists with guns. Meet the Redneck Revolt,” Herald-Sun, September 1, 2017,
https://www.heraldsun.com/news/local/counties/durham-county/article170840742.html; Stephanie
March, “Antifa: The hard left’s call to arms,” Australian Broadcasting Corporation, March 18, 2018,
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-15/redneck-revolt-and-the-hard-lefts-call-to-arms/9303758?nw=0.
314
Redneck Revolt, homepage, accessed September 1, 2020, https://www.redneckrevolt.org/; Cecilia
Saixue Watt, “Redneck Revolt: the armed leftwing group that wants to stamp out fascism,” Guardian
(London), July 11, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jul/11/redneck-revolt-guns-anti-
racism-fascism-far-left.

100
defensively only. Arming themselves is a direct response to threats of violence against
marginalized communities, according to the group’s propaganda.315 Members insist on
carrying weapons while patrolling protests in order to be ready to defend against an
attack, but they also insist that their weapons are purely defensive.316

In addition to opposing fascism and white supremacy, Redneck Revolt also stands
against capitalism and the concept of the nation-state, including its symbols such as
police, prisons, and courts. According to Redneck Revolt ideology, these symbols exist
only to serve the rich and protect the wealthy class while oppressing the working class.
Redneck Revolt seeks to eliminate capitalism and the oppressive patriarchy in order to
fashion a new society that allows for the equal distribution of resources.317

Recruitment and Propaganda

Redneck Revolt promotes the concept that the wealthy elites have enslaved the working
class for their own benefit while the working class continues to suffer.318 Redneck
Revolt is committed to bringing about a societal revolution that will uproot the
patriarchy, capitalism, and exploitation of the working class while ensuring liberty and

315
“Redneck Revolt Organizes Community Defense Against Racism and Fascism,” Redneck Revolt,
accessed September 1, 2020, https://0d37a29d-b50d-4d43-8ae5-
760bf0294308.filesusr.com/ugd/c1543a_b43e9ba0b15a4ace9b87ac8ca8d9768d.pdf.
316
Stephanie March, “Antifa: The hard left’s call to arms,” Australian Broadcasting Corporation, March 18,
2018, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-15/redneck-revolt-and-the-hard-lefts-call-to-
arms/9303758?nw=0.
317
“Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/principles.
318
Dave Strano, “Of Tea Parties and Patriots: Liberty for Who?,” The Anarchist Library, 2009,
https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/dave-strano-of-tea-parties-and-patriots-liberty-for-who.

101
access to necessary resources for all. Redneck Revolt’s guiding principles classify
capitalism as a system that has ravaged the world and caused numerous genocides.
The group recognizes the need to use “any and all means” to bring about this revolution,
including violent methods.319 Though Redneck Revolt promotes anti-racist positions, it
also recognizes that its core is made up primarily of white people from the working
class. Founding member Dave Strano wrote in 2009 that the white elite had particularly
exploited the white working class, which had become the “footsoldiers of political and
economic elites seeking to dominate and control land, resources, and wealth….”320
According to Strano, the “rich whites” have used skin color and fear to turn the white
working class against other races with ideas of “white supremacy” and “white pride”
and “white nationalism,” all while the white elites enrich themselves.321

Redneck Revolt targets its recruitment to the working class. Its rhetoric conveys the
message that the wealthy have used capitalism to oppress the working class, which
must arm itself for its own defense.322 Redneck Revolt recognizes that the term
“redneck” carries a demeaning connotation. The group seeks to reclaim the word as
both a badge of pride in being part of the working class and resistance to the wealthy

319
“Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/principles.
320
“Redneck Revolt Organizes Community Defense Against Racism and Fascism,” Redneck Revolt,
accessed September 1, 2020, https://0d37a29d-b50d-4d43-8ae5-
760bf0294308.filesusr.com/ugd/c1543a_b43e9ba0b15a4ace9b87ac8ca8d9768d.pdf; Dave Strano, “Of
Tea Parties and Patriots: Liberty for Who?,” The Anarchist Library, 2009,
https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/dave-strano-of-tea-parties-and-patriots-liberty-for-who.
321
Dave Strano, “Of Tea Parties and Patriots: Liberty for Who?,” The Anarchist Library, 2009,
https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/dave-strano-of-tea-parties-and-patriots-liberty-for-who.
322
“Redneck Revolt Organizes Community Defense Against Racism and Fascism,” Redneck Revolt,
accessed September 1, 2020, https://0d37a29d-b50d-4d43-8ae5-
760bf0294308.filesusr.com/ugd/c1543a_b43e9ba0b15a4ace9b87ac8ca8d9768d.pdf.

102
class.323 The group’s prime identifier is the red bandana worn by members and imposed
on propaganda. The bandanas are reminiscent of the same red bandanas worn by West
Virginia coal miners during a 1921 revolt against mining companies and the state.324
Redneck Revolt invites visitors to its website to seek out local chapters or create their
own. It also offers classes on using tactical firearms as well as the role of firearms in
creating societal revolutions.325

Various Redneck Revolt chapters maintain a social media presence on Twitter. The
group’s Facebook pages appear to have been deleted. In addition, Redneck Revolt hosts
a podcast, which is available on its website. As of September 1, 2020, however, the
podcast had only two episodes that had been recorded in 2017.326 Redneck Revolt’s
website provides multiple options for visitors to donate funds, either directly to Redneck
Revolt or to the John Brown Solidarity Fund.327

323
“About,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020, https://www.redneckrevolt.org/about.
324
Stephanie March, “Antifa: The hard left’s call to arms,” Australian Broadcasting Corporation, March 18,
2018, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-15/redneck-revolt-and-the-hard-lefts-call-to-
arms/9303758?nw=0.
325
“Contact,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020, https://www.redneckrevolt.org/contact.
326
“The Redneck Revolt Podcast,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/podcast.
327
“Ways to Support,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/support.

103
 Violent Activities
− Redneck Revolt has not carried out specific attacks, but members have gotten into
violent altercations with the far right during protests and rallies. The group remains
dedicated to not initiating any violent confrontation.328

Rhetoric
− Jeremy Beck, Redneck Revolt member, July 2017:
“If you haven’t noticed, we aren’t liberals. You know, if you keep going further left,
eventually, you go left enough to get your guns back.”329

− Facebook ad for a meeting in Durham, North Carolina, 2017:

“Armed self defense is necessary for the survival and relevance of our future
organizing in the face of a growing insurgent fascism.”330

− Dave Strano, Redneck Revolt founding member, 2009:

“We now live in a country with a huge division between rich and poor. We live with a
failed economy. We live in a nearly failed state. The government of the United States
has systemically become a monstrous giant of bureaucrats and neo-tyrants. The

328
Stephanie March, “Antifa: The hard left’s call to arms,” Australian Broadcasting Corporation, March 18,
2018, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-15/redneck-revolt-and-the-hard-lefts-call-to-
arms/9303758?nw=0.
329
Cecilia Saixue Watt, “Redneck Revolt: the armed leftwing group that wants to stamp out fascism,”
Guardian (London), July 11, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jul/11/redneck-revolt-
guns-anti-racism-fascism-far-left.
330
Virginia Bridges, “They’re leftists with guns. Meet the Redneck Revolt,” Herald-Sun, September 1, 2017,
https://www.heraldsun.com/news/local/counties/durham-county/article170840742.html.

104
 whole government, every single politician, is part of this corrupt system.”331

− Dave Strano, Redneck Revolt founding member, 2009:

“The blunt reality is that for the last five hundred years on this continent, white
working class people have been used by mostly white rich people to colonize for, kill
for, work for, and then better the living standards of those same white rich people, all
the while sacrificing our own needs, wants, aspirations, and even lives. It really is as
simple as that. No one denies the history of what has happened at working people’s
expenses. Wars, poverty, homelessness, wage slavery... these are all ills created by
someone, and perpetuated by us... the same workers who suffer these ills.

“For some five centuries we’ve been used by the rich among our own race to
promote their agenda and suffered because of it. Yet, somehow, we’ve still been
convinced that it is in our interests to protect the rights of the rich to own as much
property as they can, to protect the right of the rich to even exist, to protect these
same rich people who would just as soon see us die for their benefit.”332

− Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles, undated:

“Police, prisons, courts, artificial borders, and other systems of social control only
exist to serve the rich. The nation-state project came into existence to protect the
propertied classes and keep us working people poor and without power, often using

331
Dave Strano, “Of Tea Parties and Patriots: Liberty for Who?,” The Anarchist Library, 2009,
https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/dave-strano-of-tea-parties-and-patriots-liberty-for-who.
332
Dave Strano, “Of Tea Parties and Patriots: Liberty for Who?,” The Anarchist Library, 2009,
https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/dave-strano-of-tea-parties-and-patriots-liberty-for-who.

105
 varying types of standing armies to enforce laws which disproportionately impact
the poor.”333

− Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles, undated:

“Capitalism is an economic system that methodically keeps the vast majority of
people in the world impoverished while they labor to enrich a small minority of
people. Since the very first arrivals of European settlers in what is now called the
United States, the propertied classes established a serving class to maintain their
power, and systematically murdered the native folks of this land for resisting their
claim to ownership. We have nothing to gain by maintaining an allegiance to an
economic system that has destroyed much of the natural world, committed
countless acts of genocide, and ravaged our communities and natural resources in
the name of profit.”334

− Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles, undated:

“Our struggle against patriarchy is central to our struggle against capitalism and the
nation-state. Just as the white working class has benefited from white supremacy,
many men (especially those who are not trans) have benefited from patriarchy.
Patriarchy benefits the rich by controlling those who labor for them and dividing the
people against one another. Traditional “women’s work,” despite its importance to
families and communities, is devalued in our society. The police and courts exist to

333
“Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/principles.
334
“Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/principles.

106
 protect the rich and powerful, not the people, and they are unable to provide justice
for the victims of gender-based violence... and in fact often inflict the same violence
themselves.”335

− Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles, undated:

“We are not pacifists. Redneck Revolt believes in using any and all means at our
disposal to gain our freedom and true liberty, provided those methods do not violate
our basic humanity or integrity. We believe in the inherit right of every individual and
community to defend themselves from those who exploit or oppress them.”336

− Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles, undated:

“We believe in the need for revolution. Redneck Revolt believes that there will have to
be a complete restructuring of society to provide for the survival and liberty of all
people. We will fight for the end of predatory exploitation of our communities, and
the creation of a world where no one is without food, shelter, water, or any other
means of survival.”337

− Redneck Revolt homepage, undated:

“We need real formulated responses for the upsurge in reactionary and racist
violence. We need armed community defense programs in every community. We

335
“Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/principles.
336
“Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/principles.
337
“Redneck Revolt Organizing Principles,” Redneck Revolt, accessed September 1, 2020,
https://www.redneckrevolt.org/principles.

107
 need to be ready to rapidly respond to the armed right wing threat that menaces our
communities. We need to stop being reactionaries when it comes to the topic of
armed defense. We are approaching truly dangerous times. Will we be ready?”338

Weather Underground
Base of Operations: The Weather Underground undertook actions
across the United States. Its leadership was divided into three
subgroups based in San Francisco, New York, and the Midwest.339
Website: N/A
Social Media Presence: N/A
Leadership: Bernardine Dohrn, James Mellen, and Mark Rudd led
the original Weathermen faction of Students for a Democratic
Society (SDS), initially known as SDS’s “action faction.” After SDS’s
collapse in 1969, Dohrn, Mellen, and Rudd led the newly emerged
Weathermen.340
Membership Size and Relevance: When the FBI began investigating

338
Redneck Revolt, homepage, accessed September 1, 2020, https://www.redneckrevolt.org/.
339
Bryan Burrough, “Meet The Weather Underground’s Bomb Guru,” Vanity Fair, March 29, 2015,
https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2015/03/weather-underground-bomb-guru-burrough-excerpt.
340
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/;
“Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.

108
 the Weather Underground in 1969, the fledgling guerilla network
had approximately 400 members across the United States.341
Following the March 6, 1970, accident that destroyed a New York
City townhouse and killed three Weather Underground leaders, the
group reportedly lost hundreds of supporters and shrunk to about
30 members nationwide.342 The Weather Underground officially
disbanded in 1976.343 Core members began surrendering to
authorities in 1977.344 Historians have written the FBI and the Nixon
administration overestimated the strength and threat posed by the
Weather Underground, which elevated the group’s profile beyond
what it should have been.345

Some former Weather Underground members reformed after

serving time in prison. They drew national attention after their
incarceration. For example, Kathy Boudin, who became a fugitive
after the March 1970 New York City townhouse explosion and later
spent 22 years in prison for her role in a 1981 armored car robbery,

341
“Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.
342
Bryan Burrough, “Meet The Weather Underground’s Bomb Guru,” Vanity Fair, March 29, 2015,
https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2015/03/weather-underground-bomb-guru-burrough-excerpt.
343
Daniel J. Wakin, “Quieter Lives for 60’s Militants, but Intensity of Beliefs Hasn’t Faded,” New York
Times, August 24, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/24/nyregion/quieter-lives-for-60-s-militants-
but-intensity-of-beliefs-hasn-t-faded.html.
344
Bryan Burrough, “Meet The Weather Underground’s Bomb Guru,” Vanity Fair, March 29, 2015,
https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2015/03/weather-underground-bomb-guru-burrough-excerpt.
345
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/.

109
 was hired as an adjunct professor at Columbia University’s School
of Social Work in 2013.346 Boudin died in May 2022.347 Republicans
and other conservatives reignited interest in the Weather
Underground during the 2008 presidential campaign after it came
to light former Underground leaders Bill Ayers and Bernardine
Dohrn had hosted a campaign event for Barack Obama in 1995
when he was running for Illinois state senate.348

The Weather Underground was a radical, militant organization founded in 1969 at

the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Emerging from opposition to the Vietnam
War, the Weather Underground adhered to a communist and anti-war ideology,
targeting what it saw as symbols of U.S. military power, authoritarianism, and
racism. The Weather Underground was responsible for multiple bombings in the
1970s targeting police, military, government offices, and other symbols of
authority.349

346
Larry Celona, “Outrage 101: Radical jailed in slay now Columbia prof,” New York Post, April 2, 2013,
https://nypost.com/2013/04/02/outrage-101-radical-jailed-in-slay-now-columbia-prof/.
347
Paul W. Valentine, “Kathy Boudin, Weather Underground outlaw, dies at 78,” Washington Post, May 1,
2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/kathy-boudin-weather-underground-
dead/2022/05/01/979153ec-38e4-11eb-9276-ae0ca72729be_story.html.
348
Peter Jamison, “Time Bomb,” SF Weekly, September 16, 2009,
https://archives.sfweekly.com/sanfrancisco/time-bomb/Content?oid=2174174&showFullText=true;
“Which Way The Wind Blows: Bill Ayers On Obama,” NPR, November 18, 2008,
https://www.npr.org/transcripts/97112600.
349
Daniel J. Wakin, “Quieter Lives for 60’s Militants, but Intensity of Beliefs Hasn't Faded,” New York
Times, August 24, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/24/nyregion/quieter-lives-for-60-s-militants-
but-intensity-of-beliefs-hasn-t-faded.html; “Weather Underground Bombings,” FBI, accessed July 6, 2022,
https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/weather-underground-bombings.

110
 The Weather Underground originated as a faction of the antiwar group Students for
a Democratic Society (SDS). Bernardine Dohrn, James Mellen, and Mark Rudd
belonged to the Third World Marxists faction of SDS and formed what became
known as SDS’s “action faction,” advocating street fighting to weaken the United
States. At the June 1969 SDS convention, the Third World Marxists published their
position paper, “You Don’t Need a Weatherman to Know Which Way the Wind Blows,”
in the SDS newspaper, New Left Notes. The paper called for a white revolutionary
movement to support black liberation, which the faction called central to SDS’s anti-
imperialist fight.350 The paper’s title—and the Weather Underground’s name—
referenced a lyric from the Bob Dylan song “Subterranean Homesick Blues”: “You
don’t need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows.”351 This paper became
a founding document of the Weather Underground.352 The Weathermen, as the group
was originally known, formally emerged in December 1969 after a meeting of SDS’s
so-called “war council” to discuss the need for further education on the use of
firearms and bombs. SDS had collapsed earlier that year and the Weathermen
advocated transforming the remnants into an underground guerilla warfare group
that would target U.S. sites of power.353 The group later changed its name from the

350
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/;
“Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.
351
Daniel J. Wakin, “Quieter Lives for 60's Militants, but Intensity of Beliefs Hasn't Faded,” New York
Times, August 24, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/24/nyregion/quieter-lives-for-60-s-militants-
but-intensity-of-beliefs-hasn-t-faded.html; Brad Dress, “What was the Weather Underground?,” Hill, May 2,
2022, https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/3473755-what-was-the-weather-underground/.
352
“Weather Underground Bombings,” FBI, accessed July 6, 2022, https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-
cases/weather-underground-bombings.
353
“Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.

111
 Weathermen to the Weather Underground at the behest of members who found the
original name sexist.354

The Weather Underground took a more violent approach than SDS as it sought to
“dismember and dispose of US imperialism.”355 According to some who were
present at that December 1969 meeting, there were discussions on the
Weathermen’s tactics and willingness to kill in the name of the goals of targeting the
U.S. war machine. Police and military became legitimate targets. In January 1970,
the Weather Underground divided into three subgroups based in San Francisco led
by Howard Machtinger, New York led by Terry Robbins, and a loose network of cells
in the Midwest led by Bill Ayers.356 According to the group’s 1974 manifesto, Prairie
Fire, the group’s goal was “to disrupt the empire ... to incapacitate it, to put pressure
on the cracks.”357 By 1970, the Weather Underground had inspired the creation of
three- to five-person cells across the country that were overseen by the group’s
leadership, called the Weather Bureau.358 By 1975, the Weather Underground had
claimed responsibility for 25 bombings around the United States, including at the

354
Daniel J. Wakin, “Quieter Lives for 60’s Militants, but Intensity of Beliefs Hasn’t Faded,” New York
Times, August 24, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/24/nyregion/quieter-lives-for-60-s-militants-
but-intensity-of-beliefs-hasn-t-faded.html.
355
Brad Dress, “What was the Weather Underground?,” Hill, May 2, 2022, https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-
briefing-room/3473755-what-was-the-weather-underground/.
356
Bryan Burrough, “Meet The Weather Underground’s Bomb Guru,” Vanity Fair, March 29, 2015,
https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2015/03/weather-underground-bomb-guru-burrough-excerpt.
357
“Weather Underground Bombings,” FBI, accessed July 6, 2022, https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-
cases/weather-underground-bombings.
358
“Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.

112
 U.S. Capitol, the Pentagon, the California Attorney General’s office, and a New York
City police station.359

The FBI-New York City Police Anti-Terrorist Task Force—a precursor to the FBI’s
Joint Terrorism Task Forces in FBI field offices nationwide—reportedly played a key
role in disrupting the Weather Underground’s activities.360 The FBI began infiltrating
the Weather Underground as early as the 1969 SDS conference and reportedly
encouraged the formation of the Weathermen out of a belief that faction
represented the least threatening option. Some historians argue the Weather
Underground—despite carrying out some prominent bombings in its early years—
never achieved a large following and the FBI devoted too many resources and
attention to the group.361 In 1973, federal prosecutors dropped all major charges
against Weather Underground members because of legal questions surrounding FBI
tactics—including wiretaps and illegal searches and seizures—while pursuing the
group.362

359
“Weather Underground Bombings,” FBI, accessed July 6, 2022, https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-
cases/weather-underground-bombings.
360
“Weather Underground Bombings,” FBI, accessed July 6, 2022, https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-
cases/weather-underground-bombings.
361
Arthur M. Eckstein, “How the Weather Underground Failed at Revolution and Still Changed the World,”
Time, November 2, 2016, https://time.com/4549409/the-weather-underground-bad-moon-rising/.
362
Arthur M. Eckstein, “How the Weather Underground Failed at Revolution and Still Changed the World,”
Time, November 2, 2016, https://time.com/4549409/the-weather-underground-bad-moon-rising/; “Nation:
Infiltrating the Underground,” Time, January 9, 1978,
https://web.archive.org/web/20091204151846/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,912
056,00.html; “Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8,
2022, https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/.

113
 By 1974, the organization’s bombing campaign had slowed significantly. The
Weather Underground underwent another name change to the Weather Underground
Organization as its leaders struggled with fading relevancy among other far-left
radical groups. This led to the creation of the Prairie Fire Organizing Committee,
which released the group’s 1974 manifesto in a bid to recapture its influence on the
far left.363 Internally, the Weather Underground began to fracture over whether to
continue embracing violence. The Prairie Fire committee had concluded the Weather
Underground needed to win the support of the working class, which set up a division
between pro- and anti-violence factions within the group. Original members such as
Ayers either left or were expelled.364 In December 1976, the Weather Underground
underwent a public split over an “inversion” plan for members to come resume
public lives. Dohrn accused other members of the group’s Central Committee of
being “white, male supremacists” for supporting the plan. Though she had initially
supported the plan, she released an audio tape denouncing “the counter‐
revolutionary politics” in the Weather Underground and acknowledging the group’s
“real” split.365 More radical leftists accused the Weather Underground leadership of
abandoning armed struggle and diluting their ideology to win over the working

363
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/.
364
Arthur M. Eckstein, “How the Weather Underground Failed at Revolution and Still Changed the World,”
Time, November 2, 2016, https://time.com/4549409/the-weather-underground-bad-moon-rising/.
365
John Kifner, “Weather Underground Splits Up Over Plan to Come Into the Open,” New York Times,
January 18, 1977, https://www.nytimes.com/1977/01/18/archives/weather-underground-splits-up-over-
plan-to-come-into-the-open.html.

114
 class.366 The Weather Underground officially disbanded in 1976.367 Radical leftist
Clayton Van Lydegraf seized control of what remained of the Weather Underground,
expelling any remaining original leadership. By 1977, all that remained of the
Weather Underground was Van Lydegraf and four followers, all of whom were
arrested that November for conspiring to bomb the office of California State Senator
John Briggs.368

After spending years in prison, a handful of Weather Underground leaders reformed

and took positions as academics and writers. Ayers and Dohrn were indicted in 1970
and spent 10 years in hiding. Charges were eventually dropped because of
prosecutorial misconduct.369 At the end of his term in January 2001, President Bill
Clinton pardoned Weather Underground member Susan L. Rosenberg.370 Prominent
former Weather Underground member Kathy Boudin, who spent 22 years in prison
for her role in an October 1981 Brink’s armored truck robbery in Nanuet, New York,

366
John Kifner, “Weather Underground Splits Up Over Plan to Come Into the Open,” New York Times,
January 18, 1977, https://www.nytimes.com/1977/01/18/archives/weather-underground-splits-up-over-
plan-to-come-into-the-open.html.
367
Daniel J. Wakin, “Quieter Lives for 60’s Militants, but Intensity of Beliefs Hasn’t Faded,” New York
Times, August 24, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/24/nyregion/quieter-lives-for-60-s-militants-
but-intensity-of-beliefs-hasn-t-faded.html.
368
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/; “Around
the Nation,” New York Times, November 21, 1977,
https://www.nytimes.com/1977/11/21/archives/around-the-nation-5-held-in-plot-to-bomb-california-
aides-office.html.
369
“FACTBOX: Weather Underground resurfaces in U.S. politics,” Reuters, April 18, 2008,
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-politics-underground-idUSN1717462220080418.
370
Eric Lipton, “Officials Criticize Clinton’s Pardon of an Ex-Terrorist,” New York Times, January 22, 2001,
https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/22/nyregion/officials-criticize-clinton-s-pardon-of-an-ex-
terrorist.html.

115
 was hired as an adjunct professor at Columbia University’s School of Social Work in
2013.371 Despite these reformations, critics continued to view former Weather
Underground members with suspicion.372

Recruitment and Propaganda

The Weather Underground was rooted in communism and promoted an anti-war
ideology, particularly focused against the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. At
the June 1969 SDS convention, Weather Underground forerunner Third World
Marxists published their position paper, “You Don’t Need a Weatherman to Know
Which Way the Wind Blows,” in the SDS newspaper, New Left Notes. The paper
called for a white revolutionary movement to support black liberation, which the
faction called central to SDS’s anti-imperialist fight.373 On July 25, 1974, the Weather
Underground distributed its manifesto, Prairie Fire. The manifesto identified the
Weather Underground as a guerilla organization made up of “communist men and

371
Larry Celona, “Outrage 101: Radical jailed in slay now Columbia prof,” New York Post, April 2, 2013,
https://nypost.com/2013/04/02/outrage-101-radical-jailed-in-slay-now-columbia-prof/.
372
“FACTBOX: Weather Underground resurfaces in U.S. politics,” Reuters, April 18, 2008,
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-politics-underground-idUSN1717462220080418.
373
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/;
“Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.

116
 women” seeking to “destroy US imperialism.”374 The manifesto went on to explain
the Weather Underground’s devotion to “armed struggle” in U.S. urban centers.375

Violent Activities
− October 20, 1981
Former Weather Underground members David Gilbert, Judith Alice Clark, Kathy
Boudin, and Marilyn Buck—then associated with the May 19 Communist
Organization—joined armed members of the Black Liberation Army (BLA) in robbing
a Brink’s armored truck in Nanuet, New York. They stole $1.6 million in cash and
killed a guard and two police officers. The former Weather Underground members
were assigned as the getaway drivers while the BLA members carried out the
robbery. Sekou Odinga and Silvia Baraldini were convicted of conspiracy and a
related racketeering charge. Edward L. Joseph and Cecil Ferguson were convicted
as accessories. Bilal Sunni-Ali and Iliana Robinson were acquitted of all charges. On
May 4, 1984, Boudin was sentenced to 20 years to life in prison for her role in the
Brink’s robbery.376

374
Weather Underground, Prairie Fire, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) Archives and Resources,
July 1974, 1, https://www.sds-1960s.org/PrairieFire-reprint.pdf.
375
Weather Underground, Prairie Fire, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) Archives and Resources,
July 1974, 3-4, https://www.sds-1960s.org/PrairieFire-reprint.pdf.
376
Arnold H. Lubasch, “4 OF 6 ARE GUILTY IN U.S. BRINK’S CASE,” New York Times, September 4, 1983,
https://www.nytimes.com/1983/09/04/nyregion/4-of-6-are-guilty-in-us-brink-s-case.html; Larry Celona,
“Outrage 101: Radical jailed in slay now Columbia prof,” New York Post, April 2, 2013,
https://nypost.com/2013/04/02/outrage-101-radical-jailed-in-slay-now-columbia-prof/; James Feron,
“KATHY BOUDIN GIVEN 20 YEARS TO LIFE IN PRISON,” New York Times, May 4, 1984,
https://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/04/nyregion/kathy-boudin-given-20-years-to-life-in-prison.html.

117
− September 5, 1975
A Weather Underground bomb exploded in a bathroom at the Kennecott Corporation
in Salt Lake City, Utah, causing an estimated $40,000 to $50,000 in damage. No
injuries were reported. The Weather Underground said the bombing was in protest of
Kennecott’s support for the current Chilean government and the company’s support
for a 1973 military coup that killed President Salvador Allende Gossens. The
bombing occurred days before the second anniversary of the coup on September
11.377

− January 29, 1975

A bomb planted by the Weather Underground at the headquarters of the U.S. State
Department in Washington, D.C., damaged 20 offices on three separate floors. There
were no injuries reported. A second bomb was found and safely detonated hours
later at a military induction center in Oakland, California.378

− September 10, 1974

The Weather Underground bombed the Anaconda American Brass Company in
Oakland, California. The Weather Underground claimed it targeted Anaconda “in
international solidarity with the Chilean people and their revolutionary struggle. The

377
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/; United
Press International, “None Hurt as Blast In Utah Damages Kennecott Offices,” New York Times,
September 6, 1975, https://www.nytimes.com/1975/09/06/archives/none-hurt-as-blast-in-utah-damages-
kennecott-offices.html.
378
“Weather Underground Bombings,” FBI, accessed July 6, 2022, https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-
cases/weather-underground-bombings.

118
 Weather Underground accused Anaconda, along with Kennecott and ITT, of playing
“a decisive role in the US-sponsored fascist coup in Chile.”379

− June 13, 1974

Following a warning call from the Weather Underground, several sticks of dynamite
exploded at 9:41 p.m. on the 29th floor of the Gulf Oil Corporation building in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, causing approximately $1 million in damages. There were
no casualties. A letter from the Weather Underground taped to a phone booth in
downtown Pittsburgh claimed Gulf Oil had committed “enormous crimes,” including
financing “the Portuguese colonial war against the people of Angola in Africa” and
exploiting people and resources in 70 countries, including stealing profits from “poor
and working people in the US.”380
−

379
Weather Underground, “Weather Underground Organization Bombs Anaconda,” Freedom Archives,
September 11, 1974,
http://freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/DOC31_scans/31.WUO.Bombs.Anaconda.Sept.11.1974.p
df; U.S. Government Printing Office, Hearings Before the Subcommittee To Investigate The Administration
of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws of Committee on the Judiciary of the United
States Senate Ninety-Third Congress Second Session Part 1, Google Books, September 23, 1974, 51,
https://books.google.com/books?id=GjkTAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51&lpg=PA51&dq=Anaconda++bombing+W
EATHER+underground&source=bl&ots=Nj4so-t634&sig=ACfU3U39ZfUFVgss1U2pTakcxx-
qoRzKUg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjVjJ7xkPT4AhXGM1kFHbbiCk04ChDoAXoECA8QAw#v=onepage&
q=Anaconda%20%20bombing%20WEATHER%20underground&f=false.
380
Chris Potter, “In 1974, a group called the Weather Underground bombed the Gulf Building. Can you
shed any light on the reason?,” Pittsburgh City Paper, December 15, 2005,
https://www.pghcitypaper.com/pittsburgh/in-1974-a-group-called-the-weather-underground-bombed-the-
gulf-building-can-you-shed-any-light-on-the-reason/Content?oid=1337599; Associated Press, “Explosion
Damages Gulf Headquarters After Phone Threat,” New York Times, June 14, 1974,
https://www.nytimes.com/1974/06/14/archives/explosion-damages-gulf-headquarters-after-phone-
threat.html.

119
− September 28, 1973
A bomb destroyed four rooms in the Latin‐American section of the International
Telephone and Telegraph Corporation (ITT) in New York City early in the morning.
The building was almost empty at the time and no injuries were reported. An
advance call to the New York Times at 2:19 a.m. warned of the explosion “in
retaliation of the I.T.T. crimes they committed against Chile.” 381

− May 19, 1972

The Weather Underground placed a bomb in the women’s bathroom in the Air Force
wing of the Pentagon, causing flooding that destroyed computer tapes with
classified information and causing approximately $1 million in damages. There were
no injuries due to an advance warning call. The date coincided with the birthdays of
Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh and Malcolm X.382

− September 18, 1971

After warnings were sent to two New York City newspapers and a radio station, a
bomb exploded just after 7:30 p.m. in a bathroom at the State Department of
Correction in Albany, New York, causing damage but no injuries. The Weather

381
Paul L. Montgomery, “L T. T. OFFICE HERE DAMAGED BY BOMB,” New York Times, September 29,
1973, https://www.nytimes.com/1973/09/29/archives/itt-office-here-damaged-by-bomb-caller-linked-
explosion-at.html.
382
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/.

120
 Underground claimed the bombing was in retaliation for the recapture of the Attica
prison facility after a prisoner revolt left 30 prisoners dead in the week.383

− March 1, 1971
At 1:32 a.m., a bomb exploded in a bathroom in Senate wing of the Capitol Building
in Washington, D.C., damaging multiple rooms but not causing any injuries. The
bomb caused $300,000 in damage. A warning call came in a half hour before the
bomb exploded and claimed the bombing was in response to “the Nixon involvement
in Laos.” The Weather Underground said it had attacked “the very seat of U.S. white
arrogance” in response to Laos.384

− October 8-15, 1970

Over the course of a week, the Weather Underground detonated five bombs at
military and law enforcement sites in San Francisco, Seattle, Santa Barbara,
California, New York City, and Cambridge, Massachusetts. There was extensive
damage but no casualties.385

383
“ALBANY BUILDING JOLTED BY BLAST,” New York Times, September 18, 1971,
https://www.nytimes.com/1971/09/18/archives/albany-building-jolted-by-blast-none-injured-in-
explosion-near.html; “Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.
384
John W. Finney, “Bomb in Capitol Causes Wide Damage,” New York Times, March 2, 1971,
https://www.nytimes.com/1971/03/02/archives/bomb-in-capitol-causes-wide-damage-capitol-bombing-
does-wide-damage.html; Lawrence Roberts, “When the Left Attacked the Capitol,” Politico, February 28,
2021, https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/02/28/when-the-left-attacked-the-capitol-471270;
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/.
385
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/; “New
York Courthouse Bombed; Radicals Claim Responsibility,” Kentucky New Era, October 9, 1970,

121
− October 5, 1970
Ron Fleigelman and a group of Weathermen blew up the Haymarket police officer
statue in Chicago that the Weathermen had previously targeted in 1969. The
following day, a recording of Bernadine Dohrn warned of more bombings from
“Santa Barbara to Boston.”386

− September 12, 1970

The Weathermen aided LSD and psychedelic drug advocate Timothy Leary escape
from the California Men’s Colony West minimum-security prison near San Louis
Obispo. Leary was serving a 10-year sentence on marijuana possession. The
Weather Underground smuggled Leary and his wife to Algeria. Bernardine Dohrn
announced that “the Weatherman Underground has had the honor and pleasure of
helping Dr. Timothy Leary escape from a POW camp at San Luis Obispo, California.”
Leary was later recaptured in Afghanistan.387
−

https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=W-
crAAAAIBAJ&sjid=OWcFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4011,790062&dq=weathermen+marin+courthouse+bombing&hl=
en.
386
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/.
387
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/; United
Press International, “Timothy Leary, Drug Advocate, Walks Away From Coast Prison,” New York Times,
September 14, 1970, https://www.nytimes.com/1970/09/14/archives/timothy-leary-drug-advocate-
walks-away-from-coast-prison.html; Michael S. Roth, “President Richard Nixon and LSD guru Timothy
Leary, crazy in their own ways,” Washington Post, January 12, 2018,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/president-richard-nixon-and-lsd-guru-timothy-leary-crazy-in-
their-own-ways/2018/01/12/76220fa4-ebf2-11e7-b698-91d4e35920a3_story.html.

122
− June 9, 1970
A bomb planted in a bathroom damaged offices on the second floor of the New York
Police Department headquarters, wounding eight. An anonymous caller warned of
the bomb 15 minutes before it went off.388

− March 6, 1970
A Weather Underground bomb exploded in the basement of a townhouse at 18 West
11th Street in New York City’s Greenwich Village, killing three founding members of
the group—Diana Oughton, Ted Gold, and Terry Robbins. Two Underground members
escaped the explosion—Cathy Wilkerson, whose father owned the house, and Kathy
Boudin, daughter of a prominent liberal defense attorney. Following the explosion,
police found an additional 57 sticks of dynamite, four completed bombs, detonators,
timing devices, and other bomb-making equipment. The Weather Underground had
intended to target a dinner dance at Fort Dix in New Jersey. Members of the Weather
Underground said after the explosion they were more careful to ensure no one was
hurt in their bombings. Almost two months after the explosion, the remaining
Weather Underground leadership met in San Francisco. Bernardine Dohrn recorded a
message for the media declaring “war” on America. By this point, the Weather
Underground had reportedly lost dozens of members and hundreds of supporters.389

388
Frank J. Prial, “Bomb at Police Headquarters Injures 7 and Damages Offices,” New York Times, June
10, 1970, https://www.nytimes.com/1970/06/10/archives/bomb-at-police-headquarters-injures-7-and-
damages-offices-explosion.html; Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen; “Weather Underground (Weatherman/The
Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/.
389
“Weather Underground Bombings,” FBI, accessed July 6, 2022, https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-
cases/weather-underground-bombings; “Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,

123
−
− March 2, 1970
Teenagers affiliated with the Weathermen threw two firebombs onto the front porch
of a Cleveland, Ohio, police detective. The flames were extinguished without
casualties. Bill Ayers had allegedly encouraged Ohio members to select a target
linked to the prosecution of a leftist accused of killing three Cleveland police
officers.390

− February 21, 1970

Led by bomb-maker Terry Robbins, the New York City Weathermen coordinated a
series of Molotov cocktail attacks around New York City. Two bombs targeted a
New York Police Department vehicle but did not cause any serious injuries or
damage. Two bombings targeted military recruiting booths at Brooklyn College. A
third bombing targeted the Columbia University Law Library while the fourth
bombing targeted the home of a judge in a criminal Trial involving the Black Panther
Party, resulting in damage to the home but no casualties.391

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen; Zachary Kussin, “The many lives of Weather

Underground townhouse — 50 years after infamous bomb blast,” New York Post, March 4, 2020,
https://nypost.com/2020/03/04/the-many-lives-of-weather-underground-townhouse-50-years-after-
infamous-bomb-blast/; Lawrence Roberts, “When the Left Attacked the Capitol,” Politico, February 28,
2021, https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/02/28/when-the-left-attacked-the-capitol-471270;
Bryan Burrough, “Meet The Weather Underground’s Bomb Guru,” Vanity Fair, March 29, 2015,
https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2015/03/weather-underground-bomb-guru-burrough-excerpt.
390
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/.
391
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/.

124
− February 16, 1970
At 10:45 p.m., a bomb on a window ledge exploded at the Park Police Station in the
San Francisco’s Upper Haight neighborhood, severely wounding officer Brian
McDonnell, who died of his wounds two days later. According to the FBI,
eyewitnesses linked the Weather Underground to the bombing, but Weather
Underground leaders Bill Ayers and Bernardine Dohrn denied their group was
responsible for the attack.392

− February 12, 1970

A group of Weathermen set off bombs in the Berkeley police complex parking lot in
San Francisco, just after midnight as shifts changed and officers were in the lot.
Several officers were wounded but none died. Some Weathermen lamented their
failure to kill officers. The Weathermen did not claim credit and their responsibility
did not come to light for several years.393

− January 18, 1970

Silas Bissell, a.k.a. Terry Jackson, attempted to blow up an Air Force ROTC building
on the University of Washington campus. The bomb did not detonate. Campus
police immediately arrested Bissel and his wife, Judith, and charged them with

392
Peter Jamison, “Time Bomb,” SF Weekly, September 16, 2009,
https://archives.sfweekly.com/sanfrancisco/time-bomb/Content?oid=2174174&showFullText=true.
393
Bryan Burrough, “Meet The Weather Underground’s Bomb Guru,” Vanity Fair, March 29, 2015,
https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2015/03/weather-underground-bomb-guru-burrough-excerpt.

125
 conspiring to damage federal property and possessing an unregistered firearm. The
couple fled after posting $50,000 in bail. They later separated and Judith Bissell was
arrested in 1979 and sentenced to prison. Silas Bissell was arrested on January 20,
1987, after 17 years in hiding. Bissell claimed the Weathermen had betrayed him and
alerted police. Bissell was convicted and sentenced to two years in prison. He was
released after 18 months. Bissell died in June 2002 from brain cancer.394

− October 8-11, 1969

The Weather Underground organized a “Days of Rage” protest in Chicago, which was
marked by rioting and slogans of “Bring the war home” and “The time has come for
fighting in the streets.” Reports vary of 100 to almost 300 people arrested by the end
of the protests, but the overall turnout for the protests reportedly disappointed the
Weathermen. The following December, the Weather Underground organized a
national “war council” meeting of the SDS to discuss the need for further education
on firearms and bombs. The council also discussed the need to kill police and target
U.S. sites of power.395

394
Wallace Turner, “TIP LEADS TO THE ARREST OF RADICAL SOUGHT IN 1970 OREGON CASE,” New York
Times, January 22, 1987, https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/22/us/tip-leads-to-the-arrest-of-radical-
sought-in-1970-oregon-case.html?pagewanted=1; George Tibbets, “Former Fugitive Silas Bissell Freed On
Bond,” Associated Press, February 6, 1987,
https://apnews.com/article/f91d0c891cf2110c7197ef24626cbbda; Associated Press, “Silas Trim Bissell,
60, Longtime Antiwar Fugitive,” New York Times, June 25, 2002,
https://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/25/us/silas-trim-bissell-60-longtime-antiwar-fugitive.html.
395
Brad Dress, “What was the Weather Underground?,” Hill, May 2, 2022, https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-
briefing-room/3473755-what-was-the-weather-underground/; “Weather Underground,” Britannica,
accessed July 8, 2022, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.

126
− October 6, 1969
The Weathermen blew up a bronze statue in Chicago’s Haymarket Square
commemorating the policemen who had died in an 1886 riot.396

Rhetoric
− Weather Underground claim of responsibility for bombing of Anaconda American
brass Company in Oakland, California, September 11, 1974:
“We attack Anaconda Corporation in international solidarity with the Chilean people
and their revolutionary struggle.”397

− Prairie Fire, Weather Underground manifesto, July 1974:

“We are a guerrilla organization. We are communist women and men, underground
in the United States for more than four years.

“We are deeply affected by the historic events of our time in the struggle against US
imperialism. Our intention is to disrupt the empire ... to incapacitate it, to put
pressure on the cracks, to make it hard to carry out its bloody functioning against
the people of the world, to join the world struggle, to attack from the inside. Our

396
Brad Dress, “What was the Weather Underground?,” Hill, May 2, 2022, https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-
briefing-room/3473755-what-was-the-weather-underground/; “Weather Underground,” Britannica,
accessed July 8, 2022, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.
397
Weather Underground, “Weather Underground Organization Bombs Anaconda,” Freedom Archives,
September 11, 1974,
http://freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/DOC31_scans/31.WUO.Bombs.Anaconda.Sept.11.1974.p
df.

127
 intention is to engage the enemy ... to wear away at him, to harass him, to isolate
him, to expose every weakness, to pounce, to reveal his vulnerability.

“Our intention is to encourage the people ... to provoke leaps in confidence and
consciousness, to stir the imagination, to popularize power, to agitate, to organize,
to join in every way possible the people's day-to-day struggles.

“Our intention is to forge an underground ... a clandestine political organization

engaged in every form of struggle, protected from the eyes and weapons of the
state, a base against repression, to accumulate lessons, experience and constant
practice, a base from which to attack.

“The only path to the final defeat of imperialism and the building of socialism is
revolutionary war. Revolution is the most powerful resource of the people. To wait,
to not prepare people for the fight, is to seriously mislead about what kind of fierce
struggle lies ahead.”398

− Prairie Fire, Weather Underground manifesto, July 1974:

“At this early stage in the armed and clandestine struggle, our forms of combat and
confrontation are few and precise. Our organized forces are small, the enemy's
forces are huge. We live inside the oppressor nation, particularly suited to urban
guerrilla warfare. We are strategically situated in the nerve centers of the

398
Weather Underground, Prairie Fire, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) Archives and Resources,
July 1974, 1-2, https://www.sds-1960s.org/PrairieFire-reprint.pdf.

128
 international empire, where the institutions and symbols of imperial power are
concentrated. The cities will be a major battleground, for the overwhelming majority
of people live in the cities; the cities are our terrain.”399

− Prairie Fire, Weather Underground manifesto, July 1974:

“Attacks by the Weather Underground have been focused and specific. These
actions were a catalyst for thousands of politically-directed armed actions between
1970 and 1972, almost all of which complemented mass struggles.”400

− A Weather Underground warning call to the New York Times about a bomb at the
International Telephone and Telegraph building in New York City, September 28,
1973:
“Take this down because am only going to say this once. I am the Weatherman
underground. At the I.T.T.‐American building, a bomb is going to go off in 15
minutes. This is in retaliation of the I.T.T. crimes they committed against Chile.” 401

399
Weather Underground, Prairie Fire, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) Archives and Resources,
July 1974, 3, https://www.sds-1960s.org/PrairieFire-reprint.pdf.
400
Weather Underground, Prairie Fire, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) Archives and Resources,
July 1974, 4, https://www.sds-1960s.org/PrairieFire-reprint.pdf.
401
Paul L. Montgomery, “L T. T. OFFICE HERE DAMAGED BY BOMB,” New York Times, September 29,
1973, https://www.nytimes.com/1973/09/29/archives/itt-office-here-damaged-by-bomb-caller-linked-
explosion-at.html.

129
− A Weather Underground warning call to the Kennecott Corporation in Salt Lake City,
Utah, shortly before a bomb exploded in the building, September 5, 1975:
“Only resistance will win. Call the police and have the building evacuated.”402

− Bernardine Dohrn, after the Weather Underground broke drug advocate Timothy
Leary out of prison, September 1970:
“Now we are at war.”403

− Weather Underground member Mark Rudd, December 1969:

“It’s a wonderful feeling to hit a pig. It must be a really wonderful feeling to kill a pig
or blow up a building.”404

− Slogan during Days of Rage protest, October 8-11, 1969:

“The time has come for fighting in the streets.”405

402
“Weather Underground (Weatherman/The Weathermen),” Influence Watch, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/weather-underground-weatherman-weathermen/; United
Press International, “None Hurt as Blast In Utah Damages Kennecott Offices,” New York Times,
September 6, 1975, https://www.nytimes.com/1975/09/06/archives/none-hurt-as-blast-in-utah-damages-
kennecott-offices.html.
403
Michael S. Roth, “President Richard Nixon and LSD guru Timothy Leary, crazy in their own ways,”
Washington Post, January 12, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/president-richard-nixon-
and-lsd-guru-timothy-leary-crazy-in-their-own-ways/2018/01/12/76220fa4-ebf2-11e7-b698-
91d4e35920a3_story.html.
404
Peter Jamison, “Time Bomb,” SF Weekly, September 16, 2009,
https://archives.sfweekly.com/sanfrancisco/time-bomb/Content?oid=2174174&showFullText=true.
405
“Weather Underground,” Britannica, accessed July 8, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Weathermen.

130
 Youth Liberation Front
Base of Operations: The YLF is based in the Pacific Northwest region
with chapters throughout Washington and Oregon.406 The group also
has chapters in Florida, California, and the Carolinas.407 A chapter in
London, England, launched in 2021.408
Website: https://pnwylf.noblogs.org/
Social Media Presence: Twitter (Pacific Northwest YLF), Twitter (Youth
Liberation Front Seattle Division), Twitter (NorCal YLF) (deleted), Twitter
(Carolina YLF) (deleted), Twitter (Bay Area YLF) (suspended), Twitter (Ft.
Lauderdale YLF), Twitter (Southwest YLF), Twitter (Maryland YLF),
Twitter (DC YLF), Twitter (Florida YLF), Twitter (Atlanta YLF), Twitter
(London YLF), Mastadon, Instagram (Southwest YLF)
Leadership: YLF is made up of independent, leaderless cells. The
leaders of these cells remain anonymous.409
Membership Size and Relevance: YLF does not maintain public
membership records. Each chapter acts independently. As of October 2,

406
“Chapters, PNW Youth Liberation Front, accessed September 21, 2020,
https://pnwylf.noblogs.org/chapters/.
407
NorCal YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020, https://twitter.com/norcalylf; Carolina
YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020, https://twitter.com/CarolinaYlf; Bay Area YLF
Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020, https://twitter.com/BayYlf; Ft. Lauderdale YLF, Twitter
account, accessed September 25, 2020, https://twitter.com/fla_ylf.
408
London Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022,
https://twitter.com/YLFLondon.
409
Hal Bernton, “Meet the Youth Liberation Front behind a militant marathon of Portland protests,” Seattle
Times, July 12, 2020, https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/meet-the-youth-liberation-front-the-
militant-group-promoting-a-marathon-of-angry-portland-protests/.

131
 2020, PNW YLF had 274 followers on Mastadon410 and 36,300 followers
on Twitter.411 As of that same date, a Twitter account belonging to the
Seattle Division had 5,782 followers and had been temporarily restricted
but remained online.412 The NorCal YLF had 744 followers,413 while the
Carolina YLF had 166 followers,414 the Bay Area YLF had 276
followers,415 and the Fort Lauderdale chapter had 223 followers.416

As of July 29, 2022, PNW YLF had 761 followers on Mastadon but the
account had not been updated since February 2021. The most recent
posts reported the group had repeatedly been locked out of its Twitter
account.417 PNW YLF had grown to 34,300 followers on its Twitter
account, which had continued to be updated through May 2022.418 As of
the same date, the PNW YLF website had not been updated since July
2020.419 Also, as of July 29, 2022, the Seattle Division Twitter account

410
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Mastadon account, accessed October 2, 2020,
https://kolektiva.social/@PNWYLF.
411
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed October 2, 2020, https://twitter.com/PNWYLF.
412
Youth Liberation Front Seattle Division, Twitter account, accessed October 2, 2020,
https://twitter.com/seattleYLF.
413
NorCal Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed October 2, 2020,
https://twitter.com/norcalylf.
414
Carolina YLF, Twitter account, accessed October 2, 2020, https://twitter.com/CarolinaYlf.
415
Bay Area YLF, Twitter account, accessed October 2, 2020, https://twitter.com/BayYlf.
416
Ft. Lauderdale Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed October 2, 2020,
https://twitter.com/fla_ylf.
417
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Mastadon account, accessed July 29, 2022,
https://kolektiva.social/@PNWYLF.
418
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022, https://twitter.com/PNWYLF.
419
Homepage, PNW Youth Liberation Front, accessed July 29, 2022, https://pnwylf.noblogs.org/.

132
 had 7,487 followers.420 The Fort Lauderdale chapter Twitter account had
grown to 1,385 followers.421 The Florida YLF Twitter account had 1,385
followers.422 The NorCal YLF and Carolina YLF Twitter accounts had
been deleted, while the Bay Area had been suspended.423 Created in July
2020, the Southwest YLF Twitter account had 1,667 followers as of July
29, 2022.424 Its Instagram account had only 19 followers.425

Created in August 2020, the DC YLF Twitter page had 4,746 followers as
of July 29, 2022.426 The Maryland YLF Twitter account had 1,270
followers as of July 29, 2022, but a June 30 tweet proclaimed the group
was transitioning and “passing this account on to the next generation of
anarchist who inspire us to keep going” as most of its founding
members had “outgrown” YLF. These members were transitioning to the
Baltimore Liberation Front.427 Created in July 2019, the Baltimore
Liberation Front claims to be anti-capitalist and supportive of the

420
Youth Liberation Front Seattle Division, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022,
https://twitter.com/seattleYLF.
421
Ft. Lauderdale Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022,
https://twitter.com/fla_ylf.
422
Florida Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022, https://twitter.com/fla_ylf.
423
NorCal Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022, https://twitter.com/norcalylf;
Carolina YLF, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022, https://twitter.com/CarolinaYlf; Bay Area YLF,
Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022, https://twitter.com/BayYlf.
424
Southwest Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022, https://twitter.com/sw_ylf.
425
Southwest Youth Liberation Front, Instagram account, accessed July 29, 2022,
https://www.instagram.com/sw_ylf/.
426
DC Youth Liberation Front, accessed July 29, 2022, https://twitter.com/dcylf.
427
Maryland Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022,
https://twitter.com/MarylandYLF.

133
 “ACAB”—All Cops Are Bastards—philosophy. It calls for a “Free
Baltimore.”428 Launched in August 2021, the London, England, YLF
Twitter account had 255 followers as of July 29, 2022.429 An Atlanta YLF
Twitter account launched in June 2021 and had 369 followers by July
29, 2022.430

The Youth Liberation Front (YLF) is a self-described “decentralized network of

autonomous youth collectives dedicated to direct action towards total liberation….”431
YLF describes itself as part of the umbrella of “anarchist projects” online. 432 YLF social
media accounts call for attendance at rallies and protests against symbols of authority.
These accounts also provide suggestions on how to prepare for protests.433 YLF groups
began to emerge on social media in 2018 but gained greater prominence in 2020 with
the spread of nationwide protests against police brutality and racial inequality.434 YLF

428
Baltimore Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022, https://twitter.com/Baltimore_LF.
429
London Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022,
https://twitter.com/YLFLondon.
430
Atlanta Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed July 29, 2022,
https://twitter.com/AtlantaYLF.
431
“About,” PNW Youth Liberation Front, accessed September 21, 2020,
https://pnwylf.noblogs.org/about/.
432
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Mastadon post, September 22, 2020, 1:21 p.m.,
https://kolektiva.social/@PNWYLF/104909721208356199.
433
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF; NorCal YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/norcalylf; Carolina YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/CarolinaYlf; Bay Area YLF Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/BayYlf; Ft. Lauderdale YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/fla_ylf.
434
Hal Bernton, “Meet the Youth Liberation Front behind a militant marathon of Portland protests,” Seattle
Times, July 12, 2020, https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/meet-the-youth-liberation-front-the-
militant-group-promoting-a-marathon-of-angry-portland-protests/.

134
has at least seven affiliates across the country, all of which act independently of each
other.435 While YLF groups only loosely connected, a common denomination among
them is their call for “direct action” in pursuit of their goal of tearing down the allegedly
racist and inequitable political and capitalist systems.436

YLF is declaredly anti-fascist and anti-capitalist. Members who have spoken to media
remain anonymous. During these interviews, they have declared YLF’s belief that the
current political system is broken and needs to be replaced rather than reformed. The
nationwide protests that erupted after the May 25, 2020, death of George Floyd in police
custody reportedly provided YLF with a recruitment boost over social media.437 YLF
propaganda declares “the time for discussing reform is over,” and calls for “full abolition
for our communities to be safe and free from rampant police terror.”438

435
“About,” PNW Youth Liberation Front, accessed September 21, 2020,
https://pnwylf.noblogs.org/about/; NorCal YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/norcalylf; Carolina YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/CarolinaYlf; Bay Area YLF Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/BayYlf; Ft. Lauderdale YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/fla_ylf.
436
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF; NorCal YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/norcalylf; Carolina YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/CarolinaYlf; Bay Area YLF Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/BayYlf; Ft. Lauderdale YLF, Twitter account, accessed September 25, 2020,
https://twitter.com/fla_ylf.
437
Hal Bernton, “Meet the Youth Liberation Front behind a militant marathon of Portland protests,” Seattle
Times, July 12, 2020, https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/meet-the-youth-liberation-front-the-
militant-group-promoting-a-marathon-of-angry-portland-protests/.
438
“July 25th: Call For A Day Of Action In Solidarity With Portland & Against The Federal Invasion,” PNW
Youth Liberation Front, July 23, 2020, https://pnwylf.noblogs.org/post/2020/07/23/july-25th-call-for-a-
day-of-action/.

135
 Recruitment and Propaganda
YLF claims to be a network of “loosely connected autonomous groups of kids” fighting
against fascism, the state, and capitalism.439 PNW YLF encourages visitors to its
Twitter page to find “some other kids and form your own affinity group,” suggesting that
there is no formal process for creating YLF affiliate chapters.440 Per its name, YLF
targets youth for recruitment. The operator of the PNW YLF Twitter account admitted in
a September 30, 2020, post to being a current high school student.441

The YLF utilizes a black flag in its imagery to symbolize anarchy.442 YLF chapters are
active on social media, particularly Twitter. Twitter temporarily suspended the PNW YLF
in September 2020, which led the group to create an account on the anarchist social
media forum Mastadon.443

439
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, September 30, 2020, 12:44 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF/status/1311165012573118464.
440
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, September 30, 2020, 12:44 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF/status/1311165012573118464.
441
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, September 30, 2020, 1:50 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF/status/1311181556426313728.
442
K. Rambo, “Who is the PNW Youth Liberation Front at the center of recent Portland protests,” Oregon
Live, June 2, 2020, https://www.oregonlive.com/news/2020/06/who-is-the-pnw-youth-liberation-front-at-
the-center-of-recent-portland-protests.html.
443
NorCal Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, September 22, 2020, 5:27 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/norcalylf/status/1308518218768678912; PNW Youth Liberation Front, Mastadon
post, September 22, 2020, 1:21 p.m., https://kolektiva.social/@PNWYLF/104909721208356199.

136
 Violent Activities
− YLF has not be linked to specific violent attacks.

Rhetoric
− DC YLF, Twitter post, June 30, 2022:
“#EverybodyOut! Let’s go #DC. F*** the USA and the State. F the courts, SCOTUS, &
the cops! Where black, bring a mask (for covid), water/snacks, keep together & each-
other safe. #WeKeepUsSafe! Let’s go!!!!!”444

− DC YLF, Twitter post, June 25, 2022:

“F*** SCOTUS & the Police”445

− DC YLF, Twitter post, June 24, 2022:

“The more protests the more police have to split their pigs.”446

− DC YLF, Twitter post, June 21, 2022:

444
DC Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, June 30, 2022, 8:31, p.m.,
https://twitter.com/dcylf/status/1542667100950511616.
445
DC Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, June 25, 2022, 1:36 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/dcylf/status/1540569561455595520.
446
DC Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, June 24, 2022, 10:04 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/dcylf/status/1540516286463090689.

137
 “Y’all know what to do! Bring water, a buddy, mask, and wear black. Keep each other
safe and look out for one another. Fuck the SCOTUS! Fuck the anti-choice chuds!
Fuck the police! Fight back!”447

− Atlanta YLF, Twitter post, May 28, 2022:

“From the murders of people on college campuses like Scout Schultz to the
countless and increasing amounts of arrests of children in primary school. The
police ‘protect and serve’ the brutality and violence of this society.”448

− Maryland YLF, Twitter post, February 5, 2022:

“Its Us vs Them let them know that they fucking killed someone!!! be fucking angry
burn shit! break shit! show them how bad it hurts, let them know that their actions
have consequences.”449

− Maryland YLF, Twitter post, November 17, 2021:

“the best system is no system”450

− Maryland YLF, Twitter post, September 21, 2021:

447
DC Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, June 21, 2022, 1:02 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/dcylf/status/1539292751006535681.
448
Atlanta Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, May 28, 2022,
https://twitter.com/AtlantaYLF/status/1530674947550420992.
449
Maryland Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, February 5, 2022, 10:35 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/MarylandYLF/status/1490167212379938816.
450
Maryland Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, November 17, 2021, 8:09 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/MarylandYLF/status/1461139455633416196.

138
 “mandatory cops are mega doo doo tweet”451

− London YLF, Twitter post, August 12, 2021:

“YLF is back in London. Let’s fuck shit up!”452

− DC YLF, Twitter post, August 12, 2021:

“Start your own YLF or antifascist group and fuck fascists up!”453

− Atlanta YLF, Twitter post, July 23, 2021:

“youth liberation is when youth do anarchy”454

− PNW YLF, Mastadon post, November 4, 2020:

“Counterinsurgency say what??? If your action can be used as pig propaganda,
you’re either on their side intentionally or you’re just completely fucking
incompetent. No bad protestors, no good cops. Support all those taking risks in the
streets, even the innocent ones!”455

451
Maryland Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, September 21, 2021, 2:37 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/MarylandYLF/status/1440384726116667393.
452
London Youth Liberation Front, August 12, 2021, 2:33 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/YLFLondon/status/1425888105593196549.
453
DC Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, August 12, 2021, 3:35 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/dcylf/status/1425903812200468480.
454
Atlanta Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, July 23, 2021, 7:25 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/AtlantaYLF/status/1418713890406473728.
455
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Mastadon post, November 4, 2020, 10:02 p.m.,
https://kolektiva.social/@PNWYLF/105155485175052210.

139
− PNW YLF, Tweet, September 26, 2020:
“Great to see Portland show up today to oppose some piss babies, and the level of
support infrastructure that folks built was fantastic. The day isn’t over and the threat
from vacationing chuds continues. Stick with your crew, be alert and stay
dangerous. See ya in the streets!Black heart.”456

− PNW YLF, Mastadon post, September 22, 2020:

“Expect us to use this platform and other alternative media platforms more and
more frequently, as anarchist projects continue to be censored from corporate
social media.”457

− PNW YLF, Twitter post, September 19, 2020:

“we’d encourage bringing banners against the US Supreme Court and all other
colonizer courts and judges.”458

− PNW YLF, Twitter post, September 16, 2020:

“Reduce the prisons to rubble”459

456
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, September 26, 2020, 11:59 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF/status/1310066570333487105.
457
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Mastadon post, September 22, 2020, 1:21 p.m.,
https://kolektiva.social/@PNWYLF/104909721208356199.
458
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, September 19, 2020, 3:44 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF/status/1307405220541018118.
459
PNW Youth Liberation Front, Twitter post, September 16, 2020, 6:28, p.m.,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF/status/1306359249270902787.

140
− PNW YLF, Twitter post, September 13, 2020:
“Youth Liberation: Burn the Schools and Destroy the Media!
https://warzonedistro.noblogs.org/post/2017/09/07/youth-liberation-burn-the-
schools-and-destroy-the-media/”460

− PNW YLF, Twitter post, September 13, 2020:

“Solidarity with Zoom (and Google Meet, etc.) bombers, DDOSers, and all brave
school saboteurs in these trying times”461

− PNW YLF, Twitter post, September 6, 2020:

“Surveillance is crucial to extending the reach of the police state; not all the violence
of policing is physical. Be real fucking conscious about the line between journalism
and surveillance, because many of y’all keep crossing it. Stick to journalism, not
surveillance.”462

− Blog post, PNW YLF website, July 23, 2020:

“Time and time again, the neo-liberal state has offered promises of ‘reform’ with no
real action ever taken. The time for discussing reform is over, we need full abolition

460
PNW YLF, Twitter post, September 13, 2020, 4:49 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF/status/1305247310637461506.
461
PNW YLF, Twitter post, September 13, 2020, 3:55 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF/status/1305233551164502016.
462
PNW YLF, Twitter post, September 6, 2020, 11:14 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/PNWYLF/status/1302807487242854400.

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 for our communities to be safe and free from rampant police terror.”463

− PNW YLF, Twitter post, July 5, 2020:

“Be like water, keep moving. If you see someone smashing windows, shut the
(expletive) up. Walk, don’t run. Hold the front and back lines.”464

463
“July 25th: Call For A Day Of Action In Solidarity With Portland & Against The Federal Invasion,” PNW
Youth Liberation Front, July 23, 2020, https://pnwylf.noblogs.org/post/2020/07/23/july-25th-call-for-a-
day-of-action/.
464
Hal Bernton, “Meet the Youth Liberation Front behind a militant marathon of Portland protests,” Seattle
Times, July 12, 2020, https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/meet-the-youth-liberation-front-the-
militant-group-promoting-a-marathon-of-angry-portland-protests/.

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