BAREE

THE HOME GARDEN OF ASSAM

AUTHORS
Dr. Jyoti Prasad Barua
Dr. Ayub Ali Ahmed
Dr. Sailen Gogoi
Dr. Samiran Pathak
Dr. Preeti Hatibarua

AICRP on Agroforestry: ICAR

HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH STATION
Assanm Agricultural University
Kahikuchi, Guwahati-17

Baree – The Home Garden of Assam: written by Dr. Jyoti Prasad Barua, Dr. Ayub Ali
Ahmed, Dr. Sailen Gogoi, Dr. Samiran Pathak and Dr. Pritee Hatibaruah of
Horticultural Research Station, Assam Agricultural University, Kahikuchi, Guwahati-
781017, Assam
1st Publication: August, 2019

© Reserved by: Assam Agricultural University, Kahikuchi, Guwahati-17

Printed at: Tulika Offset & Publishers, Ghy-9, Assam

 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

PREFACE

Production adjacent to the human settlements is the oldest and most enduring form of
cultivation practice to fulfill various social and basic needs of farm families. Even today, it is
an important supplemental source contributing enormously towards food, nutritional and
livelihood security. Over the recent few decades, there has been growing interest to strengthen
and intensified local food production systems like home gardens, in order to mitigate the
pervasiveness of hunger and food security. This is particularly relevant for developing
countries like India, where the population (human and domestic animals) boom along with
shortage of land is becoming too acute. Keeping these factors in view, the United Nations
General Assembly had declared 2014 as the ‘International Year of Family Farming”.
Assam, situated in the North-east part of India, is characterized by a typical hot, humid
sub-tropical climate supporting a wide range of flora and flora. The state is characterized by
the predominance of marginal and small holdings (85.57 %). The system of farming in home
gardens, locally known as Baree in this part of the country, has evolved over the centuries,
adjusting itself with the changing time, needs and value system. At present, there are about 6.4
million home gardens in the state having enormous significance from the point of
conservation, consumption and management of plant biodiversity. Like any other part of the
world, the concept of home gardens is gaining importance in the state of Assam in the present
critical scenario of lesser availability of agricultural land, due to increased urbanization,
fragmentation of land holdings, and conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural
purposes.
The book, entitled “Baree - the home garden of Assam” describes briefly the
characteristics of the home gardens of the state based on scientific studies carried out so far.
Further, the critical steps involved in establishing the home gardens, which has utmost
importance for improvement with respect to needs of the present time are also detailed.
Several models are presented in the book in order to make it suitable for the needs of the
farmers, scientists and extension workers. It is hoped that the models will be of great help in
framing roadmap for scientific utilization of the space in Baree which may be an efficient tool
in enhancing income, livelihood security, nutritional safeguard and environment safety.
We wish to keep on record our thanks and appreciation to all our well-wishers, who
exchanged valuable information in improving the manuscript. The coordination and help
rendered by AICRP (AF), Jhansi, AAU authorities and Chief Scientist, HRS, Kahikuchi. We
gratefully acknowledge the technical suggestions provided by Dr. Krishna Bania, Dr Subhas
Kalita, Mr Parag Saikia and the help rendered by Mr. Sailendra Deka, Ms. Anu Das and Mr.
Dibakar Mohodi in typing out the manuscript.
Authors

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

INDEX
Chapter Content Page

Preface I

Introduction 1-3

Chapter – I CHARACTERIZATION AND PRESENT SCENARIO 4-93

Classification 5-6

Key features of a typical Baree 6-11

Demarcation of boundary 7

Arrangement of components and home- 8

scape

Floristic diversity 11-23

Natural vegetation in Baree as function of 12

climate

Floristic richness of the state, erosion of 16

diversity and Baree as the conservation
Hub

Diversity of most popular flora found 20

extensively in Baree

Floristic diversity and size of Baree 23

Structure 23-26

Agroforesty system 26-30

Management practices 30-32

Taboos, rituals and beliefs 33

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Use of plant species 34-84

Timber 34

Fuel wood 39

Fruit and nuts 41

Vegetables 50

Medicinal plants for human 60

Medicinal plants for livestock 64

Masticatory 65

Alcoholic beverages 66

Fodder 69

Fibre 73

Ornamentals 73

Agricultural implements 75

Species used for soil improvement 76

Species used for dye 76

Religious, marriage and other auspicious 78

purposes

Fragrance oil 79

Fence 79

Species used for pesticides/poison 80

Boat making 81

Preparation of gunpowder 81

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Species for sericulture industries 82

Other purposes 82

Importance of Baree 84-89

Enhancing food & nutritional security 85

Economic features 86

Conservation of environment and 87

traditional knowledge

Uplifting the status of women 88

Building integrated society 88

Present scenario of Baree 89

SWOT analysis 90-91

Intervention required in Baree 91-93

Chapter – II Intervention needed for improvement 94-267

Planning for intervention 95-185

Vegetable zone 97

Fruit zone 103

Forest zone 119

Subsidiary components 185-219

pisciculture 185

Dairy 193

Piggery 195

Poultry rearing 197

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Duckery 199

Goat rearing 202

Riverine and swamp buffalo 203

Pigeon rearing 205

Bee keeping 206

Sericulture and weaving 210

Bamboo and cane craft 211

Mushroom cultivation 212

Vermicompost unit 213

Biogas plant 215

Nursery raising 217

Establishment of the system 219-225

Design and layout 220

Management practices 221

Integration of different components 223

Utilization of family labour 224

Processing and value addition 224

Models for different holding size 225-267

Location of different components 226

Vegetable zone 228

Fruit Zone 233

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Forest Zone 245

Chapter - III Future strategy 268-270

Research strategy 269-270

Extension strategy 270

With inputs from… 271-278

LIST OF TABLES
No. Content Page

A. Most important features in a typical Baree 6-7

B. Genome constitutions of some popular banana cultivars 22

1.1 Category wise timber species 34-38

1.2 Species used as fuel wood 39-40

1.3 Calorific value of few important fuel wood trees 40-41

1.4 Minor and semi wild fruit/nut species 42-44

1.5 Fruit/nut species mostly found in forest/fallow land and 44-46

rarely in Baree

1.6 Fruit species used mostly in non-conventional manner 46-48

1.7 Nutritional value of few important minor fruits 48-50

1.8 Common vegetable species 51-52

1.9 Nutritional value of few important minor vegetables 57-60

1.10 Chemical basis of few indigenous medicinal plant species 63-64

1.11 Ethno medicinal values of plant species used both as 68

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

vegetables and alcoholic beverage preparation

1.12 Nutrient content of some grass fodders 69-70

1.13 Chemical composition and nutritive value of some tree 71-73

fodder

1.14 Colour obtainable from different plant species 77-78

1.15 Tree species used for other minor purposes 83-84

2.1 Recommended varieties of some major fruit crops 107

2.2 Types of vegetative propagules to be used for some 108-109

important fruit crops

2.3 Suitable intercrops in fruit plantation 115-117

2.4 Brief Package for Fragaria vespa (Strawberry) and 118

Zizyphus mauritiana (Bilati bogori)

2.5 Few tree species suitable for different locations of Assam 126-129

2.6 Suitable fuel wood species under varied land forms 131-132

2.7 Seed characteristics of few tree species found in Forest 139-141

Zone

2.8 Technical information of few tree species for raising 144-148

nursery

2.9 Common spacing of tree for different purposes 164

2.10 Common spacing for different tree species 164-165

2.11 Information of few tree species for planting in Forest 165-169

Zone

2.12 Tending operation needed for few tree species 177-182

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

2.13 Economics of different kinds of Fish farming 192

2.14 Flowering period of some bee flora 208-210

2.15 Amount of vermi-compost to be applied for different 215

crops

2.16 Requirement of animals for bio-gas production 216

2.17 Layout of a fruit garden in limited area 233

2.18 Layout of a nutritional fruit garden for 1296 m2 (approx. 236-237

1300 m2)

2.19 Few minor fruit species 239-240

2.20 Few tree species and their purpose of plantation 246-250

2.21 Spacing needed for plantation of few bamboo species 253

2.22 Spacing needed for few sericulture plant species 254

2.23 Spacing needed for few timber/ veneer species 255-256

2.24 Spacing needed for few medicinal species having market 260-262
potentiality

2.25 Spacing needed for few fodder species 262-263

2.26 Spacing needed for few shade tree species in tea 264
plantation

2.27 Spacing needed for few flower species 265-266

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

LIST OF FIGURES
No. Content Page

Fig. 1 Location of different components in an ideal Baree 227

Fig. 2 Layout of nutritional vegetable garden 232

Fig. 3 Lay out of a fruit garden in limited area, 200 m2 235

Fig. 4 Lay out of a nutritional fruit garden, 1296 m2 238

Fig. 5 Arecanut based multistoried cropping system 242

Fig. 6 Coconut based multistoried cropping system 243

Fig. 7 a. Layout for mix plantation of timber and fire wood 251
species (sketch)

b. Layout for mix plantation of timber and fire wood

252
species (3-D)

Fig. 8 a. Mixed plantation for timber in small blocks (Sketch) 257

b. Mixed plantation for timber in small blocks (3-D) 258

Fig. 9 a. Mixed plantation for timber in alternate strips 258

(Sketch)

b. Mixed plantation for timber in alternate strips (3-D)

259

Fig. 10 a. Mixed plantation for timber in alternate rows 263

(Sketch)
264
b. Mixed plantation for timber in alternate rows (3-D)

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Introduction

The initiation of modern agriculture can be traced back to the subsistence production
system that started in small plots around the household. The system have persistently endured
the test of time and continued to play a vibrant role in providing food and income for the
family. This production system is still in vogue in the developing as well as few developed
countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Broadly, this production system around the
dwelling houses is the ‘Home garden’, a land use system involving deliberate management of
multipurpose trees and shrubs in intimate association with annual and perennial agricultural
crops and invariably livestock within the compounds of individual houses, the whole tree-
crop-animal unit being intimately managed by family members (Fernandes and Nair, 1986).
Similarly, Baree in Assam also means a traditional land-use practice, mostly around the
dwelling house and sometimes in isolated distant locations, where numerous plant species
including timbers, firewood, vegetables, fruits, plantation crops, spices, herbs, ornamentals
along with some other components of farming systems, viz., livestock, poultry, fishery,
sericulture, bee-keeping, etc. maintained by the members of the farm family with the primary
objective to fulfill various household needs.

Assam is characterized by hot humid sub-tropical climate with varied topography as

well as rivers and their tributaries resulting in diverse eco-systems supporting a wide range of
flora and fauna. Home gardens, in this part of the globe, have evolved successfully over the
centuries enduring and adjusting the eco-systems with challenges of change in time and need.

The term Baree is also used by the Baiga and Maria tribes of Madhya Pradesh to
denote the agroforestry practices attached to the dwelling houses. However, in Assamese
Baree has a broader connotation and it means the agroforestry systems prevailing in the
compound of the dwelling house as well as in Paam, i.e., riverine tracts, which may be far
away from the dwelling house with or without temporary shelters. In Paambaree, cultivation
is extensively carried out usually during rabi season only. The Baree system in the state has
been prevalent since time immemorial as indicated by different visitors to the area such as
Hiuen Tsang, the imminent Chinese scholar of seventh century, and Sahabuddin Talesh,

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historian of the Mughal era in 1662 AD. However, the Baree was standardized and upgraded
especially in the Brahamputra valley during the rule of the Ahom kings before British came.
During the reign of Swargadeu Pratap Singha (1603 – 1641 AD), the most famous Chief of
the Revenue Office Momai Tamuly Borbaruah reconstituted villages for enhancing revenue
collection and made Baree into a self-sufficient system for economic upliftment as well as
independence of the farm families. This was also important from the point of extensive
cultivation, a relevant need during Ahom period. The system is continued which is well
balanced with the ecosystem, besides fulfilling the basic needs of the household as the farmers
follow subsistence farming.

Since the early studies conducted in 1930s by Osche and Terra (1934) in Indonesia,
there has been extensive works carried out throughout the tropical and sub-tropical countries
including India with regard to definitions, species inventories, functions, structure,
composition, socio-economic and cultural relevance, etc. However, in Assam studies on home
gardens are few except the studies carried out by Ramakrishnan et al. (1996), Borthakur et al.
(1998), Godbole (1998), Sinha and Das (2000), Ramakrishnan et al. (2001), Hazarika et al.
(2003), Das and Das (2005), Srivastava and Heinen (2005), Nath and Das (2008), Barooah
and Pathak (2009), Goswami et al. (2011) and Saikia et al. (2012).

Predominance of marginal and small holding constituting 85.57% of total holding is

the characteristic feature of Assam. In recent times, lesser availability of agricultural land due
to population explosion, increased urbanization and conversion of agricultural land for non-
agricultural purposes has caused fragmentation of land holding. Market oriented monoculture
has aggravated the situation further and has threatened the very existence of multi-species
based Baree in many areas of the state.

However, home garden is one of the most important key as a supplement source for
nutritional and livelihood security in order to mitigate the pervasiveness of hunger prevalent
throughout the globe. Therefore, reorganization and reorientation of the present Baree system
of Assam is of utmost importance to suit the changing needs without losing the inherent
benefits.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

In first chapter of the book, a brief overview with regard to characterization such as
classification, features, floristic diversity, importance, structure, agroforestry systems,
management practices, use of products, benefits of Baree system and current scenario of the
state has been presented. Based on the SWOT analysis it was tried to identify the elements for
improvement of the system.

The second chapter has four parts. Planning for intervention, in the first part, intends to
improve Baree for different holding size. The second section deals with the mode of
improvement for the subsidiary components, while the inter-related support system during
establishment with the improved practices has been emphasized upon in the third. In the
fourth section, a number of alternative models have been suggested to suit different section of
farmers considering variation in agro-climatic, agro-ecological resources, socio-economic and
psychodynamic perspective of the farmers.

Future guidelines needed for research on Baree and extension activities has been
stated briefly in the third chapter.

Scientific name of the species along with Assamese name, instead of common name,
has been given as far as possible for easy understanding by the farmers and extension
personals.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

CHAPTER - I

CHARACTERIZATION AND PRESENT SCENARIO

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Classification

Baree can be classified on the basis of (i) Location and mode of land-use and (ii) Size.
(i) According to the location and mode of land-use, ‘Baree’ in Assam can be
categorized as (a) Integrated Baree, (b) Meroni and (c) Paam.
(a) Integrated Baree: An Integrated Baree is the most dominant category and exists in
almost every rural and semi-urban household of the state, and can be appropriately termed as
‘homescape’ of Assam. It is synonymous to the home gardens in other parts of the world such
as in Kerala, India, Java in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Kenya, Nicaragua,
Brazil etc. In this Baree, several plant species are deliberately maintained around the dwelling
house and the products are intended primarily for household consumption.
(b) Meroni or Fenced Baree: Some highland areas are observed amidst wide
submerged rice fields in the vast plains of Assam, which are utilized for various purposes
depending upon the suitability of the land and need or choice of the farm families. Meroni is
predominantly utilized to fulfill the household needs of the farm families; the surplus amount
is sold in the market. Usually, distinct demarcation of boundaries with Dhaap and drains are
absent in these Baree as such areas are located as highlands in comparison to surrounding
areas. However, these isolated uplands are fenced either with bamboo or timber poles to
protect from stray cattle and wild animals. Tree species utilized for roofing work like
Borassus flabellifer (Taal), Livistona jenkinsiana (Tokou), etc. are grown along the fences.
Area under Meroni is also utilized for growing seasonal vegetables and raising kharif rice
seedlings, oil seeds, pulses or Saccharum officinarum (Kunhiar); the area is then termed as
Xakoni Baree, Kothiatoli, Xoriahtoli, Mahoni, and Kuhiar Baree, respectively. Sometimes,
Meroni is used for timber species, then it is referred to as Kathoni, and if bamboos are the
predominant species, it is called Bahoni. Citrus reticulata (Xumothira or Kamalatenga) is
grown sometimes in specific locations (at high land or hillock) of the state; such Baree is
known as Kamala Baree. When sericulture rearing species like Machilus bombycina (Som),
Litsea polyantha (Xoalu), Litsea salicifolia (Dighaloti) or Cinnamomum
obtusifolium (Patihonda) is planted called as Somoni.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

(c) Paam or Baree in riverine areas: Chronically flood affected areas of the state
occupy 10 to 14 % of total net sown areas; such areas are cultivated seasonally by farmers
from far off and nearby places. Usually, different kind of thatch, viz. Imperata cylindrica
(Ulu), Saccharum spontaneum (Kohuwa), Chrysopogon zizanioides (Birina), etc. grow
abundantly in such localities besides many other weed species often used as fodder. Farmers
utilize these areas as grazing land especially for swamp & riverine buffaloes. Moreover, rabi
vegetables, Brassica campestris (Xorioh), Vigna radiata (Mogu), Vigna mungo (Matimah)
etc. are grown in some selected areas with or without protective fencing and temporary farm
houses for shelters. Tree species which can withstand water stagnation like Bischofia javanica
(Uriam), Ficus infectoria (Pakori), Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Ajar), Salix tetrasperma
(Bhe), Streblus asper (Xoura), Syzygium cumini (Kalajamu), Trewia nudiflora (Bhelkor or
Pindari), etc. are also grown in these areas. Selection of annual crops for the paam is mostly
market driven.
(ii) According to size, Baree can be grouped into three categories as (a) Small Baree
(<2000 m2 or <1.5 Bigha), (b) Medium Baree (2000 m2 to 2666 m2 or 1.5 Bigha to 2.0 Bigha)
and (c) Large Baree (>2666 m2 or >2.0 Bigha).

Key features of a typical baree

Key features of a typical Baree have been summarized in Table A.

Table A: Most important features in a typical Baree
Parameters Practices

(i) Location Nearby residence; some ‘Paam baree’ are situated in far-off
places, however, temporary shelters are constructed usually in
such cases
(ii) Species density High; however, in ‘Meroni’ and ‘Paam baree’ species density
may not be high enough
(iii) Species utilization Food grains, vegetabes, fruits, medicinal plants besides timber,
bamboo and cash crop

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

(iv) Space utilization Horizontal and vertical

(v) Production objective Home consumption mostly; however, surplus produce is sold in
the local market or distributed within the community
(vi) Planting pattern Irregular and row planting
(vii) Technology Simple tools and implements
(viii) Input cost Low
(ix) Labour source Farm family (including women, elderly people, and children)
mostly; in few cases hired labour is utilized
(x) Labour requirement Part-time mostly
(xi) Harvest frequency Daily, seasonal
(xii) Distribution Rural, semi-urban and sparsely in urban areas
(xiii) Others (i) Production is supplemental to family income and consumption
requirement
(ii) Baree is the production system where the poor can easily
enter at some level
(iii) Gardening/horticultural skills are needed

Most of these features are similar to that of the home gardens found in other parts of
the world (Ninez, 1984; Ruthenberg, 1980; Mitchelle and Hanstad, 2004).
As perceived by the people of the state traditionally, the following characteristic
features with regards to the demarcation of boundary and arrangement of the components are
observed to be prevalent in a typical Integrated Baree:

Demarcation of boundary

The compound of each household is distinctly separated by deep drains and small
bunds (Dhaap) along the drains. Deep drains help to drain out excess water from the land
under Baree, especially during the monsoon. Bunds, on the other hand, help to prevent
removal of soil from the Baree as sheet or reel erosion is a common phenomenon in the

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

humid/per-humid state of Assam during the monsoon. To stabilize the bunds, predominantly
different bamboo species, like Bambusa balcooa (Bholuka), Bambusa tulda (Jati), etc. and
Musa sp. (Kol) and timber/firewood trees are grown on the bunds; however the species differs
from locality to locality. Among the fruit species Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kathal),
Artocarpus lakoocha (Banhat or Dewatenga), Baccaurea sapida (Leteku), Citrus grandis
(Robabtenga), Citrus medica (Jaratenga), Flacourtia cataphracta (Paniyal), Mangifera indica
(Aam), Myrica nagi (Nagatenga), Prunus communis (Ahombogori), Prunus jenkinsii
(Thereju), Prunus persica (Narabogori or peach), Spondias mangifera (Amara), Syzygium
cuminii (Kolajamu), are the most common. In Barak valley, southern part of the state, tree
species like Areca catechu (Tamol), Erythrina indica (Modar), Jatropha curcas (Bongali era
or Bhot era), Moringa oleifera (Sojina) and Spondias mangifera (Amara) serve as live poles
for fencing or even as live fencing to demarcate the boundary of household. In many Baree of
the Brahmaputra valley, plants like Calotropis procera (Akan), Euphorbia neriifolia
(Manxiju), Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus (Titabahek) and intruded species of bamboo like
Bambusa multiplex (Borokhi dang or Boroxia) or Bambusa nana (Jewra or Jopoha) are also
grown to demarcate the boundary especially in the front side of the house.

Arrangement of components according to orientation of sunshine and

homescape

Although the Baree exhibits a general pattern, each garden is unique in its spatial and
temporal structure, crop mix, arrangement and overall design. The design varies from place to
place to suit the local physical environment, ecological characteristics, socio-economic and
cultural factors. In most Baree, some crops are always planted in regular patterns, while others
are planted wherever space is available. In some cases, naturally grown trees, shrubs, herbs
and vines are allowed to grow.
Ideally, Baree compounds are eastern facing and the dwelling houses are situated in
the middle of the compound. A bamboo or wooden gate with a distinctive arch (Baatchora)
leads to the dwelling house through a long, straight foot path (Poduli). Vines like Clitoria

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

ternatea (Aparajita), Quamoclit pennata (Kunjalata), Roydsia suaveolens (Madhoimaloti) etc.

are usually trained to climb on the arches. Plants such as Artabotrys odoratissimus (Kathali
Champa), Canna indica (Parijat), Cestrum nocturnum (Hasnahana), Mesua ferrea (Nahor),
Mimusops elengi (Bokul), Murraya exotica (Kamini), Nerium odorum (Raktakorobi),
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Xewali), Plumeria alba (Champa), Plumeria rubra (Raktagulancha),
Thevetia neriifolia (Bagakorobi), Thevetia peruviana (Halodhiyakorobi), etc. are grown on
both sides of the gate.
In the eastern part of the Brahmaputra valley, houses are observed to be symmetrically
balanced, while in the western part of the valley there is a central courtyard surrounded by
separate dwelling houses on all sides. Leaves of Imperata cylindrica (Ulu), Vetiveria
zizanioides (Khuskhus) and bamboo (Banh) are used as their roofing material. In eastern
districts, especially among Tai-Phakes, Khamyangs and Singphos, leaves of Livistona
jenkinsiana (Tokou) – now a rare and endangered plant species, is the prevalent roofing
material. Previously, thatched-roof was common everywhere but has been replaced gradually
by galvanized iron tin-sheets.
A front yard and a backyard exist for day to day and social activities. Near the
dwelling house, a prayer room (among the Hindu inhabitants) and a separate granary raised
from the ground are constructed in the south-eastern direction. A separate room or shelter
adjacent to the house at a convenient location is allotted to accommodate the weaving loom.
Traditionally, the pond is situated on the eastern side or at the back of the homestead, while
the western side is reserved for bamboo groves (Banhoni) or other trees. Bamboo is a
ubiquitous component of all homestead gardens and used for construction, agriculture, fishing
implements, roofing, fencing and edible purposes. The southern direction is kept open; taller
tree species are preferably planted in northern and north-western direction. This arrangement
of components is based /according to the orientation of the sunshine. Pond dykes are mostly
utilized for growing Citrus sp. (Nemu tenga), Cocos nucifera (Narikal), Musa sp. (Kal), etc.
Livestock sheds for cattle, and coops for ducks, geese, chicken are normally placed in the
southern direction. Pigeon coops made of bamboo (Banh) are attached to the granary or the
house nearby ventilator. In Hindu households, Aegle marmelos (Bael), Ocimum sp. (Tuloxi)
etc. are planted near the prayer room. The Euphorbia ligularia (Xiju) plant, has religious
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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

significance for the Bodo community of Assam, and is a ubiquitous presence in the central
courtyards of most of the Bodo household. Plants like Amaranthus hybridus syn.
Amaranthus chlorostachys syn. Amaranthus incurvatus (Bagamorisa), Amaranthus tricolor
syn. Amaranthus gangeticus (Ranga morisa), Capsicum chinense syn. Capsicum toxicarium
(Bhutjolokia), semi perennial Capsicum frutescens (Jolokia), Carica papaya (Amita), Mentha
viridis (Podina), semi-perennial Solanum melongena (Bengena), medicinal herbs etc. are
grown below the half-roofed area outside the house (Pirali). Flowers like Mirabilis jalapa
(Godhuligopal), Vinca rosea (Nayantora), etc. are grown for aesthetic and medicinal purposes.
The front yard of the house usually has a small garden (Phooloni) enclosed with a mixture of
flowers like Canna indica (Parijat), Cestrum nocturnum (Hasnahana), Clitoria ternatea
(Aparajita), Codiaeum variegatum (Patabahar), Gardenia jasminoides (Tagar), Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis (Rangajaba), Ixora coccinea (Rangol), Ixora parviflora (Bagarangal), Jasminum
auriculatum (Jutika), Jasminum grandiflorum (Xangkhamala), Jasminum pubescens
(Kharikajai or Kundaphul), Jasminum sambac (Mollika or Doamali), Nyctanthes arbor-tristis
(Xewali), Plumeria alba (Champa), Rosa alba (Bagagolap), Rosa indica (Rangagolap), Rosa
involucrata or Rosa multiflora (Latagolap), Tabernaemontana coronaria (Banaria tagar),
Tabernaemontana divaricata (Kathana or Kathanda) etc. Besides, some species of orchids
like Aerides odorata (Xugandhi kopouphul), Rhynchostylis retusa (Kopouphul), Vanda teres
(Bhatouphul), Dendrobium sp., which flower abundantly during the spring festival of Rongali
Bihu are extremely popular among the common folk, and are carefully planted on tree trunks
to fulfill their aesthetic needs.
The Kitchen garden (Xakoni) is located on the south eastern side with various kinds of
vegetables. Short statured perennials like Carica papaya (Amita), Citrus sp. (Nemu tenga),
Murraya koenigii (Naraxingha), Musa sp. (Kal), Pogostemon plectranthoides (Xukloti or
Bakaha), etc. are planted on north and north western side of the kitchen garden. According to
the height, placement of different species around the house differs; taller the plant away will
that be from the house. It is a common sight to see cucurbits like Benincasa hispida (Komora)
trained to climb on the roof of the dwelling house.
Area for timber trees are usually allotted far away from the house. Bamboo groves are
established at the most distant places usually near to the boundary. However, sometimes
10
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

timber species and bamboo groves are grown as mixed plantation. Tall, slender Areca catechu
(Tamol) palms are also used for trailing Piper betle (Paan) and Piper nigrum (Jaluk).
Alocasia sp. (Kachu), Citrus sp. (Nemu tenga), Colocasia sp. (Kachu), Curcuma longa
(Halodhi), Zingiber officinalis (Aada), is usually grown as intercrop among Areca catechu
(Tamol) and fruit trees. In the most portions of the Baree, eradication of weeds is not
practiced as most of the naturally growing herbs and shrubs are used for one purpose or the
other, viz., medicinal, culinary, for making alcoholic beverages, cattle feed etc. The high
floristic diversity and presence of many rare/endangered species in the Baree reflect the ways
how owners utilize and conserve plant diversity. Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi), an
endangered and red listed species of India, is one of the most dominant trees in Sivasagar,
Charaideu, Jorhat and Golaghat districts and contribute enormously to the economy of the
farmers.

Floristic diversity

Floristic diversity of Baree is governed by two factors with regard to the sources of
species. These are:
(i) Deliberately grown selected plant species by farmers to satisfy numerous needs,
and
(ii) Naturally grown (spread by natural agents of seeds dispersal) floral species as
determined by the climate and soil of a locality, and therefore can be perceived as mimics of
natural forest that exist nearby.
Deliberately grown plant species and their extent of coverage in a Baree are
determined by the specific need of the farmers. Among varied plant species some may have
recently intruded into the area and hence Baree function as the initial stage of experimentation
with such new species (types or varieties) for adoption pattern, behaviour, cultivation
practices and interspecific interaction. Selection and adoption of the most of the intruded tree
species and horticultural crops by common farmers in Assam have been carried out only
through such steps.
11
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

On the other hand, few numbers of many of the naturally grown plant species are
allowed to exist in Baree due to their capabilities to fulfil multifarious need of the farm
families. It is well known that the state of Assam is a constituent unit of the Eastern
Himalayas Biodiversity Region – one of the two biodiversity ‘Hot Spots’ in India. The warm
as well as humid climatic condition and wide variety of physical features in Assam have
resulted diversity of ecological habitats which sustain wide ranging floral species. One of the
important modes of management in Baree is that the herbs/weeds are never completely
eradicated due their various utilities.
As a result of these factors numerous floral species are observed in Baree serving as a
hub of floristic diversity. In a survey carried out in 80 homegardens of Jorhat and Golaghat
district of upper Assam 294 floral species were encountered among which trees, shrubs, herbs
and economically important species were 142, 56, 96 and 260 numbers, respectively (Saikia et
al., 2012). In Barak Valley in another study at 50 homegardens, a total of 122 trees and 35
shrubs have been identified (Das and Das, 2005). In another study at Kamrup district of lower
Assam all together 217 numbers of species were encountered in five villages; out of these, the
numbers of 72 species were herbs, 39 were shrubs, 34 were climbers and 72 species were
trees. Among these 217 species vegetables, major fruits, minor fruits, medicinal plants,
ornamental plants and miscellaneous category were 70, 15, 32, 17, 40 and 43 respectively
(Goswami et al., 2011).

Natural vegetation in Baree as the function of climate

Owing to the similarity of climatic conditions, naturally grown floral species in Baree
is almost akin to the natural vegetation exist nearby. Based on the kind of natural vegetation
as determined by climatic and edaphic factors, natural vegetation of Assam has been classified
into 10 different groups (Champion and Seth, 1968). Species of many of these groups of
vegetation are relevant to many Baree of Assam as farmers allow some of these species to
exist due to the reason mentioned above.
Evergreen vegetation of Assam can be categorized into two groups. Firstly, evergreen
tree species such as Dipterocarpus macrocarpus syn. Dipterocarpus retusus (Holong),
12
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Ailanthus grandis (Borpat or Koronga), Altingia excelsa (Jutuli), Artocarpus chama (Cham),
Mesua ferrea (Nahor), Michelia champaca (Titachapa), Shorea assamica (Mekai), etc. are
usually observed in Tinsukia and Dibrugarh district i.e. upper Assam. These species also exist
in piedmont areas of Charaideu, Jorhat and Golaghat districts of upper Assam and in a narrow
stretch in Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts of northern bank of the Brahmaputra River in
upper Assam along foothills, besides Cachar and Karimganj districts in Barak Valley at lower
elevations, in areas nearby Barail range. In Barak Valley, however, few other prominent tree
species are Dipterocarpus turbinatus syn. Dipterocarpus retusus (Garjan), Mesua floribunda
(Bolong or Karol), Palaquium polyanthum syn. Dichopsis obovata (Katholua), etc. Numerous
shrubs, herbs, vines, ferns, epiphytes, palms and bamboo species are grown luxuriantly in
these areas. Another category of evergreen tree species are commonly found in Nagaon and
Darrang district of middle part of the Brahmaputra Valley along with some pockets in
Sivasagar, Jorhat, Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts of upper Assam. Major tree species in this
category consists of Terminalia myriocarpa (Holok), Cinnamomum bejolghota syn.
Cinnamomum obtusifolium (Nagadalcheni), Cinnamomum cecicodaphne (Gondhxoroi),
Phoebe goalparensis (Bonchom), Magnolia insignis (Himchampa or Phulchapa), Morus
leavigata (Bola), Machilus bombycina (Som), Schima wallichii (Makrixal), Michelia montana
(Panchapa), etc. besides other tree species mentioned above in the first category.
Dipterocarpus macrocarpus (Holong) is the tallest tree among all the evergreen tree species
found in Assam; this species has been renowned as the “State tree of Assam”.
Semi-evergreen vegetation is the combination of evergreen and deciduous species;
most of the species in this category is medium – sized. Such vegetation is found sporadically
all over the plain areas of the state especially in selected pockets of Dibrugarh, Sivasagar,
Charaideu, Jorhat, Golaghat, Morigaon, Sonitpur, Darrang, Kamrup, Bongaigaon, Dhubri,
Kokrajhar, Cachar and Karimganj districts.
Actinodaphne obovata (Petari chowa), Aesculus punduana (Ramanbih), Albizia
lebbeck (Sirish), Albizia odoratissima (Hiharu), Albizia procera (Koroi), Albizia lucida (Moj),
Artocarpus chama (Cham or Chamkothal), Duabanga grandiflora (Khokan), Dillenia indica
(Outenga), Bauhinia purpurea (Devakanchan), Michelia champaca (Titachapa), Schima
wallichii (Makrixal), Trewia nudiflora (Bhelkor), Terminalia myriocarpa (Holok), Bischofia
13
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

javanica (Uriam), Anthocephalus chinensis syn. Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam),

Castanopsis indica (Hingori), Castanopsis hingis (Dobahingori), Lagerstroemia speciosa
(Azar), Lagerstroemia parviflora (Sidha), Lagerstroemia indica (Parul or Kotia ajar),
Michelia oblonga (Phulchapa), Magnolia griffithi (Gahorichapa), Michelia montana
(Paanchapa), Magnolia gustavi (Kharikachapa), Michelia manii (Kathalchapa), Michelia
wardii (Dulichapa), Mallotus philippinensis (Jorat-lochan or Gangai), Terminalia chebula
(Xilikha), Terminalia belerica (Bhomora), Syzygium cerasoideum (Godhajamu), Syzygium
formosa (Kotahi jamu), Syzygium gardeneri (Paani jamu), Syzygium malaccense (Paani
jamu), Syzygium cuminii (Kola jamu), Syzygium jambolona (Bor jamu), etc. Different species
of bamboo, shrubs, herbs, ferns, climbers etc. are found abundantly beneath the tree species.
Deciduous vegetation of Assam can be categorized into two groups: Dry deciduous
vegetation and moist deciduous vegetation. Dry deciduous vegetation is mostly found in the
rain shadow area in the middle part of the Brahmaputra valley, i.e. Nagaon, Hojai, Morigaon,
parts of Karbi Anglong and few pockets of Kamrup distrct. Besides, parts of Darrang, Nalbari,
Golaghat, Dima Hasao, Lakhimpur and Cachar district occupy few areas under dry deciduous
vegetation. Prominent tree species noted in this area are Aegle marmelos (Bael), Albizia
procera (Koroi), Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Albizia lucida (Moj), Cassia fistula (Xonaru),
Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Alstonia scholaris (Sationa), Melia azedarach (Ghoranim), Litsea
nitida (Katholua), Litsea salicifolia (Digholoti), Litsea glutinosa (Baghnola), Moringa
oleifera (Sajina), Mallotus philippinensis (Gangai), Terminalia chebula (Xilikha), Terminalia
belerica (Bhomora), Ficus sp., etc. On the other hand, moist deciduous vegetation can be
divided into two subgroups: Shorea robusta (Xal) dominated vegetation and Mixed moist
deciduous vegetation. Natural vegetation of Shorea robusta growing areas are observed in
Nagaon, Hojai, Morigaon, Kamrup (Rural) districts and parts of Nalbari, Barpeta, Darrang,
Sonitpur, Dhubri, Kokrajhar, Goalpara, Karbi Anglong, Dima Hasao districts. On the other
hand, mixed moist deciduous vegetation is found in northern border (with Arunachal Pradesh)
in foot hills of Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts and in the hill districts of Karbi Anglong,
West Karbi Anglong, and Dima Hasao. Tree species observed in moist deciduous areas are
numerous viz. Shorea robusta (Xal), Artocarpus chaplacha (Chamkothal), Artocarpus
lakoocha (Banhat), Careya arborea (Kumbhi), Lagerstroemia speciosa (Azar), Lagerstroemia
14
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

parviflora (Sidha), Schima wallichii (Makrixal), Dillenia indica (Ou Tenga), Dillenia
pentagyna (Okshi), Terminalia arjuna (Arjun), Terminalia chebula (Xilikha), Terminalia
belerica (Bhomora), Terminalia citrina (Konxilikha), Terminalia tomentosa (Lorel or Kuhir),
Mangifera sylvatica (Bon aam), Cassia fistula (Xonaru), Albizia procera (Koroi), Albizia
lucida (Moj), Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Gmelina arborea (Gomari), Stereospermum personatum
(Paroli), Alstonia scholaris (Sotiona), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Sterculia villosa (Odal),
Sapium baccatum (Adamsali), Syzygium sp., Diospyros peregriana (Kendu), Boswellia
serrata (Dhup goch), Talauma hodgsonii (Borhomthuri), Premna bengalensis (Gohora),
Shorea assamica (Makai), Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Ficus religiosa (Ahot), Ficus
benghalenesis (Bot), Canarium resiniferum (Dhunagosh), Dipterocarpus turbinatus (Garjan),
Toona ciliata (Poma), Smilax china (Tikoni borua), Chukrasia tabularis (Bogipoma), Morus
laevigata (Nuni), Tetrameles nudiflora (Bheleu), Castanopsis indica (Hingori), Vatica
lanceaefolia (Morxal), etc. Tectona grandis (Segun) is one of the most popular species grown
at Baree in the areas of deciduous vegetation. Rich diversity of herbs and shrubs are observed
beneath the tree species grown in such areas.

Mighty river Brahmaputra is flowing from east to west of the Brahmaputra valley.
Besides, a large number (more than 50) of tributaries are flowing through the Brahmaputra
valley towards the Brahmaputra. Many villages and Baree are situated in the riparian areas of
the state especially in Goalpara, Darrang, Barpeta, Sonitpur and Majuli districts. Acacia
catechu (Khoir) and Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu) are the most prominent naturally grown species
in this riparian vegetation. Some other important tree species in Baree of these areas are –
Duabanga grandifolia (Khokon), Bridelia retusa (Kahir), Acacia nilotica (Babul), Bombax
ceiba (Ximolu), Barringtonia acutangula (Hijol, Paniamora, Xothphul), Syzygium
caryophyllifolia (Kotahijamu), Trewia nudiflora (Bhelkor or Pindari), Salix tetrasperma
(Panihijol or Bhe), Bischofia javanica (Uriam), Anthocephalus cadamba (Kodom), Antidesma
acuminatum (Paniheloch), Calamus sp., etc.

In the sand enriched and silt deposited Char-Chapori areas nearby and amidst the
Brahmaputra river different grass species predominates. Some of the grass species in such
areas are Arundo donax (Nol), Chrysopogon zizanioides (Birina), Phragmites karka
15
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

(Khagori), Erianthus elephantinus (Ekora), Saccharum spontaneum (Konhua), Pollinia ciliata

(Xonkher), Imperata cylindrical (Ulu kher), etc. Besides, few number of the tree species such
as Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Zizyphus jujube (Bogori), Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Ajar),
Trewia nudiflora (Bhelkor), Tamarix dioica (Jhau), Ficus sp., Bischofia javanica (Uriam),
Streblus asper (Bhutabriksha), Salix tetrasperma (Bhe, Pongoi), Barringtonia acutangula
(Hijol), etc. grown depending upon the kind of silt deposition into the area. Due to occurrence
of frequent flood, emphasis is given to Rabi vegetables. Integrated Baree is in rudimentary
form in this area; however, Paam are most common in comparison to other areas of the state.

Among all the timber (and firewood) species mentioned above Tectona grandis
(Segun) is the only AI category species grown in Assam and therefore is the most preferred.
Inspite of the long life span of this species, farmers of all the region of the state are interested
for this species and grow this species either in Dhaap or Forest zone of Integrated Baree. In
some feasible areas under Meroni, farmers grow Tectona grandis (Segun) in block as
monoculture. Other most popular timber species are Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Gmelina
arborea (Gomari) and Michelia champaca (Titachapa); all produce A-II category timber.

Floristic richness of the state, erosion of diversity and Baree as the

conservation Hub

Being the integral part of the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Region, high floristic
richness in natural vegetation as well as in Baree of Assam is observed. The ecosystem
diversity inherent in the peculiar physiography, edaphic conditions and the conducive
elements of the region has contributed to the profuse diversity of floristic elements of the
state. Based on the available data, altogether 4273 number of species of vascular plant
constituting 25.12% of floristic wealth of India has been recorded in Assam. These species
consist of 3905, 23, 315 and 40 numbers belonging to Angiosperms (1073 Monocot and 2833
Decot) Gymnosperms, Ferns and Fern Allies, respectively. However, due to incomplete
investigations in certain areas of Dima Hasao district including Barail range, parts of Tinsukia
and Kokrajhar districts the exact number of floral species in Assam still remains uncertain.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Therefore, with more exploration in future there is every possibility to increase the number of
total floral species.

Few distinctive features of the floral species found in Assam are

(i) There exists 154 species of “Living Fossils”, i.e. Primitive Angiosperms in the area;
these species belong to family Magnoliaceae (19 species), Schizandraceae (1 species),
Annonaceae (45 species), Myristicaceae (7 species), Chloranthaceae (2 species) and
Lauraceae (80 species) (Anon. 2013). Example of few such species are: Alnus nepalensis
(Alder), Altingia excelsa (Jutuli), Betula alnoides (Birch), Houttuynia cordata (Masandari),
Magnolia graffithi (Gahori chopa), Magnolia plerocarpa syn Magnolia sphenocarpa
(Barhamthuri chopa), Myrica esculenta syn. Myrica nagi (Nagatenga), Talauma hodgsonii
(Barhamthuri), Tetracentron sinensis (Tetracentron), etc.; due to the presence of such
primitive Angiosperms the area of North Eastern India is renowned as “the Cradle of
Flowering Plants.”
(ii) Although there is no exahausive list of Endemic flora of Assam, a search on the basis
of the exploration of Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and other workers reveal the occurrence
of as many as 102 species belonging to 75 genera are “Endemic” to the locations within the
geographical boundaries of Assam. Example of few such flora are: Acacia diadenia
(Doukha), Citrus assamensis (Tithkora tenga), Diospyros kika (Halwa tendu), Garcinia
lanceafolia var. oxyphylla (Tepor), Magnolia montana (Paanchapa), Michelia mannii (Kathali
champa), Phoebe cooperiana (Mekahi), etc.; bamboo species like Bambusa cacharensis
(Betula), Bambusa mastersii (Benti), Dendrocalamus pettallaris (Phutung), Schizostachyum
dullooa (Dolow), Schizostachyum pergracile (Madang), etc.; orchid species like
Chrysoglossum assamicus, Dendrobium assamicum, Dendrobium aurantiacum, etc.; vines
like Acacia pinnata (Kuchia lota), etc. (Bhagabati et al. 2014).
(iii) As observed by Vavilov (1926, 1951), 152 numbers of cultivated crop species and
their wild relatives still exist at natural condition in North East India including Assam out of
about 600 agricultural crops grown in total throughout the world. This area is renowned as the
“Centre of Origin” of several major agricultural crops including the species of Alpinia, Citrus,

17
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Curcuma, Digitaria, Dyconia, Elacocarpus, Mangifera, Momordica, Morus, Mucuna, Musa,

Myrica, Saccharum, Solanum, Thea, Trichosanthes, Vigna, Vitis, Zingiber, etc. besides Oryza.

Unfortunately, large scale destruction of natural vegetation since the establishment of

tea industry in the early 19th century and more extensively since the independence has resulted
in acute erosion of floristic diversity. Due to lack of adequate information, it is difficult to
ascertain the number of species that have already become extinct before 1940 as the first
account of regional flora of North East India was made by Kanjilal in 1934-40, that too in
some of the limited areas. Proximate reasons of loss of floristic diversity in Assam are: (i)
Population explosion, (ii) Anthropogenic factors including jhuming and so called
development/economic activities, (iii) Overgrazing, (iv) Flood or river bank erosion, (v) Bio-
piracy, (vi) Chemical based modern agricultural production system, (vii) Political problems
including extremist problem, etc.

Bhagabati et al. (2014) mentioned the root causes of continuing loss of such diversity
due to the following causes:

(i) The virgin land with rich biodiversity was extensively utilized for colonial government
since early 19th century ignoring the importance of the local natural environment. The legacy
of such an exploitative system is still continuing in some forms, directly or indirectly.
(ii) The development activities adopted so far in the country in most cases have not paid
required importance to the delicate aspects of the environment.
(iii) The traditional modes of agriculture as well as household industrial production which
maintained a harmonic relation with nature are being increasingly replaced by the modern
modes caring little for sustainability.
(iv) The economic developments attained in different production sectors are not oriented to
the diversity of the available as well as potential resource base.
(v) Streams of migration of people experienced by the state in different periods from
within and outside the country having different traditions and economic backgrounds which
are not conducive for long term sustenance of the biodiversity in most of the cases.

18
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

On the other hand, Goswami et al. (2011) listed the following reasons for loss of home
garden bio-diversity:
(i) Degradation of native agro-ecosystem by introduction of exotic/improved varieties and
application of chemical fertilizers, pesticides etc.;
(ii) Conversion of agricultural land for non-agricultural activities;
(iii) Introduction of exotic crops for economic gains ignoring site suitability;
(iv) Narrowing the genetic base of indigenous crops by encouraging cultivation of
improved varieties;
(v) Lack of conservation and cultivation effort.

As a result of these reasons, massive loss of floristic diversity occurred; many species
became extinct, endangered (i.e. going to be extinct), vulnerable (i.e. can be conserved if
timely measures are followed, otherwise going to be extinct), or rare (i.e. with limited
distribution). Due to lack of systemic and adequate information, it is difficult to ascertain the
exact number of extinct, endangered, vulnerable or rare species in Assam.

However, IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural

Resources) in Red Data Book of Indian plants recognized the following categories of
threatened plants of Assam: (i) Extinct: Bambusa mastersii (Betibah), Cleisostoma arietinum,
Cyperus corymbosus, Dendrobium assamicum, Dendrobium aurantiacum, Hetaeria anomala,
Liparis stachyurus, Paphiopedilum specerianum, Sapria himalayana, etc., (ii) Critically
endangered: 284 species, (iii) Endangered: 149 species, (iv) Vulnerable: 58 species, (v) Near
threatened: 13 species (Rao et al., 2003).

Many of such species are still conserved by common farmers in Baree as observed in
limited areas of the state. Example of such species as reported by Hazarika et al. 2012 are
Acalypha indica (Muktajuri), Acorus calamus (Boch), Aegle marmelos (Bael), Alpinia
galanga (Gandhatora), Amorphophallus commutatus (Borkochu), Andrographis paniculata
(Kalpatita or Kalmegh), Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi), Carallia integerrima syn. Garcinia
morella (Kuji thekera), Carallia licida syn. Carallia brachiata (Mahi thekera), Carissa
billimbi (Bilambi tenga), Caryota urens (Chewa), Cinnamomum tamala (Tejpat),

19
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Clerodendron colebrookianum (Nephaphu), Costus speciosus (Jamlakhuti), Cucurma caesia

(Kola halodhi), Diospyros paniculata (Kendu), Garcinia lanceaefolia (Rupohi thekera),
Hydnocarpus kurgii (Chalmogora), Kaempteria galanga (Gathion), Licuala peltata (Japipat),
Livistona jenkinsiana (Tokow), Mangifera sylvatica (Ban aam), Piper longum (Jaluk), Piper
nigrum (Pipoli), Rauvolfia serpentina (Xarpagondha), Rhus semialata (Nikhon tenga), Saraca
asoca (Axok), Piper longum (Jaluk), Talauma hodgsonii (Barhamthuri), Terminalia arjuna
(Arjun), Vatica lanceaefolia (Morhal), etc. Presence of more number of such threatened
species (as well as cultivar of different species) might come into light on extensive
investigation with regards to floristic diversity in Baree situated at varied climate and
physiographic situations of the state.

Diversity of most popular flora found extensively in Baree

Bamboo: The most dominant cultivated species of bamboo in the Brahmaputra valley are
Bambusa balcooa (Bholuka) and Bambusa tulda (Jati); however, Bambusa garuchokua
(Goruchokua nangal), Bambusa nutans (Mokal), Bambusa pallida (Bijuli/Jowa), Bambusa
pseudopallida (Deu), Bambusa teres (Bhaluka mokal), Dendrocalamus hamiltinii (Kako),
Dendrocalamus strictus (Karali), Schizostachyum dulooa (Dolow), etc. are grown in sporadic
areas throughout the valley. Besides, Bambusa arundinacea (Kotoha), Bambusa barpatharuca
(Bijuli), Dendrocalamus giganteus (Wora/Jaiborua) species in upper Assam districts and
Bambusa assamica (Xaru bijuli) as well as Gigantochloa rostrata (Paani) in lower Assam
districts of the Brahmaputra valley are also grown. Although, Bambusa cacharensis (Betula)
is the most prevalent species, yet Bambusa polymorpha (Ghoroha) and Bambusa tulda (Jati)
are also popular species in Barak Valley. Bambusa cacharensis (Betula) is also found
sporadically in the Brahmaputra Valley. Melocanna baccifera (Tarai) is a species found
mostly in forest areas of the Barak Valley, hill district of Dima Hasao and Goalpara district of
the Brahmaputra Valley; however, in other parts of Assam this species is cultivated in Baree
occasionally.

Among newly introduced popular species Bambusa multiplex (Boroxiya or Boroxi

dang) and Bambusa nana (Jopoha, Jupuri or Jewra) are grown mostly as hedge, popularity of

20
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

these species were initially confined to the tea garden areas and afterwards extended to other
parts of the state. Gigantochloa albociliata (Kalisuneti), another intruded species is under
occasional cultivation throughout the state. Some other newly introduced popular Japanese
and Chinese origin bamboo species are Bambusa valguris var. vulgari, Bambusa valguris var.
vittala and Bambusa valgaris f. waminii, locally all known as Tiloi, Xonali or Halodhia banh
and utilized mostly for asthetic purposes. Few other ornamental bamboo species becoming
popular recently especially in urban areas are Bambusa wamin (Kolosi banh), Pseudosasa
japonica (Aero bamboo), Sasa fortunei (Forsuni banh), etc.

Rattan: Rattan (Bet) is one of the most popular floral species and utilized extensively for
handicrafts as well as other day to day activities of the rural society. However, it is grown
rarely in Baree and is collected mostly from forest areas. Out of about 17 species, Calamus
tenuis (Jatibet) and Calamus floribundus (Lejaibet) are found in few Baree. Out of these two
species Calamus tenuis (Jati bet) is found extensively; on the other hand, Calamus floribundus
is one of the endangered species at present.

Banana: Banana is one of the most widely cultivated fruits in Baree. Out of five species
found in Assam, two are wild (Musa glauca and Musa rosacea), one semi-wild (Musa
valutina or Xendurikal) and two cultivated (Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana). North
eastern India including Assam is considered as the Centre for hybridization of banana; most of
the cultivars of cultivated banana are derived from diploid species of Musa acuminata and
Musa balbisiana, with the genome constitution of AA and BB, respectively. This is the reason
for high diversity of banana cultivar in North eastern India including Assam and more than 30
cultivars of banana are available in NE India. Almost all these cultivars are found in Baree.

Genome constitution of some of the most popular cultivars grown in Baree is

mentioned in Table B.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Table B: Genome constitution of some of the most popular cultivars

Genome Cultivar
constitution
AB Chenichampa
BB Bhimkal
AAA Amritsagar, Agnisagar, Dwarf Cavendish, Jahaji, Kabuli jahaji,
Barjahaji, Digjoa, Honda, Saapkal, Kanaibashi
AAB Champa, Malbhog, Saker Champa
ABB Kaachkal, Jatikal, Manohor, Dhussary, Bhos, Muthia
Source: Bhagabati el al. (2014)

Citrus: In North-Eastern India there are 17 cultivated species and 64 wild species and
cultivars of citrus. Diversity of soil and climate of Assam offers optimum condition for
growth of different citrus that flourish and multiply in one part of the state or the other making
the state as the natural repository. Several species like Citrus indica (Banaria nemutenga),
Citrus ichangesis, Citrus macroptora (Melanesian papeda), Citrus latipes (Khasia nemu), etc.
and strains of Citrus megaloxycerpa, Citrus jambhiri (Borgolnemu), Citrus auranium
(Chakalatenga), etc. are found to grow in wild or semi-wild conditions. Several natural
hybrids of citrus have also been observed in the state. Among the commercially important
species Citrus reticulata (Kamalatenga), Citrus sinensis and Citrus limon (Kagjinemu) are
distributed throughout the state and are mostly grown in Baree.

Orchid: As many as 293 species of orchids are reported in Assam which represents 44.39%
of North-Eastern India and 24.42% of species occurring in India (Biodiversity of Assam,
2013). These are grown best in the evergreen and semi-evergreen environment and to some
extent in moist deciduous areas. Twenty seven numbers of species are endemic to the state;
some of these are Phalaenopsis mastersii, Eria pumila, Eulophia candida, Paphiopedilum
spicerianum, Dendrobium miserrum, Tainia barbata, Bulbophyllum oberienianum, Pholidota
calceata, etc. (Hazarika, 2012). Some of the rare, endangered or threatened species are
Bulbophyllum mishmeense, Bulbophyllum virens, Calanthe herbacea, Calanthe odora,

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Chysoslossum assamicum, Coelogyne rossina, Dendrobium auranticum, Eulophia manii,

Goodyera prainii, Habenaria trifurcata, Liparis delicatula, Liparis prainii, Liparis vestita,
Paphiopedilum spicerianum, Vanilla pillifera, etc. (Bhagabati et. al, 2014).

Floristic diversity and size of Baree

Size of Baree is by and large a function of population density of an area and total land
holding of the farm family. In a survey of Jorhat and Golaghat districts of upper Assam it was
noticed that the average number of species per homegarden didn’t differ significantly among
the categories on the basis of size i.e. large, medium and small; however, tree density and
frequency of species occurrence increase with decreasing size of the homegardens. In lower
Assam also there is no difference in species diversity was observed in different size of the
homegardens. In another study in Barak valley distinct variations in size, diversity and
composition were observed within the small holder farmers (<1 ha). With increase in holding
size, more variation in species composition was encountered.

In many of the small-sized Baree, farmers are highly selective with regards to the plant
species. They emphasize more on vegetable species sacrificing the frequency of evergreen or
semi-evergreen tree species. Besides, they increase the density of the tree species by
decreasing tree spacing as much as possible.

Structure

Baree exhibits complex structure both vertically and horizontally. Features observed in
the Integrated Baree with regard to vertical structure as observed by several workers (Das &
Das, 2005, Goswami et al., 2011, Saikia et al. 2012) are as follows:

Vertical structure is composed of five distinct vertical strata in upper Assam where as
in Barak valley and lower Assam 4-5 vertical layers have been observed. However, all the
Baree possesses at least three vertical layers among different strata of Emergent, Canopy,
Understorey, Shrub and Ground.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

In Jorhat and Golaghat districts in upper Assam timber trees like Anthocephalus
chinensis (Kadam), Bambusa sp. (Banh), Cinnamomum glanduliferum (Bor gandhxoroi),
Talauma rabaniana, etc. are dominant in Emergent layer (>15m). On the other hand, in Barak
valley i.e. the southern region the dominant tree species are Artocarpus lakoocha (Bahat),
Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Tamarindus indicus (Tenteli), Tetrameles nudiflora (Bheleu) and
Toona ciliata (Pama). In both the areas multipurpose tree species dominates the stratum. In
Kamrup district of lower Assam, the emergent layer is composed of multipurpose tree species
found in the Canopy layer.

Canopy stratum (10-15 m) in upper Assam is dominated by Terminalia myriocarpa

(Hollock, Holok), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kathal), Chukrasia tabularis (Bogipama),
Mangifera indica (Aam), etc. as against Areca catechu (Tamol), Artocarpus chama (Cham),
Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kathal), Cassia siamea (Moroi), Dillenia indica (Outenga),
Gmelina arborea (Gamari), Lagerstroemia speciosa (Ajar), Mangifera indica (Aam),
Sterculia foetida (Banbadam or Pahari badam), Sterculia villosa (Odal), Syzygium cumini
(Kolajamu), Terminalia chebula (Xilikha), Zanthoxylum limonella (Bajrang, Bajranali) and
Bamboo species (Bambusa cacharensis or Betuabanh, Bambusa valgaris or Tiloibanh etc.) in
Barak valley. Timber as well as fruit plants dominate the Canopy stratum in both the areas.
The Understorey layer (5-10 m) of upper Assam is dominated by Aquilaria
malaccensis (Xanchi) along with numerous ornamental and fruit plant species whereas in
Barak valley it is dominated by Citrus sp. (Nemutenga), Cocos nucifera (Narikal), Ficus sp.
(Dimoru), Litchi chinensis (Lichu), Melia azedarach (Ghoraneem), Oroxylum indicum
(Bhatghila) etc.
The Shrub layer (1-5 m) consists of lot of shrub species and saplings of higher stratum;
however, ornamental species like Bougainvillia spectabilis (Baganbilax), Ixora spp. (Rangal)
and other species like Adhatoda vasica (Bagabahak, Bahektita), Camellia chinensis (Chah),
etc. are more common in upper Assam. On the other hand, Nyctanthes arbor- tristis (Xewali)
and, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Rangajaba) are some of the important species among many
others in Barak valley and lower Assam.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

The Ground stratum (<1 m) consists of many shrub species including vegetables,
forage, ornamental and medicinal species like Adhatoda vasica (Bagabahak), Axonopus sp.
(Banhpotia), Calotropis procera (Akan), Centella asiatica (Manimuni), Coriandrum sativum
(Dhania), Raphanus sativus (Mula), etc. Besides shade tolerant climbers like Piper betle
(Paan), Piper nigrum (Jaluk), etc. are grown using mostly Areca catechu (Tamol) as standard
in the homegarden throughout the state. In lower Assam, important species observed in
Ground layer are vegetables, ornamentals and medicinal plants like Centella asiatica
(Manimuni), Canna indica var. indica (Parijat), Acorus calamus (Bosh), etc.
In most of the Integrated Baree throughout the state Vertical strata like Canopy, Shrub
and Ground are commonly observed. From the Ground stratum to the upper canopy of
multipurpose trees the gradient of light and relative humidity create different niches enabling
various species groups to exploit them. The structured layer of Baree contributes enormously
to soil nutrient enrichment through leaf litter and prevents soil erosion functioning as a cover
crop.
Horizontally, in most of the Baree there is no distinct division of the structure or
Management zone, and it appears to be a haphazard mixture of trees, shrubs and herbs.
However, as locations of many of the plant species are deliberate, therefore with careful
observations based on function, location and composition individual Baree can be
distinguished into several horizontal zones such as Bamboo zone, Dense or Extended or
Forest zone, Betel zone, Banana zone, Fruit zone, Vegetable zone, Religious zone, Flower
zone, Herbal zone etc. However, number of zones of Baree varies widely. The Betel, Banana
and Vegetable zones are usually located near the house for ease of management and harvest.
Other zones identified in many of the Baree include the Yard and Fence. In some of the
Baree, another important zone observed is the Religious zone which includes Aegle marmelos
(Bael), Ficus benghalensis (Bat), Ficus religiosa (Aahat), Ocimum sp. (Tuloxi), Vinca rosea
(Nayantora), etc. No separate zone for fruits is mostly observed and is grown scattered.
Majority of trees for multipurpose uses such as timber, fuel etc. is usually grown in Forest
zone. Dense zone/Forest zone is usually situated nearby Bamboo zone; sometimes both these
zones can’t be demarcated clearly and remain admixtured. Different Timber and Firewood
trees exist admixtured such as Albizia lucida (Moj), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Gmelina arborea
25
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

(Gamari), Magnolia sphenocarpa (Baramthuri chapa), Michelia champaca (Titachapa),

Tectona grandis (Chegun), etc. Of course, increasing the number of plants for block
plantation of single species as Michelia champaca (Titachapa), Tectona grandis (Segun),
Shorea robusta (Xal), Gmelina arborea (Gomari), etc. in Forest zone is also becoming
popular in many locations.
Bamboo (Banh), the ubiquitous component of Baree, is often managed in a separate
zone at the most distance place from the dwelling house; it exists at the boarder/bunds and
adjoining areas.
A small area surrounding the dwelling house maintains maximum crop diversity with
fragrant plants, medicinal plants, spices, vegetables, etc. Musa sp. (Kal) and Citrus sp.
(Nemutenga) are commonly present in the second zone while the next zone is mostly
dominated by Areca catechu (Tamol), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kathal) and other tree
species.

Agroforestry system

Although numerous plant species of Baree appear to be grown in haphazard manner, yet
with careful observation several Agroforestry systems has been identified by Hazarika, 2012.
These are discussed briefly as follows:

1. Areca catechu - Cocos nucifera based agroforestry system: Areca catechu (Tamol)
along with Cocos nucifera (Narikol) is the dominant species in this agroforestry system.
Among other species fruits, timber and bamboo are important and are grown in the same area.
Sometimes, Zingiber officinalis (Ada) and Curcuma longa (Halodhi) are grown as intercrops.
Areca catechu – Cocos nucifera agroforestry system is mostly prevalent in Nagaon,
Morigaon, Darrang, Kamrup (Rural) and Nalbari districts; besides this system exist
sporadically in all other districts of the state.

2. Bamboo – Areca catechu- Piper betle based agroforestry system: Piper betle (Paan)
is grown as companion crop taking Areca catechu (Tamol) palm as standard in this
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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

agroforestry system. Now a days, popularity of Piper nigrum (Jaluk) is also increasing at a
rapid pace. Different bamboo species is grown depending upon the suitability of the land and
preference of the farm families. Besides, several species of timber, firewood, fruit etc. are
raised in the same plot of land. Zingiber officinalis (Ada) and Curcuma longa (Halodhi) are
sometimes grown as intercrops. This kind of agroforestry system is commonly observed in
almost all the villages of the state.

3. MPT (Multipurpose tree) – Vegetable based agroforestry system: Among

multipurpose tree species Tectona grandis(Segun), Gmelina arborea (Gomari), Michelia
champaca (Titachapa), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Shorea robusta (Xal), Dipterocarpus retusus
(Holong), Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam), Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), etc. are some of the
most preferred tree species; however, species of MPT varies with suitability of climate and
soil, and preference of the farmers. Different species of bamboo as per choice of the farm
families are also noted in this agroforestry system. Several species of kharif and rabi
vegetables are important components in this system. Another most important component of
this agroforestry system is Animal husbandry. MPT – vegetable based agroforestry system is
popular throughout the plains districts of the state.

4. Aquilaria malaccensis based agroforestry system: Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi)

based agroforestry system is observed mostly in extensive areas of Jorhat and Golaghat
districts of upper Assam. Several other plant species such as Areca catechu (Tamol), Piper
betle (Paan), Schima wallichi (Makrixal), different species of bamboo, Calamus sp. (Bet),
Musa sp. Kal), etc. are commonly observed along with the major species of Aquilaria
malaccensis (Xanchi) which are grown in the same area. In many areas of the state it is grown
as mixed or block plantation. However, in some cases it is also grown as boundary plantation.

5. Camellia sinensis based agroforestry system: This agroforestry system has recently
become one of the most popular agrogorestry systems in Baree covering extensive areas in
traditionally Camellia sinensis (Chah) grown areas of the state, i.e. the districts of Tinsukia,
Dibrugarh, Sivasagar, Charaideo, Jorhat, Golaghat, Nagaon, Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Udalguri,
Kokrajhar etc. More than 70 thousand common farmers are involved in this agroforestry

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

system producing about 32% of total tea production in the state. Tree species grown along
with Camellia sinensis (Chah) are Cassia nodosa (Bandarlathi), Cassia siamea (Moroi),
Areca catechu (Tamol), Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi), Albizia sp. etc. besides other timber
and firewood species. As companion crop sometimes Piper betle (Paan) and Piper longrum
(Jaluk) are grown in this agroforestry system. Animal husbandry is commonly observed in
Camellia sinensis (Chah) based agroforestry system.

6. Livistona jenkinsiana based agroforestry system: Livistona jenkinsiana (Tokou) is

the most important tree species in this agroforestry system; however species like Areca
catechu (Tamol), Sapindus pinnata (Manichal), Shorea assamica (Mekai), Sterospermum
chelonoides (Paroli), Bambusa sp. (Banh), Calamus sp. (Bet), Musa sp. (Kal), etc. are also
grown along with Livistona jenkinsiana. Such kind of agroforestry system is mostly observed
in several areas of Tinsukia and Dibrugarh districts of upper Assam besides few pockets in
Sivasagar, Charaideo, Jorhat and Golaghat districts.

7. Citrus sp. based agroforestry system: Among Citrus sp., Citrus reticulata
(Kamalatenga) and Citrus limon cv. Assam lemon (Nemutenga) are the most popular species
and widely cultivated in Integrated Baree or Homegarden and Meroni throughout the state.
However, Citrus reticulata (Kamalatenga) grown areas are mostly confined to Meroni in high
lands, hillocks and piedmont areas of the state. On the other hand, the species Citrus limon cv.
Assam lemon (Nemutenga) exist almost in each integrated Baree. Other plant species
observed in this agroforestry system are Sterospermum chelonoides (Paroli), Sterculia villosa
(Odal), Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam), Bambusa sp. (Banh), etc. in upper Assam and hill
areas; however, Areca catechu (Tamol), numerous timber and firewood species are grown
along with Citrus sp. in other parts of the state.

8. Bombax ceiba – Bambusa sp. – Bridellia retusa based agroforestry system: This
agroforestry is commonly observed in Baree situated in riparian areas throughout the state.
Prominent tree species in such agroforestry system are Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Bamboo,
Bridellia retusa (Kahir), Premna benghalensis (Gahara), Lagerstroemia sp., Areca catechu
(Tamol), Piper betle (Paan), etc.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

9. Sericulture tree based agroforestry system: This agroforestry system is observed in

few pockets of Sivasagar, Jorhat, Majuli, Golaghat, Dhemaji, Lakhimpur, Kamrup (Rural),
Goalpara, Barpeta, Udalguri, Baska, Chirang, Kokrajhar and Karbi Anglong districts. Major
tree species observed in this system are – Machilus bombycina (Som), Phoebe goalpariensis
(Bansom), Ailanthus grandis (Borpat), Heteropanax fragrans (Keseru), Ricinus communis
(Era), Litsea monopetela (Xualu), Morus alba (Nuni), Morus indica (Nuni), Litsea serrata
(Mejangkari), Manihot esculenta (Ximalualu), etc. Leaves of these species are used for edible
purpose for Muga, Endi/Eri and Paat silkworms, either as major or minor food items. Besides,
different species of bamboo, timber, firewood, vegetables, etc. are noticed in this system.

10. Taungya based agroforestry system: Taungya based agroforestry syetem was
introduced in 1934 AD in hill districts of Assam to reduce the area under shifting cultivation.
In the piedmont areas of Goalpara, Hojai, Nagaon and Karbi Anglong this is one of the most
popular agroforestry systems. Upland rice along with Shorea assamica (Mekai) are the major
species in Taunga based agroforestry system in Assam. However, in many areas of Karbi
Anglong Tectona grandis (Segun) is grown along with upland rice for initial 2 – 3 years.
Other components sometimes observed in many farm families are animal husbandry and
fishery.

In all the agroforestry systems mentioned above, numerous major and minor fruit
species are also grown. Besides, some other systems are prevalent on pond dykes in Baree.

Agroforestry systems prevalent on pond dykes

(i) Cocos nucifera based agroforestry system: This is one of the most popular
agroforestry system adopted in pond dykes throughout the state. Cocos nucifera (Narikal) is
the dominant floral species in this system. Other plant species found in this system are
numerous; mostly fruits, perennial flowers and fodders.

(ii) Areca catechu based agroforestry system: Areca catechu (Tamol) is the most
important species in this agroforestry system. Other floral species observed are Cocos

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

nucifera (Narikal), Citrus sp., perennial flowers and sometimes fodders. This system is
prevalent mostly in plain areas.

(iii) Fruit species based agroforestry system: Few numbers of several fruit species such
as Mangifera indica (Aam), Psidium guajava (Modhuriaam), Carica papaya (Amita), Citrus
sp., Ananas comosus (Anaras, Matikothal), etc. are grown together in this system. Sometimes
different fodder crops are grown as intercrops.

(iv) Timber and other tree species based agroforestry system: Different species such as
Tectona grandis (Segun)), Gmelina arborea (Gomari), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Michelia
champaca (Titachapa), Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi), etc. are grown in pond dykes for
timber and other tree based agroforestry system. These species are grown mostly as mixed
however, monoculture is preferred sometimes. In mixed areas other species such as Cocos
nucifera (Narikal), Citrus sp., perennial flowers and sometimes fodders are also observed.
This system is becoming popular throughout the state.

Management practices

Assam is inhabited by numerous communities including 21 major and 35 minor tribal

communities each having distinct tradition, rituals, beliefs and set of indigenous knowledge
regarding different aspects of life. Majority of such knowledge based on experience are
continuing in oral traditions especially among the tribal communities; however, some of the
traditional knowledge are available in written form known locally as “Daakar Bachan”. A lot
of indigenous traditional knowledge, often admixtured with rituals, taboos and beliefs, are
followed by the common farmers during cultivation and management of Baree. Many of such
knowledge are related to orientation of components, selection of species, sowing, planting
time & methods, soil & nutrient management, water management, plant protection measures,
harvesting, preservation, storage of seed, produces, etc. of plant species besides management
of human & animal health and nutrition, fishery and sericulture for quality products, weaving,
handicrafts, etc. Few instances of such practices are as follows:

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(i) Orientation of different components in Integrated Baree, which has already been
discussed, is based on such traditional knowledge only.

(ii) Bamboo (Banh) is one of the most prominent plant species which is needed from
birth till death of a rural person of the region and hence this important species exists in almost
all the Baree. Around bamboo clumps addition of leaf litters, FYM and earthing up by soil
mostly from nearby rice fields are done each year during winter. However, emphasis for
addition of such inputs vary from species to species; usually inputs like leaf litters, top soil
and FYM are provided mainly to the species Bambusa tulda (Jatibanh), Bambusa
nutans(Mokalbanh) and Bambusa balcooa (Bhalukabanh), respectively. Another important
practice of light hoeing around the clumps is done just one day ahead of the Magh Bihu, the
harvesting festival. As believed traditionally, both these practices enhance the number and
quality of bamboo shoots. Besides, harvesting of culms from a newly developed clump begins
only after 3-5 years of age, keeping the newly developed culms undisturbed. In Barak valley,
traditionally clear felling system of bamboo clump is practiced mainly during monsoon in
contrast to selective felling system performed during winter.

(iii) Musa sp. (Kal) is another important species invariably present in all the Baree.
Traditionally, emphasis is given on drainage facilities in the area cultivated with Malbhog
cultivar, whereas addition of cowdung and wood ash to Musa balbiciana (Bhimkal, Athiakal)
and cultivar Kachkal, respectively is emphasized. The depth of the pit for Musa sp. sucker
should be “Ehat emuthan” i.e. about 45 cm.

(iv) Areca catechu (Tamol), one of the prominent species in Baree, is probably the most
important species related to the cultural occasions of Assamese people. Spacing of Areca
catechu (Tamol) should be such that leaves of one mature palm should not overlap (or touch)
with the adjacent palm.

(v) During drought pieces of fresh pseudo-stem of Musa sp. (Kal) are applied as mulching
material around the bases of Piper betle (Paan), Piper nigrum (Jaluk), etc.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

(vi) Sap or leaf extracts, stem, bark, roots or seeds of many plant species are utilized
sometimes along with dung of livestocks, as the management measures against pests and
disease of many economic plant species. Few such plant species utilized as pesticides are:
Polygonum hydropiper (Pothorua bihlongoni) against aphid, Azadirachta indica (Mohaneem)
as pesticide, Croton roxburghii (Gochmahudi) and Croton tiglium (Konibih) as pesticides,
Derris elliptica (Etamchali or Makoichapa) & Milletia pachycarpa (Bakalbih) as insect
repellant, etc. Besides, several fern species, bamboo species, Moringa oleifera (Sajina), etc.
are utilized in some localities as pesticides for crops grown in Baree. One of the most
commonly utilized measure as insect repellant is the addition of ash to the leaves of Solanum
melongana (Bengena), Capsicum sp. (Jalakia) etc. Similarly, water used after washing of fish
is widely applied to the cucurbits as insect repellent. For control of several small insects, free
movement of the predator Oecophylla smaragdina (weaver ant, Amroli porua in Assamese) is
facilitated in Citrus limon var. Assam lemon (Nemutenga) plantation by tying two adjacent
plants with bamboo sticks or ropes.

(vii) Fishing during egg laying and fishling stages is a taboo for Tiwa community.

Traditionally, some of the plant species especially the cash crops are planted in regular
manner with distinct spacing; however most of the species are planted haphazardly as per
choice of the land lady especially in the eastern part of the state. Only cowdung or FYM is
used as nutrient management practice for most of the plant species except in Vegetable Zone.
Decomposition of naturally grown herbs after completion of their life cycles serves as one of
the major source of nutrients. Such herbs also serve as cover crops by protecting erosion of
soil especially during monsoon. Modern agricultural technologies including planting method,
application of chemical fertilizer, chemical plant protection measures, irrigation, tending
operation including canopy management of trees, etc. are rarely followed in tree species of
Baree except some of the cash crops like vegetables meant for market.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Taboos, rituals and beliefs

As mentioned above, traditional knowledge on management of different components

of Baree in intimately admixtured with numerous taboos, rituals, beliefs, etc. Few of these are
as follows:

(i) One of the most widespread taboos is that harvesting of any crop should not be done
during Xaath or Ambubashi, i.e. for four days during Ahar month (Jun-Jul). Similarly,
harvesting of bamboo culm on Tuesday, Saturday and waxing-moon period is a taboo among
many communities of the state.

(ii) During the month of Bohag (Apr-May), on the 7th day 7 leafy vegetables, on the 14th
day 14 vegetables/herbs and any one day of the month 101 vegetables including medicinal
herbs should be consumed by each person. This ritual is probably followed as a prophylactic
measure against common diseases and for encouragement of consuming the lesser known
vegetables grown naturally as weeds in Baree.

Among some communities every well to do land owning family has its own cremation
ground (Morixali) mostly within Meroni or Integrated Baree. The cremation ground is
situated far away from the dwelling place and clearly demarcated by bamboo fencing with
grove of tree. The area is cleaned during Magh Bihu (the harvesting festival), Bohag Bihu (the
spring festival) as well as annual death anniversaries of the forefather and the family members
pay obeisance by lighting earthen lamps in the evening.

(iii) Some beliefs are widespread among farmers inspite of having no scientific
background. For example, stems of Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi) should be lightly cut /
hurt by sharp weapon (like dao) for production of essential oil. Besides, during Magh Bihu a
knot made of rice straw known as Maghi is tied around the stems of fruit plants so that
productivity is not decreased in the next year.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Use of plant species

Plant species maintained in Baree are utilized mainly for house hold consumption and
serve numerous purposes by providing timber, fuel wood, fruit, vegetables, spices, fibre,
medicine, aesthetic value, religious objects, etc. Besides, some plant species are raised
specifically for income generation of the farm families. Many of the plant species of Baree
have multipurpose utilities.

Maximum number of plant species in Baree is used for providing either timber or fruit
and vegetables, although variation exists among Baree of a locality and among localities.
Some of the plant species which fulfill the needs of the farm families are as follows:

1. Timber

Some of the prominent timber tree species found in Baree along with their category
for quality is mentioned in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Category wise timber species

Scientific name Assamese name Scientific name Assamese name

Category: A-I
Tectona grandis Segun
Category: A-II
Acacia catechu Khoir Dalbergia sissoo Sisu
Gmelina arborea Gamari Mesua ferrea Nahar
Kleinhovia hospita syn. Bola Michelia champaca Titachapa
Grewia meyeniana syn. syn. Magnolia
Morus laevigata syn. champaca
Morus macroura
Phoebe goalparensis syn. Bonchom Shorea robusta Xal
Phoebe hainesiana
Category: A-III

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Adina cordifolia syn. Kelikadam Adina polycephala Halduchapa

Haldina cordifolia syn. Metadina
trichotoma
Canarium bengalense Gokul dhup, Canarium resiniferum Dhuna goch
Motadhuna
Dipterocarpus Hollong, Holong Dipterocarpus Garjan
macrocarpus turbinatus
Mansonia dipikae Kathbadam, Shorea assamica Mekai
Bonbadam,
Terminalia myriocarpa Holok, Hollock Terminalia tomentosa Amari, Lorel,
Xilikha, Sain
Category: B-I
Ailanthus grandis syn. Borpat, Koronga Albizia lebbek Siris
Ailanthus integrifolia
Albizia odoratissima Hiharu Albizia procera syn. Koroi
Mimosa procera
Altingia excels Jutuli Amoora wallichii syn. Amori, Amara,
Aglaia spectabilis Lali
Artocarpus heterophyllus Kothal Artocarpus chama Cham,
syn. A. integrifolia syn. A chaplasha Chamkothal
Artocarpus fraxinifolius Mandhani Betula alnoides Bhojpatra, Birch
Bischofia javanica Uriam Bridelia retusa Kuhir, Kahir
Calophyllum polyanthum Pong Cassia fistula Xonaru
syn. C.elatum
Cinnamomum Gandhxoroi Chukrasia tabularis Bogipoma
cecidodaphne syn. C. syn. Aglaia tabularis
glaucescens syn. C. velutina
Cynometra polyandra syn. Ping Duabanga Khokan, Khakan
Maniltoa polyandra grandiflora syn. D.

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

sonneratioides
Dysoxylum binectariferum Bandardima Eugenia jambolana Jamu, Jaam,
syn. D. ficiforme syn. Syzygium cumini Jamuk, Kolajamu
Eugenia wallichii Bogijamu Lagerstroemia Dhauli ajar, Sidha
parviflora syn.
Murtughas parviflora
Lagerstroemia speciosa Ajar Mangifera indica Aam
syn. Munchausia speciosa
Mangifera sylvatica Bon aam Nyssa sessiliflora syn. Gahori chapa,
Nyssa arborea Paanikadam
Phoebe attenuata syn. Mekahi Phoebe cooperiana Mekahi
Laurus attenuate
Pterospermum acerifolium Kakak champa, Schima wallichii syn. Makori xal,
Hatipolia Schima bancana Noga bhe
Sterculia alata syn. Pahari odal, Pahari Talauma phellocarpa Khorika chapa
Pterygota alata tula
Terminalia belerica Bhomora Terminalia chebula Xilikha
Toona ciliata syn. Cedrela Poma Vitex peduncularis Ahoi
toona syn. Vitex alata
Zanthoxylum budrunga Bajranoli
syn. Fagara budrunga
Category: B-II
Albizia lucida syn. A. Moj Alseodaphne owdenii Jatisundi,
lucidior Morichasundi
Alstonia scholaris syn. Chationa Anthocephalus Kadam
Echites scholaris chinensis syn. A.
cadamba
Artocarpus lakoocha syn. Banhat, Dewatenga Bombax ceiba Ximolu
A.lakucha

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Bombax insigne Dhumboil, Castanopsis indica Xingori

Shaimali syn. C. indica syn.
Quercus indica
Dillenia indica Ou tenga Dysoxylum hamiltonii Gendheli pama
syn. D. mollissimum
Endospermum chinense Phulgomari, Garuga pinnata Rohimala,
Halodhichaki Kohimola,
Thotmola
Mesua assamica Sianahar Mesua floribunda Karol
Palaquium polyanthum Kurta Pinus kesiya Khasipine
Podocarpus neriifolius Kathbhaluka Stereospermum Paroli
personatum syn.
Bignonia caudata
Tetrameles nudiflora Bheleu Trewia nudiflora Bhelkor, Pindari
Category: C
Aglaia edulis Momaileteku Albizia stipulata syn. Sou
A. chinensis var.
smithiana
Cinnamomum Patihonda Cinnamomum Mahida
obtusifolium syn. C. camphora syn.
bejolghota Gaulthera
fragrantissima
Dillenia pentagyna Baji ou, Okshi Kydia calycina Pichala
Lannea grandis Jia Lophopetalum Rumu, Sutrong
fimbriatum
Machilus globosa Kowla, Kaunla Premna bengalensis Gahara
Premna milleflora Xilgomari Pterospermum Banbogori
lancifolium
Sapium baccatum syn. Cheleng Spondias mangifera Amora

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Balakata baccata syn. S.pinnata

Sterculia villosa Odal
Category: D
Aporosa roxburghii syn. Garokhuta, Beilschmiedia Amchoi,
A.octandra Garokhat assamica Bonjolakia
Bursera serrate Mirtenga, Cassia fistula Xonaru
Miritenga
Carallia integerrima syn. Mahithekera, Daini Celtis australis Mouhita
C.brachiata jamu
Cryptocarya amygdalina Bonxowalu, Crypteronia Gorumora
Khorikachopa, paniculata
Bonjalakia
Cyclostemon assamicus Lali Echinocarpus Jobaxingori,
syn. Drypetes assamica assamicus syn. Phulxingori
Sloanea sterculiacea
var. assamica
Eugenia operculata syn. Godhajamu,Jamu- Ficus nervosa Kharipati dimoru,
Syzygium nervosum mokara Kharipan
Gironniera reticulata syn. Dudh champa, Heritiera acuminate Baroi, Arkhar
Aphananthe cuspidate Haldu chegun
Hibiscus macrophyllus Pohu udal, Litsea panamonja Barichopa,
Chemia, Chema Bhuichapa
Melia azedarach Ghoraneem Parkia roxburghii Monipuri urohi,
Khorial
Ulmus lanceifolia Manuk,
Diongtyrsam
Category: E Any other timber species
Source: Environment & Forest Dept. (2009)

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2. Fuel wood

Branches and twigs of all the timber species mentioned above are utilized as fuel
wood. Besides, the following species as mentioned in Table 1.2, grown naturally or raised in
Baree for different purposes, have specific importance for providing quality fuel wood having
characteristics of easy combustion and high caloric value with minimum smoke while
burning.

Table 1.2: Species used as fuel wood found

Scientific name Assamese name Scientific name Assamese name

Acacia ferruginea syn. Babulchim Acacia lenticularis Lentikula
Mimosa ferruginea
Actinodaphne Chatixoli or Actinodaphne obovata Petarichowa
angustifolia syn. Petarichowa syn. Tetranthera
Tetranthera angustifolia Obovata
Albizia lucida syn. Moj Bridelia tomentosa Paatkuhi, Paatkuti
Albizia lucidior
Beilschmiedia brandisii Leluk Dalbergia lanceolaria Daldali, Medelua
var. paniculata
Dalbergia lanceolaria Bandarsirish, Dysoxylum Bandardima
Medelua binectariferum syn. D.
gotadhora
Delonix regia Krishnachura Flacourtia cataphracta Ponial
syn. F. jangomas
Ficus infectoria Pakori, Tengabar Litsea salicifolia Dighaloti
Lindera assamica Matabhe Macaranga grandifolia Morolia
Macaranga denticulata Jageru, Jagolou Mallotus philippinensis Jorat lochan, Gangai
Mallotus albus syn. M. Morolia goch Melastoma Phutuki, Phutuka,
paniculatus var. malabathricum Phutukala
paniculatus
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Madhuca indica Mohua Pithecellobium Bristi goch,

angulatum Bhochohu, Phoring
goch
Pithecellobium Bristi goch Oroxylum indicum Bhatghila,
montanum syn. Kanaidinga, Kering,
Archidendron clypearia Dingdinga
Piptadenia falcata syn. Pitdani Premna esculunta Gahara
Anadenanthera
peregrina var. falcate
Samania saman Brishtigoch, Schima wallichii Makrixal, Ghogra,
Doloigoch Nogabhe
Semecarpus Bhelaguti, Bhala, Symplocos ferruginea Nagabhomlati,
anacardium Bhela, syn. S.cochinchinensis Motabhomlati
Chiyahigoch, var. cochinchinensis
Bholagoch
Tamarix dioica syn. T. Jhau ban Vatica lanceifolia syn. Morxal
gallica V.lanceifolia
Ziziphus mauritiana Bogori

Calorific values along with specific gravity of few species of fuel wood have been
shown in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Calorific value of few important fuel wood trees

Scientific name Assamese name Specific gravity Calorific value

(g/cc) (kcal/kg)
Acacia auriculiformis Acacia, 0.60-0.75 4800-4900
Kashipotia
Acacia catechu Khoir 1.0 5142-5244

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Albizia lebbeck Siris 0.55-0.64 5163-5166

Albizia chinensis Sou 0.68 4865-4870
Anthocephalus cadamba Kadam 0.49-0.53 4800
Butea monosperma Palash 0.54 4909
Bischofia javanica Uriam 0.74 5162
Cassia siamea Moroi 0.60-0.80 -
Dalbergia sissoo Sisu 0.75-0.80 4908-5181
Embica officinalis syn. Amlokhi 0.70-0.80 5200
Phyllanthus emblica
Gmelina arborea Gomari 0.42-0.64 4763-4800
Leucaena leucocephala Xubabul 0.55-0.70 4200-4600
Morus alba Boganuni 0.63 4371-4773
Shorea robusta Xal 0.68-0.82 5095-5433
Syzygium cuminii Kolajamu 0.67-0.78 4834
Tamarindus indica Tenteli 0.91-1.28 4909-4969
Tectona grandis Chegun 0.55-0.70 4989-5535
Terminalia tomentosa Amari - 4923
Toona ciliate Poma 0.57 5168-5193
Zizyphus mauritiana Bilati bogori 0.93 4878
Source: Chundawat and Gautam (2010)

3. Fruit and nut species

Few of the major fruit/nut species like Areca catechu (Tamol), Ananas comosus
(Matikathal or Anaras), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal, Carica papaya (Amita), Citrus
limon cv. Assam lemon (Nemutenga), Cocos nucifera (Narikal), Litchi chinensis (Lichu),
Mangifera indica (Aam), Musa sp. (Kal), Psidium guajava (Modhuriam), etc. are found in
almost all Baree. However, Citrus reticulata (Kamalatenga), one of the most popular fruit

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

species, is grown mostly as monocrop, usually at Meroni and situated in specific

physiographic locations only.

A large section of the farmers value greatly certain fruit species including annual fruits
like Citrullus lanatus syn. Colocynthus citrullus syn. Cucurbita citrullus (Tarmuj), Cucumis
melo (Bangi) etc. Therefore, a large numbers of lesser known minor as well as semi wild fruit
species are still preserved in some of the Baree. Some of the minor & semi wild fruit/nut
species are mentioned in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4: Minor and semi wild fruit/nut species

Scientific name Assamese name Scientific name Assamese name

Achras sapota Sopeta Aegle marmelos Bael
Antidesma acidum syn. A. Nikhotenga, Antidesma Heloch
diandrum Abutenga, ghesaembilla
Heloch
Annona reticulate Atlas
Annona squamosal Ara kothal, Artocarpus chama Cham kothal
Sitaphal
Artocarpus lacucha Dewa tenga Averrhoa bilimbi Bilombi tenga,
Patal tenga
Averrhoa carambola Kardoi Averrhoa sp. Rahdoi
Baccaurea sapida syn. B. Leteku Carallia lucida Mahi thekera
ramiflora
Carissa carandas Karja tenga, Caryota urens Chewa, Chao
Karcha tenga
Chrysophyllum Banpitha Citrus assamensis Tithkora tenga,
ruxburghii syn. Asom nemu
C.lanceolatum
Citrus aurantium Chakalatenga Citrus aurantifolia Gol nemu
Citrus decumana Mitha Citrus grandis Robabtenga

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chokalatenga
Citrus indica Bonaria Citrus jambhiri Borgol nemu
nemutenga
Citrus karna Chahasar tenga Citrus maxima Bor tenga
Citrus medica Jora tenga Citrus paradise Mosombi
Dillenia indica Outenga Flacourtia cataphracta Goch paniol
syn. F. jangomas
Elaeocarpus floribundus Jolphai Elaeagnus latifolia syn. Mirika tenga
Parameria polyneura
Elaeagnus caudata Mirika tenga, Eugenia Formosa Khudjamu
Banjara
Eugenia jambolona syn. Bor jamu Eugenia praecox syn. Bogijamu
Syzygium jambolona Syzygium praecox syn.
Feronia elephantum syn. Sriphal Garcinia lanceaefolia Rupohithekera
Limonia acidissima
Garcinia mangostana Bilati tepor Garcinia pedunculata Borthekera
Garcinia Morella Kujithekera Mimusops elengi Bokul
Morus alba Boga nuni Morus indica Nuni
Myrica nagi syn. M. Naga tenga Passiflora edulis Kotbael
farquhariana syn. M.
esculenta
Phyllanthus acidus Halphali, Phyllanthus emblica Amlokhi
Poramlakhi syn. Emblica officinalis
Phoenix sylvestris syn. P. Khejur Prunus domestica Aahom bogori
dactylifera
Prunus jenkinsii Thereju Prunus persica Nora bogori
Psidium guineense Ronga Punica granatum Dalim
madhuriam
Pyrus communis Nachpoti Roydsia suaveolens Madhoimaloti

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syn. Stixis suaveolens

Spondias axillaris Mitha amora Spondias mangifera Amora
syn. Sp. Pinnata
Syzygium cerasoides syn. Godhajamu Syzygium cuminii Kolajamu
S. nervosum syn. S.
operculatum
Syzygium formosum Kotahi jamu, Syzygium fruticosum Kotiajamu
Bhukua chepa
Syzygium gardneri syn. Paani jamu, Jia Syzygium kurzii syn. Bogijamu
Eugenia cymosa Eugenia kurzii
Syzygium malaccense Paani jamu, Tamarindus indica Teteli
Eugenia malaccensis Maloy apel
Terminalia bellerica Bhomora Terminalia chebula Xilikha
Turpinia pomifera syn. Paani leteku, Ziziphus jujube Bogori
Dalrympelea pomifera Moka amori

Besides, there are several lesser known fruit species which are found mostly in forest
areas/fallow land and rarely in Baree as mentioned in Table 1.5. Many of such fruits are
delightful for rural teenagers or cowherds.

Table 1.5: Fruit/nut species mostly found in forest/fallow land and rarely in Baree

Scientific name Assamese name Scientific name Assamese name

Acronychia pedunculata Lowajan Aphania rubra syn. Tangtingali
syn. Jambolifera Lepisanthes
pedunculata senegalensis
Antidesma acuminatum Paani heloch, Antidesma bunius Heloch
syn. A. montanum Bor heloch
Ardisia humilis syn. Tolotha poka Bischofia javanica Uriam
Ardisia elliptica

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Bridelia tomentosa syn. Patkuti Bursera serrata syn. Miri tenga

B. monoica syn. Amanoa Protium serratum
tomentosa
Canthium didymum syn. Bhela Capparis zeylanica Gobindaphal
Psydrax dicoccos
dicoccos
Carallia brachiata syn. Daini jamu Castanopsis indica Xingori goch
Diatoma brachiata syn.
C. integerrima
Cephalandra indica Belipoka Clausena lansium Aamphis
Cordia dichotoma Gobarhuta Debregeasia longifolia Bonriha
syn. D. velutina
Diospyros lancifolia Kendu Ehretia acuminate Bual
Elaeagnus pyriformis Doukhaguti Elaeagnus caudate Banjara
Elaeagnus hortensis Deuri tenga
Elaeocarpus Poreng Erycibe paniculata Naginiboal
lanceaefolius
Euphoria longan Nogalichu Fincus carica Mondimoru
Ficus auriculata syn. Mondimoru Ficus cunia Jagya dimoru
Ficus roxburghii
Fissistigma verrucosum Hedbhekuli Flacourtia ramontchi, Mota poniol
Flacourtia sepiaria Mota poniol Fragraria indica Gorukhis
Garcinia paniculata Sosopa tenga
Garcinia xanthochymus Tepor Gardenia campanulata Bihmona
Glycosmis pentaphylla Hengenapaka Gnetum gnemon syn. Momai lota
Gnetum montanum
Gnetum scandens Mai lota Grewia sapida Phuhura
Hodgsonia heteroclite Thopouguti
Licuala peltata - Maesa chisia Rajmoni

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Mangifera sylvatica Bon-aam Medinilla rubicunda Bogitenga

Melastoma Phutukala, Meyna laxiflora Kotkora, Moyen
malabathricum Phutuka tenga
Meyna spinosa syn. Kotkora, Moyen Momordica Belipoka
Vangueria spinosa tenga cymbalarica
Phyllanthus fraternus Bhui amlokhi, Bon
syn. P. niruri amlokhi
Mucuna monosperma Mekurighila Olea Europa Jaiphal
Pandanus fascicularis Kenyakothal Phoenix paludosa Haital
Premna herbacea Motiajamu Prunus wallichi -
Pyrenaria Ban-modhuri Randia sp. Kotkora
barringtoniaefolia
Rhamnus nepalensis Biring guti Rubus albescens Jejerupoka
Rubus hexagynous Jetulipoka Salacia prinoides Modhu phol
Sambucus hookeri Xukoti Saurania panduana Paandoa
Sapium baccatum Adamchali Schleichera pubescence Tolotha goch
Spondias axillaris Hemoi tenga Sterculia coccinea Nakchepeta
Talauma hodgsonii Barhamthuri Trapa bispinosa Paani xingori
Zizyphus aenoplia Bon bogori Zizyphus nummularia Bon bogori
Willoughbeia edulis Pabhoi tenga,
Leleng tenga

Some of the fruit species, used mostly in non-conventional manner are mentioned in
Table 1.6.

Table 1.6: Fruit species used mostly in non-conventional manner

Scientific name Assamese name Scientific name Assamese name

Preparation of pickle/dried
Averrhoa bilimbi Bilambi tenga, Patal Averrhoa carambola Kardoi
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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

tenga
Capparis zeylanica Gobinda phal Eleocarpus Jalphai
floribundus
Emblica officinalis Amlokhi Carallia lucida Mahithekera
Garcinia cowa Kauthekera Garcinia morella Kujithekera
Garcinia lanceaefolia Rupohithekera Garcinia Borthekera
pedunculata
Garcinia xanthochymus Tepor tenga Myrica nagi Nagatenga
Parameria polyneura Mikir tenga Spondias mangifera Amora
Preparation of juice and soft drinks
Averrhoa carambola Kordoi Garcinia cowa Kauthekera
Garcinia Morella Kujithekera Garcinia Rupohithekera
lanceaefolia
Garcinia pedunculata Borthekera Garcinia Tepor tenga
xanthochymus
Morus alba Boganuni Morus indica Nuni
Syzygium cumini Kolajamu
Preparation of jam, jelly, etc
Antidesma acuminatum Borheloch Antidesma acidum Heloch, Abutenga,
syn. Antidesma Nikhontenga
diandrum
Antidesma bunius Heloch Antidesma Heloch, Khudjamu
ghaesembilla
Averrhoa carambola Kordoi Hibiscus sabdariffa Tenga mora,
Mesta tenga
Preparation of curry
Dillenia indica Outenga Emblica offficinalis Amlokhi
Garcinia cowa Kauthekera Garcinia morella Kujithekera
Garcinia lanceaefolia Rupohithekera Garcinia Borthekera
pedunculata
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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Garcinia xanthochymus Tepor tenga Spondias mangifera Amora

Zizyphus jujube Bogori
Preparation of pan cake
Borassus flabellifer Taal
Preparation of drinks like coffee
Coffea benghalensis Dewamali
Consumed after softening in boil water
Kijelia Africana Kijelia
Minor fruit species existing in Baree contributes significantly towards nutritional
security of the farm families as evident from the Table 1.7.

Table 1.7: Nutritional value of few important minor fruits of Assam

Species Nutrient content

Scientific name Assamese
name
Annona raticulata Atlas Carbohydrate: 22.0 %; Protein: 1.0%; Fat: 1.0%;
/ Annona Fibre: 1.0%; Fe: 0.05%; Ca: 0.25%; Vit.A: 102 IU;
squamosa Vit.B1: 0.1 IU; Vit.B2: 0.08 IU; Vit.B3: 0.8 IU; Vit.B1:
0.1 IU; Vit.C: 30 IU.
Averrhoa Kordoi Carbohydrate: 10.85 %; Protein: 0.7%; TSS: 8.0%;
carambola Vit.C: 13.80 mg/100 g.
Baccaurea Leteku Carbohydrate: 11.25 %; Protein: 5.45%; TSS: 14.0%;
ramiflora Vit.C: 178 mg/100 g.
Citrus grandis Robabtenga Moisture: 88%; Carbohydrate: 10.2 %; Protein: 0.6%;
Fibre: 0.6%; Minerals: 0.5%; Fe: 0.1%; Ca: 0.03%; P:
0.03%; Vit.A: 200 IU; Vit.B: 30 mg/100 g; Vit.C: 20
mg/100 g; Nocotinic acid: 0.2 mg/100 g.
Dillenia indica Ou-tenga Carbohydrate: 88.0%; Protein: 4.28%; TSS: 7.7%;
Pectin: 0.29%; Crude fibre: 2.77%; Fe: 2.75 mg/100 g;

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Ca: 211.09 mg/100 g; P: 29.27 mg/100 g.

Emblica Amlokhi Moisture: 81.2%; Carbohydrate: 14.1 %; Protein:
officinalis 0.5%; Fat: 0.1%; Crude fibre: 3.4%; Pectin: 0.7%;
TSS: 3.4%; Minerals: 0.7%; Fe: 1.2%; Ca: 0.05%; P:
0.02%; Vit.B: 30 mg/100 g; Vit.C: 600 mg/100 g.
Eugenia praecox Bogi-jamu Carbohydrate: 93.39%; Protein: 2.56%; TSS: 9.82%;
syn. E. wallichii Pectin: 0.99%; Crude fibre: 2.32%; Fe: 4.48 mg/100 g;
Ca: 19.81 mg/100 g; P: 60.3 mg/100 g.
Flaeourtia Paniol Carbohydrate: 89.73%; Protein: 6.04%; TSS: 13.38%;
jangomas Pectin: 1.56%; Crude fibre: 1.33%; Fe: 175.16 mg/100
g; Ca: 50.96 mg/100 g; P: 133.4 mg/100 g.
Garcinia Rupohithekera Carbohydrate: 57.9%; Protein: 3.06%; TSS: 4.99%;
lanceaefolia Pectin: 0.73%; Crude fibre: 6.06%.
Garcinia Morella Kujitehgkera Carbohydrate: 56.85%; Protein: 2.43%; TSS: 7.68%;
Pectin: 0.37%; Crude fibre: 10.34%.
Garcinia Borthekera Carbohydrate: 55.84%; Protein: 4.6%; TSS: 7.5%;
pedunculata Pectin: 0.25%; Crude fibre: 9.57%.
Garcinia Tepor tenga Carbohydrate: 50.75%; Protein: 4.27%; TSS: 9.63%;
xanthochymus Pectin: 1.23%; Crude fibre: 12.59%.
Myrica nagi Nogatenga Carbohydrate: 89.05%; Protein: 3.01%; TSS: 9.38%;
Pectin: 1.09%; Crude fibre: 2.75%; Fe: 15.7 mg/100 g;
Ca: 267.6 mg/100 g; P: 35.5 mg/100 g.
Parameria Mikir tenga, Carbohydrate: 92.41%; Protein: 1.92%; TSS: 9.3%;
polyneura Mirika tenga Pectin: 1.11%; Crude fibre: 1.81%; Fe: 20.65 mg/100
g; Ca: 467. 6 mg/100 g; P: 90.3 mg/100 g.
Phyllanthus Halphali, Carbohydrate: 6.61 %; TSS: 10.2%; Vit.C: 22.4
acidus Poramlakhi mg/100 g.
Prunus domestica Ahom bogori Moisture: 87%; Carbohydrate: 11.1 %; Protein: 0.7%;
Fat: 0.5%; Fibre: 0.4%; Minerals: 0.4%; Fe: 0.06

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mg/100 g; Ca: 10 mg/100 g; P: 12 mg/100 g.

Prunus jenkinsii Thereju Carbohydrate: 6.85 %; TSS: 15.8%.
Prunus persica Nora bogori Moisture: 28.2%; Carbohydrate: 10.5 %; Protein:
1.2%; Fat: 0.3%; Fibre: 1.2%; Minerals: 0.8%; Fe:
0.2%; Ca: 0.15%; Vit.C: 6 mg/100 g.
Spondias pinnata Amora Carbohydrate: 18.7%; Protein: 0.6%; Fibre: 6.7%;
TSS: 6.7%; Pectin: 0.6%; Fe: 1.1 mg/100 g; Ca: 0.03
mg/100 g; P: 0.02 mg/100 g.
Syzygium cumini Kolajamu Moisture: 28.2%; Carbohydrate: 19.7 %; Protein:
0.7%; Fat: 0.1%; Fibre: 0.9%; Minerals: 0.4%; Fe:
1.0%; Ca: 0.02%; P: 0.01%.
Terminalia Xilikha Carbohydrate: 16.9 %; Protein: 0.2%; Crude fibre:
chebula 5.2%; Pectin: 0.2%; TSS: 5.2%; Fe: 21.1 mg/100g;
Ca: 0.02 mg/100 g.
Zizyphus jujube Bogori Carbohydrate: 10.72 %; Protein: 0.8%; TSS: 16.0%;
Vit.C: 40.86 mg/100 g.
Source: Barooah and Barua (2010); Das and Barua (2018); Das (2018)

Few fruit species are becoming popular in some localities for example Anacardium
occidentale (Kaju), Citrullus lanatus (Tarmuj), Fragaria vesca (Strawberry), Passiflora edulis
(Kotbael), Zizyphus mauritiana (Bilati bogori, Thailand bogori, Apple bogori), etc.

4. Species for vegetables

Different vegetables like tubers, leafy vegetables, cole crops, Lycopersicon

esculentum, Solanum melongana, Pisum sativum, beans, root crops, cucurbits, Abelmoschus
esculentus, melons, spices and condiments and many other well known species are usually
grown in Vegetable Zone of Baree (Table 1.8).

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Table 1.8: Common vegetable species

Scientific name Assamese name Scientific name Assamese name

Tuber crops
Amorphophallus Olkochu Colocasia esculenta Kochu
paeonifolius
Dioscorea alata Kath alu Dioscorea bulbifera Goch alu, Kathalu
Dioscorea dumetorum Tita alu Dioscorea esculenta Moa alu
Dioscorea rotundata Kotahi alu Ipomea batatas Mitha alu
Manihot esculenta Ximalu alu Solanum tuberosum Alu
Leafy vegetables
Brassica chinensis Lai xak Brassica pekinensis Mer lai
Mentha viridis Podina Amaranthus viridis Khutura
Rumex vesicarius Chuka Beta vulgaris var. Paleng
bengalensis
Coriandum sativum Dhania Malva verticillata Lofa
Cole crops
Brassica oleracea var. Phul kobi Brassica oleracea var. Brokoli
botrytis italic
Brassica oleracea var. Bandha kobi Brassica caulorapa Ol kobi
capitata var. gongyloides
Beans
Dolichos lablab Urahi Phaseolus vulgaris Bean
Vigna unguiculata Lechera Vigna sesquipedalis Daang maanh
Root crops
Beta vulgaris Beet Raphanus sativus Mula
Daucus carota Gajar Brassica rapa Turnip
Cucurbit
Cucumis sativus Tiyah, Tihu Luffa acutangula Jika

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Luffa cylindrical Bhol Tricosanthes cucumerina Dhunduli

var. anguina
Momordica charantia Tita kerela Coccinia grandis Kunduli
Lagenaria siseraria Panilao, Jatilao Benincasa hispida Komora
Sechium edule Skuwach Cucurbita moschata Rongalao
Tricosanthes dioica Patal Momordica dioica Bhat kerela
Citrullus lanatus Tarmuj Cucumis melo Bangi
Spices and condiments
Allium cepa Piyaj Allium sativum Naharu
Capsicum annum var. Jalakia Capsicum annum var. Kepsikam
acuminatum grossum
Cucurma longa Halodhi Coriandrum sativum Dhania
Cuminum cyminum Jira Zingiber officinale Ada
Nigella sativa Kaljira Foeniculum vulgare
Trigonella foenum Methi Mentha arvensis Podina
graceum
Piper nigrum Jaluk Piper longum Pipoli
Miscellaneous vegetables
Abelmoschus esculentus Bhendi Solanum melongana Bengena
Pisum sativum Matar Lycopersicon esculentum Bilahi

However, many of the lesser known vegetable species, some of which grow naturally
in Baree also consumed as vegetables; their popularity is due to their medicinal value besides
unique taste. Few such minor vegetables are mentioned below:

Whole plant and tender plant part including leaf: Most of such leafy vegetable species are
herbs or shrubs in nature; however, in some cases tender leaves of tree species are also
utilized as vegetable. For example: Achyranthus aspera (Ulat kambal), Acronychia
pedunculata syn. Jambolifera pedunculata (Lowajan), Alocasia formicata syn. Arum

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formicatum (Kochu xak), Alocasia indica syn. A. odora (Dohikochu), Alocasia cucullata
(Mukhikochu), Aruma indicum syn. Alocasia macrorrhizos (Mankochu), Alternanthera
sessilis syn. A.denticulata syn. A. nodiflora (Matikanduri), Alternanthera philoxeroides syn.
Achyranthes phyloxeroides (Nolduba, Menmeni), Amaranthus tricolor (Morisha),
Alternanthera gangeticus (Morisa), Amaranthus polygonoides syn. Albersia polygonoides
(Katakhutura), Amaranthus spinosus syn. Galliaria spinosa (Hatikhutura, Katakhutura),
Amaranthus viridis syn. Glomeraria viridis (Khutura), Amorphophallus campanulatus syn. A.
paeoniifolius (Ol kochu), Amorphophallus bulbifer syn. A. aculatum (Olmotoka),
Andrographis paniculata syn. A. subspathulata (Kalmegh), Antidesma diandrum syn. A.
acidum (Nikhotenga), Artemisia nilagirica syn. A. vulgaris var. nilagirica (Nagadana),
Aschasma lorglossum (Korphul), Atriplex hortensis syn. A. acuminata syn. Atriplex
astrosanguinea (Pahari paleng), Atylosia scarabaeoides syn. Cajanus scarabaeoides,
Azadirachta indica, Bacopa monnieri syn. Anisocalyx limnanthiflorus (Brahmi), Benincasa
hispida (Komora), Colocasia antiquorum, syn. C.esculenta syn. Arum esculentum (Gheu
Kochu, Edolia kochu, Banoria kachu), Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum syn. Colocasia
esculenta (Nogakochu), Basella alba syn. B. cordifolia (Boga puroi), Talinum triangulare
(Peerali paleng, Axomia paleng), Basella rubra (Ranga puroi), Blumea glomerata syn. B.
fistulosa, Boerhaavia diffusa syn. Axia cochinchinensis (Baga ponounowa), Brassica
campestris (Bon xoriah), Brassica chinensis (China lai), Brassica juncea (Lai), Brassica
rugosa (Merlai), Brassica napus (Boga xoriah), Brassica nigra (Kola xoriah), Bryophyllum
pinnatum (Dupor tenga), Buddleja asiatica (Bon cheni), Calamus sp. (Bet), Callicarpa
arborea (Gunamala), Callicarpa macrophylla syn. C. rubella (Bonomala), Cannabis sativa
(Bhang), Caralluma fimbriata, Cardamine pratensis (Bon xoriah), Centella asiatica
(Barmanimuni), Chenopodium album (Jilmil or Bhotua), Chenopodium murale (Jilmil),
Chenopodium suaveolens (Gobang lota), Cissempelos pareira (Tubuki lota), Cissus
quadrangularis syn. Vitis quadrangularis (Harjora lota), Cleome viscosa (Boga bhutmula),
Clerodendrum colebrookianum (Nephaphu), Clitoria ternatea (Aparajita), Conocephalus
suaveolens (Gobang lota), Corchorus capsularis (Tita mora), Corchorus olitorious (Mitha
mora), Cyclosorus ectrensus (Bihlongoni), Cucurbita moschata (Ronga lau), Deeringia
amaranthodies (Rangoli lota), Dioscorea alata (Kath alu), Diplazium esculentum &
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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Diplazium asoerum (Dhekia), Drymaria cordata (Laijabori), Eclipta alba syn. E. prostrata
(Kehraj), Embelia nagushia syn. E. undulata (Bon puroi), Enhydra fluctuans (Helochi),
Eryngium foetidum (Mandhania), Fagopyrum cymosum (Bon paleng), Fagopyrum esculentum
(Chutialofa or dhemchi xak), Gloriosa superba (Agnixikha), Gardenia campanulata
(Bitmora), Gardenia turgida (Bihmona), Gnetum gnemon (Letera), Gynura lycopersicifolia
(Parbarti xak), Hedyotis diffusa (Bonjaluk), Hedyotis lineata syn. Blumea balsamifera
(Kachidoria), Hedyotis corymbosa (Bonjaluk), Herpestis monnieri (Brahmi), Hibiscus
cannabinus (Ronga tengamora or Mesta tenga), Hibiscus sabdarifa (Tengamora),
Homalomena aromatica (Gandhkochu), Homonoia riparia (Xil kadam), Houttuynia cordata
(Mochundari), Hydrocotyle asiatica syn. Centella asiatica (Bormanimuni), Hydrocotyle
rotundifolia syn. H. sibthorpioides (Xorumanimuni), Hydrolea zeylanica (Leheti,
Telbholuka), Ipomoea aquatica (Kalmou), Ipomoea reptans (Kolmou), Ipomoea quamoclit
(Kunjalota), Jussia repens (Paanikhutura), Justicia adhatoda (Bogabahak/Bahaktita),
Lathyrus sativus (Kolamah), Legennoria vulgaris (Tormuj), Lepidium sativum (Halim),
Leucas aspera (Doron), Leucas linifolia (Doron), Leucas cephalotes (Doron), Lindernia
crustacea (Kachidoria), Lippia alba syn. Lippia geminata (Bon jaluk), Lippia javanica
(Pirja), Lygodium flexuosum (Kopoudhekia), Maesa chisia (Rajmoni), Maesa indica
(Auwapat), Malva verticillata (Lafa), Medinilla rubicunda (Bogitenga), Meliosma pinnata
(Xegunia or Bon pachala), Melochia corchorifolia (Bon mora), Mentha viridis (Podina),
Merremia umbellata syn. Ipomoea cymosa (Kolia lota or Goria lota), Monochoria hastaefolia
(Paani meteka), Monochoria vaginalis (Bhat meteka), Murraya koenigii, Musa bulbiciana
(Bhimkol), Ocimum sp., Myriactis wallichii syn. Myriactis nepalensis (Babori), Oldenlandia
corymbosa syn. Oldenlandia diffusa (Bonjaluk), Oxalis acetosella (Bor tengechi or Bor
chengeri), Oxalis corniculata (Xoru tengechi or Xaru chengeri), Paederia foetida
(Bhedailata), Pegia nitida (Bogori lota), Perilla frustescens syn. Perilla ocimoides (Xukoti,
Nogamasala), Peperomia pelucida syn. Peperomia chinensis (Ponounua), Piper longum
(Pipoli), Pisum sativum (Motormah), Phaseolus lunatus (Kotaridobua mah), Physalis minima
syn. Physalis peruviana (Kopal phuta), Phytolacca acinosa (Jayong), Pogostemon
benghalensis (Xukloti), Polygonum auriculatum (Indrani), Polygonum microcephalum
(Modhu xoleng), Polygonum chinense (Modhuxoleng), Polygonum perfoliatum (Bagh
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achora), Polygonum plebejum (Bonjaluk), Polygonum strigosum (Mouxorali), Portulaca

quadrifida (Hanhthengia), Portulaca oleracea (Malbhog xak), Prepremna herbacea
(Matiphechua), Prunus jenkinsii (Thereju), Pteris critica (Dhekia), Pupalia lappaca
(Bonxoth), Rauwolfia serpentina (Xorpagondha), Rorippa indica (Gonga mula), Rorippa
dubia (Bonlai), Rumex acetosella syn. Rumex vesicarius (Chuka xak), Rumex dentatus
(Bonchuka), Rumex nepalensis (Larborua), Sauropus androgynous (Chekur moni,
Barixundari), Scorparia dulcis (Boncheni), Sewrtietia serrata (Chirota), Solanum nigram
(Pokmou or Laatkochu), Sphenoclea zeylanica (Panileheti), Spilanthes acmella (Xohoni),
Spilanthes peniculata (Parbatixak), Stellaria media (Morolia), Talinum triangulare (Peerali
paleng, Bon paleng, Axomia paleng), Tamarindus indica (Teteli), Tetrastrigma
thomsonianum (Naltenga), Thunbergia grandiflora (Kaurilota), Trigonella corniculata (Piring
xak), Trigonella foenum-graecum (Methi), Triticum vulgaris (Ghehu), Typhonium trilobatum
(Ximakochu, cham kichu), Urgi indica (Bon naharu), Viburnum colebrookianum (Mezenga),
Vitex negundo (Pochotia), Wedelia calendulacea (Mohabhringaraj), Xanthium strumarium
(Agara), Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum (Mejenga), etc.

Root, Stems and Tubers: Alocasia cucullata (Mukhikochu), Alocasia esculenta (Kolakochu,
Padmakochu), Chalgum Alocasia indica syn. A. macrorrhizos (Mankochu), Alocasia
macrorrhiza (Bar-mankochu), Amorphophallus campanulatus (Ol kochu), Angelica natans,
Asparagus racemosus (Xotamul), Aspidopterys indica, Benincasa cerifera (Komora),
Calamus sp., Colocasia antiquorum (Gheu Kochu/Edolia kochu), Colocasia esculenta
(Banoria kachu), Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum (Nogakochu), Curcuma amada
(Aamada), Curcuma augustifolia (Tora alu) Dioscorea alata (Kath alu), Dioscorea aculata
(Mowa alu), Dioscorea atropurpurea (Koari alu), Dioscorea batatas (Gochalu), Dioscorea
bulbifera (Gothia alu), Dioscorea deltoids (Bon alu), Dioscorea esculenta (Moa alu),
Dioscorea pentaphylla (Paachpotia alu), Gagea persica, Hedyotis lineata (Kachidoria),
Ipomea batatas (Mitha alu), Manihot esculenta (Ximolu alu), Musa sp., Moghania vestita,
Nymphaea nouchali (Bhet), Pachirzus angulatus (Mitha alu), Pachyrhigus uniginosa urus
(Pani alu), Pueraria tuberosa (Bhui komora), Pueraria thomsonii (Pani aalu or Madhurocha
aalu), Typhonium trilobatum (Ximakochu), Vigna vexillata, Zingiber cassumunar (Bon ada),

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etc. Leaves and stem portion of many of the Alocasia sp. and Colocasia sp. are utilized as
leafy vegetables.

Bud and Flowers: Bauhinia purpurea, Bauhinia variegata, Bombax ceiba, Canna indica,
Carica papaya, Cassia fistula, Cucurbita maxima (Rangalao), Dillenia indica, Gardenia
augusta, Gardenia jasminoides, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Indigofera dosua, Leea indica
(Kukurathengia), Madhuca indica (Mohua), Monochoria hastate (Bhatmeteka), Monochoria
vaginalis (Norameteka), Moringa oleifera, Musa bulbisiana (Bhimkal), Musa paradisiaca
(Kachkal), Nyctanthes abor-tristis (Xewali), Oroxylum indicum (Bhatghila), Pavata indica
(Gobarxita), Phlogocanthus thyrsiflorus (Titaphul), Sesbania gradiflora (Bokphul), Smilax
medica, Symplocos ferruginae (Motabhomloti), Tabernaemontana divericata (Kothona),
Telosma cordata, Trichodesma indicum, Vaccinium serratum (Agapatis), Woodfordia
fruiticosa (Dhatriphul), etc.

Species used as minor spices: Leaf/seed/rhizome of species like Capsicum frutescens (Khud
jalakia), Cinnamomum tamala (Tejpaat), Curcuma amada (Aamada), Eryngium foetidum
(Jonghali memedhu), Ocimum basilicum (Bon tuloxi), Melilotus officinalis syn. M.
macrorhiza (Bon methi), Luvunga scandens (Long lota), Nigetta sativa (Kaaljira), Piper
longum (Pipoli), Zanthoxylum nitidum syn. Z. hamiltonianum (Tejmuee), etc.

Miscellaneous: Seeds/fruits/pods and nuts of Amomum aromaticum (Barilachi), Artocarpus

heterophyllus, Averorrhoea carambola (Kordoi), Basella rubra (Ranga puroi), Caesalpinia
crista (Letaguti), Canavalia gladiata (Kantal urohi, Kamtal urohi), Calamus sp., Carica
papaya, Citrullus vulgaris (Tormuj), Coccinia grandis (Kunduli), Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
(Thupi urohi), Dalbergia pinnata (Daatbijola), Dalbergia rimosa (Gojailota or Mermerilota),
Dillenia indica, Dolichos biflorus (Kulthi), Dolichos lablab (Jati urohi), Gymnopetalum
cochinchinense (Kauri potol), Hodgsonia heteroclita syn. Trichosanthes macrocarpa (Thopou
guti or Thopou lota), Ipomoea muricata (Long pacholi), Lagenaria siceraria (Jaatilau), Lasia
spinosa (Chengmora), Momordica dioica (Bhatkerela), Moringa oleifera (Sajina), Musa
paradisica (Purakol), Nymphea nauchali (Bhet), Parilla frutescens, Passiflora quadrangularis
(Bellao), Phaseolus inamoenus (Makhon urohi), Solanum xanthocarpum (Titabhekuri),

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Solanum nigrum (Pokmou, Lochkochi), Solanum torvum (Hatibhekuri), Sterculia indica

(Nakchepeta), Tamarindus indicus (Teteli), Vicia faba (Gheu urohi), Vigna vaxillata (Bonaria
urohi), etc.; peel of tender fruits of Cucurbita moschata (Rongalau); seeds of Lao-komora,
leaves of Alstonia scholaris (Chatiana), Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul), Oroxylum
indicum, Premna benghalensis (Gahara), Trichosanthes bracteata (Makal), T. cucumarina
(Bon dhunduli), Solanum indicum (Bhekuri tita), Zehneria hookeriana (Belipoka), etc. stem
part of Musa balbiciana, newly emerged shoots of different bamboo species, etc.

Nutritional values of few important minor vegetables of Assam are mentioned in Table 1.9.

Table 1.9: Nutritional value of few important minor vegetables of Assam

Scientific name Assamese Nutrient content

name
Amaranthus Morisha Carbohydrate: 2.0 %; Protein: 3.0%; Fat: 0.7%; Crude
hybridus, Fibre: 1.0%; Minerals: 3.3%; Ca: 200 mg/10 g.
Amaranthus
tricolor
Amaranthus Hatikhutura, Carbohydrate: 7.0%; Protein: 3.0%; Fat: 0.3%; Crude
spinosus Katakhutura Fibre: 6.1%; Minerals: 3.6%; Fe: 22.9 mg/100 g; Ca: 800
mg/100 g; P: 50 mg/100 g; Vit.C: 33 mg/100 g; α-
carotene: 3564 µg/100 g.
Amaranthus Bhatkhutura Carbohydrate: 3.8%; Protein: 5.2%; Fat: 0.3%; Crude
viridis Fibre: 6.1%; Minerals: 2.8%; Fe: 18.7 mg/100 g; Ca: 330
mg/100 g; P: 52 mg/100 g; Vit.C: 179 mg/100 g.
Amorphophallus Olkochu Carbohydrate: 18.4%; Protein: 1.2%; Fat: 0.1%; Fe: 0.6
companulatus mg/100 g; Ca: 50 mg/100 g; Vit.A: 434 IU; Thiamine:
0.06 mg/100 g; Riboflavin: 0.07 mg/100 g; Nicotinic
acid: 0.7 mg/100g.
Basella alba, Puroi xak Carbohydrate: 4.2 %; Protein: 2.8%; Fat: 0.4%; Minerals:
Basella rubra 1.8%; Fe: 15.6 mg/100 g; Vit.C: 200 mg/100 g; α-
carotene: 7440 µg/100 g.
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Canavalia Kamtal urohi Carbohydrate: 7.8 %; Protein: 2.7%; Fat: 0.2%; Crude
gladiata Fibre: 1.5%; Minerals: 0.6%; Vit.A: 40 IU.
Chenopodium Jilmil Carbohydrate: 2.9 %; Protein: 3.7 %; Fat: 0.4 %; Crude
album, Fibre: 0.8 %; Minerals: 2.6 %; Calcium: 231.5 mg/100 g.
Chenopodium
ambrosioides
Coccinia grandis Kunduli, Carbohydrate: 3.8 %; Protein: 5.2%; Fat: 0.3%; Crude
syn. Coccinia Belipoka Fibre: 6.1%; Minerals: 2.8%; Fe: 18.7mg/100 g; Ca:
cordifolia syn. 330mg/100 g; P: 52 mg/100 g; Vit.C: 179 mg/100 g.
Cephalaudra
indica
Colocasia Kochu Corm: Carbohydrate: 3.6 %; Protein: 0.3%; Fat: 0.3%;
esculentum syn. Crude Fibre: 0.6%.
Colocasia Stem: Carbohydrate: 3.6 %; Protein: 3.0%; Fat: 0.1%;
antiquorum Crude Fibre: 1.0%.
Leaf: Vit.C: 12 mg/100 g.
Diplazium Dhekia Carbohydrate: 5.0 %; Protein: 2.2%; Fat: 0.8%; Crude
esculentum Fibre: 1.0%; Minerals: 1.4%; Fe: 5.7 mg/100 g; Ca: 525
mg/100 g; α-carotene: 1133.1 µg/100 g.
Hibiscus Tengamora Calyx: Carbohydrate: 5.86 %; Protein: 1.46%; Crude
sabdariffa Fibre: 1.58%; Ca: 0.108%; Ash content: 0.87%;
Reducing sugar: 0.82%; Sucrose: 0.24%; Citric acid:
3.74%; Pectin: 3.19%.
Houttuynia Mochundari Carbohydrate: 6.3 %; Protein: 2.1%; Fat: 0.2%; Crude
cordata Fibre: 1.1%; Minerals: 0.6%; Fe: 6.5 mg/100 g; Ca:
201.0 mg/100 g; α-carotene: 2826.6 µg/100 g.
Moringa oleifera Sojina Leaf: Carbohydrate: 12.5 %; Protein: 6.7%; Fat: 1.7%;
Crude Fibre: 0.9%; Minerals: 2.3%; Fe: 7.0 mg/100 g;
Ca: 440 mg/100 g; Vit.A: 11300 IU; Thiamine: 0.05

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mg/100 g; Riboflavin: 0.05 mg/100 g; Nicotinic acid: 0.8

mg/100 g; Vit.C: 220 mg/100 g.
Fruit: Carbohydrate: 3.7%; Protein: 2.5%; Fat: 0.1%;
Crude Fibre: 4.8%; Minerals: 2.0%; Fe: 5.3 mg/100 g;
Ca: 30 mg/100 g; Vit.A: 184 IU; Thiamine: 0.05 mg/100
g; Riboflavin: 0.07 mg/100 g; Nicotinic acid: 0.2 mg/100
g; Vit.C: 120 mg/100 g.
Murrya koenigii Naraxingha Carbohydrate: 16.0%; Protein: 6.1%; Fat: 1.0%; Crude
Fibre: 6.4%; Minerals: 4.2%; Vit.A: 12600 IU; Vit.C: 4
mg/100 g; Nicotinic acid: 2.8 mg/100 g.
Polyginum Modhu Carbohydrate: 12.2%; Protein: 3.3%; Fat: 0.19%; Crude
microcephallum xoleng Fibre: 2.8%; Minerals: 1.9%; Fe: 8.9 mg/100 g; Ca:
195.5 mg/100 g.
Sauropus Barixundori, Carbohydrate: 11.6%; Protein: 6.8%; Fat: 3.2%;
androgynous Chekurmoni Minerals: 1.8%; Fe: 28 mg/100 g; Vit.A: 9510 mg/100
g; Vit.C: 247 mg/100 g; Thiamine: 0.48 mg/100 g;
Riboflavin: 0.32 mg/100 g; Ca: 570 mg/100 g; Fe: 28
mg/100 g;
Phosphorus: 200 mg/100 g.
Sesbania Bakphul Leaf: Protein: 8.4%; Fat: 1.4%; Crude Fibre: 2.2%; Fe:
grandiflora 3.9 mg/100 g; Ca: 1130 mg/100 g; P: 80 mg/100 g;
Vit.A: 9000 IU; Vit.C: 169 mg/100 g; Thiamine: 0.21
mg/100 g; Nicotinic acid: 1.2 mg/100 g; Riboflavin: 0.09
mg/100 g; Iodine: 2.3 mg/100 g.
Flower: Protein: 1.8%; Fat: 0.6%; Crude Fibre: 1.0%;
Vit.C: 41 mg/100 g; Thiamine: 0.13 mg/100 g; Nicotinic
acid: 2.8 mg/100 g.
Talinum Peerali Carbohydrate: 4.0-4.4%; Protein: 2.0-2.6%; Fat: 0.19-
triangulare paleng, 0.40 %; Crude Fibre: 0.95-1.19 %; Minerals: 1.6 %; Fe:

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Axomia 2.8-3.9 mg/100 g; Ca: 231.5 mg/100 g.

paleng
Xanthosoma Dohikochu Tuber: Carbohydrate: 17.0-26.0%; Protein: 1.3-3.7%;
sagittifolium Fat: 0.2-0.4%; Crude Fibre: 0.6-1.9%; Ash content: 0.6-
1.3%.
Source: Barooah & Barua (2010); Pandey (2008)

5. Medicinal plant species for human

Assam houses quite a good number of medicinal plants including several rare,
endangered and endemic species. Till now 952 numbers of species having medicinal uses in
Ayurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic and even modern medical practices have been identified
(Anon., 2013). Quite a few of them are used by the traditional village practitioner known as
Bej or Oja who collects the plants mostly from Baree. The medicinal plants found in Assam
can be categorized into six groups depending upon their phenotypical characteristics (Dutta,
2011):

(i) Larger-sized trees like Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Symplocos ferruginea (Bhomlati),
Terminalia arjuna (Arjun), Terminalia belerica (Bhomora), Terminalia chebula (Xilikha) etc.

(ii) Medium-sized tree species like Azadirachta indica (Mahaneem), Cassia fistula
(Xonaru), Emblica officinalis (Amlakhi), Erythrina variegata (Madar), Garcinia
xanthochymus (Tepor), Saraca indica (Axok), etc.

(iii) Small-sized tree species viz. Gardenia gummifera (Bihmana), Plumeria rubra
(Gulancha), Punica granatum (Dalim), Murraya koenigii (Naraxingha), Vitex negundo
(Pachatia), etc.

(iv) Shrub species like Datura stramonium (Bogadhotura), Ecbolium linneanum

(Neelakantha), Lawsonia alba (Jetuka), Phlogocanthus thyrsiflorus (Titabahak), etc.

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(v) Herb species viz. Aloe barbadensis (Ghritakumari), Andrographis paniculata

(Kalpatita), Argemone mexicana (Kuhumkait), Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi), Costus speciosus
(Jamlakhuti), Eupatorium cannabinum (Tongloti), Hydrocotyle rotundifolia (Xorumanimuni),
Lindernia crustacea (Kachidoria), Rauvolfia serpentina (Xarpagandha), Withania somnifera
(Ashwagandha), Wedelia calandulacea (Mahabhringaraj), etc.

(vi) Vine species found in Baree and used for medicinal purposes are: Asperaguss
recemosa (Xatmul), Menispermum glabrum (Amoi lata), Merremia umbellate (Kolia lata),
Piper longum (Pipoli), Stephania hernandifolia (Tubuki lata), Tinospora malabarica (Xoguni
lata), Vitis quadrangularis (Harjoroa lata), etc.

Medicinal values of many of these plant species are well recognized. For example
Taxol, the medicine for treatment of dreadful disease of cancer is obtained from barks and
leaves of Taxus baccata (Xugondhi-bakata), a medium-sized tree was available few years
back in Baree and nearby forest/fallowland at boarder of Arunachal Pradesh i.e. in Dibrugarh,
Dhemaji, Tinsukia and Lakhimpur districts. However, this much-valued species is now almost
extinct in Assam due to large scale destruction of vegetation as well as over exploitation of
the species. Other plant species utilized for this purpose are sap of Costus speciosus or Jom-
lakhuti (underground stem part), Curcuma longa (Haladhi), Glycyrrhiza glabra or
(Jastimodhu), Emblica officinalis or Amlokhi (Fruits), Hemidesmus indicus (Anantamul),
Leucus cephalotes or Doron (Flower parts), Plumeria rubra (Ronga-puroi), Vinca rosea
(Nayantara), powder of whole Boerhaavia diffusa (Punanaua) plant, fruits of Citrus hystrix or
Kotkora, fruits and barks of Oroxylum indicum (Bhatghila), barks of Crataeva roxburghii or
Borun, Ecbolium linneanum or Neelakantha, etc.; these species are still available in few
Baree. In Ayurvedic system Terminalia arjuna (Arjun) is used widely against cardiac
problems; similarly use of Clerodendron siphonanthus (Bamanhati), Emblica officinalis
(Amlokhi), Ichnocarpus frutescens (Xaolata), Leucus cephaloides (Doron), Terminalia
bellirica (Bhomora), Vitex negundo (Pachatia), against constipation, diarrhea, rheumatism,
ring worm, dyspepsia, diabetes, respectively are well known since time immemorial in
traditional systems of medicines in India.

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Although medicinal values of these species are renowned throughout the country; yet
such traditional knowledge on many other species are still confined within the small group of
traditional practitioner (Bej or Ojha) or within the tribal communities, many residing in the
remote areas. Some such floral species utilized for treatment of different diseases are
mentioned below (Hazarika, 2012):

Malaria: Alstonia scholaris (Chationa), Andrographis paniculata (Kalmegh), Swertia chirata

(Chirata), Tinospora cordifolia (Xagunilata), Trichosanthes cucumerina (Dhunduli) etc.

Diabetes: Albizia procera (Koroi), Areca catechu (Tamol), Canna indica (Parijat),
Ichnocarpus frutescens (Dudhkuri-lota), Mimosa pudica (Nilaji-bon) etc.

Fever: Cissamperos pareira (Tubukilata), Curanga amada (Bhuin-tita), Curculigo orchioides

(Nagini), Impatiens roylei (Koriabijol), Ocimum canum (Ban-tuloxi) etc.

Pain: Cordia dichotoma (Boal), Gymnopetalum cochinchinense (Kauri-kerela), Justicia

japonica (Joron-ban), Urena lobata (Bar-xonborial), Vitex nugundo (Pachatia), etc.

Wounds & Cuts: Alangium chinensis (Chikamorolia), Achyranthes aspera (Bionixabota),

Cynodon dactylon, Plantago erosa (Xingapat), Pouzolzia zeylanicca (Barali-bokua) etc.

Jundice: Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi), Costus speciosus (Jom-lakhuti), Impatiens balsamina

(Damdeuka), Lasia spinosa (Chengmara), Saccharum officinarum (Kuhiar), etc.

Measles: Adhatoda vasica (Tita-bahek), Areca catechu (Tamol), Ipomea aquatic (Kalamou),
Piper nigrum (Jaluk), Solanum torvum (Hatibhekuri), etc.

Burn: Aloe barbadensis & Aloe vera (Chalkunwori), Bambusa arundinacea (Banh), Rubia
cordifolia (Majathi), Shorea robusta (Xal), Tinospora cordifolia (Saguni-lota), etc.

Birth control: Bambusa arundinacea (Banh), Celtis tetrandra (Xokota), Heliotropium

indicum (Hatixuria-ban), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Joba), Mimosa pudica (Nilaji-bon), etc.

Worms (alltypes): Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi), Daucus carota (Gajor), Swertia chirayita
(Chirota), Vitex negundo (Pachatia), Zingiber officinalis (Ada), etc.
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Pin worm: Coriandrum sativum (Dhania), Curcuma longa (Haladhi), Euphorbia prostrata
(Mahabhringaraj), Solanum lycopersicum (Bengena), Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Xewali), etc.

Round worm: Cucurbita moschata (Rangalao), Jatropha curcus (Bhotera), Murraya koenigii
(Narasingha), etc.

Tape worm: Ananas comosus (Anaras), Cocos nucifera (Narikal), Cucurbita pepo
(Rangalao), punica granatum (Dalim), etc.

Hook worm: Allium sativum (Nohoru), Carica papaya (Amita), Trigonella foenum (Methi),
etc.

Chemical constituents, nature of activity and plant parts used against different diseases
of human are mentioned in Table 1.10.

Table 1.10: Chemical basis of few indigenous medicinal plant species

Species Assamese name Plant Nature of Chemical

parts used activity constituent
Achyraanthus aspera Hati xur Herb Purgative Achyranthin
Acorus calamus Bosh Herb Demulcent Acorine
Adhatoda vasica Bahak Tita Leaf Chronic Vascine
bronchitis
Alpinia galangal Gandha Tora Rhizome Rheumatism, Essential oil
Catarrhal
Butea frondosa Exudate Astringent Tannin
Cannabis sativa Bhang Leaf Narcotic, sedative Resin
(Cannabinol)
Cassia fistula Xonaru Fruit Cathertic Anthroquinones
Cissampelos pareira Tubuki lota Leaf, root Diuratic, fabrifuse Sepecrine
Curcuma longa Halodhi Rhizome Anti-inflamatory Curcumine
Curcuma amada Aamaada Rhizome Stomachic, Essential oil
carminative

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Cyperus rotundus Keya bon, Rhizome Anti-inflamatory, Essential oil

Nagar motha anti-estrogenic
Dutura stramonium Dhatura Leaf Sedative,antispas Hyoscimins
modic, mydiactrin
Heliotropium indicum Hatixuria bon Entire plant Anti-cancer Pyrrolizidine
Hydrocotyle asiatica Xoru manimuni Herb Leprosy, Asiticoside
tuberculosis, ulcer
Jetropha cureas Bongali era Latex Hemostatic, Protein, taxlol,
wound dressing bumines, curcin
Nerium odorum Korobi Leaf Scabies Cardioglycoside,
nerin
Piper longum Pipoli Fruit Alternative, tonic Volatile oil
Plumbago zeylanica Agiachita Root, leaf Counter-irritant Plumbagin
Rauwolfia serpentine Xorpogandha Root Anti-hypertensive Alkaloid
Tinospora cordifolia Xoguni lota Herb Antipyretic Berberine
Terminalia belerica Bonhot Fruit Purgative, acidity Tannin
Texus baccata Yew Bark, Anticancerous Alkaloid, Taxane
leaves
Source: Bhagabati et al. (2014)

6. Medicinal plant species for livestock

Treatment of domestic animal to cure various diseases by using medicinal plants found
at Barees is still continuing in some rural areas of the state. Some examples of these are
mentioned below (Hazarika, 2012):

Worms (all types): Saps or extractants of Zingiber officinalis (Ada) and Allium sativum
(Noharu) or Curcuma longa (Haladhi) or Stephania hernandifolia ();

Hook worm: Carica papaya (Amita) fruit in large amount;

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Tape worm: Sap of roots of Punica granatum (Dalim) or smashed seeds of Butea frondosa
(Polax);

Gas: Sap of Cannabis sativa (Bhang) along with molasses.

Wounds and cuts at horns: Ointment prepared by crushing followed by mixing of the roots
of Mimosa pudica (Nilaji-bon), seeds of Caesalpinia crista (Letaguti) and Boric powder.

Problems at udder of milch cattle: Ointment prepared by crushing followed by mixing of

leaves of Datura stromanium (Dhatura), fresh Curcuma longa (Haladhi) rhizome along with
lime.

Labour pain: Saps of fresh Curcuma longa (Haladhi) or leaves of Aegle marmelos (Bael) or
roots of Clitoria ternatea (Aparajita).

Mosquito: Mosquito repellent smoke to be prepared by burning leaves of Rubus hexagynous,

Stellaria media (Moroliya), Smilax macrophylla (Kumarika), Zizyphus mauritiana (Bilati-
bogori).

7. Masticatory

Areca catechu and Piper betle are the part and parcel of religious, ceremonial and
social occasions of Assam. Fermented or ripened nuts of Areca catechu and fresh leaves of
Piper betle along with cured Nicotiana rustica (Maandhopat) and lime is a traditional
masticator used by the people of the state. Other common ingradients used along with these
are barks of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Dalcheni), dried buds of Syzygium aromaticum
(Loung), seeds of Foeniculum vulgare (Guamuri) and Elettaria cardomomum (Xoru ilachi).
Few other ingradients which are rarely used now a days are barks of Artocarpus lakoocha,
Dalbergia tamarindifolia (Lalengchali), Litsea cubeba syn. Litsea citrata (Mejangkary),
Derris scandens (Banchobai), Erythroxylon kunthianum (Paankhowa), Milletia dura
(Makoichapa) etc.; leaves of Clausena heptaphylla (Paanmuhuri); fruits of Grewia tillaefolia
(Manbijola); rhizome of Aschasma lorglossum (Karphul), etc. Besides, nuts of species like
Areca negensis (Mamoitamol), Pinanga gracilis syn. Areca gracilis (Gerukatamol or

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Ramgua), Livistona jenkinsiana, Caryota urens etc. are used as the substitute of Areca
catechu; Piper sylveticum (Aunipaan) or Piper chaba (Choipaan) is used in lieu of Piper betle
and Nicotiana tabacum (Borpat dhapat) is utilized instead of Nicotiana rustica (Borpat
dhapat).

8. Alcoholic Beverages

Assam is inhabited by numerous communities with diverse ethnicity and culture

having own distinct traditions including rituals, beliefes as well as food habits. Different
tribals as well as some non tribal communities prepare their distinctive indigenous alcoholic
beverages mostly from cooked rice using a mixture of different parts of various plant species
as inocula or starter which contain amylolactic and alcohol producing yeasts, starch degrading
mould as well as lactic acid bacteria.

Das et al. (2012) recorded different plant species used in preparation of starter culture
for rice beer preparation in NE India; they enlisted 3, 5, 6, 12 and 9 plant species for Bodo,
Karbi, Ahom, Mising and Deori communities of Assam, respectively. Basumatary et al.
(2014) mentioned about 7 plant species needed for the preparation of Amao- the starter culture
of the Bodo community. On the other hand, Gogoi et al. (2013) enlisted 37 plant species for
the preparation of starter culture of the alcoholic beverage of the Mising community.

To prepare Sujen (rice beer) by Deori community Perok-kushi (Starter) is made by

mixing the leaves of Acanthus leucostachyus (Hori-kacha, Zuuro, Kaya-chon), Alstonia
scholaris (Chotiana), Cinnamomum bejolghota (Thok-thok, Gota-joni), Cyclosorus exlensa
(Bihlongoni), Jasminum sambac (Mallika, Bhatar-duamali), Lygodium flexuosum (Zing-zing,
Lota-dhekia), Zanthoxylum hamiltonianum (Tej-muri, Tel-mul, Tej-muee), and roots of
Alpinia malaccensis (Bogitora, Dubusiring) and the stem as well as rhizome of the plant
species Costus speciosus (Jom-lakhuti) etc. The Ahom community prepares Xanj with the help
of the starter made from the mixture of the leaves of Centella asiatica (Bor-manimuni),
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides (Xoru-manimuni), Lygodium sp. (Kopoulata), Oldenlandia
corymbosa (Lihiripotia) and Cissampelos pareira (Tubuki-lota); and seeds of Piper nigrum
(Jaluk), etc. Karbi tribe prepares Morpo by using the starter with the leaves of Artocarpus
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heterophyllus (Kothal, Janphong), Croton joufra (Mahudi, Marthu), Phlogocanthes

thyrsiflorus (Tita-bahek, Jockan), Solanum viarum (Bhekuri-tita, Hisou-kehou), etc. and barks
of Acacia pinnata (Kuchialata, Themra).

For preparation of Jou by the Bodo community starter Amao is made using the species viz.
Ananas comosus (Anaras), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal), Clerodendrum infortunatum
(Dhapat-tita), Musa paradisiaca (Kach-kal), Oryza sativa (Dhan), Plumbago zeylenica (Boga-
agechit), Xanthium strumarium (Agara, Agar-chita), Clerodendrum viscosum (Dhapat-tita,
Lokhunath) and Scoparia dulcis (Gadadhari, Dongphang-rakhep).

Plant species viz. Anasus comosus (Anaras), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal),

Calotropis procera (Xaru-akon), Clerodendrum viscosum (Dhapat-tita), Dennstaedtia scabra
(Dhekia), Heteropogon contortus (Doria-ghah), Piper nigrum (Jaluk), Plambago indica
(Ranga-agechi), Saccharum officinarum (Kuhiar), Scoparia dulcis (Gadadhari, Bon-tuloxi,
Bon-chini), etc. are utilized in making the starter for rice beer preparation by the Rabha
community.

On the other hand, rice beer (Apong) is prepared by the Mising community with the
help of the starter Aopo pitha. Different parts viz. leaf, shoot, flowers, barks, seeds, roots,
tubers or influorescence of not less than 37 number of plant species are used for the
preparation of Aopo pitha. Some of these species are Ananas comosus (Anaras), Capsicum
annum (Jalakia), Centella asiatica (Bor-manimuni), Clerodendrum viscosum (Dhapat-tita),
Cyclosorus exlensa (Bihlongoni), Drymeria cordata (Laijabori), Hydrocotyle rotundifolia
(Xaru-manimuni), Ipomoea aquatica (KalamouBamkolmou), Ipomoea mauritiana (Bhui-
kumura), Lygodium flexusum (Kopoudhekia), Oldenlandia corymbosa (Bon-jaluk),
Saccharum officinarum (Kuhiar), Scorparia dulcis (Gadadhari, Bon-tuloxi, Bon-chini), etc.

All the plant species utilized for the preparation of alcoholic beverages by different
communities possess medicinal values. Some of the plant species used both as vegetables and
alcoholic beverage preparation has been shown in Table 1.11 along with their ethno medicinal
values.

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Table 1.11: Ethno medicinal values of plant species used both as vegetables and alcoholic
beverage preparation

Scientific Names Assamese name Ethno medicinal values

Achranthes aspera Bioni-hakuta Useful for treatment of cough

Cinnamomum bejolghata Patihionda Antidiabetic

Cinnamomum tamala Tejpat Useful in gonorrhoea, rheumatism,

diarrhoea, enlargement of spleen and
diabetes
Centella asiatica Manimuni Helps to reduce amoebic dysentery or any
kind of liver problem
Clerodendrum viscosum Dhopat tita Treatment of malaria

Drymeria cordata Laijabori Useful in fungal infection and sinusitis

Gomphostemma Bhedaitita Used in malaria treatment
parviflora
Ipomoea aquatic Kalamou Useful in diabetes and as galactagogue to
nursing mother
Kaempferia rotunda Bhumichampa Treatment of wounds, ulcers, tumours,
swelling and gastroenteritis
Leucas plukenetii Dron, Drona-puspa Helps to reduce sinusitis
Microsorum punctatum Kopou-dhekia Leaf juice used as purgative, diuretic and
healing wounds
Musa balbisiana Bhim-kal Used against TB
Oldenlandia corymbosa Bon jaluk It is diuretic, stomachic, carminative and
used as liver tonic during Jaundice
Phlogacanthus Titabahek Useful in rheumatism, anemia and cough
thyrsflorus

Source: Gogoi et al. (2013)

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9. Fodder

Some of the species mostly found in Baree are Leersia hexandra (Eralibon), Digitaria
bifasciculata (Korimaghah), Digitaria sanguinalis (Aralaghah), Borreria hispida (Gahori
bon), Ischaemum rugosum (Karakalghah), Sporobolus diander Digitaria sanguinalis
(Charaighah), Panicum miliara (Torpedoghah), Heteropogon contortus (Dariaghah),
Eulaliopsis binata (Taralighah), Themeda aurandinacea (Thamalaghah), Isachne globosa
(Darikabon), Arundo donax (Nalghah), Echinochloa colonum (Pakuchamaghah), Eulalia
quadrinervis (Pariaghah), Chrysopogon aciculatus (Bongutighah), Eleusine indica
(Babachabon), Echinochloa crusgalli (Barangaghah), Bambusa multiplex (Boroxia banh),
Ischaemum muticum (Banhghah), Pennisetum oriental (Bimachiaghah), Roppboellia exaltata
(Buraxolighah), Panicum trypheron (Bhaturghah), Brachiaria miliformis (Moliaghah),
Brachiaria mutica (Machiaghah), Typha augustifolia (Maduribon), Iseilema laxum
(Mukhalghah), Centotheca lappacea (Lapachabon), Dactlyoctenium aegyptium
(Kakapodghah), Axonopus compressus (Dolichabon), Cyperus compressus (Gaharighah),
Cyperus aromaticus (Gondhaghah), Dichanthium annulatum, Cyperus compressus
(Jinjughah), Paspalum longiplum (Bahpotiabon), Hygroryza asiatica (Uridolghah),
Echinochloa sp. (Binoibon). Nutritional quality of some of the indigenous grass species is
mentioned in Table 1.12.

Table 1.12: Nutrient content of some grass fodders

Scientific Assamese Crude Crude Minerals

name name Protein Fibre Major (%) Micro (ppm)
Ca P Fe Cu Zn Mn
Arundo donax Bor-nol 17.06 22.14 0.66 o.20 - - - -

Chrysopogon Karxola-bon 9.24 36.44 - - - - - -

aciculatus
Commelina Konasimolu 14.88 19.58 0.86 0.19 156 8 49 348
benghalensis
Cyanodon Dubari-bon 9.20 34.72 0.48 0.26 1152 11 140 91
dactylon
Cyperus sp. Keya-bon 7.27 28.81 0.35 0.16 223 3 24 207

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Echinochloa Binoi-bon 8.19 31.75 0.27 0.19 182 5 35 102

colonum
Eleisine indica Babacha-bon 8.96 24.18 0.42 0.27 844 10 150 168

Imperata Ulu-bon 5.85 33.94 0.45 0.09 156 4 21 65

cylindrical
Leersia Aroli-bon 6.07 29.17 0.51 0.29 301 7 70 191
hexandra
Paspalum Char-bon, 10.29 31.95 0.47 0.20 113 5 - 239
scrobiculatum Kodoa-dhan
Setaria glauca Bicha-bon 7.95 28.85 o.32 0.16 106 8 36 130

Thysanolaena Jaru-bon 8.50 39.69 0.93 0.05 51 1 - 341

maxima
Source: Datt (2006)

Besides, leaves and soft twigs of all the tree species edible (fruits, seeds, leaves,
flowers, etc.) for human beings are also used by domestic animals, viz., Artocarpus chama,
Artocarpus heterophyllus, Artocarpus lacoocha, Ficus indica (Dimoru), Mangifera indica,
Morus alba, Musa sp., Syzygium cuminii, Terminalia chebula, Zizyphus mauritiana etc. Some
other plant species preferred by domestic animals are Albizia procera, Bauhinia purpurea,
Bambusa sp., Dalbergia sissoo, Derris robusta (Kothiakoroi), Ficus bengalensis, Ficus cunia
(Jagyadimoru), Ficus elastica (Ethabar), Ficus hispida, Ficus racemosa, Ficus religiosa,
Ficus virens (Tengabar), Garuga pinnata (Rohimala or Thotmala), Gmelina arborea,
Holoptelea integrifolia, Lagerstroemia sp., Leucaena leucocephala (Xubabul), Macaranga
denticulata, Mallotus albus, Olea diotica (Ban-bhaluka), Salix tetrasperma (Bhe), Samania
saman, Sapindus mukorosii, Toona ciliata etc.

Fodder from trees and shrub is usually considered as scarcity fodder and is used only
in winter season. Leaf fodder in this period is a good alternative to grass fodder. However,
during collection of tree fodders the following important points are to be remembered
(Dwibedi, 2009):

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(i) Lopping of tree fodders should not be dome in Shorea robusta (Xal), Acacia catechu
(Khoir), Toona ciliata (Poma), Adina cordifolia (Kelikadam), Terminalia alata, Terminalia
chebula (Xilikha), etc.;

(ii) Lopping should not be dome in saplings and poles;

(iii) Trees below 120 cm in girth should not be lopped;

(iv) Upper 1/3rd of the crowns of all trees should be protected from lopping;

(v) Lopping cycle should be so designed that trees get complete rest atleast for two
growing season;

(vi) Lopping is done during Nov to Feb and should be avoided during growing season.

The chemical composition and nutritive value of some tree fodder commonly utilized
in Assam are shown in the following table.

Table 1.13: Chemical composition and nutritive value of some tree fodder

Tree species Crude Digestible Total Crude Ca (%) P (%)

protein (%) crude digestible fibre (%)
protein nutrient
(%) (%)
Acacia catechu (Khoir) 12.0-18.7 2.9 46.3 21.9-22.6 1.6-2.7 0.1-0.2
Aegle marmelos (Bael) 15.1-15.3 10.8 56.7 16.5-18.1 4.2-4.8 0.1-0.3
Albizia chinensis 15.1 4.9 40.2 31.6 1.2 0.1
(Hiharu)
Albizia lebbeck (Siris) 14.9-29.2 11.6 49.3 25.3-37.5 1.1-2.7 0.1-0.3
Anthocephalus chinensis 21.3 - - - 2.7 0.3
(Kadam)
Artocarpus heterophyllus 11.2-14.2 - - 18.7-22.8 0.5-2.2 0.1-0.3
(Kothal)
Bauhinia variegata 10.7-15.9 5.0-9.2 47.9-55.5 20.7-33.0 1.4-4.1 0.2-0.4
(Kanchan)
Bischofia javanica 18.0 - - - 2.6 0.2

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(Uriam)
Butea monospora (Polax) 17.5 - - - 3.3 0.2
Careya arborea 10.4 0.2 43.1 25.9 1.6 0.3
(Godhajam, Kumbhi)
Cassia fistula (Xonaru) 15.8 - - - 1.3 0.2
Cassia siamea 13.5 - - - 1.9 0.6
(Siaxonaru)
Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu) 2.7-24.1 3.7-9.1 20.9-52.2 12.5-32.0 2.0-2.3 0.2
Syzygium cumini 8.8-10.2 0.1 43.8 19.8 1.3 0.1-0.2
(Kolajamu)
Ficus glomerata 11.2-15.2 6.6 53.8 12.3-16.5 1.7-3.0 0.2-0.5
(Moudimoru)
Ficus religiosa (Ahot) 9.0-25.6 5.5-7.0 38.2-39.2 14.7-20.0 2.3-6.3 0.2-0.3
Kydia calycina (Pichala, 11.1-13.6 7.9 45.2 14.5-23.7 3.1-5.2 0.4-0.5
Kukuha)
Lagerstroemia parviflora 7.8 0.9 49.5 17.3 2.6 0.3
(Sidha)
Leucaena leucocephala 15.2-27.6 12.6-16.4 57.1-70.2 10.2-17.2 2.7-3.1 0.2
(Subabul)
Mangifera indica (Aam) 9.3 - - 23.7 1.9-2.2 0.2-0.3
Manihot esculenta 23.0 - - 24.4 1.6 0.2
(Ximolualu)
Melia azadirach 13.3 - - - 2.6 0.2
(Ghoraneem)
Moringa oleifera (Sojina) 15.3-20.7 11.1 61.5 7.1-17.9 1.7-3.8 0.1-0.5
Pongamia pinnata 17.6 - - - 2.2 0.2
(Karach)
Shorea robusta (Xal) 10.1 0.1 42.7 27.4 0.8 0.1
Tamarindus indica 11.2-15.4 - 14.2-22.0 1.7-3.2 0.1-0.6
(Tenteli)
Terminalia bellirica 7.7-17.2 0.9 54.5 7.4-18.6 1.6-3.6 0.2-0.3
(Bhomora)
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Tinospora cordifolia 11.2 - 17.5 1.1 0.6

(Xagunilota)
Zizyphus mauritiana 8.6-16.9 3.1 30.7 13.5-30.1 1.3-3.6 0.2-0.3
(Bilati bogori)
Source: Dwivedi (2009)

10. Fibre

Some of the fibre species used for varied purposes and grown in Baree are Abutilon
indicum (Perapetari), Boehmeria nivea (Riha), Boehmeria retusa (Riha), Boehmeria
macrophylla (Bon riha), Boehmeria malabarica (Bon riha), Boehmeria platyphylla (Bon riha),
Bombax ceiba (Ximolu)), Butea parviflora (Hatibandha lota), Cocos nucifera (Narikal),
Calotropis procera (Xaruakon), Corchorus capsularis (Titamora), Corchorus olitorius
(Mithamora), Crotolaria juncea (Xon or Auchora xon), Crotolaria veruccosa (Bon xon),
Debregeasia longifolia (Banriha), Debregeasia velutina (Banriha), Desmodium gyroides (Bor
biyonixabota), Desmodium polycarpum, Eulalipsis binata, Flemingia chappan (Makhioti),
Gossypium herbaceum (Kapah), Grewia laevigata (Dhonubrikshya), Hibiscus sabdariffa
(Tengamara or Chukia), Hibiscus cannabinus (Tengamara or Chukia), Malachra capitata
(Banbhendi), Moutia puya (Moutia), Sesbania aegyptiaca (Jayanti), Sarcochlamys
pulcherima (Mechaki), Sida acuta (Xonborial), Sida rhombifolia (Xonborial), Sterculia
villosa (Odal), Sterculia Versicolor (Pohu Odal), Thespesia macophylla (Bon kopah), Trema
orientalis (Phakdema), Triumfetta pilosa (Bon agara), Typha augustifolia (Maduri), Urena
lobata (Xonborial) etc.

11. Ornamentals

Besides many ornamental plant species mentioned earlier, some other important
species grown for aesthetic values are mentioned below:

(i) Tree species: Acacia auriculiformis (Acacia), Acacia nilotica (Babul), Adinocalima
alicea (Rupohi xinga), Areca gracilis (Momai-tamol), Callistemon linearis (Batal-brush),
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Cassia siamea (Siaxonaru), Cassia fistula (Xonaru), Cassia marginata (Ronga xonaru),
Caesalpinia coriaria (Dibi dibi or Debi), Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Krishnachura),
Couroupita guianensis (Bortop goch), Delonix robusta, Delonix regia (Radhachura), Ficus
nervosa (Lhaipan, Kharipan), Hibiscus mutibilis (Sthalapadma), Jasminum auriculatum
(Jutika), Jasminum humile (Hemapushpa), Lagerstroemia indica (Dhauliazar or Parul),
Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Ejar, Ajar), Petraea volubilis (Potoria phul), Pithecolobium
montanum (Brishti goch), Samania saman (Doloigach), Saraca indica (Axok), Saurauia
panduana (Pandua), Schzolobium excelsum (Toka goch), Spathodea campanulata (Mutura
goch), etc.

(ii) Shrubs: Acacia farnesiana (Torua-kodam), Allamanda purviflora (Rupohixinga),

Allamanda cathartica (Xonalixinga), Bauhania sp. (Kanchan), Bougainvillea spectabilis
(Bagan bilax), Coffea benghalensis (Dewamali), Daedalacanthus nervosus syn. Eranthemum
nervosum (Bon titaphul), Daedalacanthus roseus syn. Eranthemum rosum (Bon titaphul),
Euphorbia pulcherrima syn. Poinsettia pulcherrima (Lalpata), Gomphrena globosa
(Bixolyakarani), Jasminum grandiflorum (Xongkha mala), Lantana camara (Goophul),
Murraya paniculata (Kamini), Rhododendron arboreum (Rododendron), Rhododendron
campanulatum (Nichoni), Thunbergia fragrans,(Neelakontha), Tropaeolum majus (Lahori
phul), etc.

(iii) Herbs: Begonia cathcartii (Bigonia), Belamcanda chinensis (Xurjyakanti phul),

Caladium bicolor (Xendurikochu), Calendula officinalis (Narji), Chrysanthemum pompons
(Indramalati), Coleus blumei (Brindaban), Impatiens roylei (Bijolkoria), Passiflora
adenophylla (Karaniphul), Spathiphyllum wallisii (Bagakochu), Viola tricolor (Pokhilaphul),
Viola sepens (Matixundori), etc.

(iv) Vines and others: Aerides odorata (Xugandghi kopouphul), Aerides multiflorum
(Kopouphul), Asparagus adscendens (Xatamul), Bignonia venusta (Bhengusa lota),
Clerodendrum splendens (Rangol lota), Hedera helix (Chalilata or Ivylata), Ipomoea
chrysantha (Kathgolap), Ipomoea staphylina (Bhabolilata), Jasminum officinale (Maloti),
Pandanus fascicularis syn. P. odoratissimus (Keteki), Passiflora foetida (Bon mewa),

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Quisqualis indica (Xanti lota), Rhychostylis retusa (Kapouphul), Rubus assamensis (Bonoria-
golap), Thunbergia mysurensis (Phulaxajya), Vanda coerulea (Bhatouphul), etc.

12. Agricultural implements

A large number of major and minor implements along with their accessories are
needed for performing various agricultural operations from land preparation to post harvesting
including storage. Plant species usually utilized for such purposes are numerous, some of
these are: Artocarpus chama (Cham), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal), Buxus sempervirens
(Bakachgoch), Carallia lucida syn. C. brachiata (Mahithekera), Dalbergia rimosa
(Gojailata), Dalbergia spinosa (Kaitia medelua), Ehretia obtusifolia (Boal), Flacourtia
cataphracta (Poniol), Garcinia xanthochymys (Tepor), Glochidion assamicum (Paanichitiki),
Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Ajar), Lagerstroemia parviflora (Dhauli ajar or Sidha), Litsea
augustifolia (Tharham), Litsea glutinosa (Heluka), Litsea polyantha (Xoalu), Meliosma
simplicifolia (Thouthoua), Murraya paniculata (Kamini), Salix tetrasperma (Bhe), Symplocos
spicata (Bhomloti), Toona ciliata (Poma), Vitex peduncularis (Ahoi), etc. Species such as
Cassia fistula (Sonaru), Celtis autralis (Mouhita), Celtis tetrandra (Hukotia) etc. are
specifically preferred for making indigenous dehusking/grinding implements like Dheki,
Uraal etc. Some other species are Alpinia allughas (Tora) is used for making strings (Pogha)
needed to fasten the livestock; Porana paniculata (Rukminilota) is suitable for making busket.

Some of the plant species raised in Baree are used for making different kinds of
agricultural implements. Examples of such species are Artocarpus chama (Cham), Carallia
lucisa (Mahithekera), Flacourtia jangomas (Poniol), bamboo species specially Bambusa tulda
(Jati banh) and Bambusa cacharensis (Betua banh), etc. Different species of bamboo
prevalent in Baree are utilized for making different implements needed for Weaving, Animal
husbandry, Fishery etc. Some other preferred species needed for making tools for weaving
are Deeringia amaranthoides syn. D. celosioides (Rangoli lota), Eriobotrya benghalensis
(Bolanchi), Evodia meliaefolia (Moiphak), Zanthoxylum budrunga (Bajranoli), etc.

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13. Species used for soil improvement

It includes the species utilized for checking soil erosion, enriching nutrient status of
soil or having suitability for making compost. Nitrogen-fixer tree species in Baree are
commonly observed in the areas where Baree are situated nearby tea estates. Example of the
species which enhances nutrient status of soil by fixing atmospheric N or providing quality
compost are many; viz. Acacia auriculiformis (Acacia), Acacia nilotica (Babul), Acacia
lenticularis (Lentikula), Alibizia lebbek (Siris), Alibizia myriophylla (Xomidh Koroi), Albizia
odoratissima (Hiharu or Xirolu Koroi), Albizia procera (Koroi), Cajanus cajan (Raharmah),
Calopogonium mucunoides (Mekurimah), Calopogonium orthocarpum (Mekurimah),
Dalbergia assamica (Barmedelua), Derris robusta (Medelua), Desmodium polycarpum
(Teuramah), Digitaria sanguinalis, Eichhomia crassipes (Bihmeteka), Erythrina variegate
(Modar), Gliricidia sepiam (Madaru), Indigofera dosua (Neel), Indigofera glandulosa
(Neel), Indigofera teysmanii (Neel), Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul), Mimosa invisa
(Nilaji-bon, Lajuki-lata, Adori-bon, Pochani-ban), Mukuna pruriens (Bandar kekua),
Pelpophorum vogelianum (Bilati Xonaru), Priotropis cytisoides (Prayoti), Tephrosia candida
(Bogamedelua), Tephrosia purpurea (Ban-neel) etc. Besides some grasses like Brachiaria
mutica (Machia ghah) are utilized for checking land erosion in sloping land.

14. Species used for dye

Traditionally, rural people of the state utilize numerous plant species available in
Baree or nearby forest areas for preparation of dye mainly to serve two purposes:
(i) Coloring of cotton or silk fabrics meant for weaving industry, and
(ii) Other purposes such as coloring terracotta products, fishing net, leathers, food
materials, calico prints, household wooden materials and preparation of ink or hair dye, etc.
Plant parts (Barks, Roots, Fruits, Leaves, powder of Stems, Flowers or Seeds, etc.)
used for preparation of dye varies from species to species. To obtain color variation several
accessory materials viz. alum, sour fruits like Garcinia pedunculata (Bor thekera), sulphur
dust, coloured soil, lime, alkaline materials like Kalakhar, etc. are added to the coloring
materilals primarily extracted from the plant parts. For example, smashed roots of Morinda

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augustifolia (Aanchuphul) produce yellow dye upon boiling with water; however, addition of
Garcinia pedunculata (Bor thekera) changes this color into red. Both these dyes are utilized
for colouring of cotton fibres. Some of the plant species along with the color obtainable from
them are shown in Table 1.14.
Table 1.14: Colour obtainable from different plant species

Colour Plant species

Yellow/
Adhatoda vasica (Titabahek), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal), Artocarpus
Yellowish
lakoocha (Dewatenga), Berberis aristata (Kath-halodhi or Daaruhoridra),
Berberis asiatica (Peetdaru), Butea monosperma (Polax), Butea purviflora
(Hatibondhalata), Combretum decandrum (Latachali), Coscinium
fenespratum (Daarhalodhi), Curcuma longa (Halodhi), Delonix regia
(Krishnachura), Ervatamia divericata (Tagar), Flamingia strobilifera
(Makhiyati), Gendarrussa vulgaris (Titakhori), Garcinia xanthochymus
(Tepor), Ichnocarpus frutescens (Dudhkuri-lata), Lannea grandis (Thotmala),
Maesa chisia (Rajmoni), Mallotus phillipinensis (Gangai or Xenduri),
Morinda augustifolia (Aanchugoch) , Myrica nagi syn. M. farquhariana
(Nogatenga), Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Xewali), Rubia cordifolia (Majathi),
Symplocos racemosa (Bhomloti), Terminalia chebula (Xilikha), Toddalia
asiatica (Daahok), Wrightia tomentosa (Kutos) etc.
Red/Reddis Albizia odoratissima (Hiharu, Jatikoroi), Basella rubra (Ronga puroi),
h/Pinkish Bischofia javanica (Uriam), Bixa orellana (Jarath), Caesalpinia sappan
etc. (Bakam), Crocus sativus (Kumkum), Lawsonia inermis (Jetuka), Mallotus
phillipinensis (Gangai), Mirabilis jalapa (Godhuligopal), Morinda
augustifolia (Aanchugoch, Akalbih), Oldenlandia umbrellifera (Banjaluk),
Poinsettia pulchurima (Rangapotia-goch), Punica granatum (Dalim),
Pterocarpus marsupium (Pitxal), Woodfordia fruiticosa (Agnijolowa),
Woodfordia friuticosa (Dhaiphul) etc.
Black Aporosa roxburghii (Bar-heloch), Bauhinia purpurea (Bonkanchan), Bredelia

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retusa (Kuhir), Caesalpinia coriaria (Dibi-dibi), Camellia chinensis (Chah),

Crotolaria mucronata (Ghantakorna), Diospyros embryopteris (Kendu),
Emblica officinalis (Amlokhi), Garuga pinnata (Rohimala), Lannea grandis
(Jial), Lawsonia inermis (Jetuka), Punica granatum (Dalim), Semecarpus
anacardium (Chiahigoch), Syzygium jambolana (Bar-jamu), Terminalia
bellirica (Bhumora), Terminalia catappa (Ban-xilikha), Woodfordia
fruiticosa (Agnijolowa), etc.
Blue Cambretum decandrum (Latachali), Datura fastuosa (Dhotura), Indigofera
tinctoria (Neel), Strobilanthus flaccidifolium (Rachpat), Wrightia tinctoria
(Boga-kutoj) etc.
Green Betula alnoides (Bhojpatra), Datura fastuosa (Dhotura), Garcinia
xanthochymus (tepor tenga), Gendarrussa vulgaris (Banheka, Basak), Vigna
catjan (Barbati) etc.
Brown Baccauria sapida (Leteku), Camellia chinensis (Chah), Erythrina indica
(Modar), Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Xewali), Pterocarpus marsupium (Ajar),
Sarcochlamys pulcherima (Mechaki), Trema orientalis (Phakdema) etc.
Violet Aporosa roxburghii (Garkhat, Chapnala), Garuda pinnata (Rohimola), etc.
Blueish Gendarrussa vulgaris (Banheka, Basak)
green
Source: Hazarika (2012)

Recently, the importance of natural dye is increasing due to their positive role in
human health and environment; hence, their demand is growing steadily for various purposes.

15. Religious, marriage and other auspicious purposes

Some of the plant species raised in Baree are utilized for fulfilling religious, marriage
and other auspicious occasions. Many of these species are grown in Religious Zone of Baree
situated nearby the prayer room. Floral species used for religious and marriage purposes are
Acacia suma (Xomidh), Aegle marmelos (Bael), Areca catechu (Tamol), Azadirachta indica
(Mahaneem), Calamus sp. (Bet), Clitoria ternatea (Aparijita), Cocos nucifera (Narikal),

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Crotolaria straita (Jhunjhunia), Curcuma longa (Halodhi), Cynodon dactylon (Dubori),

Cynometra polyandra (Ping), Eragrostic cynosuroides syn. Desmostachya bipinnata (Khuh
bon), Eupatorium odoratum (Jarmanibon), Euphorbia ligularia (Xiju), Ficus bengalensis
(Bot), Ficus cunia & F.glomerata (Jagyadimoru), Ficus religiosa (Ahat), Hibiscus rosa-
chinensis, Kaempferia aculata (Gathion), Mangifera indica (Aam), Mimosops elengi (Bokul),
Mitragyna rotundifolia (Timi), Musa sp. (Kal), Nyctanthes arbour-tristis (Xewali), Ocimum
canum (Kolia tuloxi), Ocimum sanctum (Tuloxi), Piper betle (Paan), Plumeria alba
(Gulancha), Plumeria rubra (Raktagulancha), Streblus asper (Xiura, Kharua), Terminalia
(Arjun), Terminalia chebula (Xilikha), etc. Similarly, Lawsonia inermis (Jetuka) and orchid
species like Rhyncostylis retusa (Xugandhi Kopouphul), Vanda coerulea (Bhatouphul) and
Dendrobium sp.are integral part of the ‘Spring Festival’, Rongali Bihu.

16. Fragrance oil

About 72 plant species (Anonym., 2013) of Assam have been identified from which
fragrant oil can be extracted, out of which many are raised in Baree; viz. Acacia farnesiana
(Toruakadam), Acorus calamus (Bosh), Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi), Alpinia galanga
(Gandhtara), Artabotrys odoratissimus (Chenichampaphul), Cinnamomum camphora
(Karpur), Cymbopogon martini (Pamarosa), Cymbopogon winterianus & C. nardus
(Chitranala), Dipterocarpus turbinatus (Garjan), Galophyllum inophullum (Dambagach),
Gnetum genon (Momailata), Gynocardia odorata (Lemtem), Michelia champaca (Titachapa),
Mentha piperita (Pipermint), Pandanus odoratissimus (Ketekiphul), Pongamia pinnata
(Karach), Vetiveria zizanoides (Gandhbirina), etc. Among these, potentiality of Aquilaria
malaccensis (Xanchi) and Cymbopogon winterianus & C. nardus (Chitranala) have been
exploited for commercial purposes so far.

17. Fence

Areca catechu (Tamol), Bambusa multiplex (Boroxia banh), Bambusa nana (Jopoha
banh), Bauhinia sp. (Kanchan), Cajanus cajan (Rahar mah), Calotropis procera (Xoru akon),
Duranta plumieri (Duranta), Euphorbia neriifolia (Man xiju), Erythrina indica (Modar), Inga
dulcis (Duloshi), Ixora coccinea (Rangal), Jatropha curcus (Bhot era), Licualia peltata (Japi
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pat, Jengu), Lantana camara (Guphul), Moringa oleifera (Sajina), Opuntia monocantha
(Nagphena), Opuntia vulgaris (Nagphena), Pachyceres marginatus (Barxiju), Phlogocanthus
thyrsiflorus (Titaphul), Spondias mangifera (Amora), Thevetia peruviana (Korobi), etc. are
planted in the boundary. Apart from these plant species, in most cases a bamboo fencing
(Jewra) is erected to demarcate the boundary of individual Baree.

18. Species used as pesticides/poisonous substances

Some plant species found in Baree or in adjoining fallowland/forest are poisonous due
presence of specific kind of alkaloid e.g. morphine, codeine and papaverine found in Papaver
somniferum (Konigoch); glycocides e.g. oleandrin, desacetyloleandrin and oleandrin
monoglucocide in Nerium odorum (Rakta korobi), saponin in Agrostemma githago; protein
e.g. crotin in Croton liglium (Konibih); terpens & sesquiterpenes e.g. aromatic plants, etc.
About 112 species of poisonous plants have been identified in Assam (Anon., 2013, which is
used mostly as insecticides, catching fishes and sometimes at mild doses for treatment of
human and animal diseases. Examples of such plants are:

a) As insecticides: Different plant parts of Ageratum conyzoides & A. haustonianum

(Gondhoa-ban), Azadirachta indica (Mahaneem), Annona squamosal (Arakothal, Atlas,
Menga), Citrus maxima (Bor tenga), Derris elliptica (Etamchali), Duranta repens (Duranta),
Eupatorium odoratum (Jarmani-ban), Melia azadirach (Ghora neem), Millettia pachycarpa
(Bihloti or Bokalbih), Parthenium sp. (Parthenia), Randia dumetorum (Bitmora) etc.

b) Fishing: Anamitra occulus (Koamara), Annona squamosal (Arakothal, Atlas, Menga),

Croton caudata (Mahudi), Croton tiglium (Kanibih), Derris elliptica (Etamchali),
Engelhardtia polystachya (Chalbih or Xilpama), Milletia pachycarpa (Bokal bih), Randia
dumetorum (Bitmona), etc.

c) Treatment of human and animals: Acalypha indica (Muktajuri), Adhatoda vasica

(Bahok tita), Artemisia maritime (Chirata), Azadirachta indica (Moha neem), Cantharelus
rosea (Nayantara), Corchorus capsularis (Titamara), Gynocordia odorata (Lemtem),

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Hydnocarpus kurgii (Chalmogora), Phlogocanthus thyrsiflorus (Tita phul), Solanum nigrum

(Laskochi), Taxus baccata (Yew, Xugandhi bokota), etc.

d) Miscellenous: Aconitum sp. (Barbih), Berbaris vulgaris (Kath-halodhi), Caesearia

vareca (Chikarguti), Cannabis sativa (Bhang), Clerodendron infortunatum (Bhetaitita),
Datura metel (Bengunia dhatura), Dichroa febrifuga (Acheru), Gendarussa vulgaris (Bixolya
koroni), Girardinia heterophylla (Barchorat), Lantana camara (Guphul), Nerium indicum
(Korobi), Phaseolus lunatus (Kotari dubua mah), Phaseolus sativus (Kalamah), Strychnos
nuxvomica (Mekurijaba), Trichosanthes bracteata (Koabhaturi), Xanthium strumarium
(Agara), etc.

19. Making Boat

River transport by boat is one of the major modes of transport in many interior areas of
the state including char-chapori areas. It has no alternative in many areas especially during
monsoon. Tree species used for making boat are Artocarpus chama (Cham, Chamkothal),
Barringtonia acutangula (Hijol), Beilschmiedia brandisii (Leluk), Beilschmiedia
roxburghiana (Cheraiguti), Bischofia javanica (Uriam), Celtis australis (Mouhita), Cordia
myxa (Bhutadroom), Drymicarpus racemosus (Diyengbora), Lagerstroemia flos-reginae
(Aajar), Lagerstroemia purviflora (Sidha), Lagerstroemia speciosa (Aajar), Litsea polyantha
(Xoalu), Litsea glutinosa (Heluka), Lithocarpus spicatus syn. Quercus spicata (Temixako),
Litsea augustifolia (Tharham), Melaleuca leucadendron (Melaleuca), Ternstroemia
gymnanthera (Paanibokul), Vitex penduncularis (Aahoi), etc.

20. Preparation of Gunpowder

Gun powder is used extensively for protection of crops from wild animals. Different
plant species utilized for this purpose are Adhatoda vasica (Titabahak), Alstonia scholaris
(Chatiana), Butea frondosa (Palax), Calatropis procera (Aakon), Holarrhena antidysenterica
(Kutos), Nerium odorum (Raktakorobi), Pongamia pinnata (Karanch), Smilax glabra
(Tikoniborua lata), Trema orientalis (Phakdema), etc.

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21. Species for Sericultural industries

Since time immemorial Assam is famous for varieties of silk products. Plant species
required for different silk products are as follows:

(i) Muga: Cinanamomum obtusifolium (Patihonda), Litsaea polyantha (Xoalu), Machilus

bombycina syn. Machilus odoratissima (Chom), Symplocs grandiflora (Bhomloti),
Tetranthera glance syn. Litsaea salicofolia (Digholoti), etc.;

(ii) Mejangkori: Litsea citrata (Mejangkori), Michelia sp. (Chapa), Tetranthera

quadrifolia (Aadakuri), etc.;

(iii) Eri/Endi: Gmelina arborea (Gamari), Heteropanax fragrans (Kecheru), Jatropha

curcas (Bhotera), Ricinus communis (Era), Zizyphus sp. (Bogori), etc.;

(iv) Paat: Morus alba (Nuni);

(v) Tassar: Averrhoea carambola (Kardoi), Barringtonia acutangula (Hijol or Hidal),

Mallotus sp. (Phutuka), Vangueria spinosa (Kutkura), etc.

Most of the species mentioned above are grown in either Integrated Baree or Meroni.
Unfortunately, the name and fame of Assam silk is eroding at present due to gradual
shrinkage of production due to fragmentation of land holding, environmental pollution,
increase of cost of production, etc. inspite of having high market demand. Production of
different silk products such as Mejangkori, Tassar and Paat are almost extinct now in Assam.
Once famous throughout the world, the golden muga industry is also decreasing gradually at a
rapid pace.

22. Other purposes

Many other minor purposes are served by the plant species grown in Baree or nearby
areas (Table 1.15).

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Table 1.15: Tree species used for other minor purposes

Purposes Plant Species

Tooth Azadirachta indica (Mohaneem), Glycosmis pentaphylla (Tolothapaka),
brushing Jatropha gossypifolia (Bhotera), Melastoma malabathricum (Phutukala),
Naravalia zeylanica (Goropsoi), Streblus asper (Xeura, Kharua),
Zanthoxylum alatum (Tamboru), etc.
Weight in Abrus precatorius (Latumoni), Adenanthera pavonina (Ku-sandan), etc.
jewellery
shop
Spices Cinnamomum tamala (Tejpat), Eryngium foetidum (Janghali memedhu),
Ocimum basilicum (Ban-tuloxi), Vatica lanceafolia (Morhal, Morxal) etc.
Game article Zanthoxylum limonella (Bajranoli), Entada phaseoloides (Ghila lota)
As soap Grewia abutilifolia (Bandhucha), Grewia polygama (Datbijala), Entada
scandens (Ghilalata), Sapindus mukorossi (Monichal), Urena lobata
(Xonborial), etc.
Making Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal), Artocarpus chama (Cham), Crescentia
musical cuteja (Binalao), Hymenodictyon excelsum (Phurkundi), Melia composita
instruments (Pahari neem), Swietenia mahagoni (Mehogoni), Trewia nudiflora
and (Bhelkor, Pindari), Bambusa tulda (Jati banh), Bambusa pallida (Bijuli
accessories banh), etc.
Making mat Clinogyne dichotoma (Paatidoi), Livistona jenkinsiana (Tokou), Typha
augustifolia (Maduri), T. elephantina (Maduri), Cyperus pilosus
(Harkotabon), etc.
Kitchen ware, Ilex umbellulota (Bikhakulia), Mallotus albus (Moroliagoch), Glycosmis
doll, walking pentaphylla (Tolothapaka), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal),
stick, bag and Hymenodictyon excelsum (Phurkundi), Salix tetrasperma (Bhe), Buxus
other crafts/ sempervirens (Bakos gosh), Clinogyne dicholoma (Paatidoi), Dalhousiea
utensil bracteata (Poharilota), Porana puniculata (Rukminilota), Euonymus
grandiflora (Giladhari), Aesculus punduana (Ramanbih), Livistona

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jenkinsiana (Tokou), Butea superb (Polax lota), Glochidion assamicum

(Panichitiki), Hodgsonia heteroclita (Thopouguti), Abrus brecatorius
(Latumoni), Pseudostachyum polymorphum (Nol), Cocos nicifera
(Narikal), Bambusa tulda (Jatibanh), etc.
Wrapping Musa sp.(Kolpaat), Phrynium pubinerve (Kou paat), Alpinnia nigra (Tora
material paat), Macaranga grandifolia (Morolia)
Cleaning Areca catechu (Tamul), Thysanolaena agrostis (Jharubon), Cocos nicifera
utensil (Narikol), Bambusa sp., etc.
As beverage Aegle marmelos (Bael), Desmodium triquetrum (Uluchah), Cichorium
intybus (Kaxini), Coffea benghalensis (Dewamali), Stuartia pseudo-
camellia (Micha chah), etc.
Raw material Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Anthocephalus chinensis (Kadam), Bambusa sp.
for industries (Banh), Arundo donax (Nol), Erianthus elephantinus (Khagori), Saccharum
like match spontaneum (Kahua, Luhia), Ipomoea fistulosa (Matikolmou), Acacia
factory, paper farnensiana (Toruakadom), Bauhinia purpurea (Bon kanchan), Albizia
& pulp, lebbeck (Siris), Butea monosperma (Polax), Abrus boswellia serrata
leather, gums (Dhuna), Canarium resiniferum (Dhuna), Canarium bengalense
& resins, etc. (Motadhuna), Aleurites fordii (Tang goch), Acacia catechu (Khoir), Acacia
nilotica (Babul), Caesalpinia coriaria (Dibi-dibi, Debi), Betula alnoides
(Bhojpatra), Abrus brecatorius (Latumoni), Garuga pinnata (Rohimola),
Glochidion velutinum (Dolpoduli), etc.

Importance

Baree – the traditional species–rich, complex–structured and highly diverse

agroforestry system, like any other home garden of the tropical and sub - tropical world fulfils
multitude of social as well as economical functions without destroying the delicate ecological
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balance. For the resource – poor farming community of the state the most attractive features
of the Baree are the low cost involvement for production and maintenance along with product
diversity. Relevance and renewed interest in this subsistence – farming system has been
growing day by day due to the following reasons:

(i) The complex – structured Baree system helps in the efficient utilization of water, light
as well as space for which it can support diverse flora as well as fauna in a sustainable
manner. It contains characteristics which make them interesting model for designing
sustainable agro-ecosystems including efficient nutrient supply through utilization of
micorrhiza or crop rotation etc., high biodiversity, low use of external inputs like chemicals
and soil conservation potential.

(ii) Single plot of land fulfils diverse needs of the farm families by providing socio
economic products and benefits to the farm families in a stable manner.

Multifuntionality is a characteristic feature of Baree like any other home-gardens of

other parts of the tropical and sub tropical world. It has intrinsic potential to provide food,
fuel, fodder, green manure, timber resource, etc. The major benefits of Baree can be
summarized as improved food security and increased availability of food, better nutrition
through diversification, enhanced income and rural employment, decreased risk due to
diversification, numerous environmental benefits (Landon-Lane, 2011).

1. Enhancing food & nutritional security

Baree directly helps to household food security by increasing availability, accessibility

and utilization of food products. It adds substantially to the energy and nutritive requirement
of the farm families on a continuous basis. Food items from Baree vary from horticultural
crops to animal products. The plants may be used as spices, herbs, medicines and animal
fodder. The diversity of food items lead to an overall increase in dietary intake and helps in
bio-availability and absorption of essential nutrients. The products contain proteins, vitamins
and minerals resulting in enriched and balanced diet for the farm families. Furthermore, the
integration of livestock and poultry, mushroom, honeybee, fish etc. reinforces food and

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nutritional security in a balanced way through availability of proteins and other nutrients.
Continuous flow of food products for the farm family is one of the most important phenomena
of Baree.

Plants are also source of medicine for human and livestock and are used as biological
pesticide against disease and pest infestation. A large number of plants found in Baree have
some medicinal value and are used widely to treat several common health problems in a cost-
effective manner. A year-round production of vegetable and fruits improve the quality of diet
addressing health issues resulting from malnutrition.

2. Economic Feature
The economic benefits of Baree go beyond food and nutritional security and
subsistence especially for resource-poor farm families. It contributes enormously towards
income generation, improved livelihood, household economic welfare, promotion of
entrepreneurship and rural development. The contribution towards household economic
wellbeing may be in several ways: output can be sold in local market to earn additional
income, activities can be upgraded into a small cottage industry or the savings from
consuming home grown products can lead to more disposable income that can be utilized for
other purposes like children education. As need of the hour, Baree should be structured to be
more efficient commercial enterprise by growing high value crops or trees and animal
husbandry.
It is well known that all the benefits of the Baree system cannot be measured in
economic terms. However, even in economic front contribution of Baree towards agricultural
sector is enormous. A detailed study on home garden of Assam revealed that on an average,
the size of home garden of is 0.33 ha in which agroforestry (fruits and other plantation crops)
occupies about 73 % land area and the rest of the area is devoted mostly to vegetables. Home
garden contributes about 25 % of total agricultural income although the share of investment is
only about 16 %. Share of total agricultural labourers employed in a home garden varies from
16.52 – 64.11 % leading to profit from small home garden much higher than that of field
crops (Bhowmik and Sharma, 2001). There is wide variation with regard to land-use pattern,

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income, capital investment and labour employed in home garden according to the size of the
farmers and location in the state.

3. Conservation of Environment and Traditional Knowledge

High floristic diversity with diverse functional groups of plant species (fruits,
vegetables, timber, medicinal plant, dye yielding species, spices, etc.) suiting varying
topographic, geomorphologic and edaphic situations of the state is observed in Baree like any
other home-garden of the world. Baree serves a major role for biodiversity conservation of an
area; many species which are now almost extinct in many forest areas, due to wanton
destruction of natural forest, are still preserved in Baree as mentioned earlier. Besides, both
naturally occurring and deliberately introduced plants exist in Baree and therefore Baree also
function as the initial stage for experimentation with new plant species, their cultivation
practices and inter-specific interactions with the existing floral species.

There is evidence about the positive role of Baree on environmental functions such as
biodiversity conservation, mitigation of environmental pollution and regulation of physical as
well as chemical fluxes in eco-systems. The technique of management and high diversity of
Baree reflects the wisdom of traditional culture and ecological knowledge that had evolved
over the centuries. “Conservation through use” approaches in Baree are an element of
complementary conservation energy and should be strengthened for economic viability,
ecological sustainability and social acceptability. It serves as an important site for in situ
conservation of plant diversity and conserves many rare and endangered species meant for
diverse utilities. Therefore, Baree can serve as a gene pool for the eroded indigenous floral
species. Inventorization of such areas can help in the identification or conservation of
biodiversity while assessing the sustainability of the system. Baree contributes to the
sustainable use of natural resources by reducing pressure in the native vegetation present
nearby and thus helps in conservation of biodiversity and environment indirectly. As
mentioned earlier Baree serves as carbon sink, thereby playing a vibrant ecological role in the
current climate change scenario. Baree also possesses great potential for mitigation of carbon
dioxide build up in the atmosphere. On an average above-ground standing stocks of carbon in
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Kerala home-garden ranges from 16 to 36 Mg per ha; however, such studies are yet to be
carried out in Baree. Baree, like home-gardens have several specific characteristics with
regard to environment. They not only sequester carbon in bio-mass and soil, but also reduce
fossil-fuel burning by promoting production of wood fuel besides conserving biodiversity. In
addition, they help in the conservation of carbon stocks in existing natural forest by alleviating
the pressure on these areas. Moreover, there is no complete removal of bio-mass from the
Baree even for a single day. The Baree system, thus, is remarkably resilient. More than half of
the carbon assimilated by woody perennials in this system is also transported below ground
via root growth and organic matter turnover process, augmenting the soil organic carbon pool.

Bamboo, one of the most important species in Baree is a potential substitute for non-
biodegradable materials such as plastic and metal with polymer composites. Being a C4 plant
and extensive coverage in Baree, bamboo has high potentiality to mitigate global warming
through carbon sequestration.

4. Uplifting the Status of Women

In many cultures, women play an important role in food production but at times their
worth is somewhat undermined. They are also active in various activities in Baree. By
managing Baree, women may have developed proficiency related to plant and animal
management that helps them to become better home and environment manager. By
involvement in production process, they are able to meet family needs more easily and
economically.
It is observed that the book-keeping activities of Baree, although in crude form, are
under the domain of house-wives in upper Assam and in many tribal inhabited areas of the
state. In such areas women are the principal managers although men perform heavy tasks like
hoeing, bed preparation, fence building, pond digging, tree harvesting etc. All other activities
including the care of livestock and poultry are done by women only.

5. Building of Integrated Society

Interactions in and around Baree create a reinforced social status and ties between the
households and the community. Farm families habitually exchange or gift planting materials
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like vegetables, fruits, leaves, herbs and medicinal plants for social, cultural and religious
purposes. Such interactions help in building integrated society.

Present scenario
At present with the rapid rise in population, conversion of agricultural land for non-
agricultural purposes, urbanization and changing value system and needs, different features of
Baree have been eroded at a rapid pace along with the shrinkage of the size. Presently, most
of the farmers except few tribal communities put less emphasis on measures needed for proper
drainage and soil management practices mentioned above. Emphasis on diversified
components and their arrangement according to orientation of sunshine is diminishing due to
change in value system and fragmentation of land holding with the rise of population.
Traditional values and knowledge with regard to utilities of plant species have eroded in rural
& semi-urban societies even in interior areas. Utilities of many products of plant species
raised in Baree earlier, are becoming irrelevant to the rural people as cheap substitutes is
available in market readily. For example species meant for dyes, gun powder, fibres,
poisonous substances, soaps, etc. have no longer use and utilities for the societies at present.
Even the influence of Bej (traditional rural practitioner) upon the common people of the
society is shrinking rapidly due to popularity of modern medical facilities. As a result of this
situation, only a few interested people can identify the plant species available in Baree and
know their diversified utilities.
Due to all pervading market economy monocropping is gaining popularity than mixed
culture of Baree. Shifting of traditional home-garden from subsistence-oriented agriculture to
market economy has caused high frequency and density of cash crops like Aquilaria
malaccensis (Xanchi) and Camellia sinensis (Chah) in Upper Assam. Rapid expansion of
small tea gardens in the eastern parts and Hevea brasilliensis (Rubber) on the western part of
the state has threatened the very existence of multi-species based integrated Baree or Meroni.
However, in the context of the importance of sustainability of the system, the question
whether ecological benefits such as high tree-crop diversity in Baree are to be sacrificed for
market-driven high yielding mono crops that assure high returns is doubtful. The scope of

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organized multispecies based plantation in Paam or Meroni is also decreasing due to

fractionalization of land holding and rapid rise in population of permanent settlers.

SWOT analysis

Strength

(i) Improved food security

(ii) Increased availability of food and better nutrition through plant and animal food
diversification
(iii) Enhanced income and rural employment through food diversification
(iv) Decreased risk through diversification of plants and animal components
(v) Uplifting the status of women
(vi) Preserving indigenous knowledge and building integrated society
(vii) Environmental benefits from recycling of water and nutrients; controlling shade, dust
and erosion and maintaining biodiversity

Weakness
(i) Limited space within Baree
(ii) Limited access to inputs such as seeds, planting materials, quality livestock breed,
tools, water and capital
(iii) Shortage of land and lack of land tenure security in several cases
(iv) Damage due to insect-pests, diseases and domestic animals
(v) Lack of knowledge, technical knowhow and advisory services
(vi) Soil erosion and poor soil fertility in several cases
(vii) Limited marketing opportunities
(viii) Excessive post-harvest losses
(ix) Inadequate research on development of Baree
(x) Social and cultural barriers
(xi) Lack of information on nutritional benefits of Baree products
(xii) Motivation for change may be limited for resource-poor farmers
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Opportunity

(i) Involvement of external input agency

(ii) Efficient water management through rain water harvesting
(iii) Generating own requirements e.g., firewood, medicinal plant species, traditional minor
crops etc.
(iv) Development of cottage industries based on Baree products
(v) Labour saving technologies and processes such as planning a garden that can self
sustain, growing fruit and nut trees that need little attention
(vi) Giving attention to sanitation and production of organic inputs
(vii) Ease of conversion into organic agriculture

Threat

(i) Increase in livestock and human population resulting in shrinkage of land resource
(ii) Fragmentation of land holding
(iii) Conversion of agricultural land for non-agricultural activities
(iv) Change in value system resulting in monoculture
(v) Availability of artificial low-priced substitutes due to modernization
(vi) Shortage of family or hired labour

Intervention required

Considering the importance of Baree in terms of nutritional security, preservation of

biodiversity, ecology and economic upliftment of the farmers due importance should be given
for reorientation and reorganization of the system. This is important for coping up with the
modern needs without losing the inherent benefit from the system. For reorganization of the
Baree system emphasis on the following are of utmost importance:
(i) Proper drainage and leveling of the land under Baree should be emphasized
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(ii) Irrigation facilities should be provided, wherever possible

(iii) Selection of plant species and varieties should get top priority considering the
variation on the agro-climatic and ecological situation, need of the farmer and demand of the
market
(iv) Combination of tree species should be done carefully and scientifically considering
different factors such as direction of sunshine, interaction effect among different tree species
etc.
(v) Planting density of trees should be designed carefully based on the factors such as
transmission of light, root characteristics of different tree species, competition for nutrient,
symbiotic and allelopathic effect, growth and development of trees, age of trees etc.
(vi) During selection of species or varieties, due consideration should be given on
resistance or tolerance to prevalent insect-pests and diseases, drought, frost etc.
(vii) Excessive weeding in all the zones except the Vegetable zone and at seedling stage in
all other zones should be discouraged as because naturally grown species of flora in ground
stratum have diverse utilities.
(viii) For nutrient management of the crops under Baree, emphasis should be given on the
use of organic inputs such as compost, super-compost, enriched compost, vermicompost,
green leaf manuring etc.
(ix) Kitchen garden in Vegetable zone of Baree should be designed scientifically so as to
meet the nutritional need of the family throughout the year.
(x) For Fruit zone the following points are to be considered:
a. Canopy management should be done in proper manner,
b. High density planting technology should be followed, wherever possible,
c. Integration of protected cultivation for growing seedlings wherever possible,
d. Considering the importance of nutritional need of farm family and maintenance
of bio-diversity, conservation of minor fruits, vegetables, spices etc. through
utilization should be emphasized.

(xi) For Timber zone following points should be considered:

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a. Selection of elite tree species or varieties having straight bole, free from twist
and knots along with high timber qualities,
b. In timber zone of the Baree, alternate planting of very rapid growing tree with
moderate rapid growing species in mixed plantation
c. Thinning and tending operation (as well as cutting of branches) at proper time
and stage of the tree, and
d. Slow growing timber species should be planted at boundaries with more
spacing.

(xii) For enhancing the aesthetic value and monetary return, flowers should be planted in
Baree systematically in scientific manner by using low cost green house, mulching, micro
irrigation etc.

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CHAPTER II

INTERVENTION NEEDED FOR IMPROVEMENT

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Considering the importance of Baree in terms of nutritional security, conservation of

biodiversity and economic sustainability with stable supply of diverse products due emphasis
should be given to reorientation as well as reorganization of the system with changing times.
This is of utmost importance for coping up with the market-driven modern needs without
losing the inherent benefits of the age old land use practice based on traditional knowledge.
Hence, realistic planning for scientific intervention is needed for diverse
agroclomatic/agroecological and socio-economic situation of the state which is pre-requisite
for remodeling of the Baree system.

In the present discussion, interventions needed for improvement of Baree are

presented under the following heads:

1. Planning for intervention,

2. Subsidiary components,
3. Establishment of the system, and
4. Models for different holding size.

1. Planning for intervention

Objectives: The major objective is to establish a Baree for obtaining high output per unit area
with maximum net return without hampering the existing ecosystem.

Factors influencing planning:

The factors governing the allocation of space for each component as well as plant species in a
model Baree are as follows:

(i) Available land area or size of the Baree;

(ii) Agro-climatic/agro-ecological situation; and
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(iii) Need and preference of the farm families, etc.

Available land area or size of the Baree often varies with the size of total land holding
of the farm families. As mentioned earlier, average size of homestead in the Brahmaputra
Valley is 3333 m2 (2.5 bigha) as observed in 2001. There is every possibility of shrinkage of
this area with the rise of population pressure at present. As, about 85.56% of the farm holding
of the state are either marginal (< 1 ha) or small (1-2 ha); therefore, it is highly probable that
Baree of these vast section of population are very small in size and much below 3333 m2
presently.
Agro-climatic/agro-ecological situation affect the adaptability of plant species in an
area. For example, evergreen tree species are mostly suitable in UBVZ, BVZ and few pockets
of other four Zones. On the other hand, deciduous trees are predominant mostly in CBVZ,
LBVZ and parts of other agro-climatic situations. Similarly, growing plant species in Char-
Chapori agro-ecological situation should be highly selective in contrast to the flood free
situation. Besides, population pressure in different agroclomatic situations vary widely
resulting in variation in the sizes of the Baree; average size of Baree in the CBVZ is the
smallest in contrast to the largest sized Baree in NBPZ of Assam. Therefore, only those
species should be selected which may exhibit optimum performance under local situation.

The final selection of the plant species depends on likes and dislikes of the farm
families. Preference of the plant species by the farm families depends on the need of
particular species, size of the farm family, availability of family labourer, consciousness of
farmers for nutritional requirement, utility of a species for a particular purpose, exposure to
the modern technologies, etc.

Strategy: To improve the Baree system it is presumed that the approach should be 4-fold as
mentioned below:

(i) Different tree/crop species allocated in a Baree should be done systematically and
should not be practiced in haphazard manner as noticed at present in most of the cases;

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(ii) Maximum emphasis should be laid on Vegetable Zone followed by Fruit Zone
considering the importance of nutritional security as well as the preference of the farm
families as observed in different studies. This should be done without hampering the
traditional horizontal structural system and orientation of components towards sunshine as far
as possible. However, in the present book relatively limited discussions have been made on
various aspects with respect to Vegetable Zone and Fruit Zone in contrast to the Forest Zone.
This is due to easy availibility of packages for vegetable and fruit crops in comparison to the
forest species grown in Assam;

(iii) Maximum emphasis should be given on plant species along with the subsidiary
components of Baree; these should be laid out carefully with maximum utilization of
available space; and

(iv) Several options should be there in the approach to satisfy the needs of varied
categories of farm families having different resource bases.

A. Vegetable zone

Growing of seasonal and perennial vegetables in Baree is the top most priority for all
the farm families. In almost all the cases, the majority share of produce is consumed by the
household; however, the surplus amount is either sold in the market or shared generously
within the neighbourhood. Short to medium statured fruit species, usually used as vegetables
are also commonly integrated in this zone.

Aims of planning

(i) To meet the daily requirement of balance diet i.e. 75 -125 g green leafy vegetables, 75
g roots/tubers and 100 g other vegetables (besides 150 g fruits); and

(ii) To obtain maximum produce using low inputs.

(iii) To make available fresh and quality vegetables for home consumption

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Strategies for area utilization

(i) For relatively small area to fulfill the household need, mixed planting of several
species is the top most priority, i.e. mixed cultivation of several species should be prioritized
in subsistence farming. However, for market oriented cultivation, usually done in large Baree,
monoculture of a high valued species is more feasible. In case a large farmer is interested to
grow more than one species for market, cultivation of market oriented vegetables may be done
in relatively smaller blocks or in wide strips;

(ii) Depending upon the size of the farm family minimum area needed for growing
vegetables (for household consumption) varies. However, 250 m2 area is sufficient for a five
member family to supply 1.5 kg of total vegetables per day throughout the year. Therefore, if
the total area of the Baree is only 250 m2 or less than 250 m2, the objective of planning is to
grow vegetables for household consumption only;

(iii) If the area under Baree is 250 (approx. 300) - 500 m2 the excess area over 250 m2 (for
a 5-member family) may be utilized in any one of the following manner:

a. Considering the importance of nutritional security of the farm families growing

of fruits should get the priority. Depending upon the choice of the farmers, however, other
market driven options (as mentioned below) may also be incorporated;

b. Area excess over 250 m2 may be utilized for growing one or few high valued
vegetables having high market demand; or

c. Growing off season vegetables or flowers in 100 m2 low cost protective

structure (bamboo based plastic structure). To achieve this objective, total area of Baree
should be about 400 m2; or

d. Establishment of a nursery of vegetables, fruits, spices, timber trees or any

other plant sp. etc. under 100 m2 net house. Selection of the species will vary with the market
demand and choice of the farm family. For this purpose, total area of Baree should be about
400 m2; or

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e. If the total area of Baree is about 500 m2 both plastic house and net house units
for off season vegetables/flower and /or nursery may be incorporated in the system.

Principles of raising species in Vegetable Zone

A large number of plant species, mostly annual or seasonal and few perennials having
varied nature are utilized as vegetables. Besides, several fruit species are commonly used as
vegetables. Therefore, utmost care is needed for selection of land situation, placement of
species in the area, selection of species or varieties, cropping sequences and management
practices.

1. Selection of land

(i) The area should be situated at the backyard preferably in southern, eastern or south-
eastern side nearby water source.

(ii) Land selected for growing vegetable crops should be well drained, flood free,
preferably be levelled and in a sunny area;

(iii) Soil texture should preferably be sandy loam and rich in organic matter;

2. Size and design

(i) Size as well as design of the vegetable garden may vary with the available land area,
size of the farm families, priority of objective (whether bare subsistence or for market) as well
as preference of the species by the farmers;

(ii) Shape of the area should preferably be rectangular.

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3. Placement of species within the zone

Placement of vegetable species in the zone (especially for subsistence) should be

based on the interception of light, height or stature of plant, canopy coverage of adjacent
plant, growth behavior of the species, etc. Hence,

(i) Quick growing small and medium sized perennial fruit species, commonly used as
vegetables like Carica papaya (Amita), Musa sp. (cv. Kachkal, dwarf cavendish), etc. should
be planted in northern border of the zone. Other species which should be grown in this
direction of the zone are Moringa oleifera (Sajina), Citrus limon cv. Assam lemon
(Nemutenga), Citrus jambhiri cv. Golnemu (Golnemu), Cinnamomum tamala (Tejpat),
Sesbania grandiflora (Bokphul), Hibiscus sabdariffa (Tengamora), Murrya koenigii
(Naraxingha), Pogostemon benghalensis (Sukloti), etc. Among these, plants with maximum
height should be planted at the north-western corner of the zone. Plants with gradually
reducing height should be placed towards eastern direction in one or two rows; the most dwarf
plant species should be grown at the south-eastern corner of the zone;

(ii) Climbing species or varieties of vegetables (mostly cucurbits) grown on trellis should
be placed nearby perennial tree vegetables, i.e. southern side of the perennial tree vegetables
and northern side of other seasonal vegetables;

(iii) Climbing species or varieties of vegetables grown on perch should be placed on north-
western side of other annual non-climbing dwarf vegetables;

(iv) Land below trellis can be utilized for growing partially shade tolerant species like
ginger, turmeric, colocasia, etc. during kharif season and leafy vegetables during rabi season;

(v) Relatively tall statured vegetables (like tomato, brinjal, chilli, etc.) should be grown
together in adjacent plots as far as practicable;

(vi) To ensure steady and regular supply of vegetables and to avoid the glut, several
sowing of a particular crop at short intervals should be done during the season;

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(vii) Early maturing crops (like cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, etc.) should be planted in
continuous beds as far as practicable so that the area can be utilized for putting late varieties;

(viii) Interspaces of long duration crops (like brinjal, chilli, etc.) may be utilized for quick
growing crops (like spinach, spinach beet, lettuce, coriander, vegetable mustard or toria, etc.);

(ix) Different root crops (like radish, carrot, beet, colocasia, etc.) may be grown on the
ridges separating individual small plots or both sides of irrigation channels;

(x) Separate small plots may be allotted to perennial vegetables like perennial chilli,
brinjal, pointed gourd, spine gourd, etc.

4. Selection of species and variety

(i) When space is the limiting factor for selection of vegetable species or variety, the
basic principles to be followed are:

a. Vegetables producing larger amount of edible material in comparison to the

space occupied should be given priority; and

b. Vegetables which are costly and not easily available in the market should be
given priority over the vegetables which have shorter shelf life for upkeep of quality like
spinach, mint, etc.

(ii) It is better to select the recommended or local varieties for Vegetable Zone. However,
selection of species, varieties of cropping sequences depends largely on the preference by the
members of the farm family.

5. Crop rotation under low cost plastic house

(i) Kind of structure: Bamboo based structure with covering of UV stabilized plastic
materials of 200 µ thicknesses.

(ii) Duration of structure: 4-5 years

(iii) Cost of Plastic film: Rs. 10,000/-

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(iv) Area needed: 100 m2

Cropping sequence:

Tomato/Capsicum (Mar-Jun) – Spinach beet/ Coriander leaf/ leafy Radish (Jul-Oct) –

Cucumber/Capsicum (Nov-Feb)

Note: Low cost plastic house in Baree can also be effectively used for growing commercial
flowers viz. Gerbera, Chrysanthemum, Tuberose, Orchid, etc.

6. Management practices

(i) Different management practices should be as per recommendation (Package of

Practices for Horticultural crops, Fisheries and Home Science, 2010);

(ii) Mulching with green and dry leaves (preferably by leaves of the leguminous species)
checks growth of weeds, reduces moisture loss, regulates the soil temperature, increases the
microbial activities and adds to organic matter content in soil;

(iii) The organic matter content of the Vegetable Zone should be well-maintained through
recycling of waste and bio-resources. Therefore, emphasis should be given on –

a. Use of organic inputs such as compost, enriched compost, green leaf manuring,
inclusion of leguminous crop in cropping sequence, etc.;

b. One to four compost pits should be dug in each kitchen garden to decompose
plant residues and to enhance the amount of organic matter;

c. Vermicomposting unit should invariably be a part of the Vegetable Zone so

that sufficient organic manures can be obtained on a continued basis at a reasonable cost.

(iv) ITKs should be applied for management of insect-pests, diseases, or nutrition of

vegetables.

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B. Fruit zone

During scientific planning for growing varied fruit crops in Baree, it is of utmost
importance to consider nutritional security of the farm family, priority of the house hold and
conservation of biodiversity through use. The lion’s share of produce in Fruit Zone is often
consumed in the house hold as in case of vegetable crops; the surplus amount is either shared
within the neighbourhood or sold in the local market. Usually mixed plantation of several
species is preferred to be grown in Baree for fulfilling nutritional balance of the farm family
round the year. However, large scale plantation of Citrus reticulata cv: Khasi mandarin and
Areca catechu (Tamol), in Baree is traditionally popular throughout the state. Monoculture of
Carica papaya (Amita), Citrus sp. cv. Assam lemon (Nemutenga), Cocos nucifera (Narikal),
Fragaria vesca (Strawberry), Musa sp. (Kal), Zizyphus mauritiana (Bilati bogori), etc. are
also becoming popular. Large scale cultivation of other fruit species is yet to gain momentum.

Aims of planning

(i) To get maximum share of the daily requirement of 150 g fruits by each member
needed for balance diet;

(ii) To obtain maximum produce using low inputs, and

(iii) To make available fresh and quality fruits for home consumption

Strategies for area utilization

(i) To fulfill the household need from a relatively small area, mixed planting of several
species is the top most priority, i.e. mixed cultivation of several species should be prioritized
in subsistence farming. However for market oriented cultivation in larger area, monoculture of
a high valued species is more feasible for easier management. In cases, if a large farmer is
interested to grow more than one species of fruits for market, cultivation may be done in small
blocks or in wide strips;

(ii) If the area of Baree is 250-500 m2, the excess area over 250 m2 (needed for Vegetable
Zone) should be utilized for growing fruit crops as nutritional security is one of the prime
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objectives of scientific planning of Baree. Hence, a model for 200 m2 area under fruit crops
has been provided (Fig. 3) to fulfill partially the fruit requirement of the farm family;

(iii) If the area under fruit zone is < 200 m2, number of species (Fig. 3 & Table 2.1) will
have to be reduced depending upon the availability of land and choice of the farm family;

(iv) About 1296 m2 (or about 1 bigha) of land area is required under fruit crops to fulfill
the maximum amount of fruit requirement per day throughout the year for a 5-member family
(Fig. 4 & Table 2.3); however, number of total fruit species or number under each fruit
species as shown in Fig 4 and Table 2.18 may also be reduced if the total land area under fruit
zone varies between 200 m2 to 1300 m2 (Fig. 4) depending upon the availability of land area
and choice of the farm family;

(v) Considering the importance of nutritional security as the top most priority in a country
like India, it is highly essential to fulfill the requirements of nutritional need of farm family as
mentioned earlier. To fulfill nutritional requirement i.e. both the needs of vegetables and
fruits, total area needed is about 1546 m2 (250 m2 + 1296 m2) for a 5-member family. In order
to include the net house (100 m2) for growing seedlings, the total area requirement of Baree is
1650 m2 (1550 m2 + 100 m2). If plastic house (100 m2) is incorporated as discussed in
vegetable zone, the total land area requirement under Baree will be about 1750 m2 (1650 m2 +
100 m2); however, considering 254 m2 which may be utilized for open space or any other
purposes, the total area will be around 2000 m2;

(vi) If the total land area under Baree is >2000 m2, the excess area may be utilized for
several purposes as mentioned below:

a. To incorporate more number of minor fruit species as mentioned in Table 2.18

which will help to conserve fruit germplasm through use;

b. Growing more number of few fruit species (major or minor) as per choice of
the farmers;

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c. To fulfill the timber/fuel wood requirement of the farm family different species
may be grown which is discussed under Forest Zone;

d. Market driven options as:

 Growing high value vegetables (as mentioned in Vegetable Zone),

 Growing plantation crops especially Areca catechu (Tamol) (Fig. 6) and Cocos
nucifera (Narikal) (Fig. 5) as multistoried cropping system,

 Growing monoculture of other fruit species like Musa sp., Citrus reticulata cv:
Khasi mandarin (Kamalatenga), Citrus limon cv. Assam lemon (Nemutenga),
Zizyphus mauritiana (Bilati bogori), Carica papaya (Amita), Fragaria vesca
(Strawberry), etc.

 Growing plant species for other purposes as timber, fuel wood, fragrant oil
production, sericulture, etc. as monoculture or mixed culture which is
discussed under Forest Zone.

Principles of raising species in Fruit Zone

Being perennial in nature, most fruit crops call for utmost care for selection of land,
placement of species in the area, selection of variety, quality of planting material, and right
technology for management practices.

1. Selection of land

(i) Land selected for growing fruit crops should be sunny; soil should be deep, fertile and
well-drained;

(ii) Land should be leveled properly with slight slanting towards the drains; proper
drainage facility is one of keys for success of fruit gardening;

(iii) The Fruit Zone should preferably be situated at the northern/north –western direction
of the vegetable zone due to orientation of sunshine and tree canopy.

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2. Size and design

Size and design of the fruit garden may vary with the availability of land area, priority
of need and choice of species by the farmers.

3. Placement of species in the zone

Placement of fruit species in the zone ( especially for subsistence purpose with several
species) should be based on the interception of light, canopy coverage of adjacent tree,
height/stature of plant, growth behavior besides nutritional requirement, rooting pattern, etc.

(i) Placement of the species should be as per the plant canopy only; species with
maximum height and dense canopy should be placed at the north-western corner of the Fruit
Zone. Height and canopy of different species should be gradually decreasing towards eastern
and southern direction. Most dwarf species should, therefore, be placed at the south-eastern
corner of the zone;

(ii) Partial shade tolerant species of fruits (viz. Ananas comosus), spices (viz. Curcuma
longa, Piper longum, Zingiber officinale, etc.), medicinal plants (viz. Murrya koenigii,
Adhatoda vasica, Phlogocanthus thyrsiflorus, etc.), green manuring crops (viz. Sesbania sp.),
fodders, etc. can be grown in interspaces depending upon the interception of light. Ground
trailing fruits like Citrullus lanatus (Tarmuj), Cucumis melo (Bangi), etc. can be allowed to
grow in the interspaces. Fruits like Passiflora edulis (Kothbel, Lotabel, Passion fruit) and
spices like Piper nigrum (Jaluk) may easily be grown as companion crops due to their trailing
habits taking other tree species as standards;

(iii) Growing a mixture of different crops based on requirement of light in a multistoried

pattern like the tall growing species, medium statured ones, bushes and the surface creepers
utilizes the solar radiation efficiently at different elevations.

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4. Selection of variety

For major fruit crops, priority should be given to recommended varieties (Table 2.1)

Table 2.1: Recommended varieties of some major fruit crops

Crop Assamese Variety

name
Achras zapota Sopeta Cricket Ball, Barmasi, Oval, Co.1
Ananas comosus Matikothal, Kew, Queen, Mauritius
Anaras
Areca catechu Tamol Local Selection
Artocarpus Kothal Singapore Jack, Rudrakshi, Local Selection
heterophyllus

Carica papaya Amita Dioecious type: Co.1, Co.2, Washington, Ranchi,

Haflong
Hermaphrodite type: Solo, Coorg Honey Dew,
Hybrid (RL, Sapna)
Citrus limon Nemu tenga Local
Citrus reticulate Kamala tenga Local
Cocos nucifera Narikal Assam tall, TxD hybrid (Chandrasankar), Bengal
Hazari, Kamrupa, Kahikuchi Hybrid-1
Litchi chinensis Lichu Muzaffarpur, Dehradun, Calcutta, Rose Scented
Mangifera indica Aam Langra, Malda, Gulabkhas, Krishnabhog, Dashehari,
Fazli, Mallika, Amrapali
Musa sp. Kal Dwarf: Dwarf Cavendish
Medium:Chenichampa, Malbhog, Bar jahaji
Tall: Kachkal, Jatikal,Bhimkal, Manoharkal
Psidium guajava Madhuriam Lucknow-49, Allahabad Safeda, Chittidar, Seedless

For minor fruit species, local elite tree types should be prioritized.
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5. Quality planting material

Improvement of technology base and other strategies for fruit species cannot achieve
satisfactory impact unless quality planting material is utilized. Vegetatively propagated
materials result in uniform early bearing trees giving rise to superior productivity and better
quality fruits. These trees are mostly free from transmittable diseases and insect-pests. Trees
arising from vegetatively propagated materials are dwarf in size and hence more number of
trees can be accommodated resulting higher output per unit area in the fruit zone.

Different recommended propagation techniques needed for generation of quality

planting materials are mentioned in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Types of vegetative propagules to be used for some important fruit crops

Sl. Crop Assamese name Methods of propagation

No.
1. Achras zapota Sapeta Wedge grafting
2. Aegle marmelos Bael Wedge grafting
3. Anacardium occidentale Kaju badam Soft-wood grafting
4. Ananas comosus Matikothal, Anaras Sucker, slip
5. Annona reticulate Atlas, Menga Wedge grafting
6. Artocarpus Kothal Soft-wood grafting, patch budding
heterophylaaus
7. Citrus sp.(lime/lemon) Nemu tenga Cutting, layering, budding
8. Citrus sp.(Sweet orange) Mosombi Wedge grafting, T-budding
9. Citrus reticulata Kamala tenga Wedge grafting, T-budding
10. Emblica officinalis Amlokhi Wedge grafting, patch budding
11. Fragaria vesca Strawberry Runner
13. Litchi chinensis Lichu Air-layering, wedge grafting
Mangifera indica Aam Grafting (soft-wood, wedge &
veneer)
14. Musa sp. Kal Sucker, corm

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15. Prunus domestica Ahom bogori Grafting (wedge & tongue), T-

budding
16. Prunus persica Nara bogori Grafting (wedge & tongue), T-
budding
17. Psidium guajava Madhuriam Wedge grafting
18. Punica granatum Dalim Wedge grafting, air layering
19. Pyrus communis Nachpati Grafting (wedge & tongue), T-
budding
20. Syzygium cuminii Kolajamu Soft-wood grafting
Source: Singh, 2012

High quality planting materials for the species of Averrhoa carambola (Kardoi),
Garcinia Morella (Kujithekera) and Zizyphus mauritiana (Bilati bogori) can be obtained by
using propagation techniques of layering, grafting and grafting, respectively. Besides, seeds as
planting material is commonly used for minor fruit species like Baccaurea ramiflora
(Leteku), Elaeocarpus floribundus (Jalphai), Flacourtia cataphracta (Paniol), Terminalia
chebula (Xilikha), Zizyphus jujube (Bogori), etc. Seeds are also used for growing Achras
zapota (Sapeta), Annona reticulate (Atlas), Garcinia Morella (Kuji thekera), Syzygium
cuminii (Kalajamu), etc.

Quality planting materials may be obtained from two sources:

(i) Integrating protectives cultivation such materials can be raised in Baree following
recommended techniques, if possible; or

(ii) Collection of elite disease free/insect free quality planting materials of recommended
varieties raised by recommended techniques from accredited nurseries.

It is worthwhile to mention that the most important criteria for evaluating tree quality
(i.e. diameter of the trunk, number of branches and angle of the branches) must have to be
fulfilled by the vegetatively propagated planting materials.

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Special care needed for vegetatively propagated saplings are:

(i) Shoots and branches that grow out from the root stock i.e. below the grafting joint
should be removed;

(ii) If flowers appear in the first year or before the vegetative parts developed sufficiently,
those should be removed as early as possible;

(iii) Care must be taken to avoid dismantling of graft union leading to death of graft;

(iv) In evergreen fruit species cuttings are made during spring and rainy season. Generally,
length of the cuttings should be 15-20 cm having 3-5 buds; and

(v) Sword sucker is considered as the most reliable and productive planting material for
banana.

6. Canopy management

Canopy management in crops deals with the development and maintenance of their
structure in relation to the size and shape for maximizing quality product without increasing
production cost. As the canopy design and shape influence light interception with assured
higher monetary returns, therefore, early height control along with canopy management are
important techniques which should be practiced for fruit crops. Pruning, an integral part of
management of canopy architecture, begins at an early stage of plant growth and is continued
till plants starts providing optimum fruiting.

Canopy management practices needed for some of the important fruit species grown in
Baree is discussed briefly (Singh, 2010):
Achras zapota (Sopeta)
 Remove all the sprouts appeared on the rootstock below the graft or bud point;
 Remove all the lower branches upto the height of 60-90 cm till 3-4 years of planting;
 Remove the dead, diseased, over shaded and crowded branches.

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Aegle marmelos (Bael)

 Severe pruning, at the height of 1.5-2.0 meter from the ground, should be done on
seedling plants during winter and it should be carried out on excessive shoots during
May-Jun;
 To reduce the height of tree, long branches should be cut at the mid portion;
 Only 3-4 branches grown at equal interval around the main stem should be allowed to
grow for 6-7 months followed by heading back at mid-point of their length.
Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal)
 Encourage the top portion of the tree to be needle-shaped during the first year;
 Tree should be established on a single stem at the height of 70-80 cm above the
ground level and 3-4 branches at different sides of the main stem at equal distance
should be encouraged to flourish
 Excess branches or sprouts should be removed carefully and regularly.
Averrhoa carambola (Kargoi)
 Pruning some branches at the top portion of the tree during February-March should be
carried out;
 Excess sprouts should be removed so that the branches are only about 40-50 cm in
length during first 1-2 years after planting;
 Pruning some of the selected branches should be carried out so that height of the
mature tree will not be more than 1.5-3.5 m. Some of the upper branches which
obstruct light interception to the lower branches should also be removed each year
with utmost care;
 Fruits can be harvested during October when pruning is done during August; however,
if pruning is carried out in November-December, harvesting season becomes April to
June.
Citrus limon cv. assam lemon (Nemu tenga)
 In the nursery stage, pruning should begin soon after the saplings start sprouting from
the stem cutting or leaf bud cutting or air layering;

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 After planting in the main field, all branches should be removed keeping only single
main trunk up to 60 cm from the ground level and above 60 cm, pruning is confined to
develop the canopy;
 During winter when bearing of tree is low, the branches touching the ground should be
cut close to the laterals without leaving any stub besides pruning to reduce the height
and breadth;
 All diseased, injured, criss-cross branches and water sprouts should be removed so that
light interception to all the portions of the plant is not be hindered.
Elaeocarpus floribundus (Jalphai)
 Remove all the sprouts and lateral branches up to 45 cm allowing to flourish only a
single stem; one lateral branch at right side and another one at left side should be
allowed and trained with a wire downwards just above 45 cm during first year;
 During second year, two more lateral branches are allowed to grow and are to be
trained in the similar manner;
 During third year similar operation should be done with two more lateral branches;
besides branchlets of these branches also should be allowed;
 Sprouts from main stem and lateral branches should not be allowed to be dense. When
the height of the tree reaches about 4 m, pruning should be done in weak lateral
branches. Such practices should be continued up to the bearing stage.
Emblica officinalis (Amlokhi)
 In the first year, major branches should be allowed at 0.75-1.00 m from the ground
level;
 In the early year 2-4 branches, present in opposite direction of the stem and forming
obtuse angle each, should be allowed to grow; excess branches should be removed
during March-April. Dead, weak, diseased and criss-cross branches should also be
removed;
 In subsequent years, 4-6 branches are allowed to grow;
 Middle portion of the canopy are encouraged to grow to maximum 2.5-3.0 m.

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Fragaria vesca (Strawberry)

 Usually plastic mulch is utilized for growing the crop;
 During summer/kharif season, some scalded berries appear and for that special care
should be taken to keep the plants clean by removing rotten and fungal infected
berries.
Litchi chinensis (Lichu)
 Plants grown from air layering are usually single up to the height of 40-50 cm;
 Sprouts or branches emerging from the ground are to be removed;
 Equally distributed sprouts at the height of 40-50 cm should be trained to become
main branch; pruning should be carried out to excessive branches regularly to give the
satisfactory shape to the plants;
 After harvesting from the fruit bearing sprouts, pruning (25-30 cm) should be done 2-3
times to encourage fruiting in the next year;
 Pruning should be done in all the 4-5 m long branches of the low productive trees; this
practice will encourage fruiting after 2-3 years from the new sprouts.
Mangifera indica (Aam)
 Pruning should be done before one year of age during October-November;
 During the month of May, excess branches should be removed allowing only four
sprouts to exist in different directions of the main stem at equal distance;
 If the angle of the branches to the stem is very less, the branches should be trained
with the help of the jute string/rope;
 Pruning of the sprouts should be done when the colour of the sprouts changes from
green to brown i.e. become matured;
 Pruning for the second time should be done during October-November;
 Excess sprouts from the primary branches are to be removed allowing 2-3 sprouts to
exist.
Musa sp. (Kal)
 Excess leaves should be removed keeping only twelve leaves per plant to exist.
 Sucker should not be allowed till shooting

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Passiflora edulis (Kathbel)

 Vines should be allowed to trail on strong trellis preferably with two arm kniffin
system placed in north-south direction;
 Pruning should be done to the lateral branches nearby active buds.
Psidium guajava (Madhuriam)
 Branches are allowed to flourish from the main stem only at the height of 60-70 cm
from the ground level;
 3-4 sprouts present almost at equidistance and at the upper portion of the main stem
are allowed to elongate up to 40-50 cm;
 Afterwards, pruning is carried out on these selected sprouts at the mid-point so that
numerous branches emerge just below this point. These branches are allowed to
elongate to 40-50 cm followed by pruning as earlier. After several pruning in such
manner will result the satisfactory shape of the tree;
 Pruning in the similar manner should be continued in the second year after planting,
finally the height of plants should be around 2.5 m with a canopy confined within 2 m
width with a satisfactory shape. Pruning should be done each year during the month of
May-June.
Punica granatum (Dalim)
 To make the tree bushy type, pruning should be done at the height of 30-40 cm. In the
first year four sprouts to be selected from which the main stem will be formed;
 To make the single stem type tree, pruning should be done at the height of 70 cm. 5-6
sprouts are allowed to be elongated during first year;
 Remove all the branches and/or sprouts up to the height of 40 cm of the main stem;
criss-cross, weak, dead and diseased branches should be removed;
 After giving fruits continuously for 3-4 years, light pruning should be done on spurs.
Syzygium cuminii (Kolajamu)
 Pruning should be carried out at the height of 60-90 cm from the ground level on the
main stem; the branches or sprouts below this height should be removed;

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 New sprouts emerging just below this point should be removed keeping only 3-4
branches intact. When the length of these branches become 50-60 cm pruning should
be done at the mid-point;
 All the diseased, weak, dry and criss-cross branches should be removed from time to
time.

7. Intercropping in commercially grown fruit crops

As already mentioned, the most popular market driven fruit crops in Assam are Areca
catechu (Tamol), Citrus reticulate (Kamala tenga), Citrus limon cv. assam lemon (Nemu
tenga), Musa sp. (Kal), Zizyphus mauritiana (Bilati bogori), Carica papaya (Amita), Fragaria
vesca Strawberry), Psidium guajava (Madhuriam), Cocos nucifera (Narikal), etc. Most of
these species provide economic yield after 5-6 years of planning; however, only a few species
like Musa sp., Carica papaya, etc. are relatively short duration fruit crops. To get additional
income from the same area under commercially grown fruits, it is extremely important to
maintain the expenditure incurred for planting material and intercultural operations. Growing
of suitable intercrops on space available between rows of fruit trees at least for initial few
years is the only answer of this hurdle. Based on relevant research works in different parts of
India and similar agro-climatic situation of Assam, following suitable intercrops may be
encouraged:

Table 2.3: Suitable intercrops in fruit plantation

Fruit species Assamese Intercrop

name
Areca Tamol  Assam lemon
catechu  Black pepper
 Banana, chilli, elephant foot yam, pineapple, guinea grass,
etc.
 Betel vine
 Elephant foot yam, black pepper

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 Ginger
 Pineapple, banana
 Green manuring crops, fodder
 Turmeric
Artocarpus Kothal  Sesame – toria (up to 4 years)
heterophyllus  Citrus sp. cv. Assam lemon
 Green manuring crops, fodder
Carica Amita  Chilli, onion, potato, beans
papaya  Chilli, onion, cabbage, radish, knolkhol, tomato
 Tomato, chilli, beans, water melon
 Green manuring crops, fodder
Citru limon Nemu  Onion, chilli, green gram, cowpea (up to 3-4 years)
tenga  Pea, turnip, cauliflower, carrot, radish (up to 3-4 years)
 Pea, cowpea, tomato, okra, potato (up to 3-4 years)
 Pea, cowpea, beans (up to 3-4 years)
Cocos Narikal  Black pepper, banana, Assam lemon, pineapple, ginger
nucifera  Betel vine, banana, turmeric, Assam lemon, colocasia
 Ginger
 Turmeric
 Banana
 Assam lemon
 Pineapple
 Sugarcane
 Tapioca, elephant foot yam
 Fodder (sorghum/maize-oat)
 Rice seedling-fodder (sorghum/maize-oat)
 Fodder (setaria), Moringa oleifera
 Elephant foot yam, turmeric, ginger, banana, tapioca

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 Frenchbean-okra-cowpea
Musa sp. Kal  Brinjal, colocasia, yam, chilli, okra
 Ginger, colocasia, turmeric
 Onion, tomato, capsicum, potato
 Turmeric, ginger, pineapple, beans
 Turmeric
 Cowpea, sweet potato, maize
 Green manuring crops, fodder
Psidium Madhuriam  Cowpea, French bean
guajava  Okra, onion, turmeric, garlic, cauliflower, cabbage, chilli,
leafy vegetables
 Green manuring crops, fodder

8. Other management practices

 For the market oriented monoculture of fruit species high density planting technology
as per recommendation should be adopted;

 Efficient irrigation at proper time in justified amount is one of the prime keys for
superior output of fruit species. For efficient utilization of water, drip irrigation should be
promoted especially for the market oriented fruit species;

 Mulching at the base of fruit plants should be provided especially in the gardens where
irrigation facility is not present. It also helps to control the infestation of weeds besides the
improvement of micro-environment. Dry leaves/fresh leaves of green manure plants, weeds,
other plants or plastic materials may be utilized as mulch;

 Practices for nutrient management, insect-pests & diseases management, other

intercultural operations, etc. should be followed as per recommendation (Package of Practice
for Horticultural Crops, Fisheries and Home Science, 2010) for different fruit crops. Package

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of Practice for intruded crops like Fragaria vespa, Zizyphus mauritiana, etc. are yet to be
developed; till then following practices may be followed (Table 2.4).

Table 2.4: Brief Package for Fragaria vespa (Strawberry) and Zizyphus mauritiana
(Bilati bogori)
Particulars Fragaria vespa (Strawberry) Zizyphus mauritiana (Bilati bogori)
Variety Chandler, Festival, Sweet Charlie Apple, BAU, Thailand
Spacing 45 cm x 45 cm 5mx3m
Propagation Runners Budded plants
Nutrient 5 kg FYM along with 10:7:7 gNPK 10 kg FYM along with 200 g N, 250
management per sqm area. Phosphorus fertilizer g P2O5, 100 g K2O and 25 g Borax
should be incorporated before from 2nd year onwards applied in
planting while N to be applied in March (after pruning) and October.
two splits at 3 weeks after planting
and K fertilizer at flowering stage.
Cultural 1. Plastic mulching at the time of 1. Sprouts appearing from the trunk
practices planting should be used. Straw below the bud union should be
mulch may also be applied to avoid removed regularly.
rotting of fruits, weed control, 2. Young plants should be provided
regulation of soil temperature and support by bamboo.
moisture. 3. Branches appearing up to 40-50 cm
2. Drip irrigation of trunk should be removed.
3. Fertigation helps in better crop 4. Select 4-6 side branches at all
growth and development directions to get a balanced frame.
5. After harvesting of fruits, branches
are to be headed back to 30 cm above
the graft union to encourage new
shoots.
Yield 200 - 250 q/ha 300 - 400 q/ha

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 Recommendations are not available for several minor fruit species in the Package of
Practice or sometimes farmers are not at all interested for use of chemicals on fruits for
family consumption. Under that situation, following amount of organic manure may be added
to the fruit crops:

Stature of tree Amount of organic matter

(kg/ plant/year)
Large 30
Medium 20
Small 10

 For insect-pests and diseases management in such cases, emphasis should be given on
physical control, mechanical control, cultural control, etc. However, in extreme cases,
different organic formulations available in the market or ITK may be utilized;
 Different green manure crops should be grown in the interspaces to enrich the nutrient
status and organic C status of the soil. Leaves of green manure crops and different
timber/firewood species grown in the Forest Zone may also be utilized as raw material for the
preparation of compost, enriched compost, vermicompost and leaf mold;
 Growth and development of fruit plant should be encouraged by addition of
rhizospheric soil of a mature tree of the same species during preparation of the pit for
planting.

C. Forest zone

Numerous plant species other than vegetables and fruits are grown in most of the
Baree, like homestead of several tropical and subtropical countries throughout the world.
Importance of such species is noteworthy due to the role of fulfillment of diverse needs of the
farmers by these species. Many of such species contribute enormously for establishment and

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continuity of the subsidiary components. Before proceeding towards realistic intervention in

Forest Zone, some important features commonly observed at present are as follows:

 Species are utilized usually by the farm family itself; however, some of the species
like medicinal plants are shared within the neighbourhood if need arises;

 Utility of firewood species is gradually decreasing among many of the farmers in

extensive areas due to availability of suitable alternatives - LPG. However, total demand for
fuel wood in all the areas are yet to be decreased due to rise of population;

 After fulfilling the need of household, excess timber trees are sold for cash. Tree
species meant for market are replacing other species gradually. Some of the market oriented
species are trees utilized as quality timber, Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi), Camellia
chinensis (Chah), Hevea brasilensis (Robor), etc. On the other hand, relevance of many
species (viz. species used for fibre, dye, poisonous substances, gunpowder, etc.) are
diminishing at a rapid pace; their use is becoming almost extinct except in few interior areas
of the state due to availability of cheap alternatives in market;

 In spite of heavy market demand, areas under species for sericulture purposes are
facing challenges due to several socio-economic, management and ecological hurdles;

 Traditionally, mixed plantation of several species fulfilling various needs is preferred.

However, market oriented species are grown mostly as monoculture;

 Some of the market oriented species like Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi), Camellia
chinensis (Chah), etc. are confined only at some specific locations of the state and have little
scope for extension to other areas;

 Need of some of the species (viz. Boat making) are confined only in some specific
locations;

 Bamboo, one of the most important species, is grown sometimes amidst other tree
species. However, in several other cases, bamboos are grown in a distinct area of Baree;

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Therefore, species diversity in Forest Zone varies widely in comparison to Vegetable

Zone or Fruit Zone.

Aims of planning

 To fulfill the daily requirement of fire wood (10-15 kg for 5-member family);

 To meet other requirements of the household like timber, traditional medicines for
human and livestock, trees for sericulture along with plants needed for boat making,
agricultural implements, etc.;

 To partially fulfill the inputs needed for subsidiary components like feed for livestock
and poultry, raw materials for craft, etc.;

 To generate income from market oriented products.

Strategies for area utilization

As discussed in the vegetable and fruit zone, the lion’s share of the nutritional
requirement for a 5-member family can be fulfilled by the crops raised scientifically in about
2000 m2 area. Utilization of Baree for such purpose obviously should get top most priority
considering the importance of nutritional requirement in the developing country like India and
that too in a basically subsistence dominated land use system. In case, if the total land area
under Baree is >2000 m2, the excess area over 2000 m2 may be utilized for other purposes
having several options. Most of these options are related to either product (vegetables and
fruits) for market or for “Conservation of fruit germplasm through use”. One more significant
option however, exists is related to Forest Zone.

Considering the importance of Forest Zone the farmers have some options to fulfill
some other needs. Fuel wood production is one of the prime priorities for the farmers. If the
area of Baree is about 3500 m2, excess area over 2000 m2 i.e. about 1 bigha of land may be
utilized for raising fast growing (FG) fuel wood producing species along with timber
producing species or species for other purposes. It is worthwhile to mention that branches and

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twigs of timber producing trees and trees for other purposes contribute enormously to meet
the fuel wood demand of the 5-member family (Fig. 7).

However, few alterations may be done depending upon the situations as follows:

(i) If the need of fuel wood is fulfilled partially by suitable alternatives (like LPG) the
corresponding areas may be replaced by timber trees.

(ii) If the farmers feel need of plant species for utilization as medicine, tree fodder,
making of agricultural implements, boat making or other purposes few numbers of such
species may be incorporated replacing fast growing fuel wood trees. However, numbers of
trees to be incorporated for such purposes depend upon the priority or importance of the
purpose in comparison to the fuel wood trees. Usually, 3-5 numbers of trees for each of such
purposes may be easily incorporated because the twigs and branches of these trees may also
be utilized as fuel wood;

(iii) If the total area under Baree ranges between 2000 m2 to 3500 m2, the number of fuel
wood or/and trees for other purposes will have to be reduced depending upon the availability
of land and choice of the farmers;

(iv) If the area under Baree exceeds 3500 m2 (or > 1 bigha under Forest Zone) market
driven options may get priority for the excess areas i.e. over 3500 m2 as mentioned below:

 To incorporate more tree species or more numbers under a species for fuel wood
production;

 Raising single or mixture of several species of bamboo utilized for differet reasons
including edible purposes;

 Growing high valued vegetables (as mentioned in Vegetable Zone)

 Growing plantation crops based multistoried nut based cropping system or

mixed/monoculture of fruit crops (as mentioned in Fruit Zone);

 Monoculture of timber species for pulp, saw timber, veneer logs, etc.
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 Mixed culture of different timber species or mixing timber species with trees for other
purposes (like fodder trees);

 Growing annual and perennial fodder/fodder tree;

 Fragrance oil producing species as monoculture or mixing with species meant for
other purposes;

 Species utilized for sericulture purpose as monoculture of single species or mixed

culture of different species;

 Important medicinal tree species as mixed/monoculture; mixing may be done in mixed

culture along with trees for other purposes or several medicinal species growing
together;

 Growing market oriented species like tea, coffee, rubber, oil palm, etc.

 Growing flower crops;

 Raising nursery plants for market;

 Utilizing for subsidiary activities in large scale.

Principles of raising species in Forest Zone

Being perennial in nature, varied species grown in Forest Zone have needed utmost
care for selection of land, placement of species in the zone, selection of species, quality of
planting material and proper technologies for management practices of tree species, etc.

1. Selection of site/land

The selection of the suitable site for successful plantation in Forest Zone is very
crucial; in absence of proper site selection, plantation is likely to fail to establish. Among

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different prime factors which should be taken into consideration while selecting sites for
raising plantations are topography and soil conditions.

Criteria for selection of land:

(i) Well drained sunny upland areas with high organic matter in soil are preferred for
growing most of the species;

(ii) If the land is imperfectly drained or periodically inundated, emphasis should be given
on selection of species suitable for the situation;

(iii) Leveled land with slight slope towards the drains is important to make the Baree well
drained; however, massive modification of the relief unscientifically may do more harm than
good;
(iv) As most of the forest species are taller than that of the fruit trees, therefore, the Forest
Zone should be placed at the north/north-western direction of the Fruit Zone.

2. Size and design

Similar to the Fruit Zone the size and design of the Forest Zone may vary with the
availability of land area, priority of need and species chosen by the farmers.

3. Placement of species

 Placement of species in the zone should be based primarily on the stature of species,
canopy coverage, interception of light, growing behavior, rooting pattern, nutritional
requirement, etc.
 Species with maximum height and dense canopy should be placed at the north-western
side of the zone; species with gradually decreasing height and canopy should be planted
towards south-eastern direction;
 Partial shade tolerant species of fruits, medicinal plants, green manures, fodders and
plants for other purposes may be raised in interspaces depending upon the interception of
light;

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 During the initial 2-3 years most of the annual crops can be grown in interspaces;
 To incorporate annual crops/shrubs in the interspaces for more years, spacing of tree
species will have to be increased or the design of planting of plant species will have to be
modified accordingly.

4. Selection of species

Selection of proper species for a locality is one of the determining factors for
successful plantation in Forest Zone. This depends upon:
 Agro-climatic/agro-ecological situation;
 Purpose of plantation;
 Rate of growth of the species;
 The ease with which any particular species may be established;
 The effect of the species on the local site conditions;
 Resistance of the species to attack of insect pests and diseases, etc.;
 Availability of land and seed/ planting materials;
 Need for household use;
 Specific market requirements for market oriented species;
 Cost of raising the species, etc.

Among all the factors ecological considerations, purposes of plantation, rate of

growth, land availability and need of the farm families are the most important factors
determining selection of tree species with respect to Forest Zone of Baree for different
locations of the state.

 Agro-climatic/agro-ecological situation

Agro-climatic/agro-ecological consideration (climate, soil, physiography as well as

biotic factors, etc.) is one of the major factors determining the selection of tree species for
Forest Zone. Species planted in an unsuitable situation may exhibit a satisfactory start, but it

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may fail later on. The species selected in a particular location must have the ability to adapt
itself to the soil, moisture and temperature of the planting site. Some of the tree species
suitable to grow in different locations of the state are mentioned in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5: Few tree species suitable for different locations of Assam

Sl. Location Suitable species

no.
A. Evergreen vegetation predominant areas
1. Dibrugarh & Tinsukia Altingia excels (Jutuli), Ailanthus grandis
districts; piedmont areas of (Borpat), Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Albizia procera
Charaideu, Jorhat & Golaghat (Koroi), , Artocarpus chama (Cham),
districts in UBVZ; piedmont Dipterocarpus macrocarpus (Holong), Machilus
areas of Dhemaji & bombycina (Som, Mesua ferrea (Nahar), Michelia
Lakhimpur districts of NBPZ champaca (Titachapa), Phoebe goalparensis
(Bansom), Shorea assamica Mekai), etc.
2. BVZ; southern piedmont Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Albizia procera (Koroi),
areas of Dima Hasao district Cynometra polyandra (Ping), Dipterocarpus
of HZ turbinatus (Garjan), Mesua floribunda (Karol),
Michelia champaca (Titachapa), etc.
3. Parts of Sivasagar, Charaideu, Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Albizia procera (Koroi),
Jorhat & Golaghat districts of Machilus bombycina (Som), Michelia champaca
UBVZ; NBPZ; CBVZ (Titachapa), Morus laevigata (Bola), Phoebe
goalparensis (Bonsom), Dipterocarpus turbinatus
(Garjan), etc.
B. Deciduous vegetation predominant areas
1. Moist areas under LBVZ; Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Albizia procera (Koroi),
parts of CBVZ; northern Altingia excelsa (Jutuli), Artocarpus chama
piedmont areas of Karbi (Cham), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal),
Anglong and West Karbi Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Chukrasia tabularis
Anglong districts of HZ (Bogipoma), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu),

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Dipterocarpus turbinatus (Garjan), Gmelina

arborea (Gomari), Morus laevigata (Bola),
Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Ajar), Tectona
grandis (Segun), Terminalia arjuna (Arjun),
Terminalia bellirica (Bhomora), Terminalia
chebula (Xilikha), Terminalia tomentosa (Amori),
Shorea assamica (Makai), Toona ciliata (Poma,
etc.
2. Dry rainfed areas under Hojai Aegle marmelos (Bael), Albizia lebbeck (Siris),
district and parts of Nagaon Albizia procera (Koroi), Albizia lucida (Moj),
district of CBVZ; parts of Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Melia azadirach
Karbi Anglong and West (Ghoraneem), Moringa oleifera (Sajina), Tectona
Karbi Anglong district of HZ; grandis (Segun), Terminalia bellirica (Bhomora),
parts of Golaghat district of Terminalia chebula (Xilikha), etc.
UBVZ
C. Semi evergreen vegetation predominant areas
1. Parts of CBVZ; most of the
Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Albizia procera (Koroi),
BVZ & HZ;
Albizia lucida (Moj), Anthocephallus cadamba
(Kadam), Artocarpus chama (Cham), Bauhimia
purpurea (Bonkanchan), Duabanga grandiflora
(Khokon), Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Ajar),
Lagerstroemia purviflora (Sidha), Macrocarpus
turbinatus (Garjan), Michelia champaca
(Titachapa), Terminalia bellirica (Bhomora),
Terminalia chebula (Xilikha), etc.
D. Riparian areas
1. Bongaigaon, Dhubri, & Acacia catechu (Khoir), Bombax ceiba (Ximolu),
Goalpara districts of LBVZ; Bridellia retusa (Kahir), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu),
Darrang, Sonitpur, Biswanath Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Ajar), Premna

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& Majuli districts of NBPZ benghalensis (Gahara), etc.

2. Char-Chapori (riverine Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Albizia procera (Koroi),
islands & adjacent areas) of Albizia lucida (Moj), Bombax ceiba (Ximolu),
the Brahmaputra & major Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Erythrina indica (Modar),
tributaries Gmelina arborea (Gomari), Lagerstroemia flos-
reginae (Ajar), Lannea coromandelica (Jia),
Syzygium cuminii (Kolajamu), Tamarix dioca
(Jhau), Terminalia arjuna (Arjun), Zizyphus jujube
(Bogori), etc.
E. Others
1. Sivasagar, Charaideu, Jorhat Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi)
& Golaghat districts of UBVZ
2. Dibrugarh & Tinsukia Livistona jenkinsiana (Tokou)
districts; sporadic areas of
Sivasagar, Jorhat & Golaghat
districts of UBVZ
3. Uplands of UBVZ; Nagaon Camellia chinensis along with Cassia nodosa
district of CBVZ; NBPZ; (Moroi), Cassia siamea (Siaxonaru), Aibizia sp.,
Kokrajhar district of LBVZ etc.
4. Throughout the state Different species of bamboo
5. Sporadic areas of NBPZ, Machilus bombycina (Som), Phoebe goalparensis
UBVZ & LBVZ (Bonsom), Ailanthus grandis Borpat), Ailanthus
excelsa (Borpat), Litsea serrata (Mejankori),
Morus sp., Heteropanax fragrans (Keseru),
Ricinus communis (Era), Litsea monopetala
(Xoalu), etc.
6. Sporadic areas of BVZ, HZ Hevea brasiliensis/ Ficus elastica (Athabor,
and districts of LBVZ viz. Robor)
Kamrup, Karbi Anglong,

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West Karbi Anglong,

Goalpara, Kokrajhar, Chirang,
Baksa, Udalguri, Sonitpur,
etc.
7. Sporadic areas of HZ Coffea robusta (Kophi), Coffea Arabica (Kophi)
8. Selected areas of Kamrup, Elaeis guineensis (Toila khejur)
Goalpara
Note: UBVZ: Upper Brahamaputra Valley Zone, LBVZ: Lower Brahamaputra Valley Zone,
NBPZ: North Bank Plains Zone, CBVZ: Central Brahamaputra Valley Zone, HZ: Hills Zone,
BVZ: Barak Valley Zone.

Purpose of plantation

The major use of species by and large decides the selection for plantation in Baree.
Fulfillment of the need of fuel wood is one of the top-most priorities of the Forest Zone as
bare subsistence for most of the components is a common feature of almost all the Baree.
Besides, fuel wood, other important options of plantation are timber species and bamboo –
both are needed for construction and artifacts. Different species of timber, species for
sericulture besides Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi), Camellia chinensis (Chah), etc. are some
of the major species grown for market. Few minor purposes are species of medicinal plants,
plants for boat making, etc. for household use. Several fodder species including tree fodder
are grown for animal components of the household. The criteria for selection of tree species
based on some of the major uses are discussed briefly as follows:

Energy plantation: The demand of fuel wood in Assam is increasing day by day due to rapid
rise of population. Most of the fuel wood is utilized for cooking purposes. It is estimated that
on an average to cook one kilogram of food about 1.2 kilogram of fuel wood is needed; hence,
acute shortage of fuel wood in many locations has compelled many farm families to switch
over to cow dung - the precious organic manure, as the alternate fuel like other parts of the
country. Here lies the significance of systematic plantation of fuel wood in Baree.

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Criteria for planning of fuel wood plantation:

(i) Value of wood as fuel depends mainly on its combustibility and calorific value.
(ii) Wood of dense structure usually takes longer time to burn and therefore, gives steady
heat than porous wood;
(iii) Unsound wood gives lesser heat than a sound wood without any fissures;
(iv) The heartwood possess higher heat value than sapwood;
(v) Hard woods are better fuel woods than soft woods as the hard woods gives out more
lasting and uniform heat;
(vi) The overall efficiency of wood utilization depends upon moisture content at about 23-
25% moisture; however, about 8-9% moisture is sufficient for domestic cooking purposes;
(vii) Fuel wood should be free from smoke, crackling, sparkling, ease and completeness of
combustion, rapidity of burning, etc.

Criteria for selection of fuel wood species:

(i) The species should have multipurpose uses; besides fuel wood, the species should
have ability to provide fruits/fodder/timber/poles or help in the creation of shelter belt or assist
in soil conservation;
(ii) The species should preferably have the ability to fix nitrogen that can improve soil
fertility without having much competition with other trees or crop species for sunlight, soil
moisture, nutrient, etc.;
(iii) The species should be capable of improving micro-site qualities and imparting
sustainability of production, so that the land on which they grow is made a better medium not
only for their growth, but also for other companion herbaceous species;
(iv) Tree species should be fast growing even in poor soil (nutrient deficient, toxic,
slopping land, periodically inundated areas, etc.) with high photosynthetic efficiency resulting
in high yields;

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(v) Such species should have ability to tolerate drought besides incidence of pests and
diseases. Besides, these trees should have capability to establish easily without much care and
management;
(vi) The crowns of the selected species should preferably be conical or cylindrical that
facilitates them in high plant density plantation.

Based on most of these criteria, some of the suitable species which can be raised easily
for fuel wood under varied land forms, a crucial factor for different locations of the state, are
mentioned in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6: Suitable fuel wood species under varied land forms
Species Assamese name Species Assamese name
Species for upland flood free areas
Acacia catechu Khoir Duabanga grandiflora Khokon
Acacia auriculiformis Acacia Emblica officinalis Amlokhi
Adina cordifolia Kelikadam Ficus infectoria Pakori
Albizia lebbeck Siris Gmelina arborea Gomari
Albizia lucida Moj Lagerstroemia flos- Ajar
reginae
Albizia procera Koroi Lagerstroemia speciosa Sidha
Anthocephalus cadamba Kadam Michelia champaca Titachapa
Artocarpus chaplasha Chamkothal Morus alba Nuni
Azadirachta indica Leucaena leucocephala Subabul
Bauhinia variegata Kanchan Premna benghalensis Gohara
Bischofia javanica Uriam Pterospermum Bonbogori
lancifolium
Bombax ceiba Ximolu Syzigiun cuminii Kolajamu
Bridellia retusa Kahir Tamarindus indica Tenteli
Butea monospora Polax Tectona grandis Segun

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Cassia siamea Siaxonaru Terminalia arjuna Arjun

Chukrassia tabularis Bogipoma Terminalia myriocarpa Hollock, Holok
Dalbergia sissoo Sisu Zizyphus jujube Bogori
Species for short duration water logged areas
Albizia procera Koroi Lagerstroemia flos- Ajar
reginae
Anthocephalus cadamba Cham Lagerstroemia speciosa Sidha
Artocarpus chaplasha Chamkothal Premna benghalensis Gohara
Bischofia javanica Uriam Pterospermum Bonbogori
lancifolium
Bombax ceiba Ximolu Syzygium cuminii Kolajamu
Bridellia retusa Kahir Terminalia arjuna Arjun
Butea monospora Polax Terminalia myriocarpa Hollock, Holok
Dalbergia sissoo Sisu Zizyphus jujube Bogori
Species for long duration water logged areas
Barringtonia acutangula Paniamora Toona ciliate Poma
Pongamia pinnata Koroch Trewia nudiflora Bhelkor
Tamarix dioica Jhau

Timber species: Quality of wood is one of the major determining factors for the selection of
timber tree.

Characteristics of suitable timber species:

(i) Physical characteristics - Colour, weight, luster, size, density and reactions to light,
sound, heat, electricity, grain/figure, etc.

(ii) Mechanical characteristics – Hardness, durability, strength, flexibility, elasticity,

aptitude for being worked, elasto-plastic behavior of wood, etc.

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(iii) Chemical characteristics – Wood substances, extraneous substances including natural

preservatives like tannins, resins, salts, etc.

However, among all these the most important characteristics for judging the quality of
timber are strength, weight, hardness and presence of natural preservatives. Based on these
characteristics different timbers found in Assam have been categorized as shown in Table 1.1.

Fodder species: Scarcity of quality fodder is one of the main reasons for low productivity of
animal components. The criteria for selection of tree species suitable for fodder in Forest Zone
are:
 Highly palatable
 Highly nutritious
 Good digestibility with optimum crude protein and
 Free from toxins or alkaloids

Hence, integration of some of the quality fodder trees as enlisted in Table 1.10 along
with intercropping of annual/perennial plants is one of the purposes which determine the
selection of tree species in many Baree. These trees should possess the following
characteristics:

 Multiple utility;
 Having capability to thrive in poor land/soil condition;
 Rapid growth rate;
 Coppicing ability;
 Easy to propagate;
 Prolific seed producer.

Selection of species for bund (Dhaap): The species growing at the bund (Dhap) of Baree
should fulfill some of the following criteria:
 Species should be multipurpose;
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 Small to medium stature with less shade;

 Should have ability to check erosion;
 Should act as wind breaks;
 Should provide green leaf manure.

Example of some suitable species for plantation at Dhaap are- Glyricidia sp., different
species of bamboo, Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Moringa oleifera (Sajina), Murraya koenigii
(Narasingha), different species of fodder, etc.

Relatively taller trees should be grown on the bund situated at north-western direction.
However, height of the trees should be gradually small stature or should be planted at higher
spacing towards southern and eastern directions. Different grasses utilized for fodder or
otherwise should be planted in interspaces of the trees to stabilize the bunds.

Rate of growth

Rate of growth is a major decisive factor mostly for selection of commercially grown
species for fuel wood, timber and trees for other purposes. Plant species having fast growth
rate at young stage along with short rotation (duration) are desired traits for such purpose. The
fast growth rate of a species is defined as the species which put a minimum mean annual
increment of 10 m3 /ha per annum in case of plantations passed over the sapling stage whereas
in case of younger plantation the height increment should not be less than 60 cm per annum.
However, this criterion is not absolute, for example Shorea robusta (Xal) touches 10 m3 /ha
after 90 years of age whereas Gmelina arborea (Gomari) attains double this increment at the
age of only six years. Some other factors influencing the growth rate of a species are:
productive capacity of site, purpose of planting, age at which maximum tree develops defects
due to effect of wind, pests and diseases, etc. Besides, the planting stocks raised through good
quality planting material will have fast growth and ultimately shorter rotation. Some of the
fast growing tree species suitable for plantation in Forest Zone are: Ailanthus excelsa
(Borpat), Albizia sp., Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam), Artocarpus chaplasha (Cham),
Bischofia javanica (Uriam), Duabanga grandiflora (Garjan), Erythrina indica (Modar),
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Garuga pinnata (Rohimola, Gmelina arborea (Gomari), Holoptelea integrifolia, Leucaena

leucocephala (Subabul), Melia azadirach (Ghoraneem), Michelia champaca (Titachapa),
Sesbania grandiflora (Bokphul) , Terminalia alata (Kuhir), Tectona grandis (Segun), Toona
ciliata (Poma), Trewia nudiflora (Bhelkor), etc.

Ease of establishment

Ease of establishment is one of the prime factors determining the success of a tree
spices in Baree. The time of seed collection, method of seed treatment, nursery
techniques, transpost, planting, etc. decide the ease of establishment of a species. Tree
species bearing any one of following characteristics are easy to establish:

 Species can be established by vegetative parts, e.g. Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu);

 Species which produce abundant seeds and can be raised successfully by seed sowing,
e.g. Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul);

 Species whose nursery stock can be prepared easily due to higher plant percentage,
e.g. Tectonia grandis (Segun).

On the other hand, poor quality & quantity of seed (like many Bamboo species) and
short period of viability (e.g. Dipterocarpus macrocarpus (Holong), Shorea robusta (Xal),
etc.) restricts many species to establish easily.

Resistance to diseases and insect-pests

Susceptibility to attack by diseases & insect-pests is one of the important factors

determining the success of the plantation programme. Productivity, quality, market value and
hence the net return of the produce of market-oriented species may be reduced extensively due
to diseases & insect-pests infestation. For example, in Assam the cultivation of Dalbergia
sissoo (Sisu) and Acacia catechu (Khoir) is sometimes devastated by Ganoderma lucidum
resulting huge economic set-back to the farm families. Therefore, efforts should be made to
find out species as well as provenances which are tolerant to infestation of such pests &
diseases during selection of species for Forest Zone.
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Effect on planting site

The species grown in an area should have ability to protect and improve the site in the
long run. Therefore, tree species enhancing the soil health by fixing of atmospheric nitrogen
or easily decomposable leaves should be favoured during selection of species. On the other
hand, species having allellopathic characteristics (like Eucalyptus sp., Lantana sp., Juglans
sp., etc.) should be discarded for large scale monoculture. For improvement of a site, mixed
plantation is the better choice than that of monoculture.

Availability of seed/planting materials

The choice of species will go naturally towards the species if there is firm assurance of
availability of seed/propagating materials instead of the species which is hard to get at right
time. Therefore, it is always better to exploit the local species based on availability of seed or
propagating materials.

Economic factors

Marketability of produce is an important factor especially for market-oriented species.

In such case, it is better to consider for necessary arrangements of diversification of species
selection and utilization which help in establishing a stable market situation needed for
sustainability of return. A detail market survey is also required regarding the potentiality of
the demand of produce of a species at the time of planning for plantation.

Besides, cost of growing is one of the important factors. For example, the costs of the
species which are grown in the containers are always relatively higher than the direct sown
plants in nursery beds.

Others

 Availability of land area in Baree and need for household use are some of the crucial
factors determining the selection of the trees species;

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 Usually multipurpose tree species which can be utilized for several purposes should be
preferred;

 The farmers have a choice in selecting a species depending upon the merits of the
alternatives available to them;

 Tree species having coppicing ability should be preferred during selection of species.

5. Nursery and nursery management

Nursery is an area where seedlings and transplants are raised for eventual planting out
in planting site. Its importance lies in the preparation of healthy and vigorous plant stock. It is
discussed briefly under the following heads:

Collection of quality seeds

The parameters determining the quality tree seeds are germination capacity, early size
of seedlings and degree of desirable genetic characters. Collection of such seeds is one of the
pre-requisite steps towards successful preparation of healthy and vigorous plant stocks in a
nursery with regard to the tree species raised in Forest Zone. However, in most of the cases
there is little scope for establishment of a large size nursery or to prepare planting materials
needed for all the forest species grown in a Baree due to scarcity of land resources. In such
cases good quality seeds or propaguls may be obtained from the following sources:

 Reputed institutions like Agricultural University, institutions related to forestry

research & development;

 State or central forest departments;

 Private seed growers & accredited nurseries;

Besides, if some farmers are interested to prepare saplings themselves from quality
seeds for their use/commercial purpose or the above mentioned institutes/nursery is not
available in the locality, the farmers will have to collect the seeds themselves. Under that

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situation following considerations with regard to collection of seeds will have to be

undertaken:

Selection of mother plant: For self collection of quality seed the selection of mother plant is
an important step. Following points should be considered during selection of a mother plant:

 Seeds should better be collected from the known and better provenances (i.e. the area
where mother plants of the seeds are growing);

 The area wherefrom seeds are to be collected should have large number of trees of the
particular species having satisfactory growth and form; such trees should also be free from
diseases and insect-pests;

 Seed collection should never be carried out from isolated trees of naturally cross-
pollinated species;

 Selected mother trees should be vigorous with more than the average growth and
having satisfactory form;

 Seed collection should be done from middle age to mature tree only.

Period of seed collection: Important points with regard to the period of seed collection are:

 For collection of quality seeds of a species it is important to know the season of

flowering & fruiting, period of ripening of fruits (& seeds), seeding cycle, seeding behavior,
etc.

 Period of ripening of fruits (& seeds) of a species varies from locality to locality;

 Change in colour of the fruits and their readiness to fall are good indicators for
ripening of fruits (& seeds) under field condition;

 Seed production of a tree varies from year to year; their collection drive should be
made during ‘good seed year’ only due to higher germination capacity.

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Period of fruits (& seeds) collection season and related characteristics for some of the
tree species has been mentioned in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7: Seed characteristics of few tree species found in Forest Zone

Sl. Tree crop Assamese Fruit/seed No. of seeds Seed

No. Name collection per kg viability
season
1. Acacia catechu Khoir Jan-Mar 40,000 6-12 months
2. Adina cordifolia Haldu, Jan-Mar 1,10,00,000 1-12 months
Telikadam
3. Ailanthus excelsa Borpat May-Jun 9,500 1-6 months
4. Albizia chinensis Sau Dec-Mar 32,143 1-2 years
5. Albizia lebbeck Siris Jan-Mar 8,000-13,000 > 2 years
6. Albizia odoratissima Hiharu Jan-Feb 15,600 > 2 years
7. Albizia procera Koroi Jan-Apr 21,786 > 2 years
8. Amoora wallichi Lali, Amori May-Jul 132-155 1-6 months
9. Anthocephalus Kadam Jan-Feb, 9,32,142- 6-12 months
chinensis Aug-Oct 27,21,400
10. Artocarpus chaplasha Chamkothal, Jun-Aug 2,000 < 1 month
Cham
11. Artocarpus Kothal May-Jul 43-50 1-6 months
heterophyllus
12. Azadirachta indica Mohaneem Jun-Aug 3,330 < 1 month
13. Barringtonia Hijol, Aug-Sep 1,412 (fruits) 1-6 months
acutangula Paniamora
14. Bauhinia purpurea Bonkanchan, Jan-May 4,000-5,000 6-12 months
Debakanchan
, Kurial
15. Bauhinia variegata Kanchan, May-Jun 2,800-3,520 6-12 months
Bogakatra

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16. Bischofia javanica Uriam Dec-Mar 58,000- 1-6 months

1,04,000
17. Bombax ceiba Ximolu Mar-May 21,430- 6-12 months
38,500
18. Butea monosperma Polax May-Jul 9,850-14,790 6-12 months
19. Cassia fistula Xonaru Mar-Apr 6,000-7,090 > 2 years
20. Cassia siamea Moroi Mar-Apr 37,040 > 2 years
21. Dalbergia sisso Sisu Nov-Mar 53,000 6-12 months
22. Dipterocarpus Holong Feb-Mar 120 (fruits) < 1 month
macrocarpus
23. Dipterocarpus Garjan May-Jun 154 (fruits) < 1 month
turbinatus
24. Emblica officinalis Amlokhi Nov-Feb 68,000- 1-6 months
89,000
25. Garuga pinnata Thotmala, Jul-Oct 4,000-5,000 6-12 months
Rohimola
26. Gmelina arborea Gomari May-Jun 2,500-2,600 6-12 months
27. Hymenodictyon Panikadam, Dec-Feb 1,42,000- 6-12 months
excelsum Bhurkundi 1,72,000
28. Kydia calycina Pichola, Dec-Mar 32,000 6-12 months
Kukuha
29. Lagerstroemia Sidha Dec-May 28,000 6-12 months
parviflora
30. Lagerstroeomia Ajar, Ejar Jan-Feb 1,20,000 1-2 years
speciosa
31. Melia azadirach Ghoraneem Jan-Feb 750-917 1-2 years
32. Mesua ferrea Nahor Jul-Sep 260 1-12 months
33. Michelia champaca Titachapa Aug-Sep 15,000 < 1 month
34. Morus alba Nuni, May-Jun 4,28,000- > 2 years

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Boganuni 4,65,000
35. Morus indica Nuni Mar-Apr 5,14,500 < 1 -6
months
36. Morus laevigata Bola Apr-Jun 4,43,000 1-6 months
37. Phoebe goalparensis Bonchum Sep-Oct 900 < 1 -6
months
38. Pongamia pinnata Karach Mar-May 800-1,500 1-12 months
39. Schima wallichi Makrixal Feb-Mar 3,00,000 < 1 month
40. Shorea assamica Makai Jan-Apr 2,000 1-6 months
41. Shorea robusta Xal May-Jul 575-1,000 1-6 months
42. Sterculia villosa Odal May-Jun 5,600-6,000 1-6 months
43. Sterculia urens Odla Apr 4,410-6,360 1-6 months
44. Stereospermum Paroli Dec-Jan, 27,356 1-6 months
chelonoides Apr
45. Syzygium cumini Kolajamu Jun 1200 < 1 month
46. Tamarindus indica Tenteli Mar-Apr 1,800 1-2 years
47. Tectona grandis Segun Nov-Jan 1,850-3,100 6-24 months
(fruits)
48. Terminalia alata syn. T. Laurel, Feb-May 13,000 6-12 months
tomentosa Kuhir, Amari
49. Terminalia arjuna Arjun Feb-May 775 6-12 months
50. Terminalia bellirica Bhomora Nov-Feb 423 6-12 months
51. Terminalia chebula Xilikha Jan-Mar, 141-220 6-12 months
Dec-May
52. Terminalia myriocarpa Hollock Jan-Feb 5,00,000 1-6 months
53. Toona ciliate Poma Apr-Jun 5,50,000 1-6 months
54. Trewia nudiflora Bhelkor, Jul, Sep- 5,360-8,200 1-12 months
Pindari Dec
Source: Kumar, 2011; Chandawat & Gautam 1993; Dwivedi, 2009

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Method of collection: Seeds of trees can be collected by several methods as mentioned

below:

 Collection from the ground: Such seeds are either naturally fallen or are made to fall
by shaking the branches of the trees. This method is effective for the species having bigger
size fruits e.g. Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam), Gmelina arborea
(Gomari), Tectona grandis (Segun), Terminalia arjuna (Arjun), Shorea robusta (Xal), etc.

 Direct collection from the standing trees: It involves several ways such as:

o By plucking from shrubs or short statured tree like Morus alba (Nuni);

o The branches of fruits (& seeds) bearing trees are lopped or small branches are
clipped with the help of tools like ladder, climbing iron, scissors, etc. This method is
usually carried out in large stature tree or species bearing small size fruits (& seeds). E.g.
Acacia catechu (Khoir), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Terminalia myriocarpa (Hollock), etc.

 Collection from felled trees which is effective for all kinds of tree species.

Seed processing: Seeds are extracted from fruit which is followed by cleaning and drying.
Extent of drying depends upon the species; usually, seeds are dried to decrease the moisture
percentage to 10-12%. However, seeds of several species loss their viability due to drying and
therefore, are not dried; rather such seeds are stored in moist condition, e.g. Azadirachta
indica Mohaneem), Shorea robusta (Xal), Syzygium cuminii (Kolajamu), etc.

Seed storage: Processed seeds are kept in polythene bags or glass/metallic containers and
stored in a dry and clean place. Seeds of most of the species may be stored at room
temperature, e.g. Acacia catechu (Khoir), Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Tectona grandis (Segun),
etc.; however, seeds of several species should be stored at low temperature only, e.g. Albizia
odoratissima (Hiharu), Shorea robusta (Xal), Toona ciliata (Poma), etc.

Longevity of seeds: Longevity of seeds in storage is determined by several factors like type
of seeds, stage of maturity, pre-storage treatment, moisture content, humidity, temperature,
susceptibility to insect-pests and diseases, besides viability. Viability at the end of storage
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period depends on initial viability as well as rate at which deterioration has taken place. Seed
viability period may be classified as very short-lived (< one month), short-lived (1-6 months),
moderately long-lived (6-12 months), long-lived (1-2 years) and very long-lived (> 2 years).
Common seed viability period of seeds of some species are mentioned in Table 10.7.

Pre-treatment of seed to overcome dormancy

Various treatments applied to seeds prior to sowing in order to increase the rapidity or
completeness of germination is known as pre-treatment. Common pre-treatment methods are
mentioned below:

 Soaking in cold water;

 Alternate wetting & drying;
 Passage through animal body;
 Fermentation;
 Scarification which includes mechanical, hot water, acid, other chemicals (acetone,
alcohol, ether, xylene, lime water, sulphate of magnesium, etc.) and high temperature
scarification;
 Immature fruit harvesting;
 Stratification;
 Treatment with chemicals like GA, cytokinins, ethylene, citric acid, hydrogen per
oxide, etc.;
 Dry storage.

Pre-treatment which can be given to the seeds of some common tree species available
in Assam and some of the information with regard to raising such trees in nursery are
mentioned in Table 2.8.

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Table 2.8: Technical information of few tree species for raising nursery

Sl. Tree Crop Pre-sowing Sowing Germination Normal Optimum

No. (Assamese seed season percentage germination spacing
name) treatment period in in
nursery nursery
(days) (cm)
1. Acacia catechu Scarification, Mar-Apr 60-80 30 8x8
(Khoir) hot water
2. Adina cordifolia Not required May 50 30 15x10,
(Haldu) 20x10
3. Ailanthus -do- Soon 70-90 45 20x10
excelsa (Borpat) after
collection
4. Albizia Scarification, -do- 50 7 -
chinensis (Sau) hot water
5. Albizia lebbeck -do- Feb-Jul 60-94 60 15x15
(Siris)
6. Albizia -do- Apr 30-45 30 15x15
odoraratissima
(Hiharu)
7. Albizia procera -do- May 80-90 21 10x10
(Koroi)
8. Amoora wallichi Not required Jun-Jul 90 10-20 -
(Lali, Amori)
9. Anthocephalus -do- Feb Fair 21 20x20
chinensis
(Kadam)
10. Artocarpus -do- Jul-Aug 80 14 8x8
chaplasha
(Cham)

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11. Artocarpus -do- Jun-Jul 75 21 20x20

heterophyllus
(Kothal)
12. Azadirachta -do- Jul 100 21 15x15
indica
(Mohanneem)
13 Barringtonia -do- - 90-100 15-20 8x8
acutangula (fruits)
(Hiju)
14. Bauhinia -do- Mar-Apr 80-100 30 15x15
purpurea (Bor
kanchan)
15. Bauhinia -do- May 95 30 15x15
variegate
(Kanchan)
16. Bischofia - Soon 70-90 14-20 15x15
javanica after
(Uriam) collection
17. Bombax ceiba Not required May 14-75 25 20x20
(Ximalu)
18. Butea -do- May 75-100 15 15x15
monosperma
(Polash)
19. Cassia fistula Scarification, Mar-Apr 22-60 1-2 15x10
(Xonaru) hot water
20. Cassia siamea -do- Jun-Aug 98 28 15x15
(Moroi)
21. Dalbergia sisso Not required Mar 90-100 15 10x10
(Moroi)

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22. Dipterocarpus -do- Soon 25-80 13 days 15x15

macrocarpus after onwards
(Hollock) collection
23. Dipterocarpus Not required Soon 82 7-28 15x15
turbinatus after
(Uriam) collection
24. Emblica Hot water Mar 40 30 10x10
officinalis
(Amlokhi)
25. Garuga pinnata - Jul 44 - 15x15
(Rohomola)
26. Gmelina Soak in water Mar-Apr 13-85 10-15 15x20
arborea (Segun)
27. Hymenodictyon Not required Apr-May 30-35 60-120 15x15
excelsum
(Panikadam)
28. Kydia calycina -do- Soon 13-16 35-45 10x10
(Pichala) after
collection
29. Lagerstroemia -do- Feb-Mar Very poor 28 10x10
parviflora
(Sidha)
30. Lagerstroemia Soak in water Feb-Mar 90 10-30 15x15
speciosa (Ajar)
31. Melia azadirach Not required Feb-May 70-80 20-40 15x15
(Ghoraneem)
32. Mesua ferrea Soak in water Soon 90 6- 10x10
(Nahor) after
collection

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33. Michelia Scarification -do- 70-80 60 15x15

champaca
(Titachapa)
34. Morus alba Not required Jun 70 45 15x15
(Boganuni)
35. Morus indica Scarification May 40 90 15x15
(Nuni)
36. Morus laevigata - Soon 50-80 35 15x15
(Bola) after
collection
37. Phoebe
goalparensis - -do- 65 120 15 x 15
(Bonchom)
38. Pongamia Soak in water Jul-Aug 80 30 15x20
pinnata
(Karach)
39. Schima wallichi - Soon Poor 21 days 10x10
(Makrixal) after onwards
collection
40. Shorea Not required -do- 83 20-68 15x15
assamica
(Makai)
41. Shorea robusta -do- -do- 75-90 10-28 20x20
(Xal)
42. Sterculia villosa -do- May-Jun 50-70 - 20x20
(Odal)
43. Sterculia urens -do- Soon 88 15-20 20x20
(Odla) after
collection

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44. Stereospermum Soak in water May-Jun 45 90 10x10

chelonoides
(Paroli)
45. Syzygium cumini Not required Soon 90 30 15x15
(Kolajamu) after
collection
46. Tamarindus Soak in water Apr 66 15-20 15x15
indica (Tenteli)
47. Tectona grandis Alternate Apr 10-60 20 days 15x15
(Segun) wetting & onwards
drying
48. Terminalia alata Soak in water Apr 35-70 25 15x15
(Kuhir)
49. Terminalia -do- Apr-May 50-60 50 15x15
arjuna (Arjun)
50. Terminalia Alternate Mar-Apr 86-100 30-60 15x15
bellirica wetting &
(Bhomora) drying
51. Terminalia -do- Jun-Jul 60 90 15x15
chebula
(Xilikha)
52. Terminalia - Soon 20-30 28 10x10
myriocarpa after
(Hollock) collection
53. Toona ciliata Not required -do- 60-80 10-15 15x15
(Poma)
54. Trewia Soak in water Feb-Mar, 90-100 60 15x15
nudiflora May-Jun
(Bhelkor)
Source: Kumar, 2011; Dwivedi, 2009
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Size of nursery

As a rough estimate the area required for a nursery varies from 1.5-3.5% of total area
to be planted.

Seed-bed preparation

 The area should be made free from stones, pebbles, stumps, etc. up to the depth of 50
cm; it should be followed by ploughing/harrowing. In clayey soil surface, mixing with washed
river sand should be done. All the dry leaves and organic debris found in the area should be
destroyed. Chlorpyriphos 4% or Malathion 5% dust @ 25 kg/ha should be added to the soil to
get rid of soil insect-pests;

 FYM @ 2-3 kg/m2 should be added;

 It is better to add the soil from rhizospheric zone of the species naturally grown in the
area;

 The size of the nursery bed should preferably be 10m x 1m;

 Beds should be raised type (by at least 20 cm) for easy drainage during monsoon.
Special care should be taken to prevent the sides of the beds from eroding and crumbling
during monsoon and winter, respectively;

 The soil of the bed should be made fine tilth and the surface should be leveled
properly.

Use of polypots or containers

In nursery, polypots or containers are commonly used to serve two purposes:

o To sow the seeds directly in the polypots; or

o Young seedlings grown in nursery beds are transported to the polyplots and allowed to
grow for some days before transplanting in the main field.

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Container planting often gives better results than nacked-root planting or planting with
a ball of earth grown in seed bed.

Potting mixture: Usually, the potting mixture is made by mixing sandy loam fertile soil, sand
and FYM in the ratio of 2:1:1 or 1:1:1 depending upon the species, texture and soil fertility.
The mixture must contain large amount of organic matter. Usually, to fill one thousands of
medium sized polybags/containers about 4.42 cu. m of mixture is needed. However, to meet
diverse requirements the size and kind of containers may differ widely. It is important to be
perforated to allow excess water to drain away.

Sowing: Generally, 1-2 seeds should be sown in a container. More seeds may be grown in one
container however, subsequent hand thinning is needed. Afterwards, only one seedling per
container should be retained. Irrigation, before and after germination of seeds, is important for
proper growth and development of seedlings.

Shifting operation

Shifting operation in nursery is carried out to make the seedlings strong and stocky.
When the seedlings are raised in containers they are to be shifted from place to place every
month so that roots protruding from the containers donot strike the ground. Roots coming out
from the containers should be trimmed. If need arises shifting of such seedlings can be done to
slightly bigger size containers.

Besides, in cases where the seedlings are kept in nursery bed for a longer time they are
to be shifted from primary nursery to secondary nursery. It is usually carried out for the
species whose tap roots grow very fast. Shifting to secondary nursery results in compact
bushy root system and enhances the survival rate of planting stock when planting out.

Pricking out

Pricking out denotes taking out of very young seedlings (4-6 cm) from primary
nursery into secondary nursery for better survival and growth prior to planting out in the field.
This operation is very delicate one requiring specific skills. The best time of pricking is when

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the lateral roots have initiated developing. If the seedlings are allowed to remain in primary
beds for a longer time the elongated tap root will be developed and therefore, tap root as well
as the lateral roots will be damaged.

After removing from primary beds the uprooted seedlings may be transplanted in the
secondary beds at wider spacing or containers.

Root pruning in nursery

Nursery seedlings may be conditioned by root pruning which involves undercutting

and pruning of lateral roots when the seedlings are about 20 cm height. It is the substitute of
transplanting in the secondary bed.

Raising tall transplants/seedlings in nursery

Seedlings/transplants are often needed to be tall enough to withstand adverse situations

in field. In such cases, following measures will have to be followed:

 Quality seeds should be sown during April-May in the polyplots/containers of suitable

size filled with appropriate mixture;

 Seedlings should be retained in containers till the end of monsoon when the seedlings
will be attained the height of about 30 cm;

 Irrigation should be minimum as far as possible;

 Root pruning should be carried out during October-November if roots come out from
the containers;

 If needed the seedlings should be transferred to other bigger sized containers during
November-January;

 Irrigation should be provided regularly till the seedlings become suitable for planting
out in the next monsoon when the height will be about 1.5 m. Such plants are tall and tough
enough to withstand adverse situations.

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Topping

After root pruning light topping is carried out in order to restrict the height of
transplants/seedling within 50-60 cm.

Method of sowing

 Commonly three methods are adopted – broadcasting, dibbling and drill sowing. Last
two methods are superior over broadcasting as because both spacing and depth of sowing can
be controlled easily;

 Minute seeds, obtained from several species like Adina cordifolia (Haldu, Kelikadam),
should be mixed with sand or soil before sowing for uniform distribution or for regulating
desired seed rate;

 Depth of sowing of seed depends on size of seeds and kind of soil. The usual practice
is to have a soil thickness above the seed equal to the diameter of the seed;

 Optimum spacing for different species has been shown in Table 2.8. A spacing of
15cm x 10cm may be adopted if the spacing of a species is not known.

Time of sowing

The crucial factor which determines the time of sowing of seeds in nursery is to obtain
the planting materials of optimum size at the period of planting season. Usually, the day
temperature during sowing season should be 20-300C. Time of sowing of some of the tree
species is mentioned in Table 2.8. However, several important considerations should be
undertaken for adjustment/selection of appropriate time of seed sowing in nursery as follows:

 Duration of plants in nursery is dependent upon the rate of growth which can be
regulated by management techniques like time of sowing, irrigation & mulching, addition of
manure & fertilizers, multiple transplanting, pruning of shoots/roots, etc.

 The seeds having short viability should be sown in nursery as soon as possible;

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 If the size of the planting materials is small and the seeds ripen in winter, the suitable
time of sowing is the spring for obtaining planting materials during monsoon;

 If the size of the planting materials is large or stumps are to be prepared, the optimum
time of sowing is the onset of rainy season for planting in the rainy season next year.

Water management

 Water requirement in nursery varies with tree species and kind of soil;

 Pre-sowing irrigation with sufficient moisture helps in uniform germination;

 Usually irrigation is not required if the seeds are sown just before monsoon;

 If rainfall does not occur in time or seed sowing season is October-November,

irrigation becomes absolutely necessary;

 Both over watering and under watering are harmful;

 Growth of moss in the bed followed by yellowing of leaves and ultimately death of the
seedlings are indicators of over watering;

 Irrigation is more effective if provided during afternoon, however, in the ‘damping

off’ dominated areas it should be provided during morning;

 Drip irrigation should be emphasized if possible, as because it uses 60-70% less water
than overhead system, and leaching loss of nutrient from bed is reduced; besides, drip
irrigation promotes compact root distribution which is important for subsequent tree survival
in Baree.

 Light and frequent irrigation should be provided after emergence of seedlings;

 Depending upon the soil texture, usually 2-5 irrigations per month should be provided,
especially from October to March;

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 Precautionary measures should be adopted so that over irrigation donot inhibit growth
and development of seedlings;

 If irrigation facilities is not available mulching will have to be done just after sowing
of seeds with available dry leaves/grasses/plastics;

 Care should be taken so that mulching materials donot obstruct the emergence of
seedlings or create insect-pest problems.

Nutrient management

To maintain growth and development of seedlings in nursery bed addition of nutrients

in optimum amount is needed.

 Sufficient amount of well rotten FYM/compost and leaf mould should be added to the
soil during preparation of beds, as mentioned earlier.;

 If the seedlings, rooted cutting, layers or grafting are to be retained for a prolonged
period in the nursery often there is requirement of addition of chemical fertilizers;

 It should be followed by addition of FYM/compost in powdered form followed by

hoeing for mixing with the soil and irrigation;

 For plants grown in polybags manuring can be done in liquid form. For preparation of
liquid manure slury of fresh cowdung keeping for one month or till the fermentation is
completed may be utilized. Diluted slury may be used twice in a month by using a cane;

 Liquid chemical fertilizer (NPK) may also be used.

Weed management

Weeding is an important practice for the seedlings of tree species which are to be
retained in the nursery beds for about one year. Usually, 2-3 weeding are needed in the
nursery. Weed management in nursery bed usually is done by the following practices:

 Physical methods which include hand weeding, hoeing, etc.

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 Cultural methods like quality seeds with satisfactory germination, selection of quick
growing species, use of appropriate irrigation method, manuring, etc.

Protection from intense sunshine and heavy rain

Seeds and seedlings in the nursery beds should be protected from damages done by
intense sunshine and heavy rains. The nursery bed should be covered by plastic (200 mm) or
thatch or other local materials to protect from rain and sunshine. Shade-net house for short
period may also be used for the purpose.

Insect-pest management
To manage insect-pest in the nursery, cultural methods like – deep summer ploughing,
water management, trap cropping, etc.; mechanical methods like – hand collection and
destruction of pests, mulching, etc. and physical methods like manipulation of temperature,
moisture, etc. should be employed.

Methods of propagation
Methods of propagation of trees can be broadly grouped into two:
 Propagation by seeds, and
 Propagation by vegetative means

Propagation by seeds: In this method plants are raised from seeds either by direct sowing in
the main field or by raising seedlings in the nursery bed/containers for planting out at field. It
is the commonly used method for self-pollinated species. Some of the propagating methods by
this mean are discussed below:

 Direct sowing: In this method seeds are sown directly into the plantation site. It is
generally practiced for large size seeds.
 Entire planting: In this method seedlings are raised in the primary nursery followed
by planting in the main field without modification of seedling form. A large number of
species may be raised by this method and caring of seedlings becomes easy.
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Propagation by vegetative means: Formation of an independent plant from a part of the

parent tissue is known as the vegetative propagation. It is advantageous as only a single parent
stock gives rise to large number of genetically identical planting stock which takes less time to
develop.Some of the important methods of vegetative propagation for trees are discussed
briefly as follows:

 Root sucker: In this method a root of a woody plant is partially or wholly cut to
produce a shoot. Root sucker method is not used for raising large scale plantation. Root
suckers are induced by felling the parent tree or by making injury to the roots artificially. In
many species trenching is done around the tree to stimulate root suckers. On the other hand, in
some other species these are developed naturally; root wounding is not needed at all for such
species.
 Branch cutting: It is the method of vegetative propagation in which a portion of the
branch is placed in soil or medium mixture (in polypot) to develop into a plant. Cutting of at
least 20-25 cm size are taken from upper branches. Sprout emerges to different hight
depending upon the species. In the second year these are cut back nearly to the ground and
replanted in the field.
 Root cutting: Species having ability to produce shoots from roots are utilized in this
method. Buds are formed either from the latent buds laid down during the initial stage of
growth or from adventitious buds formed after the roots are taken out, for raising new plants.
 Tree stumping: Tree stump is usually a small remaining portion of the trunk along
with the roots still in the ground after a tree has been cut and felled. Many shoots arise from
such stumps; however, only one healthy shoot should be allowed to grow to become a tree
 Budded stump: Budded planting stock prepared by pruning the stem and roots is
known as budded stump. For this usually it is to cut the stem of the plant at a height of about
7.5 cm above the upper end of the bud patch. The plants are then pulled out and the taproot is
pruned to a length of about 45-60 cm and the lateral roots to a length of 10-15 cm. The cut
ends of the stem are sealed with melted wax; care should be taken to protect the bud patch.
Moistened stumps should be planted in the main field as soon as possible after removal of the
bud patch.

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 Stump planting: For many of the important species planting of the stumps prepared
by trimming one third of the root system and leaving 2-3 cm shoot portion of a seedling or
transplant which may be managed in a seedbed/polypot gives better results than that of entire
planting of seedling/transplants or direct sowing of seeds. Seedlings/transplants having collar
diameter equal to 1.5-2.0 cm and tap root length of not less than 30 cm are suitable for
preparation of stumps. The length of the stump prepared may vary from 15-30 cm. For
obtaining better results sometimes overaged seedlings are made into stumps. Transpiration
from stump is reduced in comparison to entire planting due to absence of leaves. The stumps
should remain moist until planting out.

Method of propagation of some of the tree species has been shown in Table 2.11.

6. Plantation in the main field

Mixed vs. Pure plantation

A mixed plantation is composed of two or more tree species, whereas in a pure

plantation single species of tree is predominant. Mixed plantation is a common practice in
Forest Zone; however, pure plantation of market oriented species is a popular option
especially among the resourceful farmers. Reasons favouring mixed plantation are:

 Several household needs can be fulfilled by the resource deficient farmers especially
with limited land resources;

 Greater ecological value as it covers the soil more effectively than that of the pure
stand of light demanding species;

 Able to utilize the land more efficiently; viz. higher return of Tectona grandis (Segun)
plantation is obtained by introducing bamboo at inter space;

 Mixed plantation is less liable to damage by animals, wind, diseases and insect-pests;
viz. pure plantation of Michelia champaca (Titachapa), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Bombax

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ceiba (Ximolu) and Toona ciliata (Poma) are sometimes destroyed by Urostylis punitigera,
Ganoderma lucidum, Tonica niviferance and Hypsipyla robusta, respectively, unlike mixed
plantation.

On the other hand, popularity of pure plantation of market oriented species is due to
the following reasons:

 Easy to manage;

 Commands better sale price than mixed wood; higher economic return is obtainable
with growing of valuable species;

 Sometimes rate of growth of valuable species are adversely affected in mixed

plantation unlike pure plantation of a valuable species;

Mixed plantation may be either temporary (i.e. for a part of the rotation of the main
species, usually initial few years) or permanent (i.e. minor/secondary species remain
throughout the rotation period of the main species). Temporary mixed plantation is done to
achieve the following objectives:

 As the source of additional income;

 To get better bole form of the tree species; and

 To protect major tree species from adverse situation.

Most of the agro-forestry system and nurse crops (i.e. secondary trees protecting the major
tree species in young stage from adverse situation) raised even in pure plantations are example
of temporary mixture. Example of permanent mixture is given below:

Acacia catechu (Khoir), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Albizia lebbeck (Siris) along with
Bombax ceiba (Ximolu) & Ailanthus excelsa (Borpat), etc. are example of Horizontal
permanent mixture, whereas Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu) & Morus alba (Boganuni) and Tectona
grandis (Segun) and Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul) are the examples of Vertical
permanent mixture.
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Method and Design of Pure and Mixed plantation

The method of mixing species in Forest Zone can be carried out in different manners
as:

Block mixture i.e. different species are planted in small pure blocks, Strip mixture i.e. species
are planted in alternate strips of varying width, Line mixture i.e. species are planted in
alternate lines, and mixing several species by making random mixture. The designs of pure
and mixed plantation have been discussed briefly as follows:

Pure plantation or raising single species: Pure plantation of a species may be carried out in
either single spacing or more than one spacing in different small blocks depending upon the
choice of the farm family; the choice is determined by the need of intercrops and availability
of resources for adopting management practices.However, it is better to adopt only one
spacing considering the easiness to adopt the management practices (especially thinning
operation under forest zone). It is usually carried out for market oriented species in Forest
Zone.
Mixed plantation of two or more species:
 Block mixture: If the available area for plantation is relatively large and the farm
family is interested to raise few species having different rotational periods (of forest species),
the species may be raised in small pure blocks as shown in Fig. 8 as an example. The
placement of species for a block is determined by the stature of the plant species and the
orientation of sunshine. Obviously, the species combination in the zone may vary depending
upon the suitability of land and choice of the farmer. The percentage of area occupied by a
species may also vary from farmer to farmer depending upon the needs & available resources
of the farm family, availability of market and market value.
 Strip mixture: Depending upon the availability of the land and choice of the farm
family more than one species may be planted in alternate strip of varying width (Fig. 9).
Spacing for a species within a strip should be maintained uniformly. The placement of species
(for a strip) is determined by the stature of plants species and orientation of sunshine. Forest
species having shorter rotational period should be allowed to occupy more area with wider

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strip for more number of trees; however, the ultimate decision for area to be occupied by a
species may vary from farmer to farmer depending upon the needs and resource availability of
the farmer, market availability, market value of different species, length of rotation of the
species, etc. Strip mixture is usually carried out by large farmers only.
 Line mixture: Another option for design of plantation of several species together is
plantation of the species in alternate rows (Fig. 10). Allocation of species within a row varies
with the stature of plant species and orientation of sunshine. Spacing for a species within a
row will have to be uniform. It is usually adopted for relatively small area under the zone with
few number of forest species.
 Random mixture of several species in a line: Mixing several species randomly
having similar spacing may be planted in a single row. However, the placement of species
varies with the stature of plant species and orientation of sunshine. The selection of species
depends upon the needs of the farmers. This design is usually carried out to accommodate
large number of species in limited area.

Desirable criteria for growing intercrops with trees

For growing successful intercrops in trees of Forest Zone the crop species (grown as
intercrops) and tree species should possess some important characteristics as mentioned
below:

Criteria of crop species:

 Should be at least partially shade tolerant;

 Should respond well to high density planting;

 Should return adequate amount of easily decomposable organic matter to soil;

 Should preferably belong to Fabaceae family and have ability to fit in multiple
/intensive cropping system;

 Should tolerate adverse situations like water stress or excess of water.

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Criteria for ideal tree species:

While selecting tree species for growing intercrops in between them, several characteristics
should be considered so that the tree species should not interfere with the intercrops for soil
moisture, nutrients, sunlight besides agricultural operation. Besides, such trees should enrich
the soil with easily decomposable leaves without any antagonistic effect to associated crops.
Some of the desirable characteristics of such tree species are as follows:

 Root characteristics: Tree species having deeper root activity should be preferred
unlike the intercrops.

 Crown characteristics: The ratio of crown size to the bole diameter should be as low
as possible; the crown should be lighter, smaller and conical/cylindrical shaped.

 Bole characteristics: The bole of the species should be upright & straight and should
possess self-pruning nature or have ability to tolerate pruning. The tree should have response
to pollarding and coppicing.

 Phenological characteristics: The phyllotaxis of the trees should allow the

penetration of sunshine to fall upon the intercrops. Phenology with respect to leaf flushing and
leaf fall should be helpful to the crops grown as intercrops. Deciduous species are preferred
over evergreen species as because there is less competition for light, nutrient and moisture for
a considerable period of the year.

 Nutrition and water requirement: Tree species should have ability to tolerate the
water scarcity and water-excess situations. Nitrogen fixing tree species are preferred as their
dependence on soil nitrogen is less.

 Growth characteristics: Fast growing species at least at early stage of the tree is
preferred.

 Shelter to insect-pests and diseases: The tree species should not provide shelter to
insect-pests and diseases to agricultural crops.

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 Others:

a. The rate of litter fall and decomposition should be helpful to enhance soil
fertility; b) The tree species should tolerate to side shade in the early stages of
growth;

b. Tree should not have any toxic effects on soil and associated crops;

c. Tree species should have high survival percentage, easy establishment &
management, multiple use, and higher profitability;

d. Such species should have wide adaptability by local farmers.

Spatial arrangement of tree species

Spacing or esplacement is the distance between the plants in a plantation. It is one of

the major factors determining the volume and biomass production at intermediate and final
stage of felling of trees. There are several factors governing the spacing of a particular tree
species for planting in Forest Zone as mentioned below:

 Height of the species: Tall plants giving long shade projection affects the adjoining
trees; therefore, wider spacing is needed for relatively taller trees;

 Branching habit: A tree species having less branching habit should be placed with
narrower spacing in contrast to the high branching habit;

 Crown pattern: For broad, round, flat crowned trees, a wider spacing is needed
whereas trees with closer type of crowns closer spacing is better;

 Growth rate: Usually fast growing species need wider spacing in comparison to slow
growing trees;

 Object of management: Closer spacing should be adopted to produce fuel wood,

small timber/pole and pulpwood. However, to produce structural timber, fruit or for growing
intercrops wider spacing is preferred;

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 Annual rings: When denser wood is needed with more number of annual rings per
cm, closer spacing should be provided;

 Orientation of sunshine: Orientation of trees is one of the most important factors

determining the spacing as the trees should receive maximum light in between them. The rows
should face the rising sun so that they may get sunshine for longer duration.

 Availability of nutrients and moisture: In sites where nutrients and moisture tend to
be lower, spacing should be kept wider;

 Weed growth: Closer spacing tends to close the canopy earlier; hence reduces weed
growth due to lack of sunshine. However, to operate mechanical weeding a minimum spacing
of about 3m is needed;

 Cost factor: Closer spacing is better for getting the commercial timber if tending
operation is done at proper time. However, although closer spacing results in high production
of fuel wood or fodder, yet cost of production should be taken into consideration as costs are
always higher in closer spacing.

Therefore, the spacing should be optimum i.e. the spacing which produces the greatest
volume of desired size trees and the tree should be dense enough to efficiently utilize full
availability of light, soil, moisture as well as nutrients. Some of the important points to be
considered during selection of optimum spacing are mentioned below:

o In closure spacing canopy closes earlier and lesser weeding is required;

however, spacing should not be so less that canopy is closed completely within 4-6
years only. Close spacing should not be selected to such an extent which adversely
affects the size of tree and the thinning poles are becoming useless;

o Thinning should be done in time. If thinning cannot be done in time, it is better

to space widely in the beginning;

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o Rectangular planting is better for growth & development of plants than that of
square planting; however, commonly used planting design in Agro-forestry is square
planting;

o Wider spacing is helpful for growing intercrops. In case of wider spacing,

precautions should be taken against loss of surface soil especially in sloppy land.

In Table 2.9 commonly used spacing for trees grown in Baree to serve different purposes
has been mentioned:

Table 2.9: Common spacing of tree for different purposes

Purpose Growth & management criteria Spacing

Fuel wood Maximum yield, short rotation, no limit for small size 1-2 m
Pulpwood Maximum yield, short rotation (5-15 years), size limit 2-3 m
10-40 diameter
Saw-timber & Long rotation, large log size, regular thinning, loss in 2.5-4.5 m
veneer logs total volume is compensated by high value of wood

In Table 2.10 spacing usually adopted for some of the species which are raised in Forest
Zone have been mentioned:

Table 2.10: Common spacing for different tree species

Spacing Species
Up to 1.8 m Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul)
1.8 – 2.5 m Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu), Mesua ferrea (Nahar), Michelia champaca
(Titachapa), Salix sp. Tectona grandis (Segun)
2.5 – 3.5 m Acacia catechu (Khoir), Adina cordifolia (Kelikadam), Albizia
lebbeck (Siris), Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), Chukrasia tabularis
(Bogipoma), Gmelina arborea (Gomari), Kydia cycllina (Pichola),
Terminalia arjuna (Arjun), Terminalia chebula (Xilikha), Toona

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ciliata (Poma)
4.0 – 6.0 m Azadirachta indica (Mohaneem), Bombax ceiba (Ximolu),
Hymenodictyon excelsum (Panikadam)
> 6.0 m Artocarpus chama (Cham), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal),
Tamarindus indica (Tentali)

Table 2.11: Information of few tree species for planting in Forest Zone

Sl. Tree crop Assamese Age of normal Planting Method of planting

No. name planting stock season
(months)
1. Acacia Khoir 2-3 Jul Direct sowing, entire
catechu planting, stump planting
2. Adina Haldu, 3 Aug -do-
cordifolia Telikadam
3. Ailanthus Borpat 4-5 Jul-Aug Direct sowing, entire
excelsa planting, stump planting,
branch cutting
4. Albizia Sau - - Direct sowing, entire
chinensis planting, stump planting
5. Albizia Siris 2-3 Jul Direct sowing, entire
lebbeck planting, stump planting
6. Albizia Hiharu 2-3 Aug -do-
odoratissima
7. Albizia Koroi 1 Jul -do-
procera
8. Amoora Lali, Amori 12-24 Jun-Jul Direct sowing, entire
wallichi planting
9. Anthocephal Kadam 4-5 Jun-Jul Stump planting, entire
us chinensis planting
10. Artocarpus Chamkothal 1 or 8 Jul-Aug Direct sowing, entire
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chaplasha , Cham planting, stump planting

11. Artocarpus Kothal 12 Jul Direct sowing, entire
heterophyllu planting
s
12. Azadirachta Mohaneem 12 Jul Direct sowing, entire
indica planting, root sucker
13. Barringtonia Hijol, - Jul-Oct Direct sowing, entire
acutangula Paniamora planting
14. Bauhinia Bonkanchan - - Direct sowing, entire
purpurea , Kurial planting, stump planting
15. Bauhinia Kanchan, 2-3 Jun-Jul -do-
variegate Bogakatra
16. Bischofia Uriam - Jul Direct sowing, entire
javanica planting, root cutting,
branch cutting
17. Bombax Ximolu 12 Jan-Feb Direct sowing, entire
ceiba planting, stump planting,
branch cutting
18. Butea Polax - Jul-Aug Direct sowing, entire
monosperma planting, stump planting
19. Cassia Xonaru - May-Jun -do-
fistula
20. Cassia Moroi 2 Jul -do-
siamea
21. Dalbergia Sisu 3-4 Jul-Aug Direct sowing, entire
sisso planting, stump planting,
branch cutting, root
cutting
22. Dipterocarp Holong - May-Jun Direct sowing, entire

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us planting
macrocarpus
23. Dipterocarp Garjan - - Direct sowing
us turbinatus
24. Emblica Amlokhi - Jul Branch cutting, entire
officinalis planting, budded stump
25. Garuga Thotmala, 2 Aug-Sep Direct sowing, entire
pinnata Rohimola planting, stump planting
26. Gmelina Gomari 1-2 Jun Direct sowing, entire
arborea planting, stump planting
27. Hymenodicty Panikadam, 2 Apr-May -do-
on excelsum Bhurkundi
28. Kydia Pichola, 2-3 or 12 Jul Direct sowing, entire
calycina Kukuha planting, stump planting,
tree stumping
29. Lagerstroem Sidha - Jun Entire planting, stump
ia parviflora planting
30. Lagerstroem Ajar, Ejar - Jun Direct sowing, entire
ia speciosa planting, stump planting
31. Melia Ghoraneem 12 Jul Direct sowing, entire
azadirach planting, stump planting,
branch cutting, root
cutting
32. Mesua Nahor 9 or 12 Jul Direct sowing, entire
ferrea planting
33. Michelia Titachapa 12 Jun-Jul, Entire planting
champaca Dec-Jan
34. Morus alba Nuni, - Jul Direct sowing, entire
Boganuni planting, stump planting,

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branch cutting
35. Morus Nuni 2 Jul Entire planting, stump
indica planting, branch cutting
36. Morus Bola 2 Aug or -do-
laevigata Feb
37. Phoebe Bonchum - Jun Direct sowing, entire
goalparensis planting
38. Pongamia Karach 10-12 Jun-Jul Direct sowing, entire
pinnata planting, stump planting
39. Schima Makrixal 4 Jun-Jul Entire planting
wallichi
40. Shorea Makai 12 Jul-Aug Direct sowing, entire
assamica planting
41. Shorea Xal 12 Jul-Aug Direct sowing, entire
robusta planting, stump planting
42. Sterculia Odal - Jul-Aug Direct sowing, entire
villosa planting, stump planting
43. Sterculia Odla 4 Jul Entire planting
urens
44. Stereosperm Paroli - - Direct sowing, entire
um planting, root sucker
chelonoides
45. Syzygium Kolajamu 12 Jul Direct sowing, entire
cuminii planting, stump planting
46. Tamarindus Tenteli 24 Jul Direct sowing, entire
indica planting
47.. Tectona Segun - Jul-Aug Entire planting, stump
grandis planting
48. Terminalia Laurel, - Jul Direct sowing, entire

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alata Kuhir, planting, stump planting

Amari
49. Terminalia Arjun 9 Jun-Jul -do-
arjuna
50. Terminalia Bhomora 12 Jun-Jul -do-
bellirica
51. Terminalia Xilikha 12 Jul Direct sowing, entire
chebula planting
52. Terminalia Hollock 12 Jul Direct sowing, entire
myriocarpa planting
53. Toona ciliate Poma 12 Jul Direct sowing, entire
planting, stump planting
54. Trewia Bhelkor, - Jun-Jul -do-
nudiflora Pindari
Source: Kumar, 2011; Dwivedi, 2009

Pit making under different situations

For planting out at the Forest Zone different kinds of pits should be made depending
upon the situation viz.

 Ordinary pits of different sizes (30-60 cm x 30-60 cm x 30-60 cm), depending upon
the species, should be dug for planting stock. Such pits are suitable for heavy textured soil.
 The mound is a pit made for planting when the area is periodically water logged.
Planting is done at the higher level than the ground. Loose soil and FYM/leaf mould are
heaped up in the mound.
 Ridge-ditch is a partly filled trench with a ridge along it and is preferred for sloping
areas.
 Saucer pit is a pit which is dug but the area around the pit is scrapped to form a
shallow saucer of 1 m radius for conserving moisture. Such pits are suitable for sandy areas.

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Age of planting stock

 The age of the normal planting stock for different tree species has been shown in Table
2.11

 Besides species, other factors determining the age of optimum planting stock are
method of propagation and site of plantation.

Size of planting stock

For most of the tree species the optimum height of planting stock is 50-100 cm. The
optimum height for planting stock grown in container especially for most of the broad-leaved
species is 50-150 cm.

General rules to be followed during planting

Some of important rules should be followed during plantation of stocks prepared by

various methods. These are:

Before planting
 The soil of the pit should be treated with insecticide against termites and other soil
insect-pests;
 Polybags/polypots should be removed/torn just before planting;
Mode of planting
 Roots should be kept in natural position in pit i.e. should not be any distortion of roots;
 Pit should be filled with top soil/fertile soil up to collar region of plants;
 Plants should be placed at the middle of the pit;
Refilling of pit/trench/crowbar
 While refilling the pit/trench/crowbar the top soil/fertile soil should be placed at
bottom which is in contact with roots;
 Sub-soil should be placed above the best soil;
 Leaf litter or other organic matters should not be kept in contact with roots;

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 Filling should be so adjusted that neither basin is formed nor roots are likely to be
exposed during monsoon;
Compaction of soil
 After planting soil should be compacted first by hand and then by foot pressure
 Replanting, if required, should be done within the same year of planting;

Pattern of planting

Pattern of planting of tree species in plantation site may be –Line or Rectangular

planting, Square planting, Triangular planting and Quincunx planting. The characteristics of
these patterns are as follows:
 Line or Rectangular planting: Planting is done on straight line at optimum distance;
if adjacent two lines are planted out with similar or dissimilar species with same distances of
two lines of plants form rectangles; i.e. planting distance between line to line and plant to
plant is not similar.
 Square planting: In Square planting distance between line to line and plant to plant is
the same.
 Triangular planting: In this pattern each plant in the succeeding row get position in
the middle of the preceding row.
 Quincunx planting: in Quincunx pattern four plants are at the corners of a square and
the fifth plant is at the centre of the square.
The most feasible patterns for Forest Zone are Line or Rectangular planting and
Square planting. However, Quincunx planting may be adopted successfully in few cases; viz.
four trees of Tectona grandis (Segun) with one clump of Bamboo.

Techniques of planting

Several planting techniques are generally followed for successful plantation of tree.
These are:

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Planting with ball of soil

 The formation of a ball of soil is possible only when the soil of the nursery is neither
too dry nor too wet;
 Careful handling is important so that neither the ball is collapsed nor the roots get
exposed;
 Sized of pit should be large enough to place the ball of soil; the pit should be filled
with top soil followed by treading i.e. pressed firmly round the base of plant with foot.
Planting with container
 After removal of polythene bag/container the planting stocks should be planted in the
pits with intact ball of earth like that of the above mentioned method;
 After planting, soil filling of pit and treading, the polythene bag (which has been used
as container) should be used for wrapping around the collar of the plant; subsequently,
the bag should be covered with soil to serve as mulching material.
Stump planting
 Stumps must be planted during pre-monsoon showers;
 In heavy soil stumps should be planted in pits; however, in light soil these should be
planted by making crow bar holes;
 Position of collar-tip should be kept at ground level during planting; it is followed by
filling with soil and treading;
 Stumps should be protected from direct sunshine.
Branch and stem cutting
 Cuttings should be planted during pre-monsoon rainfall;
 During planting of branches/stems cutting a paste of cow-dung and mud should be
added to the pits
 Some common rules should be followed for all kinds of planting stocks as follows:
 Before moving the plants from nursery to the site the planting should be watered
properly;
 There should be no damage to plants during transit;

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 The nursery stock should be transported and planted as soon as possible (within few
hours), especially if there is no rainfall.

Establishment of planting materials

Establishment after plantation is one of the most crucial phases of tree species. Death
of several seedlings occur due to –

 Selection of injured /defective seedlings;

 Defective method of planting;
 Moisture stress;
 Infestation of weeds, insect-pests, diseases, etc.;
 Injury in the roots during inter-culture operation;

To decrease the mortality rate of seedlings the following measures should be taken.

 General rules/guidelines should be strictly followed for all planting methods as

mentioned earlier;
 Regular weeding should be done;
 Soil working or loosening of soil must be followed after each weeding;
 Optimum irrigations should be provided during dry months (October-March);
 Conservation moisture by mulching should be done around the collar of the plant and
covering with the soil;
 Singling operation should be done when the plants attain more than 2 m height;
 Beating up of casuality with vigorous and tall seedlings after first weeding should be
done;
 Special care must be taken if the factors of mortality of seedlings are due to water
logging, improper method of planting & carelessness at the time of planting, etc.

For growing intercrops following point is to be noted:

 For growing intercrops at least 1 m gap should be maintained.

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Tending operation or Silviculture management

Tending operation is defined as an operation carried out for the benefit of a forest tree
crop at any stage of its life between seedling and maturity for producing high quality timber as
well as to maximize the returns per unit area. It covers the operations like weeding, cleaning,
pruning, thinning, improvement felling, climber cutting, girdling of unwanted growth, etc.;
however, it does not include operations like regeneration felling, soil working, drainage,
irrigation, controlled burning, etc. Tending activities are carried out during 1st, 2nd and 3rd year
of new plantation and thereafter at an interval varying from 2 or 3 to 10 years or even more
depending upon the species, purpose of plantation and problems encountered.

Some of the activities of tending operation are discussed briefly as under:

Weeding

 Season determines the frequency and duration of weeding to achieve the purpose;

 Proper time and manner of weeding with respect to the tree species are important;

 When an annual crop is cultivated in the interspaces weeding along with soil working
are not done separately.

Cleaning

 It involves cutting back of shrubs, herbs, other vegetation interfereing growth of

saplings; cutting back the individuals of inferior species which interfere desired
species; cutting back of malformed individuals of desired species; etc.

 Cleaning should be done during the peak growth season of the trees;

 Frequency of cleaning varies with density and rate of growth of undesirable shrubs;

 Cleaning should be carried out throughout the sapling stage of the tree species;
however, it should not be overdone.

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Pruning

 Pruning must be restricted to the species only where knot-free timber is required;

 It should be carried out on the best stems which ultimately gives rise the final tree
crop;

 It should be started since earlier life period of the tree;

 Height for pruning operation must be low so that it is easily approachable for
operation;

 Rubbing off the internal buds to prevent growth of branches;

 Basal branch pruning and selective branch pruning should be carried out if intercrops
are raised;

 Light pruning is done to the species which are shy to pruning operation, medium
pruning to the species is done that bear flower and fruit on current season growth and
severe pruning is done in old trees;

 Extreme cold and hot period should be avoided during pruning.On deciduous plant it
should be done in dormant period;

 Lopping, the operation of which branches of a tree are pruned unsystematically,

should be avoided for very small and young twigs, saplings and poles. Lopping should
be carried out at alternate season.

Improvement felling

 Removal of dead, dying and diseased trees;

 Removal of bad shaped trees;

 Thinning out crowded groups of trees and poles excluding larger trees;

 Cutting back badly shaped, stunted or injured saplings

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 Removal of/cuttings of climbers.

Climber cutting

 It involves cutting or uprooting of herbaceous or woody plants that climb up or other

support by twinning round the tree species or by holding of tree species by tendrils,
hooks, aerial roots or other attachments;

 Cutting should be done in time to avoid major damages to the desired species.

Thinning

 Thinning provides space for plants; prevents spread of insect-pests, diseases, etc.;
removes crooked, forked, basal, sweep,roughly branched trees; provides poles & posts
and thereby produce financial returns;

 Only early thinning which provides fuel wood, pole or post should be done;

 Reduces natural mortality and enhances growth of the remaining trees;

 Intensity of thinning depends upon plant population, plant species, climatic condition,
soil characteristics, length of rotation, etc.;

 When heavy demand for leaf fodder coincides, thin out side twigs;

 If intercrops are raised thinning should be done immediately after harvest of annual
intercrops.

Tending operations needed for some of tree species grown in Forest Zone are mentioned
briefly in the Table 2.12, however, these are more feasible to adop in block or monoculture
plantation.

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Table 2.12: Tending operation needed for few tree species

Sl. Species Assamese Operation to be carried out

No name
.
1. Acacia Khoir In direct sowing: Weeding as and when needed; thinning at
catechu the time of weeding keeping 2-3 plants/meter length of
strip, 2 years after sowing. Later on, thinning during 5th
year.
In entire plant & stump planting: Weeding & bush cutting
when needed.
2. Adina Kelikada Frequent weeding, bush cutting & cleanings are needed up
cordifolia m to 3rd year. Needed to retain some bushes to provide light
shade & act as nurse. In the 1st year 3-4 weeding during
Jul, Aug & Sep; 2-3 in 2nd year & 1 in 3rd year.
3. Ailanthus Borpat Regular weeding & bush cutting for initial two years.
excelsa
4. Albizia Sau In the 1st year 2-3 weeding; in 2nd year 1-2 weeding
chinensis needed. Climber cutting as and when required. Excessive
weeding hampers growth; thinning depends on initial
spacing and rate of growth.
5. Albizia Siris In direct sowing: 2 weeding annually for 2 years needed.
lebbeck In entire plant & stump planting: 2 weedings annually for
1 year needed.
6. Albizia Hiharu Weeding twice in 1st year and once in 2nd year; excessive
odoratissim weeding hampers growth; climber cutting as and when
a necessary; thinning later on depending upon initial spacing
and rate of growth.
7. Albizia Koroi Weeding thrice in 1st and 2nd year; climber cutting as and
procera when necessary; cleaning and thinning depends upon initial
spacing and rate of growth.

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8. Alstonia Chationa Weeding needed in 1st year; heavy cleaning should be

scholaris avoided.
9. Anthocephal Kadam No need of weeding and cleaning.
us cadamba
10. Azadirachta Mohanee Soil working and weeding 2-3 times in 1st year and one
indica m weeding in 2nd year; spacing of seedling should be 10-15
cm apart; thinning during 3-4 years old & 6 years old
plants.
11. Bauhinia Kanchan, Regular weeding is needed in 1st year & trees should be
variegate Bogakanc kept adequately thinned as they grow.
han
12. Bombax Ximolu Weeding at short interval during 1st year, 3 in 2nd & 2 in 3rd
ceiba year. Loosening of soil during weeding is needed. Thinning
in line sown plantation for 2-3 years; damaged seedlings
cut back and multiple shoots reduced to single. Pruning is
done up to 2 m height. Weeding is also done, if needed,
during 4th & 5th year.
13. Butea Polax Line sown seedlings are spaced 20-30 cm apart during 1st
monospora year of monsoon after weeding is done. Subsequent
thinning depending on the growth rate. Ultimate spacing
should be 2-3 m in line
14. Cassia Xonaru Regular weeding is needed for initial 3-4 years.
fistula
15. Cassia Siaxonaru In line sowing, seedlings are spaced 30 cm apart at the end
siamea of 1st rains; thinned to 1.8m x 1.8m at the start of 2nd year
rains. Further, thinning is needed during 6th year.
16. Chukrasia Bogipoma In initial 2-3 years weeding and cleaning should be done.
tabularis First thinning is needed in 4-5th year & thereafter, every 5
years. First thinning should be light.

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17. Dalbergia Sisu 1st weeding should be done soon after stumps sprout or
sissoo seeds germinate; total 2-4 weeding needed during 1st year
during monsoon period. During last weeding soil working
should be done to conserve moisture in irrigated condition;
for plants raised from coppice, cleaning should be carried
out at the end of 1st year reducing coppice shoots to 2-3 per
stool. Thinning should be done at the ages of 3, 5/6, 10, 15,
20 30, 40 & 50 years; climber cutting or sprouting should
be carried out along with thinning.
18. Dipterocarp Holong Three weeding every year during monsoon needed up to 3rd
us year or till 2 m height of the tree. Control of Michania
macrocarpu climber is essential. By proper tending and thinning
s spacing between plants should be adjusted at 5m x 5m at
15 years of age, when plants are about 3m tall. Next
thinning should be carried out at 35 years of age when
number of trees are reduced to 300 per ha. For production
of plywood logs plantations are managed on a rotation of
45 years.
19. Dipterocarp Garjan Soil working and weeding is important.
us
turbinatus
20. Gmelina Gomari Weeding during 1st & 2nd year during monsoon; loosening
arborea of soil around tree base during Oct-Nov; Thinning from 3rd
year onwards.
21. Hymenodict Panikada Frequent weeding & cleaning during 1st & 2nd year.
yon m,
ezcelsum Phurkundi
22. Kydia Pichola, Frequent weeding & cleaning should be done for initial 3
calycina Kukuha years. Thinning is to be carried out when tree height is

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1.8m. Thereafter, thinning should be done at 5 year

interval.
23. Lagerstroe Sidha Regular weeding & cleaning during monsoon in early
mia stages of trees. Adequate thinning from pole stage onward
parviflora is needed.
24. Leucaena Subabul Frequent weeding & cleaning during early stages and
leucocephal closed spacing preferred to suppress weeds in the same
a stage; thinning may be carried out later to the desired
intensity; special care is needed to keep the cattle out.
Protective irrigation is needed.
25. Melia Ghoranee Regular weeding needed for 2 years; thinning from 5th
azadirach m years onwards.
26. Mesua Nahar Regular weeding & cleaning till plants are established are
ferrea needed.
27. Michelia Titachapa The ground around seedlings should be worked out into
champaca small mounds once or twice during monsoon as the species
is sensitive to water logging. Weeding are needed up to 3rd
year. The 1st thinning in a plantation of 1.8 m x 1.8 m is
required in the 5th year.
28. Moringa Sajina Regular weeding & cleaning is needed during initial stages
oleifera of plantation. In case of coppice shoots only 2-3 may be
retained per stool. Special measures are needed to protect
from cattles.
29. Morus alba Nuni, Regular weeding & cleaning in initial stage. For sericulture
Boganuni use, pruning is required.
30. Pongamia Karach 2-3 weeding in initial 3 years. Side branches should be
pinnata pruned to set proper bole.
31. Salix Bhe Regular weeding & cleaning in initial few years. For knot
tetrasperma free timber buds are rubbed off by hand using gunny cloth

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when the plants are young (up to a height of 2.5-3m) only

one stem should be allowed to exist, plants 4-5m tall (or
about 4-6 years old) may be pollarded for further
propagation. Plantations raised at 2m x 2m spacing are first
thinned in 5th or 6th year; 2nd thinning is required in 8th &
9th year, leaving the plants spaced 4m x 4m. In coppice
plants cleaning is done at the age of 2-4 year, reducing
shoots to 2 per stool; then a thinning at the age of 6-8 years
of age reducing the number to only one per stool.
32. Sesbania Bokphul Frequent weeding in initial stage; frequent soil working is
grandiflora needed; if required thinning should be done as the plants
grows up.
33. Shorea Mekai Two weeding during 1st, 2nd and 3rd year during Jun-Jul,
assamica Jan-Feb, should be carried out. From 4th to 9th year one
climber cutting is done in winter every year. Weeding
lightly in 4th, 5th, & 6th year should be carried out at base
only to freeing the saplings from suppression & congestion.
By proper thinning, spacing is increased to 5m x 5m at 15
years of age when height of the trees are about 3m.
Thinning should be done at the age of 15 & 35 years. After
35 years number of plants should be 300 per ha. For
plywood logs plantation are managed to 84 year rotation.
34. Shorea Xal Climber cutting annually up to 10 years of age and
robusta thereafter twice every five years till the crop reaches 30
years of age; cutting of climbers done whenever needed.
Thinning should be done on a 5 year cycle up to 30 years,
and thereafter on a 10 year cycle.
35. Syzigium Kolajamu Regular weeding & cleaning is important. The 1st cleaning
cumini is done during 3rd year and 2nd at the age of 5th year.

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Subsequent thinning should be done at the age of 10th, 15th,

20th, 25th, 30th, 40th & 50th year. Coppice crops have to be
tended regularly.
36. Tamarindus Tenteli Regular weeding and loosening of the soil are required. It
indica is not removed in thinning in mixed plantation.
37. Tectona Segun Three weeding in 1st year, 2 in 2nd year and 1 in 3rd year
grandis needed. In the 1st year, it should be clean-weeded & soil
working should be done. Second year weeding include
climber cutting, cutting back of bad stems & removal of
double leaders; climber cutting is done in the 3rd year &
subsequent years. First thinning is done when the crop is 8-
9 m in height; 2nd when the dominant height is 10-12 m and
in both of these thinning alternate diagonals & rows is
removed.
38. Terminalia Amori, The plant has to be kept weed free. Dense line sowing
alata Kuhir requires thinning in 3rd & 4th year. Ultimate spacing of the
plants should be about half the average tree height.
39. Terminalia Arjun Regular weeding during monsoon in early years and later
arjuna thinning is required.
40. Terminalia Bhomora Weeding and cleaning is required for initial 2-3 years. In
bellirica mixed plantation thinning and improvement should be done
as per plan prescription.
41. Toona Poma Regular weeding & loosening of soil in young plantation.
ciliate In well-grown plantations thinning is required in the 4th
year; thereafter it is to be carried out once in every five
year.
42. Zizyphus Bilati Weeding is important for fruit purpose, tending not needed;
mauritiana bogori however, for coppice species, one shoot per stool in 1st or
2nd year after coppicing, trees are pruned systematically for
quality fruits.
Source: Khanna, 2013

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At the stage of maturity of tree species

 Specific management practices required at this stage of tree is minimum;

 In most of the cases, performance of the intercrops grown between rows of mature tree
is poor. However, it varies with the factors like trees species, intercrop species, spacing of
trees, pruned height of trees, number of trees per unit area, etc.

 Under mature trees grazing cattle, goat and other livestock may be allowed easily for
annual grasses.

Rotation and harvesting of tree species

Rotation of a tree species in forest zone is defined as the planned number of years
between the formation of a tree and its final felling or harvesting. Choice of rotation as well
as the felling of a tree species is determined by several factors like purpose of raising tree
species, silvicultural need, site condition, market demands, socio-econimic condition of the
farm families, financial and economic considerations, etc.

Usually, when the purpose of raising the tree species is social or household
consumption only (like medicinal plants), the kind of rotation is technical (i.e. the rotation
under which a species yields the maximum materials of a specified size or suitability for
economic conversion). On the other hand, for market oriented objective, the rotation may be
either technical rotation or maximum volume production (i.e. the rotation that yields the
maximum quantity of material) along with the rotation of the highest income (i.e. rotation
which yields the highest annual gross or net income). However, the best time of harvest
greatly depends upon the farmers’ preferences which should be scheduled at the time of high
price availability especially for market oriented species. Besides, for such species it is
important to have buyers ready before felling the trees.

In Baree, harvesting of many of the tree species in phased manner fulfils multiferous
needs of the farmers. For example,

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 Tectona grandis (Segun), a long cycled tree, can be harvested at 14th to 15th year from
planting for use as pole; on the other hand, it should be harvested after 50 th year onwards for
timber purpose when the heartwood becomes fully developed. The same species, however,
may be utilized for preparation of furniture, door, window, etc. from 10th year onwards;

 Gmelina arborea (Gomari), a short cycled tree can be harvested at 5th year, 10th year
and 15th to 20th year onwards for the purpose of pulp, fuel wood and timber, respectively;

 Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul), can be harvested at 2-4 years and 5-6 years after
plantation for the purpose opf fuel wood (& fodder) and pole, respectively;

It is important to note that tree species for market oriented timbers are felled after the
development of heartwood only; hence need longer rotation. Harvesting of such species for
market and fixation of price is dependent on dbh (diameter at breast height or 1.3-1.4 m above
the ground). However, there is no fixed exploitable size for household use; traditional/local
knowledge and need of the family determine the harvest of the tree to serve varied purposes.

In several fruit yielding tree species harvesting is done when the tree become
overtmature with reduction of yield of fruit. Trees are then can be harvested and woods may
be utilized for suitable purposes of the species.

Bamboo culm of merchantable category may be harvested either for household use or
for market when need arises.

The common system of felling trees adopted in Baree is selection system especially in
mixed plantation. Generally, dead, dying, diseased, over mature trees are removed. In some
species including bamboo natural regeneration is encouraged.

It should be noted that,

 If there is probability of replantation along with intercrops, it is important to maintain

soil fertility with organic residues/refuses by turning down into soil;

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 At the harvesting phase of tree, livestock may be allowed into the area which can graze
grasses as well as tree species up to the height of livestock only.

Subsidiary component of baree

Plant species for varied purposes occupy the prime position in Baree for livelihood as
well as income generation and therefore, is considered as the major component. However,
several other components are also integral part of the system. All these subsidiary components
have potentiality to contribute enormously for the livelihood of the farm families. Depending
upon the suitability of resources and priority of farm family, availability of subsidiary
components may vary from Baree to Baree. Some of the vital subsidiary components of Baree
have been discussed briefly as follows:

A. Pisciculture

Pisciculture is one of the most prominent subsidiary components of Baree as fish is

one of the primary sources of protein for the local inhabitants of the state. About 3, 61,393
numbers of ponds and tanks covering an area of about 55,090 ha exist under individual land
(Directorate of Fishery, 2013-14) in Assam most of these are found in Baree. Traditionally,
ponds and tanks of Baree are managed poorly with the sole intension to fulfil household
consumption only. As such, only about 5900 ha area of the state including few ponds of Baree
is under scientific method of fish farming. However, with little intervention of scientific
approaches these ponds (and tanks) can easily be converted into a major source of income
generation besides fulfilling the major share of the protein requirement of the farm families.
These objectives can be achieved by following the Package of Practices for Fisheries,
formulated by the Assam Agricultural University (Package of Practices for Horticultural
Crops, Fisheries and Home Science, 2010)

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Some of the key points with regard to the scientific management of fisheries exist in
Baree are mentioned below:

Mode of utilization of ponds and tanks

Ponds (and tanks) can be utilized as composite culture unit consisting of different
compatible species of fishes together having different feeding habits. Besides, there is enough
scope for Integrated Fish- livestock farming where predetermined quantum of waste material
obtained by rearing the livestock in the pond area is applied in water bodies as the source of
nutrients for fishes. There may be several kinds of Integrated Fish- livestock farming
depending upon the suitability of the area, resources and choice of farmers, viz. Pig- fish
farming, Fish- poultry farming, three tier Fish- pig- poultry farming, Fish- duck farming. Fish-
cattle farming, Horti- fish farming etc. Among these, however, Horti- fish farming is the most
common Integrated farming system in the state.

Models of Integration

There are two types of Integrated Fish- livestock farming system: Direct Integration
and Indirect Integration. In Direct Integration model, a predetermined number of livestocks
are reared at any convenient location of the embankment so that the waste products of the
livestock pens/cages are directly drained into the ponds. On the other hands, in Indirect
Integration model any number of livestock is reared at any convenient location of Baree and
the waste material is manually applied to the pond daily at a predetermined dose.

Area needed

For composite culture of Carps & Barbs minimum area requirement is 0.05 ha; other
requirements are: at least one Grow out pond (0.1 - 1.0 ha water surface area with 1.5-3.0 m
depth) and at least one seed raising pond (0.01-0.045 ha water surface area with 1.0-1.5 m
depth for each unit of 0.28 ha area of Grow-out pond).

Area requirement for Fish- livestock Integrated farming system differs from system to
system; viz. Integrated Fish- cattle farming may be carried out successfully in the ponds

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having minimum size of water surface area with 0.05 ha; on the other hand, in most of the
other system (viz. Pig- fish farming, Fish- poultry farming, Fish- duck farming, etc.) the
minimum area requirement is 0.07 ha with at least one Grow out pond (0.05-0.4 ha area with
2.0-3.0 m depth) and at least one Seed raising pond( 0.01-0.045 ha water surface area with
1.0-1.5 m depth for each 0.28 ha area of Grow out pond). Similarly, for Integrated Horti- fish
farming in a small pond usually existed in Baree, the pond area should be at least 0.05 ha
including 0.03 ha total water surface area besides 0.02 ha total dry area.

Species composition of fishes

For composite culture of Carps & Barbs, ponds should be stocked preferably with
fingerlings or carried over seeds of 15 cm size with the following species:

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Silver carp), Catla catla (Bahu/Bhokua), Labeo rohita

(Rou), Ctenopharyngodon idella (Grass carp), Puntius javanicus (Jabha puthi), Cirrhina
mrigala (Mirika), Cyprinus carpio (Common carp) and Labeo gonius (Kurhi), Labeo calbasu
(Mali) in the ratio of 18:14:14:9:9:18:18:0 or 20:15:15:10:0:20:20:0 or
20:15:15:10:0:20:10:10. For Integrated Fish- duck farming similar species combination
should be followed.

For Integrated Fish- poultry farming the ideal species combination should be as
follows:

Hypophthalmichthys molitri (Silver carp), Catla catla (Bahu/Bhokua), Labeo rohita

(Rou), Ctenopharyngodon idella (Grass carp), Cirrhina mrigala (Mirika) and Cyprinus carpio
(Common carp)/ Labeo gonius (Kurhi)/ Labeo calbasu (Mali)/ Labeo boga( Bhangon) in the
ratio of 15:20:15:10:20:20 or 20:15:15:10:20:20.

For Integrated Pig- fish farming the most preferred species combination is as given
below:

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Silver carp), Catla catla (Bahu/Bhokua), Labeo rohita

(Rou), Ctenopharyngodon idella (Grass carp), Puntius javanicus (Jabha puthi), Cirrhina

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mrigala (Mirika), Cyprinus carpio (Common carp) in the ratio of 0:40:30:0:0:20:10 or

25:15:20:10:0:20:10: or 18:14:14:9:9:18:18 or 20:20:15:10:0:15:20. However, Labeo gonius
(Kurhi)/ Labeo calbasu (Mali)/ Labeo boga (Bhangon) may also be utilized instead of
Cyprinus carpio (Common carp).

NOTE: Ctenopharyngodon idella (Grass carp) may be increased to 50 % if sufficient amount

of fodder, vegetables waste or aquatic vegetation is available.

Stocking rate of fishlings

Stocking rate of composite culture of Carps & Barbs is 5500 fishlings/ ha of water
surface area. Similar stocking rate is appropriate for Integrated Fish- duck farming. However,
for other Integrated Fish-livestock farming the stocking rate differs widely; for example, the
ideal stocking rate of fishlings for Pig - fish farming and Fish - poultry farming are 8000-8800
and 6600, respectively for one ha of water surface area.

Stocking rate of animal components in Integrated- Fish- livestock farming

Stocking rate of animal components in Integrated Fish- livestock farming are

mentioned below:

 Pig - Fish farming: 60-80 piglets/ha of water surface area/ year in Direct Integrated
model; however, there is no limit in Indirect Integration.

 Fish - Poultry farming: 500-600 birds/ ha water surface area for both Direct and
Indirect Integration models.

 Three-tier Fish – Pig - Poultry farming: Direct Integration model is mostly preferred
where requirement of the number of piglets is 60-80/ ha/ year. Requirement of the number of
birds should be in the ratio of 9-10 birds:1 piglet.

 Fish - Duck farming: Direct Integration model is mostly preferred where requirement
of the numbers of duck is 240-300/ ha water surface area at the ratio of 1.5:1 male: female.

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 Fish - Cattle farming: Indirect Integration model is mostly preferred. Therefore, there
is no limit of numbers of cows; however one cow with calf is sufficient for 0.1 ha surface
area.

 Breed of animal components in Integrated Fish- livestock farming

Suitable breeds of animal components in Integrated Fish- livestock farming are as

follows:

 Pig - Fish farming: Hampshire, Landrace, Yorkshire, T& D, etc.

 Fish - Poultry farming:

o Direct Integration model: Keystone Gold, Rhode Island, Kalinga Brown,

Kuroiler, Broiler, etc.

o Indirect Integration model: Any good commercial breed.

 Fish - Duck farming: F1 Hybrid of Khaki Cambell, Chara Chameli, Indian Runner,
local Pati duck, etc.

 Fish - Cattle farming: The best group of dairy cattle for integration is half bred ( 50%
Jersey and 50% Local).

Crop selection in Integrated Horti - Fish farming

In Integrated horticulture with fish farming the dry area in and around the pond is
utilized for raising different horticultural crops so that the maximum conservation and
economic benefit can be obtained without hampering the fish culture.

Following dry segments are commonly observed in the ponds exist in Baree: (i) Pond
embankments, (ii) Freeboards of ponds and (iii) Area over the water body; however, in rare
cases some other segments observed are: (i) Boundary, (ii) Inter- pond embankment and (iii)
Surplus dry area during winter.

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Some of the principles which determine the plantation programme in Horti-Fish

farming are:

 Deep rooted, tall and deciduous trees should not be planted in the dykes; however,
 under specific situation, tall trees may be allowed only in the northern side;
 Crops requiring extensive use of chemical and prone to uprooting should be avoided;
 Assam lemon and para grass (Brachiaria spp.) may be utilized as fencing and soil
conservation, respectively. Crops like banana and cabbage may be grown as feed for
fishes;
 Selected cucurbits (viz. Pumpkin, Bottle gourd, Ash gourd etc.) may be grown over
the water body with the help of trellis on the northern embankments only not exceeding one
fifth of the total length of the fishery. Fall of leaf litter and insect larvae from such crops to
the pond water below can provide feed for fishes; besides, shade of such crops provide a
comfortable zone for fishes during summer;
 For single and small (i.e. maximum total area: 0.05 ha, total water area: 0.03 ha, total
dry area: 0.02 ha and having distinct pond embankments) ponds, commonly abundant in
Baree, plantation in the boundary is optional. Tall banana cultivars like Musa balbiciana
(Bhimkal), Kachkol, Borjahaji etc. on the outer border of northern embankment and areca nut
on all the sides at the boundary except the northern side. Some of the species suitable for
raising at varied locations of the embankments are mentioned below:

Margins: Hybrid napier

Middle: Dwarf Cavendish or papaya except the northern side.
Free board: Para grass.
Area over water: Bottle gourd, Pumpkin, Ash gourd, Ridge gourd, etc.

 For big fish farm (>0.05 ha) having more than one pond, although found rarely in
Baree, crop species should preferably be raised in the following manner:

Inter-pond embankments: Different fodder species as mentioned earlier.

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Embankments: Coconut may be grown in the northern boundaries. Some of the crops
which can be grown successfully in the embankments like litchi, guava, banana, papaya, etc.
besides tapioca, maize, flower crops, etc.

Area over water: As mentioned in the small ponds.

 Some of the commercially important tree crops viz. Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu),
Terminalia arjuna (Arjun), Michelia champaca (Titachapa), Gmelina arborea (Gomari),
etc. may also be raised at the boundaries of big fish firm or at the outside of the large
embankments especially at the northern direction of the pond. However, care must be taken
so that leaf litter fall and shade donot disturb the water quality of the pond; hence, lopping of
branches at the required interval and care to develop with single stem are necessary practices
to be adopted for such species. In the embankment slopes, adjacent to the water body, mint
may be one of the promising crops.

Other management practices

Different management practices with regard to fish husbandry under composite and
integrated fish farming such as preparation of pond (viz. eradication of the aquatic weeds &
unwanted/ carnivorous fish species), water quality management (viz. liming, supplementary
feeding, fertilization, control of algal bloom, maintaining water depth, etc), stocking time,
health care of fishes, harvest etc. should be followed as per Package of Practices already
mentioned (Package of Practices for Horticulture Corps, Fisheries & Home Science, 2010).

Special care needed for tree species raised in the Integrated Horti - Fish farming

 Sufficient amount of organic matter should be added in each year to enhance soil
fertility status;
 During inter, irrigation should be provided; if facilities for irrigation are not available
mulching should be done around the base of the trees for better growth and development.

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Economics

Productivity / production as well as percent profit to turnover with respect to few

composite & integrated fish farming are mentioned in Table 2.13.

Table 2.13: Economics of different kinds of Fish farming

Kinds of farming Productivity/ Production % profit to

turnover
1. Composite farming Fish: 4000 kg/ha/yr 52.00
2. Integrated Pig- fish farming Fish: 600-7000 kg/ha/yr 58.95
Pigs: 300-5600 kg/ 60-80 pigs/ha/yr
3.Integrated Fish- poultry farming Fish: 4500 kg/ha/yr --
Egg: 1,20,000/600 birds/yr/ha
Chicken: 690 kg/600 birds/yr/ha
4. Integrated 3- tyre Fish: 6000-7000 kg/ha/yr 72.90
Fish- pig- poultry farming Pig: 3000-5600 kg/60-80 pigs/ha/yr
Egg:70,000/350 birds/ha/yr
Chicken: 2833 kg/ha/yr
5. Integrated Fish-duck farming Fish: 4000 kg/ha/yr --
Egg: 19,000-22,000/250 ducks/ yr
Duck: 240-260 kg/250 ducks/ ha/yr
6. Integrated Fish -cattle farming Fish: 350 kg/ha/0.1ha 44.92
Milk: 2400 l & a calf/year/0.1 ha
7. Integrated Horti- fish farming -- 87.35

B. Dairy

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Dairy is one of the highly promising subsidiary components of Baree; unfortunately,

Assam is still lagging behind in daily consumption of milk in comparison to other states of the
country. Daily consumption of milk in Assam is only 74 g per person diring 2015-16 which is
far behind the recommendation (281 g) of ICMR. By following the scientific methods with
respect to design & construction of cow shed, selection of breed, feeding as well as health
care management, etc. milk production in Assam can be raised enormously. For successful
dairy farming some of key points to be undertaken in Baree are mentioned below:

Design and construction of cowshed

For Integrated Fish - cattle farming the Indirect Integration is recommended where the
cattle are raised over the embankment only. In the Baree, where ponds are not available the
cattle shed may be raised at any convenient site in backyard and away from the dwelling
houses. For higher return from dairy farming, the intensive system of management in which
cows are confined in the shed with adequate feed is recommended. For this, the cowshed
should be constructed at a stable and elevated site allowing direct sunlight to the platform,
gutters and mangers; therefore, the cowshed should be made preferably in the north- southern
direction. The floor should be made of concrete with proper drainage facilities. Provisions for
floor space should be made for suckling calf, older calf and cow. To store cowdung a cover pit
should be constructed nearby.

Floor space requirement of cowshed under intensive system are as follows:

 For Cross bred matured cow the Standing space, Manger and Gutter should be 1.2 m x
1.2 m / animal, 0.6m x 0.6 m x 0.3 m, 0.25-0.3 m x 2.5 cm (width and depth) with the
provision of gradient towards main drain, respectively.
 For Suckling calf pan size should include cover area of 2 m x 1 m/calf and open area
of 2 m x 2 m/calf.
 Best roofing material is the thatch followed by asbestos.

Breed

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The best group of dairy cattle is half bred (50% Jersey and 50 % local). However,
improved breeds like Sahiwal, Jersey, Holstein Frisian, etc. may also be selected instead of
the pure local low productive breeds.

Introducing cattle in Integrated Fish- cattle farming

20-24 months old cow should be brought in about two months earlier to introducing
fish into the pond

Feeding management
Providing green fodder along with the concentrated mixture in proper amount is the
important criteria with regard to feeding management. 30- 40 kg of green fodder, 3- 4 kg of
paddy straw along with 2 kg of concentrated feed should be provided to a milch cow.
Therefore, cultivation of fodders like hybrid napier, congo signal, maize, oat, para, guinea,
setaria, etc. should be raised at the Dhaap, embankments of pond, and in Fruit or Forest zone.
Tree fodders should be incorporated into Forest zone. However, there is no need to supply
additional concentrated mixture if daily milk production is < 10 litres/cow. During winter,
availability of green fodder decreases; hence, sufficient amount of silage along with molasses
and urea should be provided as the alternative to green fodder. Sufficient amount of clean
water should be provided daily; besides, minerals, common salt, vitamins, etc. should also be
provided time to time.

Health care
 Steps should be undertaken to protect the animals from heat, supply adequate clean
water, control flies and avoid over crowding for maintenance of general hygiene.
 Should not allow insemination within 60 days of calving and adopt preventive
measures against coccidiosis, parasitic infection, etc. after consultation with veterinarian.
 It is important to consult with veterinary experts with regard to time schedule and
vaccination to protect from diseases like FMD, Anthrax, Haemorrhagic septicemia, Black
quarter, etc.

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 It is highly important to milk the cow daily at equal intervals at the same time
everyday.

C. Piggery

Piggery is one of the most important subsidiary components of Baree in several

locations of the state. With efficient management practices it can contribute enormously for
the economic upliftment of the farm families.

Method of rearing

In the Baree where ponds are available Piggery may be integrated easily as Pig- fish
farming or three tier Fish- pig- poultry farming. As mentioned earlier, in such cases piggery
may be integrated into two models: Direct Integration and Indirect Integration. Usually, Direct
Integration model is preferred only when grower pigs is reared for slaughter purpose. On the
other hand, all categories of pigs meant for breeding and/ or growing are reared in Indirect
Integration model.

If ponds don’t exist in Baree, any number of pigs can be reared at any convenient
location at backyard depending upon the resources of the farmers.

Breed

Among promising local breeds Doom, Asha, Rani, Ghungroo, etc. are the most notable
which can be reared at backyards. Name of some of the improved breeds has already been
mentioned while discussed Integrated Fish- livestocks farming earlier. Body weights of these
improved breeds become 70-90 kg at 7-8 months.

Pig husbandry in integrated fish farming

First batch of pigs is introduced usually during March- April, i.e. at least 20 days prior
to stocking of the ponds. After 6 months of rearing, this batch of pigs should be disposed and
the second batch may be introduced for the next 6 months.

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Pig pans/ Shed

Pig pans can be constructed by available local materials like bamboo, timber, thatch,
cane, etc. The floor should be rough and made of concrete. Space requirement for each adult
pig is 1.5 m2. Two concrete troughs should be made for providing water and feed materials.
Roof should never be made of galvanized tin sheet.

For Direct Integration model in Integrated Pig- fish and three- tier Fish- pig- poultry
farming a single row of pig pens is constructed on the pond embankment following general
specifications for grower pig. The floor of the home is slightly slanted towards which a
drainage canal is constructed. The canal should be connected to the pond.

Feeding management

A mixture of standard feed as specified in the Packages of Practices for Horticultural

Crops, Fisheries & Home Science (2010) and kitchen waste should be fed to the pigs. In
absence of sufficient amount of kitchen waste wilted water hyacinth, collected from the
nearby unpolluted swampy areas, may be mixed (20-30 %) with standard feed. Kitchen waste
should be boiled & cooled thereafter, before use.

Healthcare

Some of the general precautions for successful pig farming are:

 Keep Pig sheds dry and clean, wash the floor everyday,
 Bath the pigs once a week,
 Vaccination against Swine fever, Anthrax spore and Worm should be provided
consulting with the veterinary experts. Special care should be taken for some other dreaded
diseases of piglets such as Piglet anaemia, Coccidiosis, Salmonella, Colibacillosis (Piglet
diarrhoea), etc. Veterinary experts should also be consulted for treatment of other pests and
diseases as Swine pox, Mange, Lice & tick etc.

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Harvest

Appropriate time of harvest, is when average growth reaches 60-65 kg.

D. Poultry rearing

Chicken rearing at backyard in free - range system without much care is a common
sight in many of the household in Assam. Most of these birds are local non- descript types
meant for duel purposes of egg and meat; however, their productivity is not at all satisfactory.

With scientific interventions in selection of breeds along with management practices,

chicken rearing can contribute enormously for income generation of the farm families. Some
of the key points of such interventions are mentioned briefly as follows:-

Method of rearing

In the Baree where ponds are available poultry may be integrated easily in Fish-
poultry or three tier Fish- pig- poultry farming. As mentioned earlier in such cases, poultry
may be integrated in two models: Direct Integration and Indirect Integration. In Direct
Integration model a predetermined numbers of layer poultry birds are reared in pans over the
pond. The floors of the pens are made perforated so that the droppings directly fall into the
pond. In Indirect Integration model on the other hand, poultry birds are reared under deep
litter or wire floor system in pens over the pond embankments and the droppings are manually
applied to the pond daily at pre- determined dose.

If ponds are not available in Baree poultry birds may be reared under Deep litter or
Wire floor system in pens at any convenient location of Baree. Otherwise, these birds may
also be reared at backyard at a convenient location of Baree in free- range system similar to
the traditional method of rearing.

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Breed

Some of the breeds of poultry suitable for Integrated Fish- poultry of Fish- pig- poultry
farming have already been mentioned. Such breeds are suitable for rearing under Deep litter
or Wire floor system at any convenient location of Baree. Some of the duel purpose (egg and
meat) breeds suitable even for backyard rearing are: Kamrupa, Vanaraja, Gramopriya,
Srinidhi, Gciriraj, Girirani, Rainbow star etc. These breeds produce on an average 100-120
number of eggs/year in backyard system without providing any feed artificially. If half of the
feed requirement is provided artificially, i.e. under Semi- intensive system, the egg production
may raise upto 180-220/ year. Meat production of male bird after attaining six months of age
is 2.5 - 3.5 kg, but in female birds it is 1.5 - 2.5 kg after attaining 18 months of age.

Female: male ratio of the birds should be maintained at the ratio of 10:1 to 10:2.

Design and management of poultry house

The poultry house must be airy and dry with adequate supply of light whenever
needed. It should be reasonably cool during summer and warm during winter. To ensure this
Assam type (Gable or Minitor type) house should be constructed at sunny areas in east-
western direction. The level of the houses should be at least 60 cm above the ground level
nearby. Houses must be constructed as per the standard specifications which vary according to
the system of poultry rearing (Deep litter or Wire floor system) and model of integration
(Direct and Indirect).

Local building materials available in Baree (and nearby areas) like bamboo, timber,
thatch, etc. along with asbestos for roofing may be utilized. During construction of the houses
special care should be undertaken so that no droplets of rain can enter inside.

Special care should also be taken to clean the houses frequently with disinfectants like
caustic soda, bleaching powder, potassium permanganate solution, lime water, kerosene oil,
clean water, etc.

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Introduction of chicks for Integrated culture should be as per recommendation

(Package of Practices for Horticultural Crops, Fisheries and Home science, 2010).

Feeding management

Balanced poultry feed for different age groups of poultry birds supplemented with
vitamins and minerals should be provided as per standards. Under free range system usually
no artificial feed is supplemented. However, providing about half of the feed requirement
artificially (i.e. under semi- intensive system) enhances the productivity enormously.

Health care

 Vitamins and minerals should be provided for improvement of general health of the
birds,
 Vaccinations of birds is important to get rid of diseases like Ranikhet, Marek’s
disease, Fowl pox, etc,
 Hygienic condition should be maintained to prevent Coccidiosis, Gamburu, etc.
Ampolium salt should be provided as the preventive measure of Coccidiosis,
 In intensive system, sudden change of feed is detrimental for growth and development
of chicken. Besides, under this system, litters must be kept dry and debeaking / culling should
be done as per standard package only.

By following such measures even free range rearing of chicken in backyards, common
in rural areas of Assam, may be a successful subsidiary component resulting the BC ratio
around 3.57.

E. Duckery

Duck rearing is traditionally a popular venture in many areas of the state due to
suitability of the natural environment including climate. It is preferred over chicken rearing by
many of the farmers due to less care needed for feed & disease management, higher
productivity in terms of egg & meet, bigger sized eggs and higher profitability; besides, there
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is no inhibition for consumption of duck meat unlike chicken meat among many families
traditionally.

Method of rearing
There are three methods of duck rearing, viz. open system, semi-closed system and
closed system. Open system is the free range system where feed requirement is not provided
artificially. In semi- closed system birds are allowed to move daily within a restricted area for
a particular time. Under this system, duck pen is constructed nearby / above the pond; besides,
one- third of the total feed requirement should be provided artificially. Ducks are reared in
Deep litter system with artificially provided ponds, if required, in the closed system of rearing.

Among these, first two methods are more feasible for common households of rural
Assam. In the Baree where ponds exist, semi- closed system can be successfully carried out
by incorporating into the Integrated Fish farming system. On the other hand, if ponds are not
available within the Baree, the open system is more feasible in rural Assam where there is
abundance of natural depressions, beels, rivulets, streams, community ponds, swampy area
and ponds within the nearby rice fields.

Design and construction of duck pen

The duck house should be constructed in sunny location of Baree in north- southern
direction. The house should preferably be constructed on stilts which are healthier than a
house made in the ground level. The pen should be well-ventilated. About 0.3- 0.5 m2 floor
space is required for each bird. In the Semi- closed system the house may be constructed over
pond water, about 1.2 m above the highest water level. The house, built on pond water, should
have lattice at the upper portion of the house. Such houses should have two bridges for
connecting the pond embankments and the pond water (for movement of ducks).
Local materials available in Baree or nearby areas viz. bamboo, timber, thatch, etc.
may be utilized for construction of duck pen.

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Breeds
Among improved breeds Khaki Campbell, Indian Runner and Chara Chemballi can
easily be reared in Assam. Under the agro- climatic situation of the state cross breed of male
Khaki Campbell with female Pati duck has ample potentiality.

Required number
In semi- closed system the recommended number of birds is 240-300 / ha water area.
However, in the open system about 4400 number of ducks can be reared. The ratio of male:
female birds should be maintained at 1: 9.

Feed management
In the open system there is no need to supply additional feed. On the other hand, in the
semi-closed system birds collect their natural food from the pond; in addition, these ducks
should be fed with supplementary feed @ 100 g/bird/day. A mixture of standard poultry feed
(Layers mash) and rice bran at the ratio of 1:2 should be provided for better growth and
development. However, the amount and proportion of different ingredients of feed varies with
breed, age and sex.

Health management
 Proper hygiene should be maintained strictly; complete disinfection is important
before introducing the ducks into the Duck house,
 Birds should be vaccinated against Duck Cholera in the duckling stage and against
Duck plague at the age of 6 weeks and then annually.

Other management practices

 In semi- closed system birds are introduced into the pen 30 days prior to top fish seed
stocking,
 Some straw should be kept at the corner of the house for egg laying which is started at
the age of 7-8 months of duck,
 Egg collection should be done at around 9AM,
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 Ducks are reared upto 12-18 months after which they should be disposed.

Economics

In semi- closed system B: C ratio is around 2.26.

F. Goat rearing

Goat rearing is one of the highly potential subsidiary components for economic
upliftment of the farm family. Goat rearing has several specific features as mentioned below:

 Goat is a prolific breeder; usually it reproduces twice in a year and breeds 4-12 nos. in
a year;
 Goat milk is easily digestible and people believe on its medicinal value;
 Since goats consume almost all types of leaves, the lopping of the commonly available
trees of Baree may be utilized. However, special care is needed to save the trees or crops
raised in Baree from the damage caused by them;
 It can be maintained easily in the backyard shelter of the Baree.

To be remunerative component few measures need to be undertaken with regard to

goat rearing:
Breed
Several prominent breeds are available; however, Beetal (wt.: 40-60 kg, milk
production: 1.5 lit.), Black Bengal (wt.: 14-15 kg) and Assam Hill Goat (wt.: 15-20 kg) can
easily be reared. Although meat and milk production are poor, yet quality of meat, tolerance
to diseases and reproduction capacity of Assam Hill Goat is satisfactory;
Sex ratio
Female: male ratio should be 10:1 to 20:2;
Kind of shed
Shelter of goat should be constructed in north-southern direction on floor constructed
on stilts to protect from Pneumonia – a common disease;
Feed management

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Besides sufficient fodder/leaves available in Baree, about 200 g of concentrate feed

should be provided daily to each adult; in addition, minerals and vitamins should also be
provided;
Disease management
Vaccination should be done to get rid of enterotoxaemia. Regular de-worming is one
of the most important management practice needed by goats. Grooming with 0.1% Tikkil-1
helps to get rid of mange. To protect the goats from pneumonia antibiotic @ 5 mg/kg body wt.
should be fed;
Economics
B: C ratio of goat rearing is about 4.0.

G. Riverine and swamp buffalo

Most of the buffalo stock in Assam is riverine type (Chromosome no. 50); however,
swamp buffalo (Chromosome no. 48) is also present in several areas. According to an
integrated sample survey in 2007-08, buffalo population of Assam is 0.575 million. About 1.8
lakh male buffaloes are used for ploughing, puddling and levelling in paddy fields, drawing
carts and logs, pressing sugarcane for extracting juice, etc. Swamp buffaloes wallow in
swampy areas during the hottest periods of the day; they are mainly utilized for drought
power. However, these buffaloes are poor in milk production (430-620 kg/ lactation). On an
average, milch buffalo produces only about 5.0 -6.0 litres milk/day having 8.5 % fats. The
meat production has not yet been exploited commercially.

Rearing of buffalo along with milch cattle and cultivation of vegetables or field crops
are a common sight in the Pam baree existing in vast riverine tract of Assam. These areas are
affected by heavy flood each year during monsoon; riverine and swamp buffalo can thrive
well under this difficult situation. They graze on a wider range of plant species unlike cattle
and can consume low grade roughages more efficiently.

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In Paam baree these animals are reared in open range system and in most of the cases
there is no animal shed even during rainy season. However, now a days some temporary
shelters are constructed here and there with locally available materials.
Unfortunately, there are large gaps in knowledge with respect to the physiology of
animal, disease prevalence and husbandry practices in the varying and difficult environmental
conditions in which they are reared. However, for enhancement of profit from the buffalo
rearing following measures should have considered:

 Research and extension works for upgrading the indigenous buffalo stock through
improved breeding methods;
 Extensive farmer’s friendly research work on buffalo husbandry;
 Emphasis on keeping animals in shed made in scientific manner with satisfactory
sanitation measures;
 Promote fodder production of high nutritive value in ample amount in Paam baree,
provide feed concentrate, vitamins, minerals, etc. along with green fodder and utilization of
crop residues with suitable treatment to enhance nutrient minerals;
 Disease management is one of the most important measures to be undertaken. Usually
new born calves die in large numbers due to infection of virus/bacteria and poor nutrition.
Poor management during the calf’s first two months of life may lead to deprived calves from
valuable colostrums and milk of mothers. Among different diseases of buffaloes are
pasteurellosis or HS, tuberculosis, brucellosis, mastitis, rinderpest and piroplasmosis, FMD,
etc. Recurrence of flood causes high incidence of parasitic diseases mostly in ruminants.
Therefore, timely prophylactic measures, vaccination, proper nutrition, sanitation, etc. are
very much important and should be done after consultation of veterinary doctor.

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H. Pigeon rearing

Pigeon (Columba livia domestica), a pretty and small bird, is reared extensively in the
rural household throughout the state of Assam. Popularity of pigeon is due to utilization of its
meat as delicacy. It is a prolific breeder, can yield 5-6 times in a year with 2 eggs per harvest.

Traditionally, pigeons are reared without much care. Technology needed for
remmunarative productivity with regard to pigeon rearing is not sufficiently available. Few
special cares needed for this subsidiary component of Baree are as mentioned below:

 Pigeon should be reared in wooden or bamboo cages at raised (3-4m above ground
level) plateform. Special care is needed so that rain drops cannot enter the cages even during
heavy rainfall;
 Raised plateforms should be made of clean bamboos or timbers with protection against
the attack of carnivorous animals’ viz. Viverra zibetha (Johamal), Viverra indica (Meseka),
Paradoxurus hermaphrodites (Ratikhowa Johamal), Felis chaus (Hepa, Hapa), Canis aureus
(Xial), Herpestes edwandii (Neul), etc. besides snakes of varied species;
 Cages should be cleaned intermittently with the leaves of plants having insecticidal
properties as Azadirachta indica (Mohaneem), Ampheneuron opulentum (Bihdhekia or
Bihlongoni), etc.
 Pigeons usually fed on grains only; however, they consume ants and small insects
available in the surroundings. Special care is needed on their feed by providing a mixture of
grains, pulses, mustard oil cake, dry fish along with minerals and vitamins. Clean water
should be provided daily.
Benefit cost ratio of pigeon rearing is upto 6.0. Therefore, as a subsidiary component
of Baree, pigeon rearing can contribute enormously for the economic upliftment of the
common farmers.

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I. Bee keeping

Bee keeping is emerging as a profitable subsidiary venture for many of the farmers in
India due to introduction of Apis mellifera, the exotic honeybee species coupled with the
indigenous species of Apis cerana indica. This is because of the fact that besides honey and
hive products (like bee wax, bee venom, royal jelly, propolis, etc.), the benefit derived from
the bee pollination is the enhancing crop production of many cross-pollinated species.
However, in Assam it is yet to gain popularity in spite of huge potentiality.

To start with the rearing of honeybees it is important to have enough knowledge on

species characteristics of honey bee, their handling, management practices and nature of the
floral species of Baree and adjoining areas. Proper identification of the site in Baree,
installation of bee hives in proper manner and managing the attraction of queen honey are
some of the important criteria for initial colonization of honey bees. Some of the important
key points with regard to successful bee keeping in Baree are mentioned below:

Site selection

 The selected site should be airy and dry; air with high moisture should be regularly
drained away from the apiary especially during monsoon,
 Wind breaks with tree (or artificial structure) assist to protect the bee hives from winds
or storms,
 Bee colonies need fairly dense shade of trees especially during summer season,
 Artificial sources of water with addition of 1% common salt should be provided if
natural sources of water are not available.

Seasonal management
Four seasons are important in regard to bee management viz. Spring, Summer, Rainy
and Winter.

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Spring season: During spring season the reproductive capacity of honey bee increases and
there is tendency for desertation from the colonies. Following measures should be taken to get
rid of this problem:
 Frequent inspection of colonies during spring,
 Take measures for increase the colony number (up to 4-6) so that swarms are not lost,
 Remove queen cell regularly in strong colony; besides, combs with young brood can
be removed which can be given to weak colonies and in place add more empty combs,
 To destroy the excess queen bees.

Summer season: During summer, availability of numbers of blooming plants decrease which
result in less production of honey and so decrease in honey flow to hives. This causes the
queens to slow down egg laying. Bees from brood-less colonies desert hives and bee
enemies like wasp, wax moth, etc. become active. Following measures should be taken to
tackle this problem:
 Provide shade to reduce ambient temperature; besides, gunny bags moistened
 with water can be spread over the top cover,
 Necessary measures should be taken to get rid of enemies of hives (like wasp, wax
moth, etc.),
 Brood rearing can be boosted by feeding artificial diet / pollen substitute composed of
Brewers yeast, sugar, gram powder and skimmed milk in the ratio of 10:10:1:1.

Rainy season: During rainy season, the bees become confined within the hives for long
time which make them lethargic. Many bees die due to occurrence of sudden & heavy
downpours and storms. High humidity coupled with high temperature creates an
unfavourable situation for honey bee. Stored pollen in combs become mouldy and unripe
honey may be fermented. Bee diseases and bee enemies become active during this season.
To manage these problems following measures should be taken:
 Proper ventilation,
 Ensuring aeration,

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 Provide artificial diet like sugar syrup (750 g sugar in 1 litre of water along with 250 g
soybean) or the diet as mentioned in the summer season. Antacon M-45 and tetracycline
should also be added to the artificial food materials.
Winter season: Following measure should taken during winter season when ambient
temperature falls below 100C:
Bee hive should be transferred to sunny site
Bee flora
Ensuring honey flow throughout the year is the pre - requisite for viable beekeeping.
Nectar and pollen sources are commonly available for a major part of the year in rural Assam
due to presence of varied plant species in Baree and nearby areas. However in most of the
Baree, continuous availability of nectar and pollen sources is lacking. Therefore, systematic
plantation of sufficient bee flora with varying periods of flowering covering the whole year is
required. Some important bee flora of Assam with their corresponding flowering periods is
shown in the following table:

Table 2.14: Flowering period of some bee flora

Scientific name Assamese name Scientific name Assamese name

Winter (Dec-Feb)
Artocarpus heterophyllus Kothal Ficus glomerata Jagyadimoru
Baccaurea ramiflora Leteku Flacourtia cataphracta Ponial
Brassica campestris Xorioh Hibiscus mutabilis Sthalapadma
Callistemon lanceolatus Bottle brush Litchi sinensis Lichu
Carica papaya Amita Mangifera indica Aam
Chrysanthemum Indramaloti Moringa oleifera Sojina
morifolium
Citrus limon cv. Assam Nemu tenga Pisum sativum Matar
lemon
Cucurbita moschata Rangalao Syzygiym sp. Jamu
Dahlia variabilis Dahlia Zizyphus rugosa Banbogori

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Eucalyptus sp. Eucalyptus

Spring & Summer (March- June)

Abelmoschus esculentus Bhendhi Lagenaria siseraria Panilao, Jatilao
Achras zapota Sapota Lagerstroemia alba May flower
Aegle marmelos Bael Lagerstroemia indica May flower
Anthocephalus cadamba Kadam, Roghu Litchi sinensis Lichu
Baccaurea ramiflora Leteku Luffa acutangula Jika
Benincasa hispida Komora Luffa cylindrical Bhol
Citrus grandis Rabad tenga Mangifera indica Aam
Citrus limon cv. Assam Nemu tenga Mesua ferrea Nahar
Lemon
Citrus reticulate Kamala tenga Moringa oleifera Sojina
Cocos nucifera Narikal Pongamia pinnata Karach
Cucumis sativus Tiah, Tionh Psidium guajava Modhuriaam
Cucurbita moschata Rangalao Syzygium sp. Jamu
Dillenia indica Ou tenga Tamarindus indica Tenteli
Emblica officinalis Amlokhi Tectona grandis Segun
Flacourtia cataphracta Ponial Terminalia chebula Xilikha
Rainy season (July-Sept)
Albizia lebbek Siris Eleocarpus floribundus Jolphai
Areca catechu Tamol Flacourtia cataphrachta Ponial
Averrhoa carambola Kordoi Lagenaria siseraria Panilao/ Jatilao
Benincasa hispida Komora Luffa acutangula Jika
Cassia fistula Xonaru Spondias mangifera Amara
Carica papaya Amita Tagetes erecta Narji
Citrus grandis Rabab tenga Tectona grandis Segun
Cocos nucifera Narikal Terminalia chebula Xilikha
Cucumis sativus Tiah / Tionh Vigna unguiculata Cowpea
Cucurbita moschata Rangalao Zizyphus jujube Bogori

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Dillenia indica Ou tenga

Autumn (Oct-Nov)
Acacia sp. Acacia Carica papaya Amita
Alstonia scholaris Chotiana Chrysanthemum Indramaloti
morifolium
Averrhoa carambola Kordoi Emblica officinalis Amlokhi
Baccaurea ramiflora Leteku Pisum sativum Matar
Source: Rahman & Deka, 2008
Economics
The cost of production of one bee hive for Apis mellifera is about Rs. 4655/- per year
while it is approximately Rs. 2275/- for Apis cerana indica. The production of honey bee hive
per harvest is about 20 kg and 5 kg for Apis mellifera and Apis cerana indica, respectively. If
the price of honey is Rs. 200/- per litre and the number of harvest / year is 6, the net profit from
Apis mellifera and Apis cerana indica will be at least Rs. 19,345/- and Rs. 3,726/- per bee hive/
year, respectively.

J. Sericulture and weaving

As mentioned earlier, Assam silk consisting of Eri, Muga, Mulberry silk and Tassar is
predominant only in specific area of the state; however, their popularity is widespread
throughout the globe. Usually, cultivation of trees for Muga is done as monoculture mostly in
Meroni. However, for other three kinds of silk no systematic cultivation of trees is practiced.
Such trees may be cultivated in Baree as monoculture or as intercrop.

Weaving craft, using the silk products or on imported silk, cotton and/or synthetic
fibres, is still vibrant in nook and corner of the state. Different implements needed for
weaving viz. Tolotha, Garaka, Raach, Mako, Ugha, Chereki, Mohura, Chalimari, Letai,
Chiri, Makonijori, Phutixoli, Phutimari, Ba-chunga, Ba-xoli, Poalikhuli, etc. are prepared by
farmers themselves from bamboo, timbers and other plant species available in Baree or in
fallowlands that exist nearby. The craft is dominated by ladies of many households. Although
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it is diminishing due to absence of planned approach and infrastructure as well as other socio-
economic problems, yet the expertise on weaving craft is still popular among the tribal and
weaker section of the society. These products are mostly meant for household use and a small
proportion for market. Popularity of such products exists throughout the globe due to
interesting and attractive motifs, colours, design as well as their variations.

Hence, with planned approaches, sericulture and weaving may be a lucrative

subsidiary component of Baree which will help to strengthen the base of woman
empowerment in the rural society of the state.

K. Bamboo and cane craft

As discussed earlier, different species of bamboos are present in Baree; varied objects
prepared from bamboo are used traditionally for day to day activities of the rural society.
Different species are utilized for different purposes. Male folk of rural Assam have expertise
in preparation of different objects & implements needed for agricultural works, fishing,
weaving, sericultural works, and almost all kinds of household needs. However, with increase
in popularity of bamboo crafts, market demand of varieties of products, viz. ornaments,
musical instruments, images of gods and goddesses, sculpture, furniture, insence stick, musk
(specially for Bhaona), etc. and other stationery as well as decorative items are on the rise.

Hence, bamboo and cane crafts may be an important subsidiary component of Baree
for enhancing household income. However, in contrast to the abundance of bamboo raw
material, the production of cane in Baree is still rare inspite of its high demand in the market.

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L. Mushroom cultivation

Mushroom is one of the edible fungi which possesses high quality easily digestive
protein having essential amino acids like lysine and tryptophan besides vitamins (viz.
thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, biolon, ascorbic acid, folic acid, vitamin B12, precursor of vitamin
D i.e. ergosterol, etc.), minerals (viz. calcium, easily absorbing iron, potassium, etc.), fibres in
ample amount with low amount of carbohydrate, fat, etc. From time immemorial mushroom is
widely used for medicinal purposes especially for diabatic patient or against ailments like
constipation, protein mal-mutrition, jaundice (due to hepatitis B virus), obesity, etc. Some
important species are also known to be effective against the problems like HIV of AIDS, polio
virus, cancer, liver disorder, lung infection, depression, etc.

Among different types of mushrooms, paddy straw mushroom and oyster mushroom
can easily be grown due to availability of main substrates like paddy (sali rice) straw, mustard
husk, dried banana leaves, water hyacinth, tea waste, etc. Spent mushroom beds may also be
utilized effectively for several purposes as:

 Organic manure production in vegetable and flower garden,

 Subtrate for vermicompost,

 Feed for livestock especially goat, cattle and pig.

Oyster mushroom can be grown successfully throughout the year excepting the months
from May to Aug due to rise of temperature. However, with few modifications in
management practices for reducing the temperature, oyster mushroom can be grown even in
these difficult periods. Such management practices include measures like:

 Hanging moistened hessian cloths surrounding the growing room of oyster mushroom;

 Spraying water to mushroom beds twice daily; and

 Mushroom growing room should be made of mud-plastered floor, having a ceiling in

the room and a thatched roof fitted at sufficient height.

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One of the major hinderance of growing mushroom during the months of high
temperature in Assam is the incidence of some other deleterious fungi which can be controlled
by spraying organic formulation like 0.3 % garlic juice.

Spawn of mushroom is, now a days, available in several towns throughout the state.
However, it is better to collect from the reputed institutions like the Krishi Vigyan Kendra
(KVK) of Assam Agricultural University, North-eastern Research Institute for Science and
Technology, Jorhat; or other recognized/reputed institutes or laboratories. On an average,
about 400 g to 1 kg of product can be harvested from each bed using 100-150 g of spawn.

The cost benefit ratio of mushroom cultivation is 1.89; hence it may be one of the
resourceful subsidiary components in Baree of Assam for income generation of farmers.

M. Vermicompost unit

Vermicomposting is one of the modern and popular methods for production of high
quality organic manure with the help of earthworms. Relevance of recycling of available
bioresources and onfarm production of vermicomposts is on the rise due to increasing cost of
chemical fertilizer and realization of the importance of soil health maintenance in agricultural
land including Baree.

Materials needed

 Major raw materials needed are animal dung, agricultural wastes, forest leaf litter,
kitchen refuges, weeds, waste paper, cotton cloth, etc.

 Several species of earthworms can be used for the purpose; however, Eisenia foetida
and Eudrilus eugeniae are the species most commonly utilized;

 Tank / bin made of concrete, metal, plastic or locally available low-cost material like
bamboo is needed during processing;

 Properly shaded airy location; and

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 Facilities for moistening/ watering the tank, whenever needed.

Few key points of production

 There are several methodologies of vermicomposting. It also varies slightly with the
nature of material used for construction;

 Special care should be taken to cover the bottom and walls of the bamboo made tanks
with the help of plastic sheets so that earthworms cannot move outside;

 Care should also be taken to prevent the entry of insects-pests of earthworms into the
tanks/ bins;

 There should be a bedding layer of dry sand (2.5 cm) at the bottom of the tank. A layer
(5.0 - 7.5 cm) of partially decomposed cowdung above which another layer of shredded
organic raw materials (7.5-10.00 cm) should be added. This sequence of partially decomposed
cowdung and shredded organic raw materials should be continued about 60 cm above the top
of the bin. Top most layer should consist of partially decomposed cowdung. The ratio of
cowdung : raw orgaic materials should be 3:7;

 Earthworm should be added to the top- most layer followed by covering the tank with
moist heisian cloth;

 Time needed for completion of composting during summer is about 2- 2 ½ months,

while it is about 3 – 3 ½ months during winter;

 Processing capacity of a tank 360 cm length, 90 cm width and 75 cm depth in size is

about one ton in which about 2 ½ kg of earthworms is needed to decompose the organic raw
materials. Recovery percentage of the raw materials (as vermicompost) is 75-80 %.

Amount to be applied for different crops

Broadly, following amount of vermicompost should be applied to different crops of

Baree:

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Table 2.15: Amount of vermi compost to be applied for different crops

Crop Amount
Vegetables 40-50 g/ plant or
525-600 kg/ ha
Fruits 500-1000 g/ plant
Flower 50-80 g/ plant
Plantation crops like tea 200-250 g/ plant

Economics

Net profit obtained from the concrete tank and bamboo based materials is Rs. 15,300/-
and Rs. 37,908/-, respectively during the first year. However, tanks made of bamboo can be
utilized for 3-4 years only.

Organic manure prepared in vermicompost units may be utilized for different crops
grown in Baree. The surplus amount, if available, may also be sold easily in the market situated
in local area or far- off places. Hence, vermicomposting may be a viable subsdiary component
for income generation of the farm families besides enriching the soil health of the Baree
enormously.

N. Biogas plant

Biogas plant or “Gobar Gas” plant refers to the technology in which a combustible
gas called “biogas” and value-added manure called “slurry” are produced by the anaerobic
fermentation of cowdung under certain controlled condition of temperature, pH, C/N ratio,
etc.

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Biogas is composed mainly of methane (55-60%), and carbon dioxide (35-45%) with
small amount of hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. It does not emit smoke and does not soot
on the vessels unlike other conventional forms of fuel; hence, biogas can be utilized as a
superior alternative of traditional fuel needed for domestic cooking, lighting as well as
running diesel engine – all are essential for a household. The by-product slurry which comes
out of the unit constitutes good quality manure and can be utilized for all the plant species
grown in different zones of Baree. Slurry is free from foul smell, pathogens and weeds; it is
the rich source of N (1.4-1.8%), P2O5 (1.1-2.0%), K2O (0.8-1.2%) besides having appreciable
amount of elements like Ca and Mg. This slurry can also be added to feeding materials of
livestock with minimum processing.

Following technical information should be considered before setting up a family size

biogas plant unit in household:

 Availability of fresh dung, needed as the raw material, for each medium sized animal
per day is obtained from buffalo 15 kg, cow 10 kg and calf 5 kg;

 For gas production no. of animal required is as follows:

Table 2.16: Requirement of animals for biogass production

Gas production (m3) Amount of fresh dung No. of animal (medium

required per day size) required
2 50 4-5
3 75 6-8
4 100 9-11
6 150 14-16
8 200 18-22
10 250 24-28

 From each kg of fresh dung gas production per day will be about 0.04-0.1 m3
depending upon the day temperature;

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 One cubic meter of Gobargas is equivalent to 0.62 litres of kerosene.

Therefore, in most of homestead (Integrated Baree) biogas plant unit can partially
fulfill the fuel energy requirement besides providing appreciable amount of manure needed for
the crop species cultivated. However, in Paam Baree slight improvement in management
practices of the livestock is required to reap the benefits of the Gobar Gas plant which may
play a vital role for self sufficiency of energy as well as organic manure needed.

The Govt. provides subsidy for setting up a family size plant besides aiding other
facilities like construction and replacement. Several NGOs besides the “Khadi and Village
Industries Commission” have been taking active role for the promotion of Gobar Gas plant.
Therefore, with little investment by the farmers Gobar Gas plant can be successfully
incorporated into the Baree system. In light of the rising costs of fuel wood and scarcity of
fuel wood at present, incorporation of Biogas plant (Gobar Gas) into the Baree helps
enormously in the modernization and economic upliftment of the farmers.

O. Nursery raising

Quality planting material for vegetables, fruits & nuts, ornamental plants, medicinal
plants, trees for other purposes including timber, fuelwood, fodders, soil improvement, etc. is
one of the prime key for the development of Baree. For some of the minor local fruits and
trees for other purposes as timbers, fuel wood, fodders, etc., quality seeds are usually collected
from elite trees. Therefore, generation of quality planting materials of important plant species
in a nursery may also be a lucrative subsidiary activity in Baree depending mostly upon the
local demand and sometimes demands from far- off places.

Some of the key points witth regard to the raising of nursery in Baree has been
discussed briefly:

Objectives of planning

 Raising of seedlings as per the demand of the locality or market need;

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 Nursery having the continuity in production during different months of the year
depending upon the species.

Site selection

 The selected site should have road connectivity and proper electrification facilities;

 Soil should be well- drained; it should preferably be sandy loam in texture with
neutral pH and high organic matter.

Planning

For planning a nursery the followings are initial requirements:

 Fencing surrounding the area and pathways within the nursery for easy movement to
and from different segments of nursery;

 Facilities for drainage and irrigation;

 Systematic plantation of adequate number of mother plants;

 Sufficient area should be carefully prepared to utilize as seedbed & bed for planting
vegetatively prepared materials;

 Properly prepared media (including sand, leaf mould, fertile loam soil, high quality
organic manures) for pots and containers;

 Pro-tray (filled in by perlite, vermiculite, cocopith, vermicompost, etc.) for raising

seedlings of vegetables;

 Person having technical knowledge especially with regard to vegtetative propagation

of ornamentals, fruits and other plant species.

Important structures

 Low cost poly house;

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 Shade house.

Selection of mother plants

 Highly productive healthy mother plants i.e. free from diseases, insect- pests, virus,
etc.

 Sources of mother plants should be only from agricultural university, research station
or accrediated nursery or farm;

 Selection of mother plant should be based on market demand only.

Economies

Wih a sound planning, net return from a nursery during third year may be around Rs.
2,51,600/ ha; however, after 3rd year it may increase upto Rs. 6,30,800/ ha/ yr. This clearly
shows the potentiality of a nursery as a subsidiary activity of Baree in the state.

Establishment of the systems

For establishing a well planned Baree in order to reap the maximum output per unit
area with maximum net return without hampering the existing eco-system, proper emphasis
should be put on the following:

(i) Design and layout of Baree,

(ii) Management system with respect to crops and land,

(iii) Integration of the components including subsidiary activities,

(iv) Efficient utilization of family labourer, and

(v) Processing as well as value addition of varied products derived from Baree.

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A. Design and layout

Land shaping

 Efficient drainage management is one of the prime keys for successful establishment
of Baree in a humid/per humid region like Assam. Hence, making/repairing the drainage
networks covering all the zones of Baree is important pre-requisite;

 Components should be placed as per the suitability of the land; massive disturbance of
the land should not be carried out; e.g. a low-lying land should not be converted into a high
land for growing fruits and vegetables, rather, the area may be modified for rain water
harvesting tank to be used for irrigation;

 Required soil and water management practices should be undertaken for conservation
of soil, prevention of run-off water, measures for erosion control, rain water harvesting, etc.

Consolidation of boundary

 Boundary of Baree should be consolidated with well-maintained drains and dhaap;

 Depending upon the size of the Baree, Dhaap should be stabilized by growing
bamboo, varied timber/firewood species or fodder crops; if the size of the Baree is too small
to grow bamboo or trees, only fodder should be grown;

 Nitrogen fixing species like Glyricidia sepium (Madaru), Dalbergia sissoo (Sisu),
Alberzia sp., Moringa oleifera (Sajina) may also be grown along with traditionally popular
trees as live fencing in certain areas of the state where the practice of live fencing is already
popular. Such trees may enrich soil besides providing food, fuel, fodder or medicines through
leaf-litter fall or lopping at regular intervals;

 Mulching with the loppings can help enormously in minimizing soil erosion, conserve
moisture and retard the growth of weeds besides addition of organic matter and protection of
microbes from direct exposure to sunshine.

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Allocation of component

 Placement of the components in different positions or locations of Baree should be

preferably done in similar manner of the traditional ideal Baree based on the orientation of
sunshine as mentioned earlier. This is due to the fact that the interception of sunshine is one of
the determining factor leading to the success of components in Baree;

 Percentage coverage of total area of the Baree by a particular component depends on

the aims and objectives of the farm family, suitability of the land, availability of family
labour, etc. A component essential for one family may not be important for another, viz. some
of the farmers raise the components for bare subsistence where another set of farmers put
much emphasis on market demand of a commodity;

 In majority of the cases the most preferred priority is the vegetable zone followed
by the fruit zone;

 In all the cases, every portion of land needs to be used by one or another
component.

B. Management practices

Weeding

 Eradication of weeds is an important management practice to be carried out in

Vegetables Zone;

 Eradication of weeds at the early (young) growth stage of fruits and timber or
firewood species should be done for growth and development of crops;

 After the completion of juvenile stage eradication of all the weeds especially herbs and
shrubs species are not welcome;

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 Many of the naturally grown flora may be utilized by the farm families for various
purposes, viz. culinary, medicinal, etc. Therefore, weeding should be selective in fruit zone or
forest zone after attaining maturity by these crops;

 Weed species, present in fruit zone or forest zone may also be utilized for mulching,
preparation of compost, leaf mould, etc.

Awareness regarding agro-chemicals and organic inputs

 Management of the crops in Baree in all the zones except the Vegetable Zone is
mostly done organically. As the organic cultivation is need of the hour for present agriculture
considering the importance of maintenance of human health and ecological balance, therefore,
maximum emphasis should be given to organic management. However, in vegetables and
commercial fruit crops GAP (Good Agricultural Practices) should get top most priority;

 Emphasis should be laid on the use of organic manures, vermicompost, enriched

compost, etc. for nutrient management;

 For diseases and insect-pests management extract of various plants, wood ash or
other ITKs should be emphasized;

 Farmers need to be trained and made aware to reduce, rather stop the use of chemical
pesticides; on the other hand, physical, mechanical or method of disease and insect-pest
management should be popularized.

Irrigation and mulching

 Similar to the drainage management practices, irrigation facility is one of major factor
determining productivity of plant species especially for vegetables (Rabi) and fruits;

 Drip irrigation should be preferred, followed by sprinkler;

 If the irrigation facility is not available for Fruit Zone and Forest Zone, emphasis
should be given on mulching at the base of trees.

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C. Integration of different components

Integration of different subsidiary components helps enormously for enhancing total

output and return from the Baree. Examples of the integration of some of the components are
mentioned below:

 Eggs of chicken and duck are delicacy for most of the members of the household.
Cattle (Cow, buffalo) are raised mostly for milk; milk of goat is also preferred by many
household. Besides, meats of duck, chicken, pigeon, goat, etc. are utilized by almost all the
people of the state. Sections of people are also habituated for consuming the meats of pig,
buffalo or cow although for religious and cultural traditions meats of these animals are taboo
for a large section of the people. On the other hand, dung and urine of livestock and poultry
are utilized for making compost, vermicompost or biogas and slurry. A Gobar Gas unit or
vermicompost unit may be set up with small investment. By soaking urine (and dung) in husk
or laying a plastic sheet on the ground of cowshed these may be collected as the raw material
for Gobar Gas plant or vermicompost unit;

 Compost, vermicompost and slurry (of the Gobar Gas plant) are excellent manure for
vegetables, fruit or any other tree species;
 The biogas generated in the Gobar Gas plant may be transferred to the kitchen for use
as fuel and lighting gas lamps of household use;
 In the composite pisciculture cum livestock/poultry of Baree, dung and urine are
utilized as manure and feed of fishes; this reduces cost of production for each of the
component. On the other hand, water needed for livestock and poultry may be utilized easily
from the pond. Space required for each of the component decreases if the shed for livestock
and poultry are built on the pond. Duck controls many of the weeds usually present in the
pond and also feeds on many insects, other flora, snail, etc. present in the pond. In return,
amount of soluble oxygen in the pond is increased due to swimming exercise of duck which
enhances growth and development of fish;

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 A lions’ share of the feeding materials of these livestock and poultry may be obtained
from Baree. However, depending upon the component (animal) plant species should be raised
in Baree. Therefore, depending upon the suitability of the land, fodder plants should be raised
in Dhaap or Forest Zone. Many of such species as well as several feed materials for livestocks
may also be grown as intercrops either in Fruit Zone or in Forest Zone of Baree.
 Bee keeping can easily be practiced in Baree due to availability of varied plant species
with varying flowering season. This subsidiary activity helps to increase the pollination of the
surrounding crops and thereby enhances crop productivity.

D. Utilization of family labourer

For success of the Baree system one of the determining factor is availability and
utilization of the family labourer. Liking and disliking by a farm family depends largely on
availability of labourer and time needed for the operation besides different resources, and thus
selection of the components is carried out. Hired labourers are rarely utilized depending upon
the resources of the farm families. Activity of the family members is divided on the basis of
tradition of the society.
Usually, male members perform the heavy tasks whereas most of the works including
the management practices are carried out by the land lady. The land lady is also the treasurer
of the components of Baree, in many of the cases.

E. Processing and value addition

A lot of produce from varied species of flora and fauna raised in Baree is obtained
though the quantity of produce may be small. Processing and value addition of these products
results in better return to the farmers and more useful for the end users.

At present, about 30-40% of total amount of fruits and vegetables produced in Baree
have gone into wastage due to their underutilization. This is due to absence of proper

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knowledge by the farmers on varied steps needed for value addition of their produces.
Likewise, many other plant species (including bamboo) which are often utilized by the
farmers to fulfill their basic needs (eg. medicinal, colouring substances, essential oil
extraction, etc.) are yet to be utilized for better return. Some of the value added products
which can easily be processed in each household are preparation of jam, jelly, squash, juice,
pickles, chutney, flakes, powder, other dried products, etc. from various fruits, vegetables,
medicinal plant, etc. Although, the volume of produce of a particular commodity in a Baree is
tiny, yet by adopting proper techniques at various steps of value addition numerous products
may be obtained. The volume of produce may be enhanced sufficiently by proper motivation
of neighbourhoods towards a common goal. This will definitely enhance the net return from a
Baree.

However, skill development of the family members is one of the pre-requisite for
value addition of produces which enhances net return of Baree. Methodologies of many of
such products have been detailed in the Package of Practices for Horticultural Crops, Fisheries
and Home Science, 2010 (Pp: 170-182, 183-184, 197-205, 250-271).

Models for different size of Baree

Based on the studies carried out in different regions of the state by several workers as
well as the planning prepared for interventions as mentioned above, model Baree units for
different holding sizes have been attempted keeping in view of the following:

 To meet the subsistence level of the farm families as the top most priority;

 Significance of the horizontal zones differ widely depending upon the available
resource situations of the farm families; hence, to suit the realistic situations different models
have been attempted for different horizontal zones;

 Among different horizontal zones, the zones related to the nutritional requirement
i.e., Vegetable and Fruit Zones have been emphasized maximum followed by Forest Zone

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considering their urgency of need at present juncture. On the other hand, no models have
been attempted for religious as well as ornamental zones;

 Due importance has also been given to the market potential of the components under
varied resource situations;

 During preparation of the models attempt has also been made to impart the positive
aspects of the traditional knowledge including conservation of bio- diversity to suit the present
day needs.

A. Location of different components in an ideal Baree

Assam is situated geographically in the subtropical region of the earth; hence, proper
placement of the components in Baree is essential to receive sunshine needed for the growth
and development of plant species as well as sanitation of animal components. All the
components shown in Fig. 1 may not exist in all the Baree due to scarcity of land and other
resources.

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Fig. 1: Location of different components in an ideal Baree

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B. Vegetable zone

In this zone annual vegetable crops should be grown in scientifically planned cropping
sequences where at least one of legume crop should be included, if possible, in each sequence.
In this zone annual vegetable crops should be grown in scientifically planned cropping
sequences. Such an excellent model has been given by the Assam Agriculture University
(Package of Practices for Horticultural Crops, Fisheries & Home Science, 2010, p 45-46) for
200 m2 area. However, considering the importance of inclusion of atleast one of the
leguminous crops in each sequence, an alternative model has also been forwarded for 250 m2
land area as mentioned below and shown in Fig. 2:

1. Cropping sequences for non-cucurbits annual vegetables

i. Garden pea (Oct-Jan) - Spring brinjal (Jan/Feb-May/Jun) – Early cauliflower/early

broccoli (Jul-Oct)

ii. Bush cowpea (May/Jun-Sep/Oct) – Mid cauliflower/mid broccoli (Oct-Jan) –

Amaranthus (Feb/Mar-May/Jun)

iii. Bush cowpea (May/Jun-Sep/Oct) – Late cauliflower/Late broccoli (Nov-Feb) –

Amaranthus (Feb/Mar-May/Jun)

iv. Bush cowpea (May-Sep) – Winter brinjal (Sep-Jan) – Capsicum/chilli (Jan-May)

v. Alternate rows of Knolkhol (Sep-Nov) & Garden pea (Sep-Dec) – French bean (Dec-
Apr) – Bushy cowpea (May-Sep)

vi. Cabbage (Nov-Feb) – Okra (Mar-Jun) - Early cauliflower (Jul-Oct)

vii. Alternate rows of Carrot (Oct-Feb) & Garden pea (Sep-Dec) – Capsicum (Feb-Jun) –
Brinjal (Jul-Oct)

viii. Alternate rows of Radish & Beet (Oct-Dec) – Knolkhol (Jan-Mar) – Bushy cowpea
(May-Sep)

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ix. Cabbage (Oct-Jan) – French bean (Jan-Apr) – Yard long bean (May-Sep)

x. Tomato (Sep-Dec) – Late cauliflower/Late broccoli (Dec-Mar) – Okra (Apr-Jul)

xi. Tomato (Oct-Jan) - French bean (Feb-May - Yard long bean (Jun-Aug/Sep)

xii. Alternate rows of Fenugreek & Spinach/Radish as leafy veg. (Oct-Dec)– Lai &
Coriander for leaf (Jan-Mar) – Amaranthus (Apr-Jun) – Radish (Jul-Sep)

xiii. Leafy veg. Lofa/Chuka/Babori with alternate row of Fenugreek (Oct-Dec) - Lai &
Coriander for leaf (Jan-Mar) - Amaranthus (Apr-Jun) – Yard long bean (Jun-Sep/Oct)

xiv. Sweet potato (Sep/Oct- Jan/Feb) – Cow pea bush type (Mar-May) – Okra (Jun-Sep)

2. Cropping sequences for climbing vegetables needing support of perch

xv. Yard long bean (May/Jun-Sep/Oct) - Potato (Oct-Jan) – Ground trailing Pumpkin
along with plant type French bean (Feb-May/Jun)

xvi. Yard long bean (May/Jun-Sep/Oct) - Potato (Oct-Jan) – Ground trailing Pumpkin
along with Ridge gourd/Sponge gourd (Feb-May/Jun)

xvii. Yard long bean (May/Jun-Sep/Oct) – plant type French bean (Oct-Jan) – ground
trailing Pumpkin along with Bitter gourd/Snake Gourd/Cucumber (Feb-May/Jun)

xviii. Yard long bean (Jun-Oct) –Ground trailing Bitter gourd (Oct/Nov-Jan/Feb) - Ground
trailing Cucumber (Feb-Jun)

3. Plots for perennial vegetables

xix. Brinjal + Chilli

xx. Pointed gourd/Spine gourd (Feb- Jul/Aug) – Spinach+Lai + Fennugreek as inter crop
(Aug/Sep- Jan/Feb) (Staggered planting)

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Note: Area needed for ‘Cropping sequences for non-cucurbits annual vegetable’, ‘Cropping
sequences for climbing vegetables needing support of perch’ and ‘Plots for perennial
vegetables’ is 10m x 20m

4. Cropping sequences for climbing vegetables needing support of trellis (Area 20 m x 2 m)

xxi. Dolichos bean (Aug-Dec) – Bitter gourd (Dec/Jan-Apr/May) – Ridge gourd

(Apr/May-Jul/Aug)

xxii. Dolichos bean (Aug-Dec) – Chow chow (Dec/Jan-May/Jun) – Snake gourd (Jun-Aug)

xxiii. Dolichos bean (Jun-Oct) – Fenugreek as leafy veg. (Oct-Dec) – Summer Bottle gourd
(Jan-May)

xxiv. Dolichos bean (Jun-Oct) – Bottle gourd (Nov-Feb) – Ash gourd (Mar-Jun)

xxv. Dolichos bean (Oct-Feb) – Ash gourd/Bitter gourd (Feb-May) – Summer Bottle gourd
(Jun-Sep)

xxvi. Yard long bean (Feb-May) - Late Bitter gourd (Jun-Sep) – Winter Bottle gourd (Oct-
Jan)

5. Crops below trellis

 Ginger/Turmeric (Mar/Apr-Nov/Dec) – Leafy veg. -like Fenugreek (Nov/Dec-Mar/Apr)

 Colocasia (Apr-Oct/Nov) - Leafy veg. (Oct/Nov-Mar/Apr)

6. Fruits/other plant species used as vegetables (Area needed: 0.5 m x 20 m)

1 Musa sp. cv. Kachkal 8,9,10 Citrus limon cv. Assam lemon
(Nemutenga)
2 Moringa oleifera (Sajina) 11,12 Citrus aurantifolia (cv. Golnemu)

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3 Cinnamomum tamala (Tezpat) 13 Murraya koenigii (Narasingha)

4 Sesbania grandiflora (Bokphul) 14 Hibiscus sabdariffa (Tengamora)
5 Musa sp. cv. Dwarf Cavendish 15 Pogostemon benghalensis (Xukloti)
6,7 Carica papaya (Amita)

When the land area under Baree is < 250 m2

If land area under Baree is < 250 m2, farm family may select some of the vegetable
sequences as mentioned above as per land area available and their choice.

When the land area under Baree ranges between 250 m2 (about 300 m2 supposing 250 m2
for vegetables and 50 m2 for open space or other purposes) - 500 m2
When the area under Baree is 300 – 500 m2, excess area over 300 m2 (about 250 m2)
may be utilized for:
Option-I: Fruits to fulfill household need partially (shown in Fruit Zone)
Option-II: One or more high valued vegetables for market. It is better to be grown in strips if
cultivated more than one crop
Option-III: High valued off season vegetables/flowers or raising nursery plants for few
months of the year under 100 m2 plastic house (if area is about 400 m2)
Option-IV: Nursery under 100 m2 net house (if area is about 400 m2)
Option-V: Both plastic house (sized 100 m2) and net house (sized 100 m2) if total area is
about 500 m2

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Fig. 2: Layout of a nutritional vegetable garden

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C. Fruit zone

In limited area of 200 m2 under Fruit Zone (or 500 m2 under Baree excluding both
plastic house and net house)

Most important and popular fruit species, usually preferred by the farmers of limited
land resources should be raised as shown in the model for 200 m2 (Fig. 3). Species variation
may be done as shown in Table 2.17 and Fig. 3 as per choice of the family members.

Table 2.17: Layout of a fruit garden in limited area

Sl. Scientific name Spacing Time of harvest

No.
1 Cocos nucifera (Narikal) 7.5 m x 7.5 m Round the year
2 Mangifera indica (Aam) 6m x 6m May -July
3 Litchi sinensis (Lichu)/Syzygium cuminii 6m x 6m May-Jun/Jul-Aug/
(Kolajamu)/ Archras zapota Jul-Aug/Sep-Dec
(Sopeta)/Emblica officinalis (Amlokhi)
4 Musa bulbiciana (Bhimkal) 2.4 m x 2.4 m Round the year
5 Psidium guajava 5m x 5m Jun-Jul/Dec-Jan/
(Madhuriam)/Averrhoa carambola Jan-Feb/Jun-Jul
(Kardoi)/ Spondias mangifera (Amara)/
Syzygium jambos (Golapijamu)
6,7 Musa sp.cv. Malbhog 2.1 m x 2.1 m Round the year
8 Musa sp.cv. Chenichampa 2.1 m x 2.1 m Round the year
9,10 Musa sp.cv. Dwarf Cavendish (Chapor 1.8 m x 1.8 m Round the year
jahaji)
11 Carica papaya (Amita) 1.8 m x 1.8 m Round the year
[Note: Ananas comosus (Anaras) may be grown as intercrop (1-3 rows) at the spacing of 60 cm x 30
cm (452 nos.)]

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If land area under Fruit Zone is < 200 m2 (or size of the Baree is <500 m2 excluding
both net house and plastic house)

If the land area under Fruit Zone is < 200 m2 (or size of the Baree is <500 m2) some of
the species as mentioned in Table 2.17 and Fig. 3 will have to be excluded depending upon
the available land area and as per choice of the farmers.

When the total area under Fruit Zone is about 200 m2 (excluding both net house
and plastic house) to 1300 m2 (including both net house and plastic house) or size of the
Baree is 500 m2 to < 1800 m2

Under such condition some of the species as mentioned in Table 2.18 and Fig. 4 may
be included depending upon the availability of land and choice of the farmers.

When the total area under Baree is about 2000 m2 (utilizing 250 m2 for Vegetables,
100 m2 for net house, 100 m2 for plastic house, 1296 m2 for Fruit Zone and rest 254 m2 for
pathways/ /open space/ other purposes)

All the 30 nos. of fruit species as shown in Fig. 4 and Table 2.18 may be raised
resulting in self sufficiency of fruit requirement of the 5 members’ farm family for the most
part of the year.

The interspaces shown in Fig. 4 may be utilized, at least for initial 3-4 years, as mentioned
below depending upon the choice of the farm families:

 For successfully growing of fruit crops like Ananas comosus (Anaras) at the spacing
30cm x 60cm, Citrullus lanatus (Tormuj) at the spacing of 2.8m in single row and/or Cucumis
melo (Bangi) at the spacing of 1.0m in single row may be planted. Citrullus lanatus (Tormuj)
and Cucumis melo (Bangi) may be allowed to trail on ground;

 Passiflora edulis (Kothbel) may be grown on trellis in interspaces;

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W E
20m

3.75m

1 2 3

10m

4.95m

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1.20m

Fig. 3: Lay out of a fruit garden in limited area (200 m2)

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 Interspaces may also be utilized for growing fodders or green manuring crops instead
of few numbers of pineapple or other intercrops;

 Besides, vines like Piper betle (Paan), Piper nigrum (Jaluk) or Paramaria polyneura
(Mirika tenga), etc. may be grown as companion crops along with fruit trees.

Table 2.18: Layout of a nutritional fruit garden for 1296m2 (approx. 1300 m2)

Sl. No. Scientific name Assamese Spacing Time of Yield per

name harvest plant
1 Atrocarpus Kothal 10 m x 10 m Jun-Aug 80-100 kg
heterophyllus
2 Aegle mermelos Bael 10 m x 10 m May-Aug 30-40 kg
3 Garcinia morella Kuji thekera 8mx8m May-Aug 10-15 kg
4 Eleocarpus Jolphai 8mx8m Dec-Feb 20-30 kg
floribundus
5 Terminalia Xilikha 8mx8m Jul-Sep 15-20 kg
chebula
6 ,7 Cocos nucifera Narikal 7.5 m x 7.5 m Round the 70-80 nuts
year
8,9,13 Mangifera indica Aam 6mx6m Jun-Jul 30-40 kg
10 Syzygium cuminii Kolajamu 6mx6m Jul-Aug 20-30 kg
11&12 Litchi sinensis Lichu 6mx6m May-Jun 10-15 kg
14 Archras zapota Sopeta 6mx6m Aug-Sep 20-30 kg
15 Embica officinalis Amlokhi 6mx6m Sep-Dec 15-20 kg
16 Musa bulbiciana Bhimkal 2.4 m x 2.4 m Round the 20-30 kg
year
17 Averrhoa Kordoi 5mx5m Dec-Jan 20-30 kg
carambola
18 Spondias Amara 5mx5m Dec-Jan 15-20 kg
mangifera

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19 Syzygium jambos Golapi jamu 5mx5m Jul-Aug 8-10 kg

20,21, Psidium guajava Madhuriam 5mx5m Jun-Aug 20-30 kg
22
23 Citrus grandis Robab tenga 4mx4m Dec-Jan 20-30 kg
24 Flacourtia Poniol 4mx4m Jul-Aug 5-10 kg
cataphracta
25 Pyrus communis Nachpoti 4mx4m Jul-Aug 20-30 kg
26 Prunus domestica Ahombogori 4mx4m Jul-Aug 10-15 kg
27 Prunus persica Norabogori 4mx4m Jul-Aug 15-20 kg
28 Annona Atlas 4mx4m Dec-Feb 10-15 kg
squamosal
29 Baccaurea Leteku 4mx4m Jul-Aug 10-15 kg
ramiflora
30 Punica granatum Dalim 4mx4m Jul-Sep 15-20 kg
31 Zizyphus Bilatibogori 4mx4m Jan-Mar 10-15 kg
mauritiana
32 Zizyphus jujuba Bogori 4mx4m Jan-Mar 15-20 kg
33,34, Musa sp.cv. Malbhogkal 2.1 m x 2.1 m Round the 25-30 kg
35,36 Malbhog year
37,38, Musa sp.cv. Chenichampa 2.1 m x 2.1 m Round the 20-25 kg
39 Chenichampa kal year

40,41, Musa sp.cv. Chapar jahaji 1.8 m x 1.8 m Round the 20-25 kg
42,43 Dwarl Cavendish year
44,45, Carica papaya Amita 1.8 m x 1.8 m Round the 30-40 kg
46,47, year
48,49

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Fig. 4: Lay out of a nutritional fruit garden (1296 m2)

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

When the area of Baree is 2000 m2 to 3500 m2 (utilizing 250 m2 for vegetables, 100
m2 for plastic house, 100 m2 for net house, 1296 m2 for fruits and 254 m2 for path ways/ /open
space/ other purposes)

The excess area over 2000 m2 may be utilized for any of the followings:

Option-I: To incorporate more number of minor fruit species as mentioned in Table 2.19

Option-II: Growing more number of few selected major or minor fruit species as shown in
Table 2.17 and/or 2.18 and/or 2.19 as per choice of the farmers.

Table 2.19: Few minor fruit species

Sl. Name of the species Spacing
No. Scientific name Local/Assamese name
1. Phyllanthus acidus Pora-amlokhi 4 m x 4m
2. Morus alba Nuni 4 m x 4m
3. Morus nigra Nuni 4 m x 4m
4. Ficus carica Dimoru 5mx5m
5. Rhus semialata Noga tenga 4 m x 4m
6. Prunus jenkensii Thereju 4 m x 4m
7. Dillenia indica Ou tenga 6 m x 6m
8. Garcinia xanthocynus Teportenga 4 m x 4m
9. Terminelia bellerica Bhomora 8 m x 8m
10. Chrysophyllum roxburghii Ban pitha 6 m x 6m
11. Euphoria longana Nogalichu 5 m x 5m
12. Garcinia pedunculata Borthekera 5 m x 5m
13. Garcinia lanceofolia Rupohithekera 4.5 m x 4.5 m
14. Carissa carandas Karzatenga 3mx3m
15. Tamarindus indica Teteli 8mx8m
16. Physalis peruviana Kapalphuta 1mx1m

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17. Eugenia cymosa Panijamu 4.5 m x 4.5 m

18. Antidesma ghesaembilla Heloch 4 m x 4m
19. Vangueria spinosa Moyentenga, Kothora 5mx5m
20. Carallia lucida Mahithekera 4 m x 4m
21. Parameria polyneura Mirikatenga as companion crop with
Arecanut
22. Passiflora edulis Latabael, Kothbael, as intercrop in trellis
Khasiabael

Option-III: Growing one or few fruit crops commercially (along with intercrops)

If the number of commercially grown fruit species is more than one it is better to be
grown in strips.

Some of the fruit crops which are having potentiality to grow commercially with
different intercrop combinations have been listed in Table 2.3. As each of such fruit crops has
several combinations of intercrops; therefore, for each of the fruit crop species several models
can be forwarded. For example, for Psidium guajava (Madhuriam) models can be made along
with

(i) Cowpea and frenchbean, or

(ii) Okra, onion, turmeric, garlic, cauliflower, chilli & leafy vegetable, or
(iii) Green manuring crops and/fodder.

Similarly, several other models can also be fitted for fruit crops like Citrus sp., Musa sp.
Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal), etc. based on fruit species and intercrop combinations as
shown in Table 2.3.
Option-IV: Raising nut crop based multistoried cropping system

Arecanut based multistoried cropping system: There may be several models depending
upon the combinations of arecanut and intercrops as mentioned in Table 2.3. One of the such

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model has been shown in Fig. 5 for an area of 250 m2 where banana and pineapple are
intercrops besides betel vine/black pepper grown as companion crops using arecanut as
standard. Some other crops which may be incorporated successfully as intercrops in this
model and are not mentioned in Table 2.3 are Citrus sp. (cv. Assam lemon), tea, leguminous
vegetables, etc.

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______________________________________________
___

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

(Area: 15.76m 15.76m = 248m2 (≈ 250m2)

: Arecanut (25 nos.; spacing: 2.75m x 2.75m) : Banana (32 nos.; spacing: 2.1m x 2.1m)
-- : Pinapple (510 nos.; spacing: 0.3m single row)

Fig 5: Arecanut (Areca catechu) based multistoried cropping system

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

243
 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Area: 225 m2

Coconut (7.5m X 7.5m) along with Black pepper/Betel vine

Banana (1.8m X 1.8m)

Assam lemon

Ginger (0.25m X 0.2m)

Turmeric (0.45m X 0.25m)

Pineapple (0.3m X 0.6m)

Fig 6: Coconut based multistoried cropping system

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Coconut based multistoried cropping system: Similar to the arecanut based

multistoried cropping system, several models of coconut based multistoried cropping system
may be forwarded depending upon the combination of the main crop (coconut) along with
intercrops and companion crops as shown in Table 2.3. One of such model (Fig. 6) has been
shown for an area of 225 m2 taking banana, Assam lemon, ginger, turmeric and pineapple as
intercrops; besides black pepper/betel vine as companion crops using coconut as standard.
Some other crops which may be incorporated successfully as intercrops in this model and are
not mentioned in Table 2.3 are papaya, commercial flowers, medicinal herbs, seedlings of
arecanut, seedlings of coconut, etc.

Option-V: Growing one or few high valued vegetables for market as per choice of the
farmers. If number of vegetable crop is more than one it should be grown in strips.

Option-VI: Growing few fuel wood species depending upon the availability of land to fulfill
mostly household need (as mentioned and shown in Forest Zone)

D. Forest zone

When the area of Baree is 3500 m2 (utilizing 250 m2 for vegetable, 100 m2 for plastic
house, 100 m2 for net house, 1296 m2 for Fruit Zone, 1296 m2 Forest Zone and about 458m2
for other purposes/open space)

Raising mixed plantation of several species mostly for the purpose of production of
fuel wood and timbers (along with to satisfy some other minor purposes) to largely fulfill the
household need is one of the most important options. Plantation of large number of species
will fulfill various needs of the farm family; besides, it will boost up the ‘conservation of
species through use’. The model as shown in Fig. 7 has been placed for 1296 m2 where
several species at the spacing of 4m x 4m can be raised. However, few numbers of species
may be modified as per need as well as performance under the location as shown in Table
2.20. Several species of bamboo should be planted in the northern-most rows at the spacing of
6m between plant to plant. Other species, very fast growing and fast growing, should be
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planted alternately as shown in Fig. 7. The species and their purposes of plantation are shown
in the following Table 2.20:

Table 2.20: Few tree species and their purpose of plantation

Sl. No. Species Purpose

Scientific name Assamese
name
1 Dendrocalamus Worra banh Building construction, boat masts,
giganteus preparation of decorative items, delicacies
or from young shoots
Dendrocalamus Kako banh Building construction, preparation of
hamiltonii decorative items, delicacies from young
shoots
2, 3 Bambusa balcooa Bholuka banh Building construction, scaffolding, raw
materials for agarbati sticks, delicacies from
young shoots
4 Bambusa tulda Jati banh Construction of covering of house,
scaffolding, decorative items & household
implements, delicacies from young shoots
5 Bambusa tulda Jati banh Construction of covering of house,
(for Brahmaputra scaffolding, decorative items & household
Valley) implements, delicacies from young shoots
or
Bambusa Betula banh Construction of covering of house,
cacharensis decorative items & household implements
(for Barak Valley)
6 Bambusa nutans Mokal banh Construction purposes especially poles,
Or household implements
Bambusa tulda Jati banh Construction of covering of house,
scaffolding, decorative items & household

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Or implements, delicacies from young shoots

Bambusa Betula banh Construction of covering of house,
cacharensis decorative items & household implements
7,8,16 Dipterocarpus Hollong Building & construction, planking, furniture
macrocarpus
9,10,11, Shorea robusta Xal Building and construction, boat making,
25,34 planking, scaffolding
43,52,61 Albizia procera Koroi Fuel wood, building/construction, furniture,
agriculture implements, household tools,
Or fodder
Albizia lebbeck Siris Fuel wood, structural purpose, decorative
furniture and tools
17,26,35, Michelia Titachapa Furniture, boat making, agriculture
44,53,62 champaca implements, medicinal, household tools
or
Toona ciliata Poma House construction, furniture, boat making,
fuel wood, fodder, household tools
Or
Duabanga Khakan House construction, furniture, fuel wood,
grandiflora household tools
Or
Lagerstroemia Ajar Planking, furniture, boat making, fuel wood,
flos-reginae household tools
Or
Lagerstroemia Sidha Construction, household tools, boat making,
parviflora fuel wood
Or
Artocarpus chama Cham Building and construction, furniture, boat
making, household tools

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18,27,36, Anthocephalus Kadam Fuel wood, planking, temporary furniture

45,54,63 cadamba
Or
Trewia nudiflora Bhelkar Fuel wood, planking, temporary furniture
Or
Barringtonia Hijal Fuel wood, planking, temporary furniture
acutangula
19,28,37, Tectona grandis Chegun Building and construction, decorative
46,55,64 furniture and household tools, fuel wood
Or
Acacia catechu Khoir Building and construction, production of
Or katha, fodder, tools, fuel wood
Kleinhovia hospita Bola Building and construction household tools,
Or fuel wood
Phoebe Bonchom Building and construction, decorative
goalparensis furniture and household tools, fuel wood
20,29,38, Albizia licida Moj Fuel wood, planking
47,56,65 Or
Albizia Hiharu Building & construction, planking,
odoratissima furniture, fuel wood
Or
Albizia stipulata Sau Planking for construction, fodder, fuel wood
Or
Acacia Acacia Building & construction, planking,
auriculiformis furniture, fuel wood
Or
Bischofia javanica Uriam Boat making, planking, fuel wood
12,21,30, Darbergia sissoo Sisu Building & construction, planking,
39,48,57, Or furniture, fuel wood, fodder

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66 Dipterocarpus Garjan Building & construction, planking,

turbinatus furniture, fuel wood
Or
Shorea assamica Makrixal Building & construction, planking,
Or furniture, fuel wood
Chukrasia Bogipoma Building & construction, planking,
tabularis furniture, fuel wood
Or
Terminalia Holok Building & construction, planking,
myriocarpa furniture, fuel wood, fodder
13,22,31, Leucaena Subabul Fuel wood, fodder
40,49,58, leucocephala
67 Or
Symplocos Nagabhomloti Fuel wood, medicinal
ferruginea
Or
Melia azadirach Ghoraneem Fuel wood, medicinal
Or
Adina cordifolia Kelikadam Household tools, fuel wood
Or
Bauhinia Kanchan Fodder, fuel wood
variegate
Or
Vitex peduncularis Ahoi Agriculture implements, boat making,
medicinal, fuel wood
14,23,32, Gmelina arborea Gamari Building & construction, planking,
41,50,59, decorative furniture and tools, fodder, fuel
68 wood
15,24,33, Azadiracta indica Neem Medicine, insect repellant, furniture,

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

42,51,60, Or planking, fuel wood

69,70,71, Terminalia Xilikha Fruits, medicine, furniture, planking, fuel
72,73,74, chebula wood
75,76,77, Or
78 Terminalia Bhomora Fruits, medicine, furniture, planking, fuel
belerica wood
Or
Terminalia arjuna Arjun Medicine, , fuel wood
Or
Aegle marmelos Bael Fruits, medicine, religious, fuel wood
Or
Syzygium cuminii Kolajamu Fruits, building & construction, planking
Or and tools, fuel wood, medicine
Emblica officinalis Amlakhi Fruits, medicine, fuel wood
or
Zizyphus jujube Bogori Fruits, medicine, fuel wood
Or
Dillenia indica Ouatenga Fruits, medicine, insect repellant, fuel wood
Or
Morus alba Nuni Sericulture purpose, fuel wood, fodder
Or
Moringa oleifera Sojina Vegetable, medicine, fuel wood
or
Canarium Dhunagoch Preparation of Dhuna, insect repellant,
resiniferum minor construction purposes, fuel wood
or
Ailanthus excelsa Borpat Sericulture purpose, fodder, fuel wood

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Area = 36m x 36m = 1296 m2 ( ≈ 1300 m2)

= B. tulda; = B. balcooa; = VFG; = FG

Fig. 7 a: Lay out for Mix plantation of Timber and firewood species (Sketch)

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

Fig. 7 b: Lay out for Mix plantation of Timber and firewood species (3-D)

When the area of Baree is > 3500 m2 (after utilizing 250 m2 for vegetable, 100 m2 for
plastic house, 100 m2 for net house, 1296 m2 for Fruit Zone, 1296 m2 for Forest Zone and
about about 458m2 for other purposes/open space)

The excess area over 3500 m2 may be utilized for any one or more of the followings
depending upon the available land area and choice of the farmers:

Option-I: To incorporate more tree species or more numbers under a species for fuel wood or
species for other minor purposes (Table 2.20 and Fig-7) at 4 m x 4 m spacing mostly for

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household use; however, after fulfilling the household needs excess produces may be sold.
Selection of the species and/or their number should be as per the choice of the farmers.

Option-II: Raising single or mixture of several species of bamboo for both household use and
market is one of the most prominent options. Spacing of some of the important species for
this purpose is mention below:

Table 2.21: Spacing needed for plantation of few bamboo species

Species Assamese Spacing Clumps/bigha

name (nos.)
Bambusa balcooa Bhaluka 6-8 m x 6-8 m 20-37
Bambusa cacharensis Betula 5-7 m x 5-7 m 27-53
Bambusa nutans Mokal 5-7 m x 5-7 m 27-53
Bambusa tulda Jati 5-7 m x 5-7 m 27-53
Dendrocalamus giganteus Worra 10-12 m x 10-12 m 9-13
Dendrocalamus Kako 7-10 m x 7-10 m 13-27
hamiltonii

The variation in spacing depends upon the feasibility of the location and intercrops.
Annanas comosus (Anaras), Musa sp, (Kal), Zingiber officinale (Ada), Curcuma longa
(Halodhi), annual vegetables, field crops, medicinal plants, fodder, green manuring crops, etc.
can be raised successfully in interspaces for initial 2-4 years. Intercrops should preferably be
shade tolerant.
When bamboo is grown for the production of edible shoots and mostly for market, the
spacing will have to be increased by 1-3 m of the spacing mentioned above.

Option-III: Plant species needed for silkworm culture is one of the viable options in many of
the feasible areas. Besides feasibility of the location, preference of the farmers, imparting
knowhow/techniques for culturing silkworm by the farmers, availability of area etc. are some
other factors needed to be considered. Spacing of few plant species for sericultural purposes is
as follows:
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Table 2.22: Spacing needed for few sericultural plant species

Kind of silk Plant species Assamese name Spacing Plant

(no./bigha)
Muga Machilus bombycina Som 7mx7m 27
Litsaea poliantha Xoalu 6mx6m 37
Eri Ricinus communis Era 2mx2m 333
Heteropanax fragrans Kecheru 6mx6m 37
Mulbery silk Morus alba Nuni, Boganuni 3mx3m 148
(Paat)

The manner of plantation of sericultural tree crops like Machilus bombycina (Som)
and Litsaea poliantha (Xoalu) should be monoculture whereas, other plant species mentioned
may also be grown as mixed culture along with tree species grown for other purposes.

Option-IV: Raising tree species for fuel wood only, both for household use and market, is
also one of the option where maximum production is needed from short duration plants; the
size of the plant doesnot matter to be utilized as fuel wood. Very fast growing tree species as
mentioned in Table 2.20 should be preferred for this purpose. The spacing should be 1-2 m x
1-2 m depending upon the rate of growth of the species; both monoculture and mixedculture
of several species may also be adopted.

Option-V: Growing plant species for pulp production needed for industrial purposes only
may be one of the viable options depending upon the availability of the market and
profitability of the produces. For this purpose, planting should be done at the spacing of 2-3m
x 2-3m which are to be cultivated as monoculture. Several species as mentioned in Table 2.20
and Table 2.23 may be raised depending upon the market price.

Option-VI: Raising tree species mostly for saw timber/veneer logs is one of the most
attractive market-oriented options. Spacing required for this purpose varies from species to
species; few of these are mentioned below:

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Table 2.23: Spacing needed for few timber/ veneer species

Species Spacing Saplings needed

Scientific name Assamese name (no./bigha)
Acacia catechu Khair 3mx1m 444
2.5 m x 2.5 m 213
Adina cordifolia Kelikadam 3mx1m 444
2.5 m x 2.5 m 213
Albizia lebbek Sirish 3mx1m 444
2.5 m x 2.5 m 213
Artocarpus chama Cham 8mx6m 27
8mx8m 20
10 m x 10 m 13
Artocarpus heterophyllus Kathal 10 m x 10 m 13
12 m x 10 m 11
12 m x 12 m 9
Azadirachta indica Mahaneem 6mx4m 55
5mx5m 53
6mx6m 37
Bombax ceiba Ximolu 3mx1m 444
2.5 m x 2.5 m 213
6mx4m 55
5mx5m 53
6mx6m 37
Chukrasia tabularis Bogipoma 3mx1m 444
2.5 m x 2.5 m 213
Dalbergia sissoo Sisu 2mx2m 333
Gmelina arborea Gomari 3mx1m 444
2.5 m x 2.5 m 213
Hymenodictylon excelsum Panikadam 6mx4m 55

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 Baree – The Home Garden of Assam

5mx5m 53
6mx6m 37
Kydia calycina Pichola, 3mx1m 444
Kukuha goch 2.5 m x 2.5 m 213
Mesua ferrea Nahar 2mx2m 333
Michelia champaca Titachapa 2mx2m 333
Salix tetrasperma Bhe 2mx2m 333
Tectona grandis Chegun 2mx2m 333
Terminalia arjuna Arjun 3mx1m 444
2.5 m x 2.5 m 213
Terminalia chebula Xilikha 3mx1m 444
2.5 m x 2.5 m 213
Toona ciliate Poma 3mx1m 444
2.5 m x 2.5 m 213

For producing high quality timber and maximizing returns per unit area in different
land situations all the silvicultural operations especially tending should be carried out in
proper manner and well in time as mentioned in Table 2.12. The felled seedlings, saplings,
poles and trees (like diseased; dead, dying and moribund; whips; wolf; suppressed; sub-
dominant; co-dominant and few dominant trees) obtained during tending operation may be
utilized as fuel wood, poles & construction purposes, pulp, etc. for household use or market
depending upon the species, quality of wood, size, market availability & demand, market
value, household need, etc.
For initial 3-4 years crop, preferably partially shade tolerant species, can be raised in
the interspaces, depending upon the availability of interspaces. It is quite possible to raise
such crops in between rows of relatively wider spaced tree species (as mentioned in above
Table 2.23) like Artocarpus chama (Cham), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal), Azadirachta
indica (Mahaneem), Hymenodictyon excelsum (Kadam, Paroli), Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), etc.

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Option-VII: Raising medicinal plants usually as monoculture and sometimes as mixed

culture with bulk production of output, mostly for market, is one of the
promising options.

N
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#####:- Long rotational species (e.g. Michelia champaca, Tectona grandis) 20%
xxxxx:- Medium rotational species (e.g. Dalbergia sissoo) 30%
ooooo:- Short rotational species (e.g. Gmelina arborea) 50%

Fig 8 a: Mixed plantation for timber in small blocks (Sketch)

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Fig. 8 b: Mixed plantation for timber in small blocks (3-D)

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#####:- Long rotational species (e.g. Michelia champaca, Tectona grandis) 21%
xxxxx:- Medium rotational species (e.g. Dalbergia sissoo) 27%
ooooo:- Short rotational species (e.g. Gmelina arborea) 52%
Fig 9 a: Mixed plantation for timber in alternate strips (Sketch)
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Fig. 9 b: Mixed plantation for timber in alternate strips (3-D)

For producing high quality timber and maximizing returns per unit area in different land
situations all the silvicultural operations especially tending should be carried out in proper
manner and well in time as mentioned in Table 2.12. The felled seedlings, saplings, poles and
trees (like diseased; dead, dying and moribund; whips; wolf; suppressed; sub-dominant; co-
dominant and few dominant trees) obtained during tending operation may be utilized as fuel
wood, poles & construction purposes, pulp, etc. for household use or market depending upon
the species, quality of wood, size, market availability & demand, market value, household
need, etc.
For initial 3-4 years crop, preferably partially shade tolerant species, can be raised in
the interspaces, depending upon the availability of interspaces. It is quite possible to raise
such crops in between rows of relatively wider spaced tree species (as mentioned in above
Table 2.23) like Artocarpus chama (Cham), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kothal), Azadirachta
indica (Mahaneem), Hymenodictyon excelsum (Kadam, Paroli), Bombax ceiba (Ximolu), etc.
Option-VII: Raising medicinal plants usually as monoculture and sometimes as mixed
culture with bulk production of output, mostly for market, is one of the promising options.
Spacing needed for few medicinal plant species having market potentiality are mentioned in
Table 2.24.

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Table 2.24: Spacing needed for few medicinal species having market potentiality

Species Spacing Planting Planting

Scientific name Assamese name material material/
biggha
Acorus calamus Bash 30 cm x 30 cm Rhizome 3.5 q
Aloe vera Ghritakumari, 60 cm x 60 cm Sucker 3,800 no.
Salkuwori
Alpinia galangal Gandhatora, 45 cm x 30 cm Rhizome 475 kg
Torabaghini
Andragraphis Kalmegh, 30 cm x 15-30 cm Seed 80 g
paniculata Kalpatita
Asparagus Xatmul 50 cm x 25-50 cm Seed 400 g
racemosus
Azadirachta Mahaneem 5mx4m Sapling 67 no.
indica
Bacopa monnieri Brahmi 20-40 cm x 10-20 cm Cuttings 8,500 no.
Centella asiatica Bormanimuni 30 cm x 15-30 cm Seedling 15,000 no.
Chlorophytum Safed musli 30 cm x 22 cm Root tuber 165 kg
borivillian
Cinnamomum Tejpat 3 m x 3m Seed, ---
tamala cuttings. etc.
Cinnamomum Dalcheni 3 m x 3m Seedling 335-400 no.
verum
Curcuma Keturi, Kangee 40-45 cm x 20-22 cm Rhizome 3.3 q
zedoaria
Embica Amolkhi 7-7 m x 7-8 m Seedling 30 no.
officinalis
Gloriosa superva Nangal bhanga, 45-60 cm x 30-45 cm Rhizome 3.5 q
Uluchandan,
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Agnixikha
Hedychium Bogichampa, 60 cm x 45 cm Rhizome 3q
coronarium Pokhilaphul
Hedychium Karphul, 45 cm x 30 cm Rhizome 3.3 q
spicatum Kapoor kachri
Hemidesmus Anantamul 60 cm x 60 cm Cuttings 3,800 no.
indicus
Homalomena Gandh kachu, 45 cm x 30 cm Rhizome 2.8 q
aromatic Xugandhmantri
Litsea glutinosa Baghnola 3 m x 3m Seedling 160 no.
Mentha arvensis Japani podina 45-60 cm (row) Stolon 50 kg
Ocimum Bontuloxi, 45 cm x 30 cm Seed 15 g
basilicum Mithatuloxi,
Ramtuloxi
Ocimum sanctum Kolatuloxi 40 cm x 40 cm Seed 30-40 g
Oroxylum Bhatghila, 2mx2m Seedling 333 no.
indicum Kanaidinga
Piper longum Pipoli 60 cm x 60 cm Sucker, root 3,800 no.
cuttings
Pogostemon Patchouli 45 cm x 45 cm Cuttings 6,600 no.
cablin Panchput
Pterocarpus Rokta chandan 4 m x 4m Seedling 82 no.
santalinus
Rauvolfia Xarpagandha 30 cm x 30 cm Seed, root 0.8 kg or
serpentine cuttings 30 no.
Santalum album Chandan 4-4.5 m x 4-4.5 m Seedling 74 no.
Saraca asoca Axok goch 3mx3m Seedling 147 no
Smilax glabra Tikoniborua lota 1.2 m x 1.2 m Seedling 950 no.
Stevia Moutuloxi 40 cm x 25 cm Stem cuttings 10,000 no.

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rabaudiana
Terminalia Arjun 6mx6m Stump 39 no.
arjuna
Terminalia Bhomora 10-12 m x 10 m Seedling, 9-13 no.
bellirica stump
Terminalia Xilikha 8-9 m x 8-9 m Seedling 21 no.
chebula
Tinospora Xagunilota 2 m x 2m Cuttings 400 no.
cordifolia
Withania Ashwagandha 50-60 cm (row) Seed ---
somnifera
Source: Anmed and Barua (2013); Package of Practces for Horticulture (2010)

Traditionally used medicinal climbers like Ichnocarpus frutescense (xaolata),

Menispermum glabrum (Amoilata), Merremia umbellate (Kolialata), Stephania hernandifolia
(Tubukilata), Vitis quadrangularis (Harjoralata), etc. can easily be grown as companion crops
due to their trailing habits taking larger-sized and medium-sized medicinal tree species as
standard.

Option-VIII: Growing annual & perennial fodder and/or fodder tree to meet up the
requirements for subsidiary components like dairy, goat rearing, etc. (when carried out in
relatively larger scale for market) may be a prominent option. The spacing requirement and
production expected from such species are mentioned below:

Table 2.25: Spacing needed for few fodder species

Species Spacing Expected production

Scientific name Assamese name (t/bigha)
Annual
Pennisetum pedicellatum Dinanath 30 cm x 10 cm 6.5-8.0

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Vigna unquiculata Lechera 35 cm x 10 cm 4.0-6.0

Vigna umbellate Rice bean 35 cm x 10 cm 4.0-6.0
Zea mays Gomdhan/Makoi 30 cm x 10 cm 4.0-4.5
Euchlaena maxicana Teosinte 40 cm x 15 cm 3.5-4.5
Avena sativa Oats 25-30 cm x 5-7 cm 3.5-4.0
Medicago sativa Lucerne 5 cm x 5 cm 2.5-3.0
Perennial
Pennisetum purpureum Hybrid napier 50 cm x 50 cm 10.5-13.5
Setaria sphacelata Setaria 50 cm x 50 cm 10.5-13.5
Leucaena leucocephala Subabul 100 cm x 30 cm 2.2-2.5
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#####:- Long rotational species (e.g. Michelia champaca, Tectona grandis) 33%
xxxxx:- Medium rotational species (e.g. Dalbergia sissoo) 33%
ooooo:- Short rotational species (e.g. Gmelina arborea) 33%
Fig 10 a: Mixed plantation for timber in alternate rows (Sketch)

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Fig. 10 b: Mixed plantation for timber in alternate rows (3-D)

Among all these species, perennial like Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul), Pennisetum
purpureum (Hybrid napier), Setaria sphacelata (Setaria) and annual like Avena sativa (Oats),
Medicago sativa (Lucerne), etc. are having special sigificance as because fodder scarcity is a
common phenomenon in rabi season.
The manner of plantation may be monoculture or mixed culture as per choice and need
of the farm family.

Option-IX: One of the most important market-oriented options is growing Camellia chinensis
(Chah); several tree species may be raised as shade trees along with Camellia chinensis as
mentioned below:

Table 2.26: Spacing needed for few shade tree species in Tea plantation

Shade tree Spacing Camellia chinensis Shade tree

(no./bigha) (no./bigha)
Albizia sp. 10 m x 10 m 2000-2500 13
Areca catechu 3mx3m 1926 148
Khasi mandarin 5.25 m x 5.25 m 1700 48

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Piper betle (Paan) & Piper nigrum (Jaluk) can be grown as companion crop when
Albizia sp. & Areca catechu (Tamol), respectively are raised as shade trees. In feasible areas,
Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi) also may be raised as boarder crops at the spacing of 3.5 m in
single or two rows surrounding Camellia chinensis (Chah).

Option-X: Growing Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi) as the market-oriented species in

feasible localities of the state at the spacing of 2.5-5 m x 2.5-5 m. Several crops like Areca
catechu (Tamol), Musa sp. (Kal), Cocos nucifera (Narikal), etc. may be grown, as currently
pracised, along with Aquilaria malaccensis (Xanchi). However, the most feasible intercrops,
atleast for initial 3-4 years, are Zingiber officinale (Ada), Curcuma longa (Halodhi), Ananas
comosus (Anaras), Pogostemon cablin (Patchouli), Homalomena aromatica (Gandh kochu),
Andragraphis paniculata (Kalmegh), Kaempferia galangal (Gathion), etc. In the later stages
shade toletrant medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentine (Xarpagondha), Piper longum
(Pipoli) and Andragraphis paniculata (Kalmegh) may also be grown for another few years
depending upon plant population and soil characteristics.

Option-XI: Growing high valued vegetables for market as per choice of the farmers and
profitability of the commodity (as discussed in Vegetable Zone).

Option-XII: Growing flowers (single species or multi-species) for market like Marigold,
Gerbera, Anthurium, Gladiolous, Chrysanthemum, Orchids, etc. along with minor species like
Joba, Aparajita, Tilingajoba, Kathana, etc. as per market demand, profitability and choice of
the farmers. Spacing of some of these species is as follows:

Table 2.27: Spacing needed for few flower species

Species Spacing Planting material

Scientific name Assamese name needed (no./bigha)
Gerbera jamesonii Gerbera 40-50 cm x 10-15 cm 17770-29620
Tagetes sp. Narji/Gendha 30 cm x 25 cm (Dwarf) 17770
35 cm x 35 cm (Medium) 10880
60-100 cm x 50-60 cm 2220-4440
(Tall)

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Gladiolus communis Gladiolus 45-50 cm x 10-15 cm 17770-29620

Chrysamthemum sp. Indramalati 40 cm x 35 cm 9520
Anthurium Anthurium 35 cm x 35 cm 10880
andraeanum
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Joba, Tilingajoba 1.5-2.0 m x 1.5-2.0 m 330-590
Clitoria ternatea Aparjita 1.0 m x 1.0 m 1330
Tabernaemontana sp. Kathana/Kathanda 1.5-2.0 m x 1.5-2.0 m 330-590

Species can be raised as monoculture or mixed culture depending upon the choice of
the farmers and market. Area under net house and plastic house may also be increased as per
need and resources of the farmars.

Option-XIII: Raising nursery plants for market as per demand, profitability and suitability of
area available for the purpose. Area under net house and plastic house may also be increased
as per need and resources of the farmers.

Option-XIV: Growing fruit crops commercially (as discussed in Fruit Zone) depending upon
the market demand, profitability of the commodity, choice of the farmers and suitable area
available for the purpose.

Option-XV: Raising market-oriented nut crop based multistoried cropping system (as
discussed in Fruit Zone) depending upon the availability of suitable land and choice of the
farmers.

Option-XVI: Utilizing for subsidiary activities in larger scale especially dairy, fishery,
piggery, chicken rearing (backyard and broiler chicken), duckery, goat rearing, pigeon
rearing, nursery, etc. either alone or in combined manner of selected components depending
upon the area availability, choice and resources of the farmers, market and profitability, etc.

Option-XVII: Utilizing the excess area (over 3500 m2) for serving more than one purpose as
mentioned in ‘Option-I to Option-XVI’ in relatively smaller blocks depending upon the

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availability and suitability of land, choice & resources of the farmers, profitability of the
components, etc.

Note: If the available land area for plantation is relatively large and the resourceful farmer is
interested to raise few market oriented species having different rotational (harvesting)
period, each of the species may be grown in small pure blocks (Fig. 8), strip mixture
(Fig. 9) or line mixture (Fig. 10). In the Figures few timber species have been shown as
the example. However, similar design of plantation may also be carried out for bamboo
species (Option-II), species for silk worm culture (Option-III), fuel wood (Option-IV),
species for palp production (Option-V), species for saw timber/veneer logs (Option-VI),
medicinal plant species (Option-VII), tree fodder species (Option-VIII) and fruit species
(Option-XIV).

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CHAPTER - III

FUTURE STRATEGY

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Future research strategy

To sustain the Baree system, emphasis should be given on the following strategies
related to research:
 Intensive investigation with regard to floristic diversity, structure, agroforestry system,
management system, economic features and use of different species covering varied
physiographic and climatic condition of the state;
 Thorough investigation of minor and wild vegetables & fruits with respect to nutrition
quality, methodology for removal of anti-nutrients if any, compatibility of blending of such
vegetables for the purpose of sound health and taste, preparation of package of practices for
good quality under utilized vegetables, etc. is urgently required;
 Detail research is required regarding the effectiveness of the traditional lesser known
herbal medicines against varied health problems of human and animals, their multifarious
impact upon functioning of organs and tissues, extraction of effective molecules,
quantification of the products having beneficial impacts, etc.
 Domestication, improvement and exploitation of indigenous species of trees, shrubs
and herbs of different utilities should be a major focus;
 Intensive investigation of local medicinal plants exist in different communities is
urgently required;
 To standardize the combination of trees for agro-ecological adaptability, their planting
design, economic evaluation of their products and services from this system;
 For reaping maximum benefit, emphasis should be given on study with respect to the
need of exact number of plants of different structural categories as there is ample scope for
rationalization among different categories of flora;
 Strategies for optimizing agroforestry system productivity in Baree should be
reoriented from quantification of production to economic evaluation of the tangible and
intangible products (including environmental services). Emphasis should also be given for
value addition of various products and exploration of new market avenues (viz. alcoholic
beverages, dyes, etc.). Based on these criteria, model and prediction should be developed for

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better understanding of impact on policy interventions on traditional and modern agroforestry

system; then only these models of sustainable land use will be accepted by farmers whole
heartedly;
 To know the minute details of the roles of Baree in mitigating climate change and as
potential carbon sinks based on system level and landscape level; and
 Strategies for maximizing species diversity in smaller Baree need to be worked out.

FUTURE EXTENSION STRATEGY

To popularize the Baree system with scientific intervention the following extension
strategy should be adopted:
 Information on technologies and advisory services with regard to Baree should be
emphasized;
 Emphasis should be made to make available inputs, quality planting materials, tools &
implements and capital to resource poor farmers; and
 Targeting relatively educated farmers for scientific Baree development to obtain
higher dividends.

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