The

Twentieth-
Century
Crisis 1914–1945
Why It Matters
The period between 1914 and 1945 was one of
the most destructive in the history of humankind.
As many as 60 million people died as a result of
World Wars I and II, the global conflicts that
began and ended this era. As World War I was
followed by revolutions, the Great Depression,
totalitarian regimes, and the horrors of World
War II, it appeared to many that European
civilization had become a nightmare. By 1945,
the era of European domination over world affairs
had been severely shaken. With the decline of
Western power, a new era of world history was
about to begin.
WAR AND REVOLUTION
CHAPTER 23
1914–1919

THE WEST BETWEEN THE WARS

CHAPTER 24
1919–1939

NATIONALISM AROUND THE WORLD

CHAPTER 25
1919–1939

WORLD WAR II
CHAPTER 26
1939–1945

German troops march into Prague in 1939 during the Nazi

invasion of Czechoslovakia, illustrating the upheaval of
World War II.

Three Lions/Getty Images

 755
Three Lions/Getty Images
 War and Revolution 1914 –1919
Section 1 The Road to World War I
Section 2 World War I
Section 3 The Russian Revolution
Section 4 End of World War I

MAKING CONNECTIONS
How can new technology affect
warfare?
In World War I, new war technology such as the tank and machine
gun contributed to a loss of life never before experienced in war.
Soldiers living in muddy trenches were exposed to rats, lice, and dis-
ease while constantly under threat of attack. In this chapter you will
learn about many aspects of World War I and the Russian Revolution.
• What other inventions made World War I more devastating than
previous wars?
• What new technologies have been used in more recent wars?

1917
United States
1914 enters the war
EUROPE AND THE Assassination of
Archduke Ferdinand The Russian
UNITED STATES sparks WWI Revolution begins

1914 1916

THE WORLD 1912 1915

Italians attempt to seize Libya Armenians are victims
during the Italian-Turkish War of genocide by Turkey

756
Bettmann/CORBIS, Topham/The Image Works
 Pre-Revolution Revolution
and and
Anti-Communist Communist
Forces Forces

Analyzing Make a Russia

1919 Two-Tab Book to orga-
U.S. President nize information you read about the
1918 Russian Revolution. Under the first tab,
Wilson helps
Germany record political, social, and economic
form the League
agrees events that led to the revolution. Under
of Nations the second tab, record political and mili-
to truce
tary events that brought the Communists
1918 to power.

1918 1919
Worldwide influenza Gandhi begins his
epidemic begins nonviolent campaign in India
Chapter Overview—Visit glencoe.com to preview Chapter 23.

Topham/The Image Works, (l) Bettmann/CORBIS, (r) CORBIS

 The Road to World War I
As European countries formed alliances and increased the
GUIDE TO READING sizes of their armed forces, they set the stage for a global war.
The BIG Idea All they needed was a good reason to mobilize troops. Another
Competition Among Countries crisis in the Balkans in the summer of 1914 led directly to the
Militarism, nationalism, and a crisis in the Balkans
conflict. When a Serbian terrorist assassinated Archduke
led to World War I.
Francis Ferdinand and his wife, the powder keg exploded.
Content Vocabulary
• conscription (p. 759) • mobilization (p. 761)
Causes of the War
Academic Vocabulary
• military (p. 759) • complex (p. 759) Nationalism, militarism, and a system of alliances contributed to the
start of World War I.
People, Places, and Events HISTORY & YOU Have you ever defended a friend who was being criticized?
• Triple Alliance (p. 758) • Gavrilo Princip Read to find out how a system of alliances led to the start of World War I.
• Triple Entente (p. 758) (p. 760)
• Serbia (p. 760) • Emperor William II
• Archduke Francis (p. 760) Nineteenth-century liberals believed that if European states
Ferdinand (p. 760) • Czar Nicholas II were organized along national lines, these states would work
• Bosnia (p. 760) (p. 761) together and create a peaceful Europe. They were wrong. The
• General Alfred von system of nation-states that emerged in Europe in the last half of
Schlieffen (p. 761) the nineteenth century led not to cooperation but to competition.

Reading Strategy
Determining Cause and Effect Nationalism and Alliances
As you read, create a diagram like the one below to Rivalries over colonies and trade grew during an age of frenzied
identify the factors that led to World War I. nationalism and imperialist expansion. At the same time, Europe’s
great powers had been divided into two loose alliances. Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed the Triple Alliance in 1882.
France, Great Britain, and Russia created the Triple Entente in 1907.
World War I In the early years of the twentieth century, a series of crises tested
these alliances. Especially troublesome were the crises in the Bal-
kans between 1908 and 1913. These events left European states angry
at each other and eager for revenge. Self-interest and success guided
each state. They were willing to use war to preserve their power.
Nationalism in the nineteenth century had yet another serious
result. Not all ethnic groups had become nations. Slavic minori-
ties in the Balkans and the Hapsburg Empire, for example, still
dreamed of their own national states. The Irish in the British
Empire and the Poles in the Russian Empire had similar dreams.

Internal Dissent
National desires were not the only source of internal strife at the
beginning of the 1900s. Socialist labor movements also had grown
more powerful. The Socialists were increasingly inclined to use
strikes, even violent ones, to achieve their goals.

758
 N
ALLIANCES IN EUROPE, 1914
W
60° E
N
S
NORWAY Estimated Army Size, 1914
1.5 Triple Triple

Number of Soldiers
Triple Alliance Entente Alliance
1.2

(in millions)
Triple Entente St. Petersburg
Balkans 0.9
SWEDEN 0.6
North 0.3
UNITED Sea DENMARK c Moscow
KINGDOM OF lti 0.0
Ba ea
50
°N

Hu stria-

m
ssia

ce

ry
any

ly
Kin ited
GREAT BRITAIN S

gdo
Ita
nga
n
Fra
Ru

rm
AND IRELAND

Un
Au
0 200 kilometers

Ge
Elb
eR
0 200 miles . Source: Encyclopedia of the First World War.
London NETH.
Lambert Azimuthal
Equal-Area projection
English Channel RUSSIA

Rhin
So
m BEL. GERMANY
Se

e
m
in

R.
eR
e
Paris R. Dni
.
LUX. e
ATLANTIC Alsace-

p er .
.
Loire R Lorraine Danube
OCEAN R.

R
Vienna
FRANCE SWITZ. Budapest
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

10°W
PORT. SPAIN Bosnia ROMANIA
0°
Sarajevo Black Sea
ITALY SERBIA
Rome BULGARIA
MONTENEGRO OT Constantinople
ALBANIA TO
40°N MA
N EM
1. Human-Environment Interaction What GREECE PIRE
made it unlikely that World War I battles
would be fought in Great Britain?
2. Location Where were the countries of the
Triple Entente located in relation to the Mediterranean Sea U.K.
countries of the Triple Alliance? 10°E 20°E 30°E

Some conservative leaders, alarmed at Britain were exceptions.) European armies

the increase in labor strife and class divi- doubled in size between 1890 and 1914.
sion, feared that European nations were on Militarism—the aggressive preparation for
the verge of revolution. This desire to sup- war—was growing. As armies grew, so too
press internal disorder may have encour- did the influence of military leaders. They
aged various leaders to take the plunge drew up vast and complex plans for quickly
into war in 1914. mobilizing millions of soldiers and enormous
quantities of supplies in the event of war.
Fearing that any changes would cause
Militarism chaos in the armed forces, military leaders
The growth of mass armies after 1900 insisted that their plans could not be altered.
heightened the existing tensions in Europe. This left European political leaders with little
These large armies made it obvious that if war leeway. In 1914 they had to make decisions
did come, it would be highly destructive. for military instead of political reasons.
Most Western countries had established
conscription, a military draft, as a regular ✓Reading Check Determining Cause and
practice before 1914. (The United States and Effect What were some major causes of World War I?

CHAPTER 23 War and Revolution 759

 The Outbreak of War Bosnia. A group of conspirators waited
Bettmann/CORBIS

there in the streets.

Serbia’s determination to become a In that group was Gavrilo Princip, a 19-
large, independent state angered Austria-Hungary and year-old Bosnian Serb. Princip was a mem-
started hostilities. ber of the Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist
HISTORY & YOU What circumstances today might organization that wanted Bosnia to be free
influence the United States to enter a war on behalf of Austria-Hungary and to become part of
of an ally? Read to learn how an assassination led to a large Serbian kingdom. An assassination
a world war. attempt earlier that morning by one of the
conspirators had failed. Later that day, how-
ever, Princip succeeded in fatally shooting
Militarism, nationalism, and the desire
both the archduke and his wife.
to stifle internal dissent may all have played
a role in the starting of World War I. How-
ever, it was the decisions that European Austria-Hungary Responds
leaders made in response to a crisis in the The Austro-Hungarian government did
Balkans that led directly to the conflict. not know whether or not the Serbian gov-
ernment had been directly involved in the
Assassination in Sarajevo archduke’s assassination, but it did not care.
By 1914, Serbia, supported by Russia, was Austrian leaders wanted to attack Serbia
determined to create a large, independent but feared that Russia would intervene on
Slavic state in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary, Serbia’s behalf. So, they asked for—and
which had its own Slavic minorities to con- received—the backing of their German
tend with, was equally determined to pre- allies. Emperor William II of Germany
vent that from happening. gave Austria-Hungary a “blank check,”
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Francis promising Germany’s full support if war
Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria- broke out between Russia and Austria-
Hungary, and his wife Sophia visited the Hungary. On July 28, Austria-Hungary
city of Sarajevo (sar•uh•YAY•voh) in declared war on Serbia.

Assassination of Francis Ferdinand

The German ambassador at Vienna described

Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian Austria’s reaction to the assassination:
throne, wanted to change Austria into a triple
monarchy that included a Slavic kingdom. “Here I hear even serious people express the desire
of settling accounts with the Serbs once for all. A series
of conditions should be sent to the Serbs, and if they
do not accept these, energetic steps should be taken.”
—Dispatch from the German ambassador at Vienna,
July 10, 1914

This 1914 illustration is by the American artist

I. B. Hazelton.
1. Making Inferences Why did the Black
Hand want to assassinate Archduke
Francis Ferdinand?
The assassin, Gavrilo Princip, was a 2. Determining Cause and Effect What
member of a Serbian terrorist group effect did the assassination have in Austria
known as the Black Hand. The group and the rest of Europe?
wanted an independent Slavic state.
Russia Mobilizes
Russia was determined to support Serbia’s cause. On
July 28, Czar Nicholas II ordered partial mobilization of
the Russian army against Austria-Hungary. Mobiliza-
tion is the process of assembling troops and supplies Vocabulary
for war. In 1914, mobilization was considered an act 1. Explain the significance of: Triple Alliance,
of war. Triple Entente, conscription, military,
Leaders of the Russian army informed the czar that they complex, Serbia, Archduke Francis
could not partially mobilize. Their mobilization plans Ferdinand, Bosnia, Gavrilo Princip, Emperor
were based on a war against both Germany and Austria- William II, Czar Nicholas II, mobilization,
Hungary. Mobilizing against only Austria-Hungary, they General Alfred von Schlieffen.
claimed, would create chaos in the army. Based on this
claim, the czar ordered full mobilization of the Russian Main Ideas
army on July 29, knowing that Germany would consider 2. List the powers that formed the Triple
this order an act of war. Alliance and the Triple Entente.
3. Explain why Gavrilo Princip killed
Archduke Francis Ferdinand.
The Conflict Broadens 4. Identify the series of decisions that
Indeed, Germany reacted quickly. The German govern- European leaders made in 1914 that led
ment warned Russia that it must halt its mobilization directly to the outbreak of war. Use a
within 12 hours. When Russia ignored this warning, Ger- diagram like the one below.
many declared war on Russia on August 1.
Like the Russians, the Germans had a military plan.
General Alfred von Schlieffen (SHLEE•fuhn) had helped
draw up the plan, which was known as the Schlieffen Plan.
It called for a two-front war with France and Russia since Critical Thinking
5. The BIG IDEA Analyzing How did the
the two had formed a military alliance in 1894.
creation of military plans help draw the
According to the Schlieffen Plan,
North NETHERLANDS nations of Europe into World War I? In your
Germany would conduct a small hold- UNITED Sea
KINGDOM opinion, what should today’s national and
ing action against Russia while most Brussels
BELGIUM military leaders have learned from the
of the German army would carry out military plans that helped initiate World
50°N
a rapid invasion of France. This meant War I? Explain your answer.
NY

FRANCE
A

invading France by moving quickly

RM

LUX.
6. Making Inferences Why was the Austro-
GE

along the level coastal area through Paris

Hungarian government not really
2°E 6°E
Belgium. After France was defeated, concerned whether Serbia itself was
the German invaders would move to involved in Archduke Ferdinand’s
the east against Russia. assassination?
Under the Schlieffen Plan, Germany could not mobilize 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the painting
its troops solely against Russia. Therefore, it declared war on page 760. How is Archduke Francis
on France on August 3. About the same time, it issued an Ferdinand reacting to the assassin?
ultimatum to Belgium demanding that German troops be
allowed to pass through Belgian territory. Writing About History
On August 4, Great Britain declared war on Germany 8. Expository Writing Some historians
for violating Belgian neutrality. In fact, Britain, which believe that the desire to suppress internal
was allied with France and Russia, was concerned about disorder may have encouraged leaders to
maintaining its own world power. As one British diplo- enter the war. As an adviser, write a memo
mat put it, if Germany and Austria-Hungary won the to your country’s leader explaining how a
war, “what would be the position of a friendless Eng- war might help the domestic situation.
land?” By August 4, all the Great Powers of Europe
were at war.

For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World

✓Reading Check Evaluating How did the Schlieffen Plan History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
contribute to the outbreak of World War I?

761
 World War I
The war that many thought would be over in a few weeks
GUIDE TO READING lasted far longer, resulting in many casualties for both sides.
The BIG Idea The war widened, and the United States entered the fray in
Devastation of War The stalemate at the 1917. As World War I escalated, governments took control of
Western Front led to a widening of World War I, and
their economies, rationing food and supplies and calling on
governments expanded their powers to accommo-
date the war. civilians to work and make sacrifices for the war effort.

Content Vocabulary
• propaganda (p. 762) • total war (p. 767) 1914 to 1915: Illusions and Stalemate
• trench warfare • planned economies
(p. 763) (p. 767) Trench warfare brought the war on the Western Front to a stale-
• war of attrition mate while Germany and Austria-Hungary defeated Russia on the Eastern Front.
(p. 765) HISTORY & YOU How do political campaigns influence voters? Read to learn
how governments tried to influence public opinion before World War I.
Academic Vocabulary
• target (p. 765) • unrestricted (p. 767)
Before 1914, many political leaders believed war to be impractical
People, Places, and Events because it involved so many political and economic risks. Others
• Marne (p. 762) • Admiral Holtzendorf believed that diplomats could easily prevent war. At the beginning
• Gallipoli (p. 766) (p. 767) of August 1914, both ideas were shattered. However, the new illu-
• Lawrence of Arabia • Woodrow Wilson sions that replaced them soon proved to be equally foolish.
(p. 766) (p. 768) Government propaganda—ideas spread to influence public
opinion for or against a cause—had stirred national hatreds before
Reading Strategy the war. Now, in August 1914, the urgent pleas of European gov-
Organizing Information As you read, ernments for defense against aggressors fell on receptive ears in
identify which countries belong to the Allies and the every nation at war. Most people seemed genuinely convinced
Central Powers. What country changed allegiance? that their nation’s cause was just.
What country withdrew from the war? A new set of illusions also fed the enthusiasm for war. In August
Allies Central Powers 1914, almost everyone believed that the war would be over in a
few weeks. After all, almost all European wars since 1815 had, in
fact, ended in a matter of weeks. Both the soldiers who boarded
the trains for the war front in August 1914 and the jubilant citi-
Allies zens who saw them off believed that the warriors would be home
Split Off by Christmas.

The Western Front

German hopes for a quick end to the war rested on a military
gamble. The Schlieffen Plan had called for the German army to make
a vast encircling movement through Belgium into northern France.
According to the plan, the German forces would sweep around Paris.
This would enable them to surround most of the French army.
The German advance was halted a short distance from Paris at
the First Battle of the Marne (September 6–10). To stop the Ger-
mans, French military leaders loaded 2,000 Parisian taxicabs with
fresh troops and sent them to the front line.

762
 WORLD WAR I IN EUROPE, 1914–1918

60°N
NORWAY

SWEDEN

Mar
e
ltic S

ch 1
ATLANTIC North RUSSIAN
UNITED Sea DENMARK

918
OCEAN EMPIRE

Ba
50 KINGDOM 0 200 kilometers
°N Masurian Lakes
1914

No
Sinking of 0 200 miles
Aug. 1914

v. 1
the Lusitania
May 7, 1915 London NETH. Lambert Azimuthal

915
Berlin Tannenberg Equal-Area projection
1914
N Somme 1916 BEL. GERMANY
Nov. 1914 Marne 1914, 1918
W
Paris LUX. Jan GALICIA
E .1
91
S Verdun 1916 5

Ja
AUSTRIA-

n.
FRANCE
SWITZ. Budapest

19
HUNGARY

17
Caporetto Sept. 1916
10°W 1917 March 1918
ITALY
ROMANIA
PORT. Oct. 1915
Sarajevo Black Sea Caspian
Corsica SERBIA Jan. 1917
Sea
SPAIN BULGARIA

8
40°N MONTENEGRO Nov
c. 1915

91

18
De OTT . 19

t. 1
Sardinia 17

19
OMAN
EMPIRE

Oc

rch
Gallipoli
1915

Ma
GREECE
SPANISH 1 91 8
MOROCCO
0° 10°E Oct.
Sicily ALBANIA
Morocco Algeria
Fr. Tunisia Cyprus
Fr. Fr. Crete U.K.

Mediterranean Sea
30°E 40°E 50°E

Allies German submarine

Libya war zone
1. Movement Under the Schlieffen Italy Egypt
Central Powers
Treaty line of Brest-Litovsk
Plan, through which country did the 30°N
U.K.Neutral nations Allied victory
Germans pass on the way to France? Farthest advance
Central Powers victory
of the Allies
2. Place How did the geographic char- Farthest advance Indecisive battle
acteristics of the United Kingdom of the Central Powers
affect its role in World War I? British naval blockade
20°E

See StudentWorks™ Plus

or glencoe.com.

The war quickly turned into a stalemate cost in lives, however, was equally enor-
as neither the Germans nor the French mous. At the beginning of the war, the
could dislodge each other from the trenches Russian army moved into eastern Ger-
they had dug for shelter. These trenches many but was decisively defeated at the
were ditches protected by barbed wire. Battle of Tannenberg on August 30 and the
Two lines of trenches soon reached from Battle of Masurian Lakes on September 15.
the English Channel to the frontiers of After these defeats, the Russians were no
Switzerland. The Western Front had become longer a threat to Germany.
bogged down in trench warfare. Both sides Austria-Hungary, Germany’s ally, fared
were kept in virtually the same positions less well at first. The Austrians had been
for four years. defeated by the Russians in Galicia and
thrown out of Serbia as well. To make mat-
The Eastern Front ters worse, the Italians betrayed their Ger-
Unlike the Western Front, the war on the man and Austrian allies in the Triple
Eastern Front was marked by mobility. The Alliance by attacking Austria in May 1915.

CHAPTER 23 War and Revolution 763

 Italy thus joined France, Great Britain, and
Russia, who had previously been known
The Great Slaughter
as the Triple Entente, but now were called New weapons and trench warfare made
the Allied Powers, or Allies. World War I far more devastating than any previous wars.
By this time, the Germans had come to
HISTORY & YOU How do new inventions and strat-
the aid of the Austrians. A German- egies affect warfare today? Read on to learn about
Austrian army defeated the Russian army the new inventions and trench warfare that character-
in Galicia and pushed the Russians far ized the fighting in World War I.
back into their own territory. Russian casu-
alties stood at 2.5 million killed, captured,
or wounded. The Russians had almost On the Western Front, the trenches dug
been knocked out of the war. in 1914 had by 1916 become elaborate sys-
Encouraged by their success against tems of defense. The Germans and the
Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary, French each had hundreds of miles of
joined by Bulgaria in September 1915, trenches, which were protected by barbed-
attacked and eliminated Serbia from the wire entanglements up to 5 feet (about
war. Their successes in the east would 1.5 m) high and 30 yards (about 27 m)
enable the German troops to move back to wide. Concrete machine-gun nests and
the offensive in the west. other gun batteries, supported further back
by heavy artillery, protected the trenches.
✓Reading Check Contrasting How did the war Troops lived in holes in the ground, sepa-
on the Eastern Front differ from the war on the Western rated from each other by a strip of territory
Front? known as no-man’s-land.

The New Technology of World War I

Warfare in the trenches produced Writer H. G. Wells described the impact of the new war technology:
unimaginable horrors. Battlefields “Now, there does not appear the slightest hope of any invention that will
were hellish landscapes of barbed make war more conclusive or less destructive; there is, however, the clear-
wire, shell holes, mud, and injured est prospect in many directions that it may be more destructive and less
and dying men. conclusive. It will be dreadfuller and bitterer: its horrors will be less and
less forgivable.”
Trench warfare left World War I in stalemate, —H. G. Wells, “Civilization at the Breaking Point,” New York Times, May 27, 1915
with neither side able to gain more than a
few miles of ground. Both the Allied Powers
and the Central Powers attempted to gain
an advantage with new weapons and war Machine guns could fire faster than other types of guns. Here,
machine gunners wear masks to protect themselves from poison gas.
machines. Machine guns, poison gas, fighter
airplanes, and tanks were all introduced or
vastly improved during World War I.
In the end, new technology did not break
the stalemate. It did, however, cause the
deadliest war the world had yet seen.
Nearly 10 million people perished during
World War I, which became known as “the
war to end all wars.”

764 SECTION 2 World War I

Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
 Tactics of Trench Warfare War in the Air

(l) Bettmann/CORBIS, (r) Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS

Trench warfare baffled military leaders By the end of 1915, airplanes had
who had been trained to fight wars of move- appeared on the battlefront for the first
ment and maneuver. At times, the high com- time in history. Planes were first used to
mand on either side would order an offensive spot the enemy’s position. Soon, planes
that would begin with an artillery barrage to also began to attack ground targets, espe-
flatten the enemy’s barbed wire and leave cially enemy communications.
the enemy in a state of shock. After “soften- Fights for control of the air occurred and
ing up” the enemy in this fashion, a mass of increased over time. At first, pilots fired at
soldiers would climb out of their trenches each other with handheld pistols. Later,
with fixed bayonets and hope to work their machine guns were mounted on the noses
way toward the enemy trenches. of planes, which made the skies consider-
The attacks rarely worked because men ably more dangerous. See page R50
advancing unprotected across open fields The Germans also used their giant air- to read an excerpt
from Arthur Guy
could be fired at by the enemy’s machine ships—the zeppelins—to bomb London Empey’s Over the
guns. In 1916 and 1917, millions of young and eastern England. This caused little Top in the Primary
men died in the search for the elusive damage but frightened many people. Ger- Sources and
breakthrough. many’s enemies, however, soon found that Literature Library.
In just ten months at Verdun, France, zeppelins, which were filled with hydro-
700,000 men lost their lives over a few gen gas, quickly became raging infernos
miles of land in 1916. World War I had when hit by antiaircraft guns.
turned into a war of attrition, a war based
on wearing the other side down by con- ✓Reading Check Explaining Why were military
stant attacks and heavy losses. leaders baffled by trench warfare?

German fighter pilot Manfred von Richthofen, better known

as the Red Baron, stands in front of a Fokker DV-II biplane.
Planes such as this one gave the Germans an edge because
they could fire a machine gun through the propeller.

In 1916 the British became the first to use armored tanks in war.
Armor protected the tanks from machine gun fire. Caterpillar tracks
allowed tanks to cross barbed-wire entanglements.

1. Explaining How did each of the inventions

shown here provide an advantage on the
battlefield?
2. Analyzing What did H. G. Wells believe
was the overall impact of the new war
technology? Do you agree? Explain.
 A World War The Allies tried to open a Balkan front by
landing forces at Gallipoli (guh•LIH•puh•
With the war at a stalemate, both the lee), southwest of Constantinople, in April
Allied Powers and the Central Powers looked for new 1915. However, the campaign proved disas-
allies to gain an advantage. trous, forcing the Allies to withdraw.
HISTORY & YOU In the American Revolution, what In return for Italy entering the war on the
country provided aid to the colonists? Read to learn Allied side, France and Great Britain prom-
how nations looked for allies in World War I. ised to let Italy have some Austrian terri-
tory. Italy on the side of the Allies opened
up a front against Austria-Hungary.
Because of the stalemate on the Western By 1917, the war had truly become a
Front, both sides sought to gain new allies. world conflict. That year, while stationed
Each side hoped new allies would provide in the Middle East, a British officer known
a winning advantage, as well as a new as Lawrence of Arabia urged Arab princes
source of money and war goods. to revolt against their Ottoman overlords.
In 1918 British forces from Egypt mobi-
lized troops from India, Australia, and
Widening of the War New Zealand and destroyed the Ottoman
Bulgaria entered the war on the side of Empire in the Middle East.
the Central Powers, as Germany, Austria- The Allies also took advantage of Ger-
Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire were many’s preoccupations in Europe and lack
called. Russia, Great Britain, and France— of naval strength to seize German colonies
the Allied Powers—declared war on the in the rest of the world. Japan, a British ally
Ottoman Empire. beginning in 1902, seized a number of

The Sinking of the Lusitania

The sinking of the Lusitania, a British passenger ship, by a German

submarine outraged people on both sides of the Atlantic. Anti-German riots
broke out, and both Americans and Europeans called on President Woodrow
Wilson to declare war against Germany. Germany, however, claimed that
the Lusitania was a fair target because it was carrying a cargo of 173 tons
of ammunition along with the civilian passengers.
On May 13, 1915, Wilson sent the first of four notes to
Germany to protest the German violation of American
neutrality. Two years later Wilson would list German
submarine warfare as a reason for the U.S. entry into
World War I.
The German embassy ran this
notice in the New York Times
on April 22, 1915.

1. Identifying Points of View What was

Toudouze’s point of view on the sinking of
the Lusitania? Would the German embassy
have agreed with that point of view?
Explain.
2. Determining Cause and Effect What
was an important political effect of the
sinking of the Lusitania?

This early book by French historian and novelist Georges

Toudouze calls the sinking of the Lusitania a “crime.”

(l) Bettmann/CORBIS, (r) Mary Evans Picture Library

German-held islands in the Pacific. Aus-
tralia seized German New Guinea.
The Impact of Total War
World War I became a total war, with
Entry of the United States governments taking control of their economies and
At first, the United States tried to remain rationing civilian goods.
neutral. As World War I dragged on, how- HISTORY & YOU Do you think the government
ever, it became more difficult to do so. The should ever be allowed to censor what newspapers
immediate cause of the United States’s publish? Read to learn why many governments
involvement grew out of the naval war resorted to censorship and similar practices during
World War I.
between Germany and Great Britain.
Britain had used its superior naval power
to set up a blockade of Germany. The block- As World War I dragged on, it became a
ade kept war materials and other goods from total war involving a complete mobiliza-
reaching Germany by sea. Germany had tion of resources and people. It affected the
retaliated by setting up a blockade of Britain. lives of all citizens in the warring coun-
Germany enforced its blockade with the use tries, however remote they might be from
of unrestricted submarine warfare, which the battlefields.
included the sinking of passenger liners. Masses of men had to be organized, and
On May 7, 1915, German forces sank the supplies were manufactured and pur-
British ship Lusitania. About 1,100 civilians, chased for years of combat. (Germany
including over 100 Americans, died. After alone had 5.5 million men in uniform
strong protests from the United States, the in 1916.) This led to an increase in
German government suspended unrestricted government powers and the manipulation
submarine warfare in September 1915 to of public opinion to keep the war effort
avoid antagonizing the United States fur- going. The home front was rapidly
ther. Only once did the Germans and Brit- becoming a cause for as much effort as the
ish engage in direct naval battle—at the war front.
Battle of Jutland on May 31, 1916, when
neither side won a conclusive victory. Increased Government Powers
By January 1917, however, the Germans Most people had expected the war to be
were eager to break the deadlock in the short. Little thought had been given to
war. German naval officers convinced long-term wartime needs. Governments
Emperor William II that resuming the use had to respond quickly, however, when
of unrestricted submarine warfare could the new war machines failed to achieve
starve the British into submission within their goals. Many more men and supplies
six months. When the emperor expressed were needed to continue the war effort. To
concern about the United States, Admiral meet these needs, governments expanded
Holtzendorf assured him, “I give your their powers. Countries drafted tens of
Majesty my word as an officer that not one millions of young men, hoping for that
American will land on the continent.” elusive breakthrough to victory.
The German naval officers were quite Wartime governments throughout
wrong. The British were not forced to sur- Europe also expanded their power over
render, and the return to unrestricted sub- their economies. Free-market capitalistic
marine warfare brought the United States systems were temporarily put aside. Gov-
into the war in April 1917. U.S. troops did ernments set up price, wage, and rent con-
not arrive in large numbers in Europe until trols. They also rationed food supplies and
1918. However, the entry of the United materials; regulated imports and exports;
States into the war gave the Allied Powers and took over transportation systems and
a psychological boost and a major new industries. In effect, in order to mobilize all
source of money and war goods. the resources of their nations for the war
effort, European nations set up planned
✓Reading Check Evaluating Why did the economies—systems directed by govern-
Germans resort to unrestricted submarine warfare? ment agencies.

CHAPTER 23 War and Revolution 767

 Under conditions of total war mobili- even democratic states expanded their
zation, the differences between soldiers at police powers to stop internal dissent. The
war and civilians at home were narrowed. British Parliament, for example, passed the
In the view of political leaders, all citizens Defence of the Realm Act (DORA). It
were part of a national army dedicated to allowed the government to arrest protest-
victory. Woodrow Wilson, president of the ers as traitors. Newspapers were censored,
United States, said that the men and women and sometimes publication was suspended.
“who remain to till the soil and man the Wartime governments made active use
factories are no less a part of the army than of propaganda to increase enthusiasm for
the men beneath the battle flags.” the war. At the beginning, public officials
needed to do little to achieve this goal. The
Manipulation of Public Opinion British and French, for example, exagger-
As the war continued and casualties ated German atrocities in Belgium and
grew worse, the patriotic enthusiasm that found that their citizens were only too
had marked the early stages of World War willing to believe these accounts.
I waned. By 1916, there were signs that As the war progressed and morale
civilian morale was beginning to crack. sagged, governments were forced to devise
War governments, however, fought back new techniques for motivating the people.
against growing opposition to the war. In one British recruiting poster, for exam-
Authoritarian regimes, such as those of ple, a small daughter asked her father,
Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, “Daddy, what did YOU do in the Great
relied on force to subdue their populations. War?” while her younger brother played
Under the pressures of the war, however, with toy soldiers.

In the fall of 1918, just as World War I was winding down in Given the deadly spread of the 1918 influenza, scientists are keeping
Europe, a deadly influenza epidemic struck. Probably spread by a close watch on today’s flu viruses. With today’s ease of air travel, a new
soldiers returning from the front, it became the deadliest virus could take only days to spread around the world.
epidemic in history:
• An estimated 675,000 Americans died, ten
Baseball players and
times as many as had died in the war.
spectators wear gauze
• An estimated 50 million people died
masks to protect
worldwide.
themselves from infection
Things could have been even worse. Because of the war, people during the 1918 influenza
were used to government restrictions. Public health departments epidemic.
were able to step in with measures to restrict contact. The war had
also brought new technologies such as germ theory and
antiseptics. These had saved lives in the battlefield and eventually
would help save the world from this deadly epidemic.

1. Hypothesizing In the face of a deadly pandemic,

do you think that people today would continue
with normal activities such as spectator sports?
Why or why not?
2. Making Generalizations How would a pan-
demic similar to the one in 1918 affect your life?

Underwood & Underwood/CORBIS

Total War and Women
World War I created new roles for women. Because so
many men left to fight at the front, women were asked to
take over jobs that had not been available to them before.
Women were employed in jobs that had once been consid- Vocabulary
ered beyond their capacity. 1. Explain the significance of: propaganda,
These jobs included civilian occupations such as chim- Marne, trench warfare, war of attrition,
ney sweeps, truck drivers, farm laborers, and factory target, Gallipoli, Lawrence of Arabia,
workers in heavy industry. For example, 38 percent of the unrestricted, Admiral Holtzendorf, total war,
workers in the Krupp Armaments works in Germany in planned economies, Woodrow Wilson.
1918 were women. Also, between 1914 and 1918 in Britain,
the number of women working in public transport rose 14 Main Ideas
times, doubled in commerce, and rose by nearly a third in 2. Explain why governments often use
industry. propaganda during wartime.
The place of women in the workforce was far from 3. Describe the trenches that both the
secure, however. Both men and women seemed to expect Western Front and Eastern Front used in
that many of the new jobs for women were only tempo- World War I.
rary. This was evident in the British poem “War Girls,” 4. Illustrate, by using a diagram similar to the
written in 1916: one below, the ways in which government
powers increased during the war.
PRIMARY SOURCE
“There’s the girl who clips your ticket for the train,
And the girl who speeds the lift from floor to floor, Government
There’s the girl who does a milk-round in the rain, Powers
And the girl who calls for orders at your door.
Strong, sensible, and fit,
They’re out to show their grit,
And tackle jobs with energy and knack. Critical Thinking
No longer caged and penned up, 5. The BIG Idea Assessing What
They’re going to keep their end up methods did governments use to counter
Till the khaki soldier boys come marching back.” the loss of enthusiasm and opposition to
At the end of the war, governments would quickly the war at home?
remove women from the jobs they had encouraged them 6. Analyzing Primary Sources How did
to take earlier. The work benefits for women from World Admiral Holtzendorf’s assurance to the
War I were short-lived as men returned to the job market. German emperor, “I give your Majesty my
By 1919, there would be 650,000 unemployed women in word as an officer that not one American will
land on the continent” prove to be wrong?
Great Britain. Wages for the women who were still
employed would be lowered. 7. Analyzing Visuals Explain why the war
Nevertheless, in some countries the role women played technology shown in the photograph on
in wartime economies had a positive impact on the wom- page 764 did not help break the World
War I stalemate.
en’s movement for social and political emancipation. The
most obvious gain was the right to vote, which was given
to women in Germany, Austria, and the United States Writing About History
immediately after the war. British women over 30 gained 8. Expository Writing What lasting results
the vote, together with the right to stand for Parliament, occurred in women’s rights due to World
War I? What were the temporary results?
in 1918.
Write an essay discussing the effect of the
Many upper- and middle-class women had also gained
war on women’s rights.
new freedoms. In ever-increasing numbers, young women
from these groups took jobs, had their own apartments,
and showed their new independence.
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Summarizing What was the effect of total war History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
on ordinary citizens?

769
 Technology and Trench Life Define Total War
The politicians and generals who led their nations into World War I
anticipated an old fashioned conflict. But once the Allies and Germans reached
a stalemate, the armies, for the first time, dug miles of trenches opposite one
another as protection against exploding shells and machine-gun fire. Infantry
soldiers rotated into and out of the trenches five days at a time. It was a world
of mud and blood, poison gas and high-explosive shells overhead. The tedium
of trench life was broken most often by one army or the other charging out of
its trenches and into the enemy’s barbed wire and machine guns.

Steel helmets protected

infantrymen against shrapnel,
high-speed splinters of metal
from exploding shells.

Earthtones replaced vibrant blues

and reds in infantry uniforms.

Machine guns shot down soldiers

charging across the no-man’s-
land between opposing trenches
in great numbers.

COLD COMFORT IN THE TRENCHES

Trenches provided infantry soldiers with their only protection against
enemy fire. They were a necessary innovation for armies fighting in close
contact with powerful and accurate weapons. Hot food was brought for-
ward in containers to discourage cooking fires. In some places, soldiers fired
at the enemy trenches at every opportunity. In others, enemies took a “live
and let live” approach. These attitudes often depended upon the level of
exhaustion the soldiers were feeling.

770
 The area between
opposing trenches was
called no-man’s-land.

Soldiers fixed bayonets, long

knives, on front of their rifles
to charge the enemy.

When possible, mud

floors were covered
with wooden planks.

Barbed wire in front of a

trench slowed or stopped
an enemy attack.

Gas masks provided the only

hope of protection from the
chlorine gas clouds that came
before enemy charges.

ANALYZING VISUALS

TECHNOLOGY AND THE HORROR OF WAR

1. Comparing How well do
you think infantry soldiers’
uniforms protected them
from modern weapons?
Tanks made their first appearance in battle during World War I. How has this changed since
Though slow and cumbersome, they foreshadowed the destruction World War I, and why?
mechanized warfare would bring. Airplanes fought one another for 2. Theorizing Think about the
the first time as well, and both sides experimented with bombs and images of early tanks and
machine guns in aerial attacks on ground positions. These applications airplanes shown here. Why
do these devices seem
of technology left a deep, terrifying impression on soldiers showing primitive to us today?
the dark side of industrialization.

771
 The Russian Revolution
As the world anxiously waited to learn of developments along
GUIDE TO READING the fronts of World War I, Russia stirred internally with unrest.
The BIG Idea The Romanov dynasty of Russia ended when Czar Nicholas II
Struggle for Rights The fall of the stepped down and a provisional government was put in power.
czarist regime and the Russian Revolution put the
Seizing the opportunity that the instability offered, the Bolsheviks
Communists in power in Russia.
under V. I. Lenin overthrew the provisional government. By 1921,
Content Vocabulary the Communists were in total command of Russia.
• soviets (p. 774) • war communism

Background to Revolution
(p. 777)

Academic Vocabulary
• revolution (p. 774) • aid (p. 776) Worker unrest and the Russian czar’s failures in the war led to revo-
lution in March 1917.
People and Places HISTORY & YOU Recall the causes of the French Revolution. Then, read to learn
• Grigory Rasputin • Bolsheviks (p. 774) what caused the Russian Revolution.
(p. 772) • V. I. Lenin (p. 774)
• Alexandra (p. 772) • Ukraine (p. 776) After its defeat by Japan in 1905, and the Revolution of 1905,
• Petrograd (p. 773) • Siberia (p. 776) Russia was unprepared both militarily and technologically for the
• Aleksandr Kerensky • Urals (p. 777) total war of World War I. Russia had no competent military lead-
(p. 774) • Leon Trotsky (p. 777) ers. Even worse, Czar Nicholas II insisted on taking personal
charge of the armed forces in spite of his obvious lack of ability
Reading Strategy and training.
Categorizing Information As you In addition, Russian industry was unable to produce the weap-
read, use a chart like the one below to identify the ons needed for the army. Supplies and munitions were rarely at
factors and events that led to Lenin coming to the places where they needed to be. Many soldiers trained using
power in 1917. broomsticks. Others were sent to the front without rifles and told
to pick one up from a dead comrade.
Given these conditions, it is not surprising that the Russian
Lenin in Power army suffered incredible losses. Between 1914 and 1916, 2 million
(1917) soldiers were killed, and another 4 to 6 million were wounded or
captured. By 1917, the Russian will to fight had vanished.

Beginnings of Upheaval
An autocratic ruler, Czar Nicholas II relied on the army and
bureaucracy to hold up his regime. He was further cut off from
events when a man named Grigory Rasputin (ra•SPYOO•tuhn)
began to influence the czar’s wife, Alexandra.
Rasputin gained Alexandra’s confidence through her son,
Alexis, who had hemophilia (a deficiency in the ability of the
blood to clot). Alexandra believed that Rasputin had extraordi-
nary powers, for he alone seemed to be able to stop her son’s
bleeding. With the czar at the battlefront, Alexandra made all of
the important decisions after consulting Rasputin. His influence
made him an important power behind the throne. Rasputin often
interfered in government affairs.

772
 Barents
Sea RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND CIVIL WAR, 1917–1922
Murmansk
Boundary of Russia, 1914
Center of revolutionary (Bolshevik)
activity, 1917–1918
White Russian (anti-Bolshevik) or
Arkhangel’sk Allied attack, 1918–1920
FINLAND Land lost by Russia (Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk, 1918)
SWEDEN Area under Bolshevik control,
60°
N October 1919
Helsinki Western Russia, 1922
Petrograd
Tallinn (St. Petersburg) Siberia
ESTONIA Perm’
Yekaterinburg
Se LATVIA
a

tic
Bal
LITHUANIA 0 400 kilometers
Moscow Kazan
0 400 miles
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
RUSSIA
Warsaw Brest-
Litovsk Orel
a R. N
POLAND
lg

Vo E
50°N
W
S
Kyiv (Kiev)
70°E
60°E
Aral
Odessa Sea
ROMANIA Rostov 50°E

BULGARIA
Black Sea Caspian
Sea 1. Regions Compare the western
boundary of Russia in 1914 and 1918.
40°N
What happened to the boundary in
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
TURKEY 2. Place What happened in Russia
30°E 40°E after the Russian Revolution?

As the leadership at the top stumbled its The March Revolution

way through a series of military and eco-
At the beginning of March 1917,
nomic disasters, the Russian people grew
working-class women led a series of strikes
more and more upset with the czarist regime.
in the capital city of Petrograd (formerly
Even conservative aristocrats who supported
the monarchy felt the need to do something St. Petersburg). A few weeks earlier, the
to save the situation. First, they assassinated government had started bread rationing in
Petrograd after the price of bread had History
Rasputin in December 1916. It was not easy ONLINE
to kill Rasputin. They shot him three times skyrocketed. Student Web
and then tied him up and threw him into the Many of the women who stood in the lines Activity—
waiting for bread were also factory workers Visit glencoe.com and
Neva River. Rasputin drowned but not complete the activity
before he had managed to untie the knots who worked 12-hour days. Exhausted and on the Russian royal
underwater. The killing of Rasputin occurred distraught over their half-starving and sick family.
too late, however, to save the monarchy. children, the women finally revolted.

CHAPTER 23 War and Revolution 773

 On March 8, about 10,000 women
marched through the city of Petrograd
From Czars to Communists
demanding “Peace and Bread” and “Down Lenin and the Bolsheviks gained con-
with Autocracy.” Other workers joined trol and quickly overthrew the provisional
them, and together they called for a gen- government.
eral strike. The strike shut down all the fac- HISTORY & YOU How has political change hap-
tories in the city on March 10. pened in the United States? Read to learn how Lenin
Alexandra wrote her husband Nicholas proposed to make changes in Russia.
II at the battlefront: “This is a hooligan
movement. If the weather were very cold
they would all probably stay at home.” The Bolsheviks began as a small faction
Nicholas ordered troops to break up the of a Marxist party called the Russian Social
crowds by shooting them if necessary. Democrats. The Bolsheviks came under
Soon, however, large numbers of the sol- the leadership of Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov
diers joined the demonstrators and refused (ool•YAH•nuhf), known to the world as
to fire on the crowds. V. I. Lenin.
The Duma, or legislative body, which Under Lenin’s direction, the Bolsheviks
the czar had tried to dissolve, met anyway. became a party dedicated to violent
On March 12, it established the provisional revolution. Lenin believed that only vio-
government, which mainly consisted of lent revolution could destroy the capitalist
middle-class Duma representatives. This system. A “vanguard” (forefront) of activ-
government urged the czar to step down. ists, he said, must form a small party of
Because he no longer had the support of well-disciplined, professional revolution-
the army or even the aristocrats, Nicholas aries to accomplish the task.
II reluctantly agreed and stepped down on
March 15, ending the 300-year-old
Romanov dynasty.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
Between 1900 and 1917, Lenin spent
most of his time abroad. When the provi-
Provisional Government sional government was formed in March
The provisional government, headed by 1917, he saw an opportunity for the Bol-
Aleksandr Kerensky (keh•REHN•skee), sheviks to seize power. In April 1917, Ger-
now decided to carry on the war to pre- man military leaders, hoping to create
serve Russia’s honor. This decision to disorder in Russia, shipped Lenin to Rus-
remain in World War I was a major blun- sia. Lenin and his associates were in a
der. It satisfied neither the workers nor the sealed train to prevent their ideas from
peasants, who were tired and angry from infecting Germany.
years of suffering and wanted above all an Lenin’s arrival in Russia opened a new
end to the war. stage of the Russian Revolution. Lenin
The government was also faced with a maintained that the soviets of soldiers,
challenge to its authority—the soviets. The workers, and peasants were ready-made
soviets were councils composed of repre- instruments of power. He believed that the
sentatives from the workers and soldiers. Bolsheviks should work toward gaining
The soviet of Petrograd had been formed control of these groups and then use them
in March 1917. At the same time, soviets to overthrow the provisional government.
sprang up in army units, factory towns, At the same time, the Bolsheviks reflected
and rural areas. The soviets, largely made the discontent of the people. They prom-
up of socialists, represented the more radi- ised an end to the war. They also promised
cal interests of the lower classes. One to redistribute all land to the peasants, to
group—the Bolsheviks—came to play a transfer factories and industries from capi-
crucial role. talists to committees of workers, and to
transfer government power from the pro-
✓Reading Check Identifying Develop a visional government to the soviets. Three
sequence of events leading to the March Revolution. simple slogans summed up the Bolshevik

774 SECTION 3 The Russian Revolution

program: “Peace, Land, Bread,” “Worker seized the Winter Palace, the seat of the

RIA Novosti/Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow/Bridgeman Art Library

Control of Production,” and “All Power to provisional government. The government
the Soviets.” quickly collapsed with little bloodshed.
This overthrow coincided with a meet-
ing of the all-Russian Congress of Soviets,
The Bolsheviks Seize Power which represented local soviets country-
By the end of October, Bolsheviks made wide. Outwardly, Lenin turned over the
up a slight majority in the Petrograd and power of the provisional government to
Moscow soviets. The number of party the Congress of Soviets. The real power,
members had grown from 50,000 to 240,000. however, passed to a council headed by
With Leon Trotsky, a dedicated revolution- Lenin.
ary, as head of the Petrograd soviet, the The Bolsheviks, who renamed them-
Bolsheviks were in a position to claim selves the Communists, still had a long
power in the name of the soviets. During way to go. Lenin had promised peace; and
the night of November 6, Bolshevik forces that, he realized, would not be an easy task.

THE RUSSIAN
REVOLUTION
The Russian Revolution was the most violent and radical “The first thing is the adoption of practical measures to
revolution since the French Revolution. In March 1917, the realize peace. . . . We shall offer peace to the peoples of all
czar abdicated and a provisional government took control. the warring countries upon the basis of the Soviet terms—
Then, led by V. I. Lenin, the Bolsheviks seized power in no annexations, no indemnities, and the right of self-
November 1917. This marked a new era of Soviet rule. determination of peoples. . . . This proposal of peace will
Russia had become the world’s first socialist state, and meet with resistance on the part of the imperialist
Lenin intended for the revolution to spread. governments. . . . But we hope that revolution will soon break
The day after the Bolsheviks seized the Winter Palace, out in all the warring countries. This is why we address
Lenin addressed the Russian people. In his speech he ourselves especially to the workers of France, England, and
outlined the goals of the Bolsheviks. These goals threatened Germany.”
the governments of Western Europe: —V. I. Lenin, quoted in Ten Days that Shook the World, by
John Reed

The Winter Palace housed the provisional government after

Nicholas stepped down. It had been the home of every
Russian czar from Catherine the Great to Nicholas II.

Georgiy Savitsky’s painting Assault on

the Winter Palace depicts the events of
November 6, 1917.
1. Analyzing Why did the Bolsheviks
choose the Winter Palace as the
place to attack?
2. Explaining Why is the Russian
Revolution considered a turning
point?
 Communism in Russia
Factory smokestacks
symbolize industrialization.

“Communism is Soviet power plus the electrification of the

whole country. Otherwise the country remains small-peasant. . . . We are
weaker than capitalism, not only on a world scale but also within the
country. All this is well known. We recognize this and we are taking action
to transform the small-peasant base into a heavy-industry base. Only when
the country is electrified, when industry, agriculture, and transport are
placed on the technical basis of modern heavy industry, will we have won
decisively.”
—V. I. Lenin, remarks to the Congress of Soviets, 1920
A blacksmith stands on
the crown of the czar.

Year of the Proletarian Dictatorship is a propaganda poster

created in 1918 by the Russian artist Aleksandr Apsit. It
illustrates some of the goals of the Communists after the A peasant holds a
Russian Revolution. sickle, a symbol of
communism.
1. Making Inferences What were two major goals of the
Communists after the Russian Revolution? Explain.
2. Analyzing Why do you think a communist revolution
occurred in Russia rather than an industrialized nation?

It would mean the humiliating loss of leaders than Lenin. They were joined by
much Russian territory. There was no real the Allies, who were extremely concerned
choice, however. about the Communist takeover.
On March 3, 1918, Lenin signed the The Allies sent thousands of troops to
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and various parts of Russia in the hope of bring-
gave up eastern Poland, Ukraine, Finland, ing Russia back into the war. The Allied
and the Baltic provinces. To his critics, forces rarely fought on Russian soil, but
Lenin argued that it made no difference. they gave material aid to anti-Communist
The spread of the socialist revolution forces. Between 1918 and 1921, the Com-
throughout Europe would make the treaty munist or Red Army fought on many fronts
largely irrelevant. In any case, he had against these opponents.
promised peace to the Russian people. Real The first serious threat to the Commu-
peace did not come, however, because the nists came from Siberia. An anti-
country soon sank into civil war. Communist, or White, force attacked and
advanced almost to the Volga River before
being stopped. Attacks also came from the
Civil War in Russia Ukrainians and from the Baltic regions. In
Many people were opposed to the new mid-1919, White forces swept through
Bolshevik, or Communist, government. Ukraine and advanced almost to Moscow
These people included not only groups before being pushed back.
loyal to the czar but also liberal and anti- By 1920, however, the major White forces
Leninist socialists. Liberals often supported had been defeated and Ukraine retaken. The
a constitutional monarchy, while a number next year, the Communist regime regained
of socialists supported gradual reform. control over the independent nationalist
These socialists expected to work for a governments in Georgia, Russian Arme-
socialist state under more democratic nia, and Azerbaijan (a•zuhr•by•JAHN).

Snark/Art Resource, NY
 The royal family was another victim of the civil war. After
the czar abdicated, he, his wife, and their five children had
been held as prisoners. In April 1918, they were moved to
Yekaterinburg, a mining town in the Urals. On the night of
July 16, members of the local soviet murdered the czar and
his family and burned their bodies in a nearby mine shaft. Vocabulary
1. Explain the significance of: Grigory
Rasputin, Alexandra, Petrograd, Aleksandr
Triumph of the Communists Kerensky, soviets, Bolsheviks, V. I. Lenin,
How had Lenin and the Communists triumphed in the revolution, Ukraine, Siberia, Urals, Leon
Trotsky, war communism.
civil war over such overwhelming forces? One reason was
that the Red Army was a well-disciplined fighting force.
This was largely due to the organizational genius of Leon Main Ideas
Trotsky. As commissar of war, Trotsky reinstated the draft 2. Explain what the Petrograd women meant
and insisted on rigid discipline. Soldiers who deserted or when they chanted “Peace and Bread”
during their march.
refused to obey orders were executed on the spot.
Furthermore, the disunity of the anti-Communist forces 3. List the steps that the Communists took to
weakened their efforts. Political differences created distrust turn Russia into a centralized state
among the Whites. Some Whites insisted on restoring the dominated by one party. Use a chart like
the one below.
czarist regime. Others wanted a more liberal and demo-
Steps to Communist Control
cratic program. The Whites, then, had no common goal.
1.
The Communists, in contrast, had a single-minded sense
2.
of purpose. Inspired by their vision of a new socialist
order, the Communists had both revolutionary zeal and
strong convictions. They were also able to translate their
4. Specify why Lenin accepted the loss of so
revolutionary faith into practical instruments of power. A much Russian territory in the Treaty of
policy of war communism, for example, was used to Brest-Litovsk.
ensure regular supplies for the Red Army. The govern-
ment controlled the banks and most industries, seized
grain from peasants, and centralized state administration
Critical Thinking
5. The BIG Idea Analyzing How did the
under Communist control. presence of Allied troops in Russia
Another instrument was Communist revolutionary ter- ultimately help the Communists?
ror. A new Red secret police—known as the Cheka—began
6. Identifying Central Issues What led to
a Red Terror. Aimed at destroying all those who opposed
Czar Nicholas II’s downfall?
the new regime (much like the Reign of Terror in the French
Revolution), the Red Terror added an element of fear to 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the painting
the Communist regime. on page 776. What does the red flag
symbolize?
Finally, foreign armies on Russian soil enabled the Com-
munists to appeal to the powerful force of Russian patrio-
tism. At one point, over 100,000 foreign troops—mostly Writing About History
Japanese, British, American, and French—were stationed 8. Multimedia Presentation Prepare a
in Russia in support of anti-Communist forces. Their pres- multimedia presentation comparing the
economic, political, and social causes of
ence made it easy for the Communist government to call
the American, French, and Russian
on patriotic Russians to fight foreign attempts to control Revolutions.
the country.
By 1921, the Communists were in total command of
Russia. The Communist regime had transformed Russia
into a centralized state dominated by a single party. The
state was also largely hostile to the Allied Powers, because
the Allies had tried to help the Communists’ enemies in
the civil war.
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Contrasting Why did the Red Army prevail History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
over the White forces?

777
 End of World War I
Governments, troops, and civilians were weary as World War I
GUIDE TO READING continued through 1917. Shortly after the United States entered
The BIG Idea the war, Germany made its final military gamble on the Western
Order and Security After the defeat of Front and lost. The war finally ended on November 11, 1918. The
the Germans, peace settlements brought political peace treaties were particularly harsh on Germany. New nations
and territorial changes to Europe and created bitter-
ness and resentment in some nations. were formed, and a League of Nations was created to resolve
future international disputes.
Content Vocabulary
• armistice (p. 780) • mandates (p. 783)
• reparations (p. 781) The Last Year of the War
Academic Vocabulary The new German republic and the Allies signed an armistice, ending
• psychological (p. 778) • cooperation (p. 780) the war on November 11, 1918.
HISTORY & YOU Have you heard debates about how large the U.S. military bud-
People and Places get should be? Read to understand the role of U.S. army support in the Allied victory
• Erich Ludendorff • Georges Clemenceau of World War I.
(p. 778) (p. 781)
• Kiel (p. 780) • Alsace (p. 782)
• Friedrich Ebert • Lorraine (p. 782) The year 1917 had not been a good one for the Allies. Allied
(p. 780) • Poland (p. 782) offensives on the Western Front had been badly defeated. The
• David Lloyd George Russian Revolution, which began in November 1917, led to Rus-
(p. 781) sia’s withdrawal from the war a few months later. The cause of
the Central Powers looked favorable, although war weariness
Reading Strategy was beginning to take its toll.
Organizing Information At the Paris On the positive side, the entry of the United States into the war
Peace Conference, the leaders of France, Britain, in 1917 gave the Allies a much-needed psychological boost. The
and the United States were motivated by different United States also provided fresh troops and material. In 1918,
concerns. As you read, use a chart like the one American troops would prove crucial.
below to identify the national interests of each
country as it approached the peace deliberations.
France Britain United States
A New German Offensive
For Germany, the withdrawal of the Russians offered new hope
for a successful end to the war. Germany was now free to concen-
trate entirely on the Western Front. Erich Ludendorff, who guided
German military operations, decided to make one final military
gamble—a grand offensive in the west to break the military stale-
mate. In fact, the last of Germany’s strength went into making this
one great blow. The divisions were running low on provisions,
reserves of soldiers were nearly depleted, and the German home
front was tired of the war.
The German attack was launched in March 1918. By April, Ger-
man troops were within about 50 miles (80 km) of Paris. However,
the German advance was stopped at the Second Battle of the Marne
on July 18. French, Moroccan, and American troops (140,000 fresh
American troops had just arrived), supported by hundreds of
tanks, threw the Germans back over the Marne. On August 8, the

778
 EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST AFTER WORLD WAR I

1914 1920

60 ICELAND 60 ICELAND
°N Denmark °N Denmark

ATLANTIC ATLANTIC
OCEAN NORWAY OCEAN NORWAY FINLAND

SWEDEN SWEDEN ESTONIA

RUSSIA SOVIET
UNITED North DEN. Baltic UNITED North DEN. Baltic LATVIA
50° KINGDOM Sea 50° KINGDOM Sea UNION
N Sea N Sea LITHUANIA
E. PRUSSIA (Ger.)
NETH. NETH.
GERMANY POLAND
BELG. BELG. GERMANY
LUX. LUX.
FRANCE CZECHOSLOVAKIA
AUSTRIA-
Ca FRANCE Ca
SWITZ. sp SWITZ. AUSTRIA sp
HUNGARY HUNGARY
ROMANIA
ia

ia
ROMANIA
n

n
40° ITALY Black Sea 40° ITALY YUGOSLAVIA Black Sea
N SERBIA N
Sea

Sea
SPAIN SPAIN
BULGARIA BULGARIA
PORT. MONT. PORT. MONT.
ALB. ALB.
TURKEY
GREECE GREECE
SYRIA
OTTOMAN 0° 20°E Fr. IRAQ
EMPIRE U.K.
30°N Mediterranean Sea 30°N Mediterranean Sea
0 600 kilometers 0 600 kilometers PALESTINE U.K.
TRANSJORDAN
U.K.
0 600 miles 0 600 miles
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

20°N 30°E

20°N

1. Place Rank the countries and empires

on the map according to the amount of N
N
10°N lost territory, from largest loss to small-
W E est loss. 10°N W E

S 2. Regions What happened to Austria- S

30°E 40°E
0° 10°E 20°E Hungary after World War I? Based on
what you know about Austria-Hungary,
why do you think this happened?

forces met at the Second Battle of the A million American troops poured into
Somme. Ludendorff wrote of this battle: France, and the Allies began an advance
“August 8 was the black day of the German toward Germany. On September 29, 1918,
army in the history of this war.” Luden- General Ludendorff told German leaders
dorff admitted that his gamble had failed: that the war was lost. He demanded the
government ask for peace at once.
PRIMARY SOURCE
“The 8th of August put the decline of [our] Collapse and Armistice
fighting power beyond all doubt, and in such a
German officials soon found that the Allies
situation as regards reserves, I had no hope of
finding a strategic expedient whereby to turn the were unwilling to make peace with the auto-
situation to our advantage.” cratic imperial government of Germany.
—Erich Ludendorff, in The Great War, Correlli Reforms for a liberal government came too
Barnett, 1980 late for the tired, angry German people.

CHAPTER 23 War and Revolution 779

 On November 3, 1918, sailors in the
northern German town of Kiel mutinied.
The Peace Settlements
Within days, councils of workers and sol- The Treaty of Versailles punished
diers formed throughout northern Ger- Germany, established new nations, and created a
many and took over civilian and military League of Nations to solve international problems.
offices. Emperor William II gave in to pub- HISTORY & YOU What is the purpose of the United
lic pressure and left the country on Nov- Nations today? Read to learn why the U.S. president
ember 9. After William II’s departure, the wanted a League of Nations after World War I.
Social Democrats under Friedrich Ebert
announced the creation of a democratic
republic. Two days later, on November 11, In January 1919, representatives of 27
1918, the new German government signed victorious Allied nations met in Paris to
an armistice (a truce, an agreement to end make a final settlement of World War I.
the fighting). Over a period of years, the reasons for
fighting World War I had changed dramat-
Revolutionary Forces ically. When European nations had gone to
war in 1914, they sought territorial gains.
The war was over, but the revolutionary
By the beginning of 1918, however, they
forces set in motion in Germany were not
were also expressing more idealistic rea-
yet exhausted. A group of radical social-
sons for the war.
ists, unhappy with the Social Democrats’
moderate policies, formed the German
Communist Party in December 1918. A Wilson’s Proposals
month later, the Communists tried to seize No one expressed these idealistic rea-
power in Berlin. sons better than the president of the United
The new Social Democratic government, States, Woodrow Wilson. Even before the
backed by regular army troops, crushed end of the war, Wilson outlined “Fourteen
the rebels and murdered Rosa Luxemburg Points” to the United States Congress—his
and Karl Liebknecht (LEEP•KNEHKT), basis for a peace settlement that he believed
leaders of the German Communists. A justified the enormous military struggle
similar attempt at Communist revolution being waged.
in the city of Munich, in southern Ger- Wilson’s proposals for a truly just and
many, was also crushed. lasting peace included reaching the peace
The new German republic had been agreements openly rather than through
saved. The attempt at revolution, however, secret diplomacy. His proposals also
left the German middle class with a deep included reducing armaments (military
fear of communism. forces or weapons) to a “point consistent
Austria-Hungary, too, experienced dis- with domestic safety” and ensuring self-
integration and revolution. As war weari- determination (the right of each people to
ness took hold of the empire, ethnic groups have their own nation).
increasingly sought to achieve their inde- Wilson portrayed World War I as a peo-
pendence. By the time World War I ended, ple’s war against “absolutism and milita-
the Austro-Hungarian Empire had ceased rism.” These two enemies of liberty, he
to exist. argued, could be eliminated only by creat-
The empire had been replaced by the ing democratic governments and a “gen-
independent republics of Austria, Hun- eral association of nations.” This association
gary, and Czechoslovakia, along with the would guarantee “political independence
large monarchical state called Yugoslavia. and territorial integrity to great and small
Rivalries among the nations that succeeded states alike.”
Austria-Hungary would weaken eastern Wilson became the spokesperson for a
Europe for the next 80 years. new world order based on democracy and
international cooperation. When he arrived
✓Reading Check Describing What happened in Europe for the peace conference, Wilson
within Germany after the armistice? was enthusiastically cheered by many

780 SECTION 4 End of World War I

Europeans. President Wilson soon found, made it possible to achieve a peace
however, that more practical motives settlement.
guided other states. Wilson’s wish that the creation of an
international peacekeeping organization
be the first order of business was granted.
The Paris Peace Conference On January 25, 1919, the conference accepted
Delegates met in Paris in early 1919 to the idea of a League of Nations. In return,
determine the peace settlement. At the Wilson agreed to make compromises on
Paris Peace Conference, complications territorial arrangements. He did so because
became obvious. For one thing, secret trea- he believed that the League could later fix
ties and agreements that had been made any unfair settlements.
before the war had raised the hopes of Clemenceau also compromised to obtain
European nations for territorial gains. some guarantees for French security. He
These hopes could not be ignored, even if gave up France’s wish for a separate Rhine-
they did conflict with the principle of self- land and instead accepted a defensive alli-
determination put forth by Wilson. ance with Great Britain and the United
National interests also complicated the States. However, the U.S. Senate refused to
deliberations of the Paris Peace Confer- ratify this agreement, which weakened the
ence. David Lloyd George, prime minister Versailles peace settlement.
of Great Britain, had won a decisive vic-
tory in elections in December 1918. His
platform was simple: make the Germans
pay for this dreadful war.
France’s approach to peace was chiefly
guided by its desire for national security.
To Georges Clemenceau (kleh•muhn•
SOH), the premier of France, the French Georges Clemenceau
people had suffered the most from Ger- 1841–1929 French Premier
man aggression. The French desired
revenge and security against future Ger- Georges Clemenceau, premier of France during
man attacks. Clemenceau wanted Ger- World War I, had a long history in French-German diplo-
many stripped of all weapons, vast German macy. During his early political career, Clemenceau had
payments—reparations—to cover the been involved in the 1871 peace treaty ending the
costs of the war, and a separate Rhineland Franco-Prussian War. The treaty imposed harsh terms
as a buffer state between France and on France while strengthening the new German
Germany. republic, and Clemenceau vowed to bring France back
from this “shameful humiliation.” After
The most important decisions at the
World War I, he had his opportunity.
Paris Peace Conference were made by Wil- The Treaty of Versailles was shaped
son, Clemenceau, and Lloyd George. Italy, by Clemenceau’s dislike and dis-
as one of the Allies, was considered one of trust of the Germans. “For the
the Big Four powers. However, it played a catastrophe of 1914 only the
smaller role than the other key powers— Germans are responsible,”
the United States, France, and Great Brit- he said. “Only a profes-
ain, who were called the Big Three. sional liar would deny
Germany was not invited to attend, and this.” How did
Russia could not be present because of its Clemenceau’s
civil war. early political
In view of the many conflicting demands career affect his
position at the
at the peace conference, it was no surprise
Paris Peace
that the Big Three quarreled. Wilson wanted Conference?
to create a world organization, the League
of Nations, to prevent future wars. Clem-
enceau and Lloyd George wanted to pun-
ish Germany. In the end, only compromise

Lebrecht Music & Arts/The Image Works

 The Treaty of Versailles

A German nationalist responded to the terms of the treaty:

“People and government have, during the most recent days, unambiguously made clear
that we cannot sign the document which our enemies call a peace. One thing is certain,
that any government which, by its signature, would confer upon this work of the devil . . .
the halo of right, would, sooner or later, be driven out. . . . [N]othing is left but to remain cold-
blooded, offer passive resistance wherever possible, and show contempt and pride.”
—Alfred von Wegerer, May 28, 1919

❶ ❷ ❸ The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors,

Versailles, 28th June 1919 by Sir William
Orpen depicts the major powers at Versailles.
❶ Woodrow Wilson (United States)
Georges Clemenceau (France) 1. Analyzing Why is it significant that the
❷ ❺ German delegate sits on the opposite side
❸ David Lloyd George (Britain)
❹ Vittorio Orlando (Italy) of the table from the other delegates?
❺ Dr. Johannes Bell (Germany) 2. Evaluating Were the issues that caused
World War I resolved in the Treaty of
Versailles? Explain.

The Treaty of Versailles German land along the Rhine River

The final peace settlement of Paris con- became a demilitarized zone, stripped of
sisted of five separate treaties with the all weapons and fortifications. This, it was
defeated nations of Germany, Austria, hoped, would serve as a barrier to any
Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey. The Treaty future German moves against France.
of Versailles with Germany was by far the Although outraged by the “dictated peace,”
most important. Germany accepted the treaty.
The Germans considered it a harsh peace.
They were especially unhappy with Article The Legacies of the War
231, the so-called War Guilt Clause, which The war, the Treaty of Versailles, and the
declared that Germany (and Austria) were separate peace treaties made with the other
responsible for starting the war. The treaty Central Powers redrew the map of eastern
ordered Germany to pay reparations for Europe. The German and Russian empires
all damages that the Allied governments lost much territory. The Austro-Hungarian
and their people had sustained as a result Empire disappeared.
of the war. New nation-states emerged from the
The military and territorial provisions of lands of these three empires: Finland, Lat-
the Treaty of Versailles also angered the via, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Czecho-
Germans. Germany had to reduce its army slovakia, Austria, and Hungary. New
to 100,000 men, cut back its navy, and elimi- territorial arrangements were also made in
nate its air force. Alsace and Lorraine, taken the Balkans. Romania acquired additional
by the Germans from France in 1871, were lands. Serbia formed the nucleus of a new
now returned. Sections of eastern Germany state, called Yugoslavia, which combined
were awarded to a new Polish state. Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

782 SECTION 4 End of World War I

Imperial War Museum/akg-images
 The principle of self-determination supposedly guided
the Paris Peace Conference. However, the mixtures of
peoples in eastern Europe made it impossible to draw
boundaries along strict ethnic lines. Compromises had to
be made, sometimes to satisfy the national interests of the
victors. France, for example, had lost Russia as its major Vocabulary
1. Explain the significance of: psychological,
ally on Germany’s eastern border. Thus, France wanted to
Erich Ludendorff, Kiel, Friedrich Ebert,
strengthen and expand Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugosla- armistice, cooperation, David Lloyd George,
via, and Romania as much as possible. Those states could Georges Clemenceau, reparations, Alsace,
then serve as barriers against Germany and Communist Lorraine, Poland, mandates.
Russia.
As a result of compromises, almost every eastern Euro-
Main Ideas
pean state was left with ethnic minorities: Germans in 2. Specify why Erich Ludendorff’s final
Poland; Hungarians, Poles, and Germans in Czechoslova- military gamble failed for Germany.
kia; Hungarians in Romania, and Serbs, Croats, Slovenes,
3. List some of President Wilson’s proposals
Macedonians, and Albanians in Yugoslavia. The problem
for creating peace. Use a chart like the one
of ethnic minorities within nations would lead to many below to make your list.
later conflicts.
President Wilson’s Proposals
Yet another centuries-old empire—the Ottoman Empire—
1.
was broken up by the peace settlement. To gain Arab sup-
2.
port against the Ottoman Turks during the war, the Western
Allies had promised to recognize the independence of
Arab states in the Ottoman Empire. Once the war was 4. Explain why the mandate system was
over, however, the Western nations changed their minds. created. Which countries became
France took control of Lebanon and Syria, and Britain mandates? Which countries governed
received Iraq and Palestine. them?
These acquisitions were officially called mandates.
Woodrow Wilson had opposed the outright annexation of Critical Thinking
colonial territories by the Allies. As a result, the peace set- 5. The BIG Idea Making Generalizations
tlement created the mandate system. According to this Although Woodrow Wilson came to the
system, a nation officially governed another nation as a Paris Peace Conference with high ideals,
mandate on behalf of the League of Nations but did not the other leaders had more practical
own the territory. concerns. Why do you think that was so?
World War I shattered the liberal, rational society that 6. Comparing and Contrasting Compare
had existed in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century and contrast Wilson’s Fourteen Points to
Europe. The deaths of nearly 10 million people, as well as the Treaty of Versailles.
the incredible destruction caused by the war, undermined 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the painting
the whole idea of progress. Entire populations had partici- on page 782. What is the significance of
pated in a devastating slaughter. the setting?
World War I was a total war—one that involved a com-
plete mobilization of resources and people. As a result, the Writing About History
power of governments over the lives of their citizens 8. Informative Writing Suppose that you are
increased. Freedom of the press and speech were limited a reporter for a large newspaper. You are
in the name of national security. World War I made the sent to the Paris Peace Conference to
practice of strong central authority a way of life. interview one of the leaders of the Big
The turmoil created by the war also seemed to open the Three. Prepare a written set of questions
door to even greater insecurity. Revolutions broke up old you would like to ask the leader you have
empires and created new states, which led to new prob- selected.
lems. The hope that Europe and the rest of the world
would return to normalcy was, however, soon dashed.

For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World

✓Reading Check Identifying What clause in the Treaty of History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
Versailles particularly angered the Germans?

783
 Visual Summary
You can study anywhere, anytime by downloading quizzes
and flash cards to your PDA from glencoe.com.

The Assassinatio
n of
Archduke Ferd
inand
THE CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I
• Nationalism contributed to the start of World War I, as rivals
vied for colonies and trade. Austria-Hungary declared war
• European nations increased the size of their militaries, on Serbia after a Serbian
heightening existing tensions. terrorist killed the archduke.
• Serbia’s desire for an independent state angered
Austria-Hungary.

g
Germans Retreat Durin
Attack, 1918
an Allied Air

Soldiers struggled to adapt

to new war technology
such as the airplane.

The Reality of MODERN WARFARE

• Trench warfare brought the Western Front to a stalemate
until new allies entered the war.
• Trench warfare and new technology caused a devastating
loss of life.
• Governments took control of economies and rationed
civilian goods, affecting all citizens.

Results of Peace Treaties After World War I

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION and
THE END OF WORLD WAR I
• Russia’s failure in the war and worker unrest led to the
Russian Revolution in 1917.
• Bolshevik overthrow of the provisional government led to
civil war and eventual Communist control.
• A defeated Germany signed an armistice with the Allies,
ending the war on November 11, 1918.
• The Treaty of Versailles punished Germany, formed new
nations, and created the League of Nations to solve
international problems.
Germany was forced to destroy tanks
and other military equipment to
conform to the Treaty of Versailles.

784 CHAPTER 23 War and Revolution

(t) Private Collection/Bridgeman Art Library, (c) Delaware Art Museum/Bridgeman Art Library, (b) Albert Harlingue/Roger-Viollet/The Image Works
 Assessment
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
TEST-TAKING TIP
A date can be an important clue. When a question or answer contains a date, think about major events
that occurred during or around that time. Then eliminate answer choices that do not reflect that history.

Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas

Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete the Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
sentence.
Section 1 (pp. 758–761)
1. Ideas that are spread to influence public opinion for or 5. To increase the size of their armies, many Western countries
against a cause are known as . established which of the following?
A ad campaigns A A voluntary enlistment program
B brochures B Their imperialistic goals
C propaganda C A conscription program
D newsletters D The Schlieffen Plan

2. Germany had to make to cover the costs of World 6. When was Archduke Francis Ferdinand assassinated?
War I.
A August 4, 1914
A reparations
B September 20, 1915
B credit card purchases
C November 11, 1918
C debts
D June 28, 1914
D border changes

Section 2 (pp. 762–769)

3. is the process of assembling troops and supplies to
get ready for war. 7. During World War I, the Allies tried to open a Balkan front by
landing forces at which city?
A Conscription
A Gallipoli
B War communism
B Beirut
C Armistice
C Sarajevo
D Mobilization
D Odessa

4. The were councils composed of representatives

from Russian workers and soldiers. 8. Who urged Arab princes to revolt against their Ottoman
overlords in 1917?
A czars
A Mohandas Gandhi
B Duma
B Lawrence of Arabia
C soviets
C Lord Chamberlain
D Bolsheviks
D Gavrilo Princip

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CHAPTER 23 War and Revolution 785

 9. When did most British women gain the right to vote? Critical Thinking
A 1920 Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
B 1904
Use the following map to answer question 14.
C 1918
D 1935 Middle East in World War I, 1914–1918
N
Section 3 (pp. 772–777) RUSSIA W E

Ca
10. In which city did Russian working-class women lead a series

sp
BULGARIA Black Sea S

ian
of strikes in March 1917?

Sea
Gallipoli 1915 ARMENIA
A Moscow Dardanelles 1915 Tabrız
GREECE OTTOMAN 1914–15
B Berlin Aleppo 1918 EMPIRE Tikrıt 1917
C Budapest Ramadi
PERSIA
Beirut 1918 Baghdad
D Petrograd Mediterranean Sea 1917 1917
Basra
Damascus 1918 Kut-el-Amara 1914
Gaza 1917 1916
11. Which faction of a Marxist party came under the leadership Suez Canal 1915
Aqaba 1917
of V. I. Lenin? EGYPT KUWAIT Persian
Gulf
A Bolsheviks Allied Powers, 1914
B Stalinists Central Powers, 1914 ARABIA
0 300 kilometers
C Zionists Neutral nations, 1914
Allied victory 0 300 miles
D Slavsheviks

Re
Lambert Azimuthal

dS
Central Powers victory Equal-Area projection

ea
Section 4 (pp. 778–783)
14. When did the Allied Powers win the most battles in the
12. Under whose command did the German forces make one Middle East?
final military gamble to win the Western Front in 1918?
A 1917
A Adolf Hitler
B 1918
B Erich Ludendorff
C 1920
C Karl Liebknecht
D The Allied Powers and Central Powers won the same
D Friedrich Ebert number of battles.

13. What were Woodrow Wilson’s proposals for a peace settle- 15. What major event resulted from the Balkan crises between
ment called? 1908 and 1913?
A Germany’s Nightmare A The creation of a new Serbian kingdom
B Twelve Points B The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and
C Fourteen Points his wife
D The Peace Settlement C The Berlin Conference of 1884
D The end of the Romanov dynasty

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786 CHAPTER 23 War and Revolution

 Assessment
16. Why did Russian conservative aristocrats kill Rasputin? Document-Based Questions
A He was a holy person. Directions: Analyze the document and answer the short answer
B He had hemophilia. questions that follow the document. Base your answers on the
document and on your knowledge of world history.
C He was Alexis’s tutor.
D He interfered too often in government affairs. Many Europeans saw the potential danger in the explosive
situation between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. The British
17. What slogan would best express Georges Clemenceau’s ambassador to Vienna, Austria, anticipated war in 1913.
motives at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919?
A “Give Them Bread”
“Serbia will some day set Europe by the ears, and bring
B “Peace at Last” about a universal war on the Continent. . . . I cannot tell you
C “Revenge! Sweet Revenge!” how exasperated people are getting here at the continual
worry which that little country causes to Austria under
D “Down with Autocracy”
encouragement from Russia. . . . It will be lucky if Europe
succeeds in avoiding war as a result of the present crisis.”
Analyze the graph and answer the question that follows.

United States War Casualties

1000 19. Is the ambassador neutral in his comments, or does he favor
970.2 one country over another?
900 Combat
20. Compare the ways in which the actual events that started
Casualties (in thousands)

800 Other
World War I mirror the ambassador’s concerns.
700 Wounded
600 Total
500
Extended Response
412.2 21. Both Britain and the United States passed laws during the war
400 373.5
320.7 to silence opposition and censor the press. Are the ideals of a
300 democratic government consistent with such laws? Provide
184.6 204
200 arguments for and against.
100 53.5 63.2
0
Civil War World War I
Source: U.S. Department of Defense.

18. Which of the following statements is based on the informa-

tion in the graph?
A There were approximately 1 million U.S. casualties in
World War I.
B Approximately 400,000 U.S. troops were wounded in
World War I.
C Compared to the total number of U.S. casualties in World
War I, there were approximately 3 times the total num-
ber of casualties in the Civil War.
For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—
D Total American casualties in World War I did not exceed Chapter 23 at glencoe.com.
200,000.

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CHAPTER 23 War and Revolution 787