Article title: Dispersal of Seeds by Frugivores in the foothills of Keeriparai Forest Eco System of Kanyakumari
District, Tamil Nadu
Authors: Keny Newport[1]
Affiliations: Society for National Integration through Rural Development, SNIRD, Railpet, Ongole - 523001, Prakasam
District, Andhra Pradesh[1]
Orcid ids: 0000-0002-3955-679X[1]
Contact e-mail: kenynewport@gmail.com
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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
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Preprint statement: This article is a preprint and has not been peer-reviewed, under consideration and submitted to
ScienceOpen Preprints for open peer review.
DOI: 10.14293/S2199-1006.1.SOR-.PP5YC36.v1
Preprint first posted online: 29 December 2022
Keywords: Birds, Frugivores, Fruit Trees, Mammals, Western Ghats.
Dispersal of Seeds by Frugivores in the foothills of Keeriparai Forest Eco System of
Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu
By
Keny J.Newport1 and Godfrey G.P.Jawahar2
Abstract
Frugivores include a large diversity of taxa, from annelids to elephants, and fish and herps,
spanning body masses from a few grams to several tonnes. Plants that produce fleshy fruits and
rely on animals for seed dispersal are also diverse and differ in fruit size, seedling vigor,
phenophase length and so on. In terms of the potential effects of habitat fragmentation, it matters
which critical frugivore or plant life strategies are correlated within a network. Fruit trees and
frugivores, both mammals and birds were identified over 11 months in the foot hills of Western
Ghats in Kanyakumari District. The seed dispersal through bird droppings, scat of mammals and
also the fruit biomass was observed around 10-12 kilo meters transect walk. It was observed that
mammalian frugivores are more than the avian frugivores. Mono cultivation of rubber trees and
low diversity of fruit trees may be the reasons for the low number of avian frugivores as it was
noted that foot hills of the forests are converted into rubber plantations. The study also focused
on the type of fruit trees found on the forests of Western Ghats as it was important for the
survival of frugivores. The arboreal frugivore identified at Keeriparai Forest Range consisted of
four species of non-flying mammals, two primates, one flying squirrel and a bat and six species
of avian frugivores. The conservation and promotion of fruit trees is important for the survival of
frugivores, which are important in forest eco system, due to their crucial role in seed dispersal
and regeneration.
Key Words : Birds, Frugivores, Fruit Trees, Mammals, Western Ghats.
1
Project Manager, Society for National Integration through Rural Development, S.N.I.R.D.,
Railpet, Ongole - 523 001, Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh. (e-Mail -
kenynewport@gmail.com)
2
Executive Secretary, Society for National Integration through Rural Development, S.N.I.R.D.,
Railpet, Ongole - 523 001, Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh. (e-Mail -
snirdruraldevelopment@gmail.com)
Introduction:
Western Ghats in India is the richest terrestrial eco system. Much of this diversity is accounted
for the richness of frugivores, which or wholly or partly dependent on flowers, fruits and seeds
(Howe 1986). Many tropical plants give fleshy fruits which are consumed by variety of
frugivores (Ganesh and Davidar 2001). Frugivores mammals and birds are wholly or partly
dependent on flowers, fruits and seeds (Howe 1986). Frugivores helps in seed dispersal and also
successful germination of seeds as the hard seed coat get softened, as they pass through the gut
(Janzen 1970). In South India 66 species of birds from 16 families, 4 non flying mammals, flying
squirrel and fruit bats (Flemming et al. 1987) have been documented with Columbidae,
Pycnonotidae and Muscicapidae representing the most number of species (Balasubramanian and
Maheswaran 2003). Among mammals, primates and fruit bats are the chief frugivores in the
Western Ghats.
Field level studies on frugivores and the relationship to seed dispersal has brought into focus the
importance of fruit characters such as colour, size and nutritional value in selection of fruits by
birds and mammals (Bollen et al 2004) and enabled scientists to identify important fruit trees or
resources (Prasad et al 2004). In degraded forest landscapes, knowledge of native fruit bearing
trees and frugivore birds are useful in planning reforestation as fruit trees will become the habitat
of bird which carry seeds in their guts resulting with increasing the density of the forest (Corlett
1992).
This paper focus on the trees available on the foot hills of Western Ghats in Keeriparai Forest
Range and their uses with emphasis on fruit bearing trees that are the resources for birds and
mammals, their physical traits and the utilization pattern by the birds and mammals. It shortlists
the major fleshy fruit trees, whose conservation is vital for the survival of frugivores and the
overall health of the forest eco system.
Materials and Methods:
Study Area
Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary is located at the southernmost tip of peninsular India, lies
between 77.05° and 77.36° E and 8.3° and 8.35° N and is delimited by Tirunelveli District in the
north and north east, and by Thiruvananthapuram District of Kerala State in the north west. This
study was conducted in the Keeriparai Forest
Range (Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary) that
lies at the southernmost tip of Western Ghats,
between 8.3931° N, 77.4099° with a forest cover
of 40,239 hectares (Fig. 1). The high degree of
endemism in Keeriparai forest is due to a
combination of factors such as, elevation,
inaccessibility, high rainfall and micro climate
(Narasimham, Sheeba J.Erwin 2017).
They are largely benefited by both southwest
[June - September] and northeast [October -
December] monsoons. Hills above 1000 m Fig. 1 : Map of Kanyakumari
elevation receive an annual 14 rainfall of over 5000 Wildlife Sanctuary
mm. The minimum temperature falls within 15°- 23° C and the maximum temperature ranges
from 23° - 30° C. The Western Ghats region of Kanyakumari is mainly composed of igneous
rocks of gneiss series. Rivers and stream beds consist of alluvial sandy soil in different depths.
The hilly region in the southernmost tip of the Western Ghats is the KWLS, where the chain of
hills forms nearly a continuous wall along the northeastern side of the district (Nayar, 1959).
Muthukuzhivayal that measures 10.5 km long and 4.5 km broad at an elevation of 1340m is the
biggest plateau in KWLS. This plateau is considered as a Botanists’ Paradise due to its floristic
richness (Gopalan and Henry, 2000).
Forests of Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary have been sources of valuable timber trees such as
Adina cordifolia Hook, Dalbergia latifolia Roxb., Diospyros ebenum Koenig, Lagerstroemia
lanceolata Wall., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Tectona grandis L. and Terminalia tomentosa
Bedd. (Jacob, 1917). The sanctuary also harbours a number of private estates interspersed within
the reserve forest that grow commercial crops such as tea, cardamom, coffee, clove, vanilla,
pepper, tapioca and rubber.
These forests are a home for several endangered species like tiger, elephant, lion tailed macaque,
nilgiri tahr, nilgiri langur, king cobra, malabar squirrel. The fauna also include panther, gaur,
sloth bear, sambar, chittal, monitor lizard, tortoise, mugger, jungle cat, civet, jackal, common
langur, bonnet macaque, porcupine, pangolin etc. Similarly there is rich and varied avifauna.
About 197 species of resident birds have been recorded from this area (Balachandran, 1998).
Data collection
Species survey
Avian frugivores that feed on plants and fruits were collected through extended observations.
Between 06.00-09.00 hours the fruit trees were observed from a hideout setup of 15-20 meters
away. During this period, for every five minutes records were made on the birds and mammals
and their numbers visiting the fruit trees. The observation period for each fleshy fruit species
varied depending on crop size, availability of fruits and seasons. Additional information were
collected in discussion with the local people as they have better idea about the relationship
between frugivores and fruit trees. It was not possible to quantify the fruits consumed by
frugivores due to dense foliage of trees. The Avian frugivores included pigeons the imperial
pigeon (Ducula badia) and the Nilgiri wood pigeon (Columba elphinstonii), bulbuls like black
bulbul (Hypsipetes madagascariensis), yellow-browed bulbul (Hypsipetes indica) and red
whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) and one species of barbet, the small green barbet
(Megalaima viridis)
Data on mammalian frugivores on fruits eaten by mammals were obtained by examining the
faeces from direct feeding observations on fruiting trees and fruit debris evidence. Faeces of
Malabar giant squirrel (Ratufa indica), nocturnal giant flying squirrel (Petaurista petaurista),
two primates the Nilgiri langur (Trachypithecus johnii) and lion tailed macaque (Macaca
silenus), one civet, the brown palm civet (Paradoxurus jerdoni) and one species of frugivorous
bat (Cynopterus sphinx).
All the four species of arboreal mammals were seed predators (two squirrels and two primates).
Birds were exclusively seed dispersers and no evidence of seed predation was noticed during
field visits.
The study was conducted from September 2021 to August 2022) by observing the feeding
pattern of fruit eating avian species and collecting faeces of mammals walking a 10 to 12 kms
transact along the forest trails. The collected faeces were identified with the help of local people
as their knowledge was much helpful throughout the study.
Data analysis
The details of fruit trees were collected from the study area by field visits and also through
secondary sources to study the behavior pattern of frugivores. The details of fruit trees are given
in (Table 1).
Sl. Name of the Tree Family Name Tamil Economic Importance
No Species Vernacular
Name
1. Achras sapota Sapotaceae Sapota Edible Fruits
2. Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae Mundhiri Maram Edible Fruit, Medicinal,
Fodder, Firewood
3. Annona squamosa Annonaceae Sitapalam Edible Fruit, Medicinal
4. Annona muricata Annonaceae Mala Panchi Edible Fruit
5. Areca Catechu Arecaceae Pakku Maram Edible Fruit, Firewood,
Leaf Plates
6. Artocarpus altilis Moraceae Irrapila Edible Fruits, Fodder,
Firewood
7. Artocarpus Moraceae Palaa Edible Fruit, Fodder,
heterophyllus Timber wood
8. Averrhoa bilimbi Oxalidaceae Pulima Edible Fruits, Firewood
9. Borassus flaberllifer Aracaceae Panai Maram Edible Fruits &
Endosperm, Leaves for
handicrafts and Timber
10. Carica papaya Caricaceae Pappali Edible Fruits, Medicinal
11. Citrus aurantium Rutaceae Charukkarai Edible Fruits, Medicinal
Narattai
12. Citrus limon Rutaceae Elumichai Edible Fruits, Medicinal &
Religious
13. Citrus maxima Rutaceae Bamblimass Edible Fruits
14. Cocos nucifera Aracaceae Thennai Edible Fruits, Apiculture,
Fiber, Timber, Oil
15. Ficus racemosa Moraceae Aththi Edible Fruits, Medicinal
16. Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Maa Maram Edible Fruit, Timber
Wood
17. Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Murungai Edible fruits & leaves,
Medicinal
18. Phyllanthus acidus Phyllanthaceae Aranelli Edible Fruits, Firewood
19. Phyllanthus emblica Phyllanthaceae Nelli Edible Fruits, Medicinal
20. Pithecellobium dulce Fabaceae Kodukapuli Edible Fruit, Firewood,
Medicinal
21. Pouteria campechiana Sapotaceae Muttapalam Edible Fruits, Fodder
22. Psidium guajava Myrtaceae Koyya Edible Fruits, Medicinal
23. Syzygyum cumini Myrtaceae Naval Edible Fruits, Firewood,
Timber wood
24. Tamarindus indica Fabaceae Puli Edible Fruit, Fodder,
Timber
25. Terminalia catappa Combretaceae Vathakottai/ Edible Fruits, Essential
Saraparuppu Oil
26. Azadirachata indica Maliaceae Veppa Maram Edible Fruit, Medicinal,
Timber
Table 1 - Fruit Tree Species in the foot hills of Keeriparai forest with Family, Vernacular
The details of frugivores observed in this area is given in (Table 2).
Sl.No Type Local Name Zoological Name
1. Arboreal Mammal Malabar Giant Squirrel Ratufa indica
2. Arboreal Mammal Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista petaurista
3. Primate Nilgiri Langur Trachypithecus johnii
4. Primate Lion Tailed Macaque Macaca slienus
5. Viverridae Palm Civet Paradoxurus jerdoni
6. Bat Flying Fox Cynopterus sphinx
7. Avian Imperial Pigeon Ducula badia
8. Avian Nilgiri Wood Pigeon Columba elphinstonii
9. Avian Black Bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis
10. Avian Yellow Browed Bulbul Hypsipetes indica
11. Avian Red Whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus
12. Avian Green Barbet Megalaima viridis
Table 2 – Details of Avian and Mammalian Frugivores
Observations and Analysis:
Our study revealed that a total of 6 species of birds and 6 mammals to include fleshy-fruits in
their diet. The major avian frugivore was the Red-Whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) and
mammals with fleshy-fruit intake in their diet are Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecus johnii), Lion
Tailed Macaque (Macaca slienus), Malabari Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica) Giant Flying Squirrel
(Petaurista petaurista) Palm Civet Cat (Paradoxurus jerdoni) and Indian Flying Fox
(Cynopterus sphinx).
A total of 26 fleshy-fruit species were eaten by frugivores. The family Moraceae and Rutaceae
were represented by the highest number of species (3), followed by Annonaceae, Myrtaceae,
Fabaceae and Phyllanthaceae (2) each. The avian species consumed 11 fleshy-fruits arboreal
mammals consumed 16 fruits, primates consumed 24 fruits, palm civet consumed 23 fruits and
bat consumed 11 fleshy-fruit varieties. Birds and mammals consumed fruits with green and
yellow colors more than red and brown. Tree watches on fruit trees indicate that Ficus racemosa
and Syzygyum cumini attracted more avian species and Artocarpus heterophyllus and Mangifera
indica attracted more mammals.
Birds consumed small fruits like Ficus racemosa in full and large fruits like Carica papaya were
eaten in small portions. Fruits like Azadirachata indica the fruit coat was removed and the seed
was swallowed. In fruits like Psidium guajava the outer hard skin was removed by pecking and
the juicy pulp was consumed along with the seed.
While feeding on fruits of big size, the birds
dropped large quantity of seeds under the fruit tree.
In arboreal mammals it was observed that fleshy
portion of the fruit was consumed in large and in
palm civet it was observed the presence of both fruit
coat and seeds as they ate the whole fruit. The
primates handled the fruit by swallowing the seeds,
crushing the fruits and eating the seeds and
Fig. 2 : Scat of Arboreal Frugivore
dropping the seeds under or away from the parental tree.
The major avian frugivore are the Red-Whiskered Bulbul and Imperial Pigeon followed by
Nilgiri Wood Pigeon and Green Barnet. The mammalian frugivore are the Malabar Giant
Squirrel and the Lion Tailed Macaque. Mammals have limbs and teeth to hold and crush fruits
and hence feed on a variety of fruits irrespective of colour, size or seed protection. Hence the
number of fleshy-fruits consumed by mammals is more that the avian species.
Results and Discussions:
The study finding revealed that the foot hills of the Keeriparai Forest is an important habitat for
avian and mammalian frugivores primarily due to the abundance of the fruit trees. Hence, the
foot hills of the forest is converted to commercial cash crops like rubber, these areas should be
brought under fringe reserve forest area for regeneration of fleshy fruit trees and also food
supplementation for forest dwellers also. Also felling of fruit trees to be regulated by forest
department as these areas comes under the peripheral region of the reserve forest.
There is a strong correlation between the fruits and frugivores as they thrive only on eating
fleshy-fruits in the Keeriparai Forest Eco System. Although inter dependence on fruits and
frugivores exists, the protection and promotion of fruit trees is of prime importance in the fringe
area of the Keeriparai Reserve Forest. Biodiversity Conservation perspective of the peripheral
forest eco system in Keeriparai is very crucial as fragmentation will dead to decline of both avian
and mammalian frugivores, which in-turn will lead to possible adverse effects on the seed
dispersal.
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Acknowledgement :
The authors would like to acknowledge the forest dwellers who helped us in providing
information's and also supported in the field study through transect walks.
