CULTURAL

TRANSFORMATIONS
IN EARLY MODERN
EUROPE-I
B.A. PROGRAMME (HISTORY)
SEMESTER-III
DSC (MAJOR PAPER)

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UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe-I

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 Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe-I

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Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe-I

SYLLABUS
Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe-I
Syllabus Mapping

Unit I: Key Concepts and Historical Background

1. The Idea of the Early Modern; Perspectives on Culture in Lesson 1: Early Modern Europe:
History Key Concepts and
2. An Overview of the Classical and Medieval Legacy Historical Background
(Pages 3-19)

Unit II: The Renaissance

1. Society and Politics in Italian City-States Lesson 2: The Renaissance
2. Humanism in Art and Literature (Pages 23-42)
3. Development in Science and Philosophy
4. Renaissance Beyond Italy

Unit III: Upheaval in Religion

1. The Papacy and its Critics
2. The Spread of Protestant Sects in Northern Europe Lesson 3: Upheavals in Religion
3. Counter Reformation and Religious Strife (Pages 45-60)
4. The Economic and Cultural Impact of the Reformations

Unit IV: The Conquest of the New World: Material, Social and Cultural
Aspects
1. A Case Study of Portugal or Spain Lesson 4: The Conquest of the
New World: Material, Social,
and Cultural Aspects
(Pages 63-80)

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Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe-I

CONTENTS
UNIT I: KEY CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
LESSON 1 EARLY MODERN EUROPE: KEY CONCEPTS
AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 3-19

1.0 Learning Objectives

1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Idea of the Early Modern Europe
1.3 Perspectives on Culture in History
1.3.1 The Philosophical and Intellectual Developments
1.3.2 Towards Global Orientation: Voyages and Explorations
1.3.3 Role of Ideas, Printing Press and the Networks of Information
1.3.4 The Social Structure
1.3.5 Urbanisation and Commerce
1.3.6 Centres of Learning
1.4 An Overview of the Classical and Medieval Legacy
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Answers to the In-Text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References and Suggested Readings

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 Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe-I

UNIT II: THE RENAISSANCE

LESSON 2 THE RENAISSANCE 23-42

2.0 Learning Objectives

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Society and Polity in Italian City States
2.3 Humanism in Art and Literature
2.4 Development in Science and Philosophy
2.5 Renaissance beyond Italy
2.6 Summary
2.7 Answers to In-Text Questions
2.8 Self-Assessment Questions
2.9 Suggested Readings

UNIT III: UPHEAVAL IN RELIGION

LESSON 3 UPHEAVALS IN RELIGION 45-60

3.0 Learning Objectives

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Upheavals in Religion
3.2.1 The Papacy and its Critics
3.2.2 The Spread of Protestant Sects in Northern Europe
3.2.3 Spread of Lutheranism to other Countries
3.2.4 Counter Reformation and Religious Strife
3.2.5 The Economic and Cultural Impact of Reformation

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Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe-I

3.3 Summary
3.4 Answers to In-Text Questions
3.5 Self-Assessment Questions
3.6 Suggested Readings

UNIT IV: THE CONQUEST OF THE NEW WORLD:

MATERIAL, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS
LESSON 4 THE CONQUEST OF THE NEW WORLD: MATERIAL,
SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL ASPECTS 63-80

4.0 Learning Objectives

4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Conquest of the New World
4.2.1 Western Europe’s Overseas Expansion
4.2.2 Explanations for Voyages
4.2.3 Timing of Voyages of Discovery
4.2.4 The Conquistadors Plunder the New World for Gold
4.2.5 Paternalism and Mercantilism
4.2.6 The High Human Cost
4.3 Summary
4.4 Answers to In-Text Questions
4.5 Self-Assessment Questions
4.6 Suggested Readings

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UNIT I: KEY CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND

LESSON 1 EARLY MODERN EUROPE: KEY

CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
Early Modern Europe: Key Concepts and Historical Background

LESSON 1 NOTES

EARLY MODERN EUROPE: KEY CONCEPTS

AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Dr. Saurabh Kumar,
Assistant Professor, Hindu College,
University of Delhi
Structure
1.0 Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Idea of the Early Modern Europe
1.3 Perspectives on Culture in History
1.3.1 The Philosophical and Intellectual Developments
1.3.2 Towards Global Orientation: Voyages and Explorations
1.3.3 Role of Ideas, Printing Press and the Networks of Information
1.3.4 The Social Structure
1.3.5 Urbanisation and Commerce
1.3.6 Centres of Learning
1.4 An Overview of the Classical and Medieval Legacy
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Answers to the In-Text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References and Suggested Readings

1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To signify the term ‘Early Modern Europe’.

 To understand characteristics of Early Modern Europe.
 To discuss Cultural Achievements.
 To describe Classical and Medieval Legacy for Early Modern Europe.
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 Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe-I

NOTES
1.1 INTRODUCTION

The historiographical labels are often used for convenience while analysing the major
cultural changes in global histories. In the context of Europe, the term ‘early modern’
became very popular from the 1970s. Writings of Peter Burke, M.S Anderson, Natalie
Zemon Davies and many scholars strengthened or rather developed the notion of a
distinct ‘early modern’ period of European History. There were many factors
responsible for the use of this term, and the need for a transitional phase between the
medieval and modern periods of European History was one of the most prominent
factors.

In-Text Questions
1. The phrase ‘early modern’ was used regularly from the ____________.

1.2 THE IDEA OF THE EARLY MODERN EUROPE

It is generally accepted by scholars that the Middle Ages of European History were
followed by an Early Modern period. This period lasted till the outbreaks of the French
and Industrial Revolutions towards the end of the eighteenth century. Around 1350s,
Italy experienced a new cultural movement called the Renaissance. It posed challenges
to the basic assumptions of the Medieval period and provided alternatives through
literary and artistic expressions. By 1500, Renaissance ideas spread beyond Italy to
different parts of Northern Europe and led to the development of Christian Humanism.
During the early sixteenth century, western part of Europe lost much of its medieval
characteristics. Mariners and sailors ventured into the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans.
These changes were followed by the Protestant Reformation which divided Europe
into hostile religious camps. The period from 1560 to 1660 again marked the economic
crisis for western Europe. This ended by a commercial revolution based on overseas
colonies and trade. States moved closer to absolutism and the period ends with efforts
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4 Material century with the scientific revolution.

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Early Modern Europe: Key Concepts and Historical Background

Peter Burke in his works Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (1972) NOTES
and Economy and Society in Early Modern Europe (1975) provided the conceptual
framework for the ‘early modern’ period of European History. Most of the early
writings of European history were centred around the descriptions of wars, monarchs
and their reigns besides the major national events. Thus, the term ‘early modern’ provided
some scope to look for cultural achievements of European society as it was moving
towards the modern phase of its history.
Scholars have tried to define ‘modernity’ in the European context in many ways.
‘Renaissance’, which had more of literary and artistic perspectives did not affect large
parts of England, France and Germany, while ‘Reformation’ was more of religious
reform movement with a comparatively wider geographical impact. Thus, the transitory
phase between the middle ages and modernity came to acquire great significance. This
phase witnessed the transition from feudalism to capitalism, replacement of hand-
based crafts to machine based industrial production, use of newer sources of energy,
changes in the religious practices and development of a new scientific-rational approach.
At the same time, the decentralised local polities were being replaced by centralised
nation-states and empires. Early modern phase was also distinct because of the notions
of natural rights, freedom, equality and a larger role of the public in most of the affairs.
Early modern phase is more of a result of the debates around chronological
labels and periodisation. There are many ways of naming a particular period, sometimes
dynastic labels are used, for example, the phrase ‘Tudor England’ is used to refer to
the period when England was ruled by the Tudor dynasty. Nowadays, centuries have
become the generally used labels for historical studies and analysis, for example, the
eighteenth century Europe refers to the period between 1701 to 1800 CE. Using
decades has also become quite popular in referring to short stretches of time, for
example the phrase ‘the Sixteenth Sixties’ refers to the decade of the 1660s. Similarly,
it has been very difficult to recognise the end of the middle ages and the beginning of
the modern age in European history.

In-Text Questions
2. Who wrote the book Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe?
3. Who wrote the book Economy and Society in Early Modern Europe?
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NOTES Leonard Digges was amongst the first scholars to use the term ‘modern’ in the
title of his book. Thus started the journey of demarcating the phases of the early stage
of modernity. There is another interesting aspect to the debate, associating ‘modernity’
with the west alone has its own share of problems. West does not mean the entire
world and similarly entire Europe was not uniformly ‘modernised’. Also, west for
“whom” is another crucial aspect. Thus, in order to avoid such issues, scholars now
preferably use the phrase ‘early modern world’ but the major changes discussed are
predominantly associated with the western parts of Europe. History of Europe has
been the history of many different countries. It has never been a seamless, smooth
uniform narrative. Also, we cannot understand the history of the world by skipping the
history of Europe.
The intellectual developments during this period are marked by a renewed interest
in the classical writings from Greece and Rome. The Renaissance led to the new idea
of liberal humanism. This was marked by a great emphasis on observation as the basis
of knowledge. The idea of liberal humanism interestingly defined the men as the masters
of their destiny. Here men referred to those of European society only, to the exclusion
of women from the entire world (including Europe) and men from the rest of the non-
European world. There was a trend of observing nature keenly and many new scientific
achievements furthered the rational developments in the field of intellectual achievements.
The liberal humanism talked of men as the creators of empires and the shapers of
history.
Some of the new developments played a great role in shaping the future of
humanity in the years to come. For example, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
explained that the sun was at the centre of the solar system with the planets revolving
around it. Johannes Gutenberg (c.1398-1468) developed the movable printing type in
the 1450s. Decline of feudal economic structures led to changes in rural society. The
peasants were able to pay the rent of land in either cash or kind and the obligations
based on land assignments were no more prevalent. Even the Catholic Church faced
some criticisms for its certain practices and theology. Emergence of new Protestant
churches brought new ideas and practices into prominence and also attracted the
masses at places. Cultural life underwent a tremendous change with the voyages and

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Early Modern Europe: Key Concepts and Historical Background

explorations undertaken in this age. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) not only NOTES
initiated the processes of colonisation beyond the boundaries of Europe but even
inspired the trend of Imperialism and Colonialism of the later period.
Speaking of the political developments in this age, it can be said that there was
no single supreme power which lasted for long. Perhaps the growing trends of liberal
humanism influenced the ancient model of political structures. The number of political
centres proliferated and each grew with its own purpose and objective. There was a
lack of a collective common perspective. This was the age where a large number of
small regional local states flourished along with city-states and territorial empires. The
nation-states gradually eclipsed most of the other local centres of power. However,
none of these could either enjoy complete supremacy nor could they last for long.
Frequent conflicts between the powers and also between the church and the state
became a normal phenomenon. It was more of a quest for accommodation and
achieving a balance of power. Emergence of absolutist states saw the state dominating
over the ecclesiastical institutions more than once. Inter-state relationships were marked
by the absence of a single social institution which could act as a centre and regulate the
entire society. This was because the civil-society had become very influential during
the early modern period.

In-Text Questions
4. Leonard Digges was amongst the first scholars to use the term ‘modern’.
5. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) explained that the earth was at the centre
of the solar system.
6. Johannes Gutenberg (c.1398-1468) developed the movable printing type in
the 1450s.
7. The Catholic Church is later than Protestant Church.
8. Christopher Columbus discovered Africa.
9. The civil-society had become very influential during the early modern period.

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NOTES
1.3 PERSPECTIVES ON CULTURE IN HISTORY

1.3.1 The Philosophical and Intellectual Developments

On the philosophical and intellectual front, there emerged a clash between the ‘quest
of individual’ and the ‘collective liberty’. The idea of the individual is often connected
to the Christian Church’s notion of individual salvation which gained popularity in the
west. This became the foundation of the western philosophy and ethics. This discovery
of the individual also had some political implications. This emphasis on the individual
later led to the philosophies of liberalism and even capitalism. It could also be seen in
Calvin’s idea of the Calling during the Reformation. It had a religious basis and meant
the task set by God. Max Weber says that the concept of Calling was a result of
Reformation and was closely related to Protestant philosophy. It meant the highest
moral duties of the individual. Even the day to day worldly activities were perceived
through the divine lens. Weber believed that the concept of Calling developed by
Luther was more conventional and did not suit the capitalist profit making approach.
The occupation and work came to be recognised as divine. There were marked changes
in the way the other philosophers perceived the Calling. Calvin, Wesley, George Fox,
Menno and many Puritan sects explained Calling in a manner which connected it to the
capitalist perspectives. They explained that these teachings were not merely echoing
the ethical, cultural or humanitarian ideals but also had a long term influence on the
processes which led to the establishment of the capitalist spirit in Europe. Some of the
other groups and associations in the same tradition were: the Calvinists of Geneva, the
Presbyterian Church in Scotland and North America, the Huguenots in France, the
Puritans of England and New England and the Reformed Churches of Holland.

In-Text Questions
10. The ‘quest of individual’ and the ‘collective liberty’ were_____.
11. Calvin, Wesley, George Fox, Menno and many Puritan sects explained Calling
in a manner which connected it to the________.
12. The Presbyterian Church is associated with_________.
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Early Modern Europe: Key Concepts and Historical Background

1.3.2 Towards Global Orientation: Voyages and Explorations NOTES

Scholars also highlight that during the early Modern period, Europe developed a global
orientation based on a more inclusive cosmopolitan perspective. There were many
reasons for the same but they resulted in large scale oceanic voyages and explorations
across the globe. The contemporary philosophical developments led the European
society to develop a global perspective and look beyond their immediate homeland. It
also led to frequent and rigorous interactions on many fronts. This interaction with the
‘others’ became the basis of the relationship between the colonies and colonists in the
next few decades.
A large section of society, particularly the elites, were gradually made aware of
the diverse cultures hundreds of miles away from Europe. The presence of others in
different parts of the globe also resulted in curiosities to know more about them.
Admittedly, there were also voices which supported that the ‘others’ needed to be
controlled and dominated. Not all the European voyages across the seas were for
colonising the ‘others’, some were also helping build strong cultural connections with
far off lands. European society was getting nourished with the achievements of the
other cultures and this was not happening for the first time in European history. There
had been interactions across the Mediterranean and from the east through the Greeks.
Voyages and explorations not only shaped a global perspective but also initiated
many technological changes and map making was one such area where tremendous
progress was made. Admittedly, they were also being shaped by the scientific
developments but at the same time, the European seafarers initiated many new changes
in the art of sailing.
The European discovery of America changed global history forever. Discovery
of America was something distinct from finding new routes to Asia. It heralded a new
era of colonisation, conflict and large scale settling of European population in the
newly discovered lands. No doubt, many cultural exchanges did happen but the history
of Europe did not remain the same ever since America was discovered. Portuguese
and Spanish sailors aided by their respective rulers emerged as the pioneers of the
new discoveries and voyages. Europe acquired land, gold, silver, spices, besides military
glory and a new land to spread Christian beliefs. With the help of better maps, advanced
ships, magnetic compasses, and astrolabe, the European sailors made great progress.
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NOTES Caravel was an improved ship with a triangular mast designed by the Portuguese on
the basis of knowledge acquired from the Arabians. The triangular sails allowed the
ships to sail against the winds, thus facilitating the journey. The astrolabe of Greeks
and the Compass of Chinese added to the European Age of Exploration during the
early modern times. No doubt, the phrase ‘God, Glory and Gold’ explains the nature
of this period.
Many European nations following Spain and Portugal, established trading posts
and colonies in the American territory and the far east. The colonies were settlements
of people who lived in a new territory but were connected to the parent country
through trade, administration etc. The increasing control over the colonies and their
resources added to the European riches, both material and intellectual. On one hand,
it enhanced the general prosperity while on the other, it increased the cultural knowledge
about the non-European societies. The growing international trade gave a great boost
to the European economy and mercantilism. These played a very important role in
making the balance of trade tilt in favour of Europe.
The level of international trade and economic growth reached that level that it
led to large scale slave trade. Enslaving people beyond the boundaries of Europe and
forcing them to work for European commercial interests was something very
contradictory to the Age of Humanism but still the slaves were instrumental in ensuring
the political and economic glory of the European colonists. During the last half of the
fifteenth century, around a thousand slaves were sent to Portugal each year. Large
agricultural farms of sugarcane demanded human labour which was supplied through
the slave trade. During the sixteenth century, sugarcane plantations were established in
many parts of Brazil and Caribbean islands. The native American population was
decimated in conflicts and epidemic diseases brought from Europe along with the
colonists. The shortage of labour was met through the supply of slaves from Africa. In
1518, a Spanish ship carried a large number of slaves from Africa to the Americas
directly. This trend continued and in the next decades, slave trade multiplied many
times and became an inherent part of the global international trade. International trade
connected Europe, Asia, Africa and America in a very interesting manner. The European
ships carried goods like guns and textiles to Africa, traded them for slaves, these
slaves were then carried to Americas where they were sold. European merchants then
purchased molasses, sugar, cotton and tobacco to be sold in the European markets.
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Early Modern Europe: Key Concepts and Historical Background

Scholars have made a rough estimate that around 275,000 slaves were exported NOTES
during the sixteenth century out of which nearly two thousand went to the Americas
each year. This figure reached a million in the seventeenth century and around six
million in the eighteenth century respectively. Between the early sixteenth to the late
nineteenth century roughly ten million African slaves were sent to the Americas to
work on the plantations. Slave trade had become a part of the normal trade circuit and
European traders did not find anything unethical in it until a group of Christian reformers
known as Quakers raised awareness against this practice.

In-Text Questions
14. The European discovery of Asia changed global history forever.
15. Caravel was an improved ship with a triangular mast.
16. The shortage of labour was met through the supply of slaves from Europe.
17. The native American population was decimated in conflicts and epidemic
diseases brought from Europe along with the colonists.
18. European merchants purchased molasses, sugar, cotton and tobacco from the
Americas to be sold in the European markets.
19. The European ships carried goods like guns and textiles to Africa.
20. Slave trade had never become a part of the normal trade circuit and European
traders hesitated in doing slave trade.
21. Christian reformers known as Quakers raised awareness against slave trade.

1.3.3 Role of Ideas, Printing Press, and the Networks of Information

This was the age when ideas travelled far and wide and there were networks of
information circulation. Manuscripts had carried ideas and information for generations,
but the printing press transformed the entire system. With the help of the printing
mechanism, a large number of books were published and thus the ideas were transmitted
not only fast but also over a great distance. Books were being printed for all sections
of society, rich and poor. Protestant ideas spread over a large section of society only
through books and pamphlets. Before the printing press, knowledge transmission was
very labour intensive, it involved manual copying and re-copying. It was thus restricted Self-Instructional
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NOTES to few privileged elites of the society but after the printing mechanism became popular,
anyone could have access to any classic.
By the fifteenth century, literacy was very limited and knowledge transmission
could be possible through oral means. Illich calls it “lay literacy” where a large section
of people are illiterate but are aware of the existence and importance of books.
Gutenberg’s printing press and movable type changed the way people read and
transmitted their views and ideas.
A large number of people could have access to error free printed copies which
boosted the literacy levels in general. New modes of production, transmission and
reception of the written works emerged. New categories of authors, communities of
readers, and libraries emerged. Scholars have estimated that there was a higher level
of literacy in North and North-West Europe. There did exist inequalities in literacy
patterns in several contexts such as gender, class and occupation. These networks of
information further accentuated the growth of western parts of Europe more in
comparison to the rest of the world (and even eastern parts of Europe). Siegel writes
that the bourgeois culture of modernity was based on these networks of diffusion of
information developed during the early modern period of European History.

In-Text Questions
22. Gutenberg’s printing press and movable type transferred the way people read
and transmitted their views and ideas.
23. Scholars have estimated that there was a higher level of literacy in North and
North-West Europe.
24. The bourgeois culture of modernity was based on the networks of diffusion of
information developed during the early modern period of European History.

1.3.4 The Social Structure

The social structure of the Middle Ages in Europe had three major categories: the
clergy, the nobility and the lower rank of the peasant or serf-cultivators and artisans.
This hierarchy was in tune to the feudal social formations. There were variations within

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Early Modern Europe: Key Concepts and Historical Background

each category in the context of wealth, power, etc. The nobility continued to dominate NOTES
the social elite in the early modern western society. Their prestige lied on their land
holdings and wealth. An interesting change happened in this period when merchants,
traders and bankers also emerged as social elite on account of trade and mercantile
activities. Thus, we find that the status earlier enjoyed by nobles was now being shared
by both, the nobles and the merchants. Institution of serfdom weakened. There was a
long and slow transformation in the society. Society was patriarchal, and at times,
women of the wealthy class had some role to play in the management of estates when
their husbands were away on business or at war.

1.3.5 Urbanisation and Commerce

There was a conspicuous expansion of the urban centres. Growth of population ties
up well with the rise in the number of fairs and local markets. It is estimated that
around 900 CE in Western Europe, only one percent of the population lived in urban
centres, while the figure rose to eight percent by the year 1500 CE. There was an
expansion of trade, emergence of exchange banks, joint stock companies and many
other institutions which facilitate trade and commerce. Long distance trade and industrial
partnerships flourished because of the usage of bills of exchange, contracts for maritime
exchange, merchant credit, etc.

1.3.6 Centres of Learning

Centres of learning, universities were established in different parts of Europe. This was
the result of the great economic and cultural progress made during this period. The
first university was established in Bologna in the 11th century. By the next four centuries,
around fifty more universities emerged in different parts of Europe. Formal legal
institutions and administrative systems also emerged gradually. Huff opines that the
European Universities were the centres of new and scientific thinking. Most of the
universities provided instruction in arts, legal issues, theology, medicine, etc. The subjects
like architecture, ship-building, agriculture, veterinary medicine and even military skills
etc., were not popular in the university curriculum. Even the university degree had not
gained wide popularity amongst the masses yet.
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 Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe-I

NOTES
1.4 AN OVERVIEW OF THE CLASSICAL AND
MEDIEVAL LEGACY

Changes in Early Modern Europe can be seen as a legacy of the Middle Ages or
Medieval Europe. Organised civil society groups like merchants, craftsmen, academia,
workers, etc. developed, which often compelled the ruling elites of absolutist states to
negotiate and share power with them. This was also a legacy of the feudal formations
where power was decentralised and there emerged local powers who acted as a
check on the powers of the nobles and the centralisation of power. The civil society
was more advanced in the autonomous cities. In these centres, the growth of absolutism
was controlled or rather regulated with the demands of civil society. Feudalism made
mutual recognition essential for the existence of the tiers of dependence. The king at
the top of the pyramid had to share a certain share of his powers with the lower
segments of the pyramid in return for their services and this continued till the last layer
of the pyramidal structure. In this system, where according to Marc Bloch, “every
man was another man’s man” and according to Perry Anderson “sovereignty was
parcelled”, there emerged a system of balance of powers which checked the growth
of absolutism to some extent. This was perhaps the most important legacy of the
Classical and Medieval periods during the early modern phase of European history.
This legacy can be seen in the form of the civil society movements which led to major
societal development in different parts of Europe. Scholars have also traced the essence
of democracy in this system where any dominant political order could be subjected to
questioning by those who did not believe in its legitimacy.
There were many continuities and discontinuities during this period. Similar
developments can be seen in the case of the Church. Max Weber traced the rise of
rationalism in Europe due to the challenges to the authority of the resource rich Church
during the early modern periods. The Church had been in control of vast resources in
land and other means since the Middle Ages. In fact, the feudal social formation in
Europe had seen the Church emerge as a powerful landowner over a period of time.
This mix of powers, both material and spiritual, often led to clashes of interests with
other centres of political powers.

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Movements such as the Renaissance and Reformation also marked a certain NOTES
degree of break from the past. The urge towards a rebirth or revival of an ancient past
culture served as a point to break from the immediate or recent past. Many utopian
movements during the 17th to 19th centuries led to the emergence of a future oriented
notion of progress. It was perhaps through these examples of continuities which mark
the legacy of the past during the early modern period of European History.

1.5 SUMMARY

The end of the Middle Ages in European history marks a transition phase. This transition
leads to modernity and is a long and slow process. The changes and developments we
come across are not uniform all over Europe, in fact different countries have different
trajectories of growth. There were significant changes in almost all the spheres of life.
The European world for the first time interacted with the non-European world,
particularly the Americas through voyages and explorations. International trade
expanded, slave trade became frequent and colonies were established in the Americas.
Western Europe emerged powerful enough to exploit and colonise large parts of the
world for its own gains. Urbanisation improved, new cities emerged, literacy levels
and literary output both improved. The printing press revolutionised the networks for
the transfer of knowledge and ideas. Social hierarchies underwent a significant change
with the rise of bankers, merchants, etc. who at times were richer than the nobles
holding huge estates of land. The fragmented power structures of the earlier phase
gave way to new political formations. Civil society served as a check to the growing
absolutism in the political power structures. The scientific achievements like the triangular
mast ships, better maps, compass, astrolabe, etc. facilitated long distance travel by
sea. This proved crucial in the discovery and colonisation of the new lands. The Church
underwent some significant changes, the growing popularity of Protestant beliefs acted
as a major turning point in the history of ecclesiastical institutions of early modern
Europe. Despite many philosophical achievements and popularity of the idea of
humanism, slave trade continued unabated. Slaves were acquired from Africa and
were compelled to work in the plantations in the Americas. The introduction of diseases
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NOTES from Europe resulted in substantial decimation of the native population and adversely
affected the demography in the Americas. Social structures also changed with the
introduction and settling of a large number of African slaves in the Americas.

1.6 GLOSSARY

 Renaissance: The term Renaissance literally means ‘rebirth’. It stood for the
revival of classical learning and culture. It relates to the phase of history in early
medieval Europe when there were attempts to revive and redevelop classical
music, paintings and other forms of art. Renaissance led to the emergence of
new philosophical trends, like humanism and individualism which posed a tough
challenge to the feudal mindset of the Middle Ages of European History.
 Reformation: Reformation refers to the processes of radical changes and
reforms in the organisational structure of the orthodox Christian Church. During
Reformation the supremacy and hegemony of the church and the Papal authority
were challenged.
 Demography: Demography refers to the field of study related to the patterns
of population growth and related trends such as childbirth, mortality rate and
death rate, etc.
 Periodisation: In Historical studies, periodisation refers to the neat division of
chronological frameworks so that the cultural achievements of particular periods
may be analysed and studied. It may be based upon the dynastic rule, century
or even on the basis of a particular geographical zone. This division is done in
terms of well defined characteristics. It leads to academic debates regarding the
chronology as well as the salient features demarcated as the parameters of
study.

1.7 ANSWER TO THE IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

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2. Peter Burke NOTES

3. Peter Burke
4. True
5. False
6. True
7. False
8. False
9. True
10. Philosophies
11. capitalist perspectives
12. Scotland and North America
13. France
14. False
15. True
16. False
17. True
18. True
19. True
20. False
21. True
22. True
23. True
24. True

1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What do we mean by Early Modern Europe? Self-Instructional

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NOTES 2. What were the major Cultural Changes in Early Modern Europe?
3. Discuss the legacy of the Classical and Medieval periods in Early Modern
Europe.
4. Write short notes on:
a) The Philosophical and Intellectual Developments
b) Voyages and Explorations
c) Role of Ideas, Printing Press and the Networks of Information
d) The Social Structure of Early Modern Europe
e) Urbanisation, Commerce and Centres of Learning

1.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

 Anderson, M.S. 1987. Europe in the Eighteenth Century, 1713-1783. New

York: Longman.
 Burke, Peter. 2009. Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe. UK: Ashgate.
 Davies, Norman. 1998. Europe: A History. New Delhi: Harper Collins.
 Merriman, J. 2019. A History of Modern Europe. Vol 1 and 2. New York:
W.W. Norton and Company.
 Huizinga, J. 1999. The Waning of the Middle Ages. New York: Dover
Publications.
 Jacob Margaret, C. 1988. The Cultural Meaning of the Scientific Revolution.
USA: Temple University Press.
 Kearney, Hugh. 1971. Science and Social Change 1500-1700. University of
Wisconsin. Madison: McGraw-Hill.
 Braudel, Ferdinand. 1992. Civilisation and Capitalism 15th to 18th Century,
Vol 1. California: University of California Press, (Paperback).
 Cameron, E. (ed.) 1999. Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
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 Laslett, P. 1971. The World We Have Lost. London: Methuen. NOTES

 Sarti, R. 2002. Europe at Home: Family and Material Culture 1500-1800.
New Haven: Yale University Press.
 Wiesner-Hanks, M.E. 2006. Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
 Sinha, Arvind. 2010. Europe in Transition: From Feudalism to
Industrialization. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors.
 Trevor, Ashton. (ed.). 1967. Crisis in Europe 1560-1660. Oxfordshire:
Routledge.
 Black, Jeremy. 2002. Europe and the World, 1650-1830. Oxfordshire:
Routledge.
 Black, Jeremy. 1990. History of Europe: Eighteenth Century Europe. 1700-
1789. New York: Macmillan Education.

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UNIT II: THE RENAISSANCE

LESSON 2 THE RENAISSANCE

The Renaissance

LESSON 2 NOTES

THE RENAISSANCE
Dr. Uma Shanker Pandey,
Assistant Professor,
Ramjas College, University of Delhi
Structure
2.0 Learning Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Society and Polity in Italian City States
2.3 Humanism in Art and Literature
2.4 Development in Science and Philosophy
2.5 Renaissance beyond Italy
2.6 Summary
2.7 Answers to In-Text Questions
2.8 Self-Assessment Questions
2.9 Suggested Readings

2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To understand the philosophy of Renaissance and the idea of Humanism.

 To describe the reasons for the rise of the Renaissance in Italy.
 To recognise the forms in which the Renaissance culture was manifested.
 To explain the social and political groups which were instrumental in Renaissance.
 To examine the role played by Italian cities.
 To discuss the spread of the Renaissance in other parts of Europe, and differences
from the Italian renaissance.
 To elaborate the specificities of the Renaissance in other European countries.

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NOTES
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement which began in Italy, and spread
to other parts of Europe. It put Europe on the path of ‘modernisation’. Renaissance
literally meant re-awakening. But in the historical context, it connoted retrieving,
reclaiming, and reviving Graeco-Roman knowledge traditions which had become
dormant in the Middle Ages. In this sense, knowledge of the classical period was
revived and implemented in various spheres of the human world. It was particularly
manifested in arts, literature, architecture, philosophy, and sciences. The Renaissance,
as it emerged was a complex process which acquired different forms and dimensions
depending upon the socio-cultural milieu of the region.
The Renaissance is said to have begun in the 14th century, and came to an end
by the middle of the 16th century. Notwithstanding a considerable degree of political
chaos in Italy and other parts of Europe, this was the phase of critical cultural and
intellectual churning and creativity. The earliest use of the word Renaissance can be
traced to the writings of a 16th century Italian art scholar, Giorgio Vasari, who employed
it for the previous two centuries. During the same period, a French scholar, Pierre
Belon, used the term Renaissance to connote ‘the classical antiquity in new form’.
The artists, writers, and thinkers of the Renaissance were clearly aware of this
movement, and called it a break with the past. Renaissance, therefore, brought an end
to the Middle Ages, and heralded a new era. It was argued that the period of Middle
Ages was characterised by superstitions, religiosity and barbarism. Scholasticism which
epitomised intellectual underpinnings of the Middle Ages was attacked by the
Renaissance scholars. Scholasticism, which sought rational justification of theological
views was considered to be out of sync with the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance.
It was further attacked during the time of Enlightenment by Voltaire. Voltaire said that
the Renaissance brought curtains on Scholasticism. Peter Burke argued that the
Enlightenment Philosophers pointed out that the Renaissance epitomised liberty and
wealth of Italian states. Jacob Burckhardt in his work, ‘The Civilization of the
Renaissance in Italy’ termed the Renaissance as an epoch-defining phenomenon which
ushered Europe in the modern age with greater focus on the material world. The
Renaissance first brought attitudinal changes in Italy, and then it impacted other parts
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of Europe. According to Burckhardt, it brought individualism to the centre-stage. To NOTES

Karl Marx and Engels, the Renaissance was an interlocutor between the cultural and
material world. According to them, the economy provided the ‘base’, and cultural
productions shaped up the ‘superstructure’. Let us take a look at the social and political
ethos in Italy amid which the Renaissance emerged.

In-Text Questions
1. Jacob Burckhardt wrote ________________ wherein he called the
Renaissance as an epoch-defining phenomenon.
2. _____________ used the term Renaissance to connote ‘the classical antiquity
in new form’.
3. The Renaissance was manifested in _____, _______, _______, _________,
and _________.
4. __________ used the word Renaissance for the first time.

2.2 SOCIETY AND POLITICS IN ITALIAN CITY

STATES

Italian city states professed a very high degree of urban culture. It was evinced both in
the socio-cultural and political world. The Italian Renaissance was the result of prevailing
culture in these cities. Social ethos of these cities was inquisitive which oriented itself to
use classical knowledge to meet the requirements of the society. The northern and
central parts of Italy were the most urbanised. Therefore, the Renaissance had its
greater influence here. This region had more towns and cities, and the city life was
more complex and sophisticated.
The social set-up was also crucial in giving the Renaissance a push. The society
in some of the most pronounced towns such as Florence was largely divided in three
sections. The upper crust of the society was constituted of groups variously called as
nobili, principali, or grandi. They were the wealthiest people who not only controlled
polity of their area but also maintained strong grip on the very functioning of the
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NOTES government. This social group was educated, experienced and highly influential. The
second category was mezzaini or populari. This group constituted people who were
largely shopkeepers, guild workers, artists, scribes, functionaries, learned men, etc.
These people were organised in their respective guilds. Although many people of this
group owned land, their involvement in government administration was exceedingly
restricted. The social group below the mezzaini was called poveri or poor. They
were commoners who had limited material means. In Florence, one-third of this group
was associated with the guild of textile producers. But, they largely worked as domestic
help or labourers. As can be seen, they had little involvement in government functioning.
Hence, it was the upper two classes which provided intellectual and material base for
the Renaissance.
Wealth was certainly instrumental in providing a new orientation to the people.
It drew them towards worldly affairs and rooted them in civic life. Indeed, civic
independence and the accord of Lodi of 1454 created conducive ambience for the
rise of renaissance. As per the accord, no ruler could overawe other city states, and
also, no one could act as an aggressor. Thus, many of these city states were free from
foreign aggression and dominance. It, therefore, led these states to compete with each
other for greater material accomplishments and development. They provided patronage
and financial aid to men of talents and held them in esteem. As a result, these political
orders were flooded with highly accomplished men who played a pivotal role in defining
the culture of the Renaissance.
Flourishing economy of these political entities was another significant factor in
the growth of the Renaissance. The culture of trade and commerce which had already
been quite flourishing in Italy received a great spurt in this phase. The increase in
production and its growing demand led to the influx of hard currency or bullion to
Italian cities, and created opportunities for investments in various sectors. Florence
was one such city which had an elaborate mercantile activity which included a banking
system also. Extensive trade and inflow of bullion gave trade-oriented inclination to
the people in these cities. Thus, the concentration of wealth and mercantile attitude led
these cities to spend on various construction works, development of art, and support
to talented people.
Contrary to other parts of Europe, the elites of Italy lived in cities and actively
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even landlords moved to urban locales and came closer to the merchant magnates of NOTES
the cities. This coming together of two distinct social groups from two different locales
indeed mitigated the hiatus between the towns and countryside which was unique to
Italy. Thus, this new kind of social set-up led to the development of an integrated
society whose moorings were in trade, commerce, peace, and prosperity. The elites
spent lavishly and lived a luxurious life which inter alia included support and patronage
to all kinds of art forms. The life of an aristocrat in these city states was best described
in ‘The Book of the Courtier’, published in 1528, by Baldassare Castiglone. As per
the book a courtier was to be a man of clean character such as noble ancestry, talent,
sophistication, etc. He was to have classical knowledge anchored in humanistic ideas,
accomplishments in various forms of arts, such as music and painting. He was also to
work on his personality so as to look as a cultured person.
Jacob Burckhardt reiterated that Baldssare’s book presented the intermingling
of the upper two classes of Italian society. It has been argued by scholars that the
aristocracy and merchants competed with each other for support, patronage, influence
and status, which transformed investment in culture as a potent economic enterprise.
Another argument says that the existence of many princes who were at the helm in
many cities created avenues for financial support, patronage, and jobs. Visconti and
Sforza in Milan, the Medici rulers in Florence, the Este family in Ferara city are worth-
mentioning in this regard. They patronised various art forms and were well-known for
their love for arts. This list also included the Popes of Rome, namely, Alexander VI,
Julius II, and Leo X. They had been given the sobriquet of ‘Renaissance Popes’.
Florence, Milan, Naples, Venice, and Rome became famous for Renaissance culture.
And, the rulers of these states competed with each other for intellectual and cultural
supremacy.
Patronage was pivotal in the genesis and development of the Renaissance. Artists,
craftsmen, architects, and litterateurs did not possess adequate money to pursue such
works. It indeed needed financial support. Hence, these artists had to depend upon
the patrons and superiors. Then, there were wealthy merchants, bankers, and investors,
who formed another source of patronage. One of the reasons cited for such zeal to
patronise artists was the notion of having popularity and to be immortal through artistic
creations. Some of the rulers wanted to be known for the work they had supported.
Cosimo de Medici and Giovanni Rucellai, known for their mansions, palaces, and
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NOTES churches, wished to enhance the prestige of Florence and their names. Peter Burke
argues that there were three reasons for such a phenomenon. They were piety, status,
and intellectual contentment. The Roman church emerged as one of the biggest
supporters of art and craft. It has also been argued that sometimes small-level artists,
workers, professionals, members of guilds, etc. also patronised art. It created
employment opportunities for many talented men. Initially, only the top-notch artists
were commissioned for work, but as the time rolled by, artists even from the lower
rungs of the society were entrusted with important assignments. Thus, in the renaissance
phase, even the common artists found recognition. Michelangelo’s ingenuity was
recognized even by his patron, and the latter often followed the suggestions of the
former.
Religious ethos also played a crucial role in the rise of the Renaissance. Many
architectural specimens were imbued with the feelings of piety, religiosity, and civic
pride. For instance, the City Council of Siena reconstructed St. Mary’s Gothic church.
Though the decision had the tinge of religion, it also had civic ethos. Similarly, numerous
city halls were built which were boasted as the pride of the city. There were other
constructions as well to embellish the cities so that they could be known all over the
world for their grandeur. Many churches and basilicas were also built and lavish spending
was done to have grand structures. Guilds also had many structures built. The cloth
merchant guild was instrumental in providing financial assistance for the frescoes of St.
John, the Baptist. On the other hand, the guild of silk merchants was instrumental in
building hospitals and health centres. By the 15th century, patronage was confined only
to the ruling families, hence, Renaissance prospered only in the courts of the rulers.
The buildings constructed were embellished with exquisite paintings and other works
of art.
It should be noted that the Italian renaissance was restricted only to the upper
crust of the society, i.e., ruling elites and wealthy people. Poor, illiterate people were
not touched by the Renaissance. And, it was an urban phenomenon which required
certain conditions for its origin and growth which, as a matter of fact, was not possible
in rural or feudal settings.

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NOTES
In-Text Questions
5. The Renaissance had greater influence in northern and central parts of Italy.
6. nobili, principali, or grandi were at the bottom of the social ladder in Italy.
7. Trade and commerce played an important role in the rise of the Renaissance.
8. The Popes of Rome also patronised the Renaissance artists.
9. The Italian renaissance was a mass movement.

2.3 HUMANISM IN ART AND LITERATURE

The idea of Humanism was central to the Renaissance. Since the renaissance revived
interests in Greek and Latin works, it was connected with Humanism. Humanism
comes from Latin humanitas. It was first employed by Cicero for such values which
were imbibed from liberal learning. Humanism laid emphasis on worldly affairs and
enthused people to make life better in this world. It emphasised on the abilities of
human beings and how they could give a meaning to their life without relying too much
on divine beings. The Greek and Roman texts were rediscovered. They were collected,
organised, and reinterpreted keeping men at the centre. This is however not to say that
people lost faith in God. Indeed, many leaders of Humanism were highly religious
people. Petrarch, for instance, was exceedingly religious.
Humanism was the fundamental force which inspired and influenced art, literature,
sciences, and polity. It first emerged in Florence, and soon spread to other Italian city
states. It was inspired by Plato’s work ‘The Republic’, which held contrarian views
from that of the Middle Ages and was largely understood to be encapsulated in
Scholasticism. Humanism emphasised neo-platonism. Marsilio Ficino and Mirandola
were the leading figures in this regard. Ficino translated many Latin texts. According to
him, Humanism was an intelligible understanding of the world backed by scientific
temper and reason. Similarly, Mirandola in his work, ‘Oration on the Dignity of Man’
argued that man has been given cognitive skills by God. It is upon him to use it in a way
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NOTES as to go higher in life or fall to destitution. Thus, the bottom line of Mirandola’s work
was that man is the architect of his own life and destiny.
Humanism stressed upon the cultivation of high-end social and cultural values,
practical aspects of learning, inquisitiveness and not accepting anything merely on its
face value. Thus, questioning and reasoning were the central features of Humanistic
ideas. It was not anti-religious or anti-church. It was critical of skewed and abstract
ideas professed by church and religious figures which fanned superstition and blind
faith. Humanism supported human beings’ natural love for God, and the ideas which
stressed too much on divine intervention in each and every aspect of life were questioned.
The Renaissance and the ideas of Humanism as they found manifestation in art
and literature can be divided in three phases-the early phase or Trecento, the middle
phase or Quattrocento, and the high phase or Cinquecento.

The Early Phase (Trecento)

Literature

The ideas of Humanism were expressed in various forms of art and literature. Francesco
Petrarch (1304-1374) was the leading figure of this phase. He lived in Florence. He is
indeed called the ‘father of humanism’. He was particularly influenced by the ideas of
Cicero. Concurring with Cicero, he had said that education should act as the vehicle
not only for imparting knowledge and wisdom but also can be widely propagated and
used for the larger good of the society. He used the local Tuscan dialect to propagate
knowledge. At the same time, he remained an ardent Christian. Petrarch’s works
which are considered as famous Humanistic literature are his love songs which he
wrote for his beloved, Laura. Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) was another famous
writer of this phase. He was also a resident of Florence. His early works were poems
and love stories which are largely related to his own experiences. Boccaccio’s most
famous work is, ‘Decameron’ (1353). It is a collection of more than a hundred stories.
All the stories revolve around the actions of men and their attempts to better their life
in this world. In this, Boccaccio had clearly supported worldly affairs. His other work
is ‘Genealogy of the Pagan Gods’.

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Paintings NOTES

Among all art forms, painting emerged as the most important art. Giotto di Bondone
(1276-1337) was the most distinguished painter of this phase. He lived in Florence.
He led the art of painting to emerge as an independent art form. He used the effect of
light and shade in his works. His paintings were extremely lively. His most famous
paintings are frescoes which he made for the chapel of Wardis and Peruzis Santa
Cross in Florence and Arena chapel in Padua. The ceiling of Arena chapel is blue
indicating heaven is full of evangelists. Two paintings in the Arena chapel are noteworthy.
One is ‘The Meeting at the Golden Gate’, and the other is ‘The Betrayal’. The first
depicts the reunion of Joachim and Anne, the parents of Mary at the gate of Jerusalem.
The latter depicts Iscariot Judas who betrayed Jesus Christ. It was Judas who had
identified Jesus Christ for the Roman soldiers by kissing Jesus Christ and provided
them with the hint to arrest Christ. It is also a depiction of the duel between good and
evil. By these paintings, Giotto not only wanted to show the life and life after death of
Jesus Christ, rather it was an attempt to bring out various human emotions which were
real and profane.

The Middle Phase or Quattrocento

We see significant changes in the field of literature in this phase. Latin and Greek
languages acquired special attachment and importance. Manuel Chrysolarus was
considered as an apostle of the past of Greece by the Italians. He came to Venice in
1393. He was made a professor of Greek classics in Florence University. In the
following century, many other scholars and learned people came and settled in Italy
and made people aware of the Greek knowledge. Many learned men even went to
Constantinople and procured many Greek and Latin manuscripts. Guarino da Verona
lived in Constantinople (1403-23) and brought nearly fifty Greek and Latin manuscripts
to Italy. Similarly, Giovanni Aurispa (1413-23) lived there and brought back to Italy
some hundred texts which also included the works of Sophocles, Euripides, and
Thucydides. Thus, Latin and Greek acquired prominence in place of local or vernacular
languages.
Another important change of this phase was that the concept of Humanistic
studies was greatly widened. It meant that the Humanities was no longer confined to
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NOTES which were considered as better mediums for the study of humans. It therefore included
latin, grammar, literature, history, ethics, philosophy, logics, and religion. In this phase,
people reoriented themselves even from the spirituality of Petrarch and focused on
human actions to make life better. It was said that the role of man on earth was to do
good for the family and society, and make their life comfortable. Competitive spirit
was promoted. It was argued that they were essential for human growth.

Paintings

Paintings acquired new dimensions in this phase. In order to exhibit inscrutable emotions
of the human heart, portrait paintings gained currency. Besides, this was also the phase
of oil paintings. Most of the painters of this era were from Florence. Masaccio (1401-
1428) was one of the early painters of this phase. He is considered as the first realist
renaissance painter. His most famous paintings were ‘The Expulsion of Adam and Eve
from the Garden of Eden’ and ‘The Tribute Money’. He deftly used light and shade to
show the location of objects in the paintings. Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510) was another
Florentine painter. He was a master of portraying both religious and classical subjects.
He had a special taste for nature and was able to show natural beauty much more
effectively. Since, he was influenced by neo-platonism, his paintings were a subtle
combination of religiosity and profanity. Sandro Botticelli was famous for ‘His Allegory
of Spring’ and ‘Birth of Venus’. For Botticelli, the beauty of Venus was equal to the
purity of Mary.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was exceptionally talented. He was a painter,
musician, architect, scientist, engineer, and philosopher. Under the patronage of Sforza
of Milan, he made some famous paintings. He was of the view that nature is full of
many secrets, and human beings should meticulously try to examine that. He always
looked for unique and unusual things. Vinci is known for ‘The Last Supper’, ‘Virgin of
the Rocks’ and ‘La Gioconda’ or ‘Mona Lisa’.
This was also the time when Venetian school of art also flourished. It was
popularised by Giorgione (1478-1510), Titian (1488-1576), and Tintoretto (1518-
1594). Titian was the greatest artist of this school. They painted the wealth and opulence
of Venice, and thus showcased the lavish lifestyle of the city. Contrary to philosophical
and psychological subject-matters, they gave space to the pleasure-seeking world of
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The High Phase or Cinquecento NOTES

This phase witnessed the peak of Italian literary culture. The Italian language was
treated at par with Latin and Greek. But, owing to political turmoil, Florence was no
longer the centre of literary activities. It was replaced by Rome when the church from
the time of Pope Leo X began to give extensive patronage to artists. Literature in this
phase was composed in four genres: epics, pastoral poetry, plays and history. ‘Orlando
Furioso’ is a famous epic of Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533). It invoked subjects from
classical sources. It is free from idealism and is more realistic in approach. Pastoral
poetry portrayed rural settings. Jacopo Sannazaro’s (1458-1530) Arcadia is a
noteworthy work of this kind. Plays also became the genre of writing for many writers.
All kinds of plays including tragedies and satires were written. But, people largely
liked happy-ending plays. Niccolo Machiavelli’s (1469-1527) ‘Mandragola’ was a
famous play. It was a satire on Renaissance society. Having the setting of Florence, it
highlighted myriad shades of a man’s character, and how they change according to the
circumstances. History writing also flourished. Niccolo Machiavelli also wrote ‘History
of Florence’. Francesco Guiciardini (1483-1540) wrote ‘History of Italy’ in which he
described the changing fortunes of Italian city states between 1492 and 1534. Lorenzo
Valla (1407-1457) introduced a critical approach in history writing. He questioned the
validity of various manuscripts on the basis of the language employed and the subject
matter of manuscripts. His ‘Declamation Concerning the False Decretals of Constantine’
challenged the very authority of the Pope. He highlighted that the language of the text
belonged to the 8th century CE, whereas the church claimed it to be of the 4th century.
Hence, he argued that the document used by the church was forged.

Paintings

In the realm of art, painting attained greater heights. Raphael (1483-1520) was one of
the most well-known painters of this phase. His works exhibit acute humanism. To
him, man was a symbol of wisdom, cognitive skills, and confidence. Raphael is famous
for his portrait paintings. Another important feature of Raphael’s art was that it was
even more figurative than that of Vinci. His ‘The Disputa’ and the ‘School of Athens’
are perfect examples of the presence of figurative elements. Michelangelo (1475-
1564) was another reputed artist of this period. He received patronage from the Pope.
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NOTES He was a painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, poet, and surgeon. We see all kinds of
human emotions in his works which show acute elements of humanism. His most
famous enterprise is the paintings on the ceilings of the Sistine church of Vatican. It was
completed in some 4 ½ years. Most of these works tell the story from the Old Testament.
‘God Dividing the Light from the Darkness’, ‘God Creating the Earth’, ‘The Deluge’,
and ‘The Last Judgement’ are some of his most famous paintings in the church.
Sculpture emerged as an independent art form in the Renaissance. Most of the
sculptures of this phase were for non-religious purposes. Donatello (1386-1466) was
the most famous sculptor of the Renaissance. He also had an interest in human anatomy.
It enabled him to present human beings in different postures. He is popular for the
sculpture of David. Michelangelo was another sculptor of the Renaissance. He used
human deformities to heighten the effect. Such features are clearly evinced in ‘Pieta’
and ‘Moses’. He also made many sculptures for the grave of the Medici family. It
includes ‘Dawn’ and ‘Sunset’. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) was another artist of
this genre. He made beautiful sculptures on the northern and eastern copper gates of
the baptistery of Florence. He also made ‘The Sacrifice of the Issac’ there on the
panel. Here, Issac is shown accepting the sacrifice as his fate and he is fearless. Luca
Della Robbia was another sculptor known for the purity and commonality in his creations.
He founded a school for the sculptors of glazed terracotta. Thus, Humanism found
reflection in art and literature of the Renaissance. It can be gleaned from the fact that
religiosity and spirituality had a subdued role in the artists’ scheme of things, and the
focus was on materialistic accomplishments.

In-Text Questions
10. __________ is considered as the father of Humanism.
11. Decameron is the famous work of _____________.
12. ‘The Meeting at the Golden Gate’ and ‘The Betrayal’ are famous paintings of
____________.
13. Donatello was an accomplished ___________________.
14. ‘The Last Judgement’ is a famous painting of ____________________.

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NOTES
2.4 DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY

By the 15th century, Italy had also emerged as an important centre of scientific
discoveries. However, most of the scientific attainments in Italy were the work of
outsiders. Remarkable achievements were made in astronomy. The heliocentric view
of the solar system was established by Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543). Copernicus
argued that the Sun was at the centre of the universe, and all the planets revolve
around it. This principle was purely based on mathematical analysis. He expressed his
views in ‘On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres’. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
perhaps provided the strongest evidence for a heliocentric view of the world. He was
a professor of Physics and Military Engineering at Padua University. He used a high-
powered telescope to view the movement of celestial bodies. He saw the movement
of the moon. His studies ultimately led people to believe in the sun-centric solar system
as propounded by Copernicus. Galileo and Vinci worked on the concept of gravity,
and came to the understanding that any object, if allowed to fall, will take the shortest
distance to reach the Earth.
There were important achievements in the field of knowing human anatomy
also. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) had come from Brussels. He is called the father
of modern human anatomy science. The others were Michael Servetus (1511-1554)
and William Harvey (1578-1657). Servetus discovered the circulation of blood in
pulmonary veins. He explained his findings in ‘Errors Concerning the Trinity’. William
Harvey was a British personnel who came and studied at Padua University. His
achievement was knowing the blood circulation. By this research, Harvey showed to
the world that the human body is like a machine, and it is not the abode of any mysterious
soul. According to him, the heart had the same place in the human body as the sun had
in the solar system.
Apart from platonism and neo-platonism, there were three other philosophies
which gained ground during the Renaissance. They were Stoicism, Epicureanism, and
Scepticism. Lorenzo Valla was an ardent supporter of Epicureanism. According to
him, worldly pleasures are the ultimate source of happiness. To him, a life of austerity
and penance was useless. Leonardo da Vinci also philosophised about inductive
methods. He also criticised wars and stated that killing anyone was a heinous crime.
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NOTES Machiavelli was another philosopher of this age. The work on polity titled ‘The Prince’
evinces his philosophical moorings. The book tries to establish ‘secular’ traditions in
governance. He was of the view that politics should remain separate from religion.
And, the ruler was well within his rights to employ any kind of method, fair or foul, to
uphold the authority of the state.

2.5 RENAISSANCE BEYOND ITALY

The renaissance spread to other parts of Europe towards the end of the 15th century
and in the 16th century. Germany, France, England, and Spain experienced Renaissance
culture. However, the renaissance in these countries was different from that of Italy.
Whereas Italy had the influence of Saracenic and Byzantine cultures, and saw themselves
as the heirs to Graeco-Roman traditions, the northern parts of Europe had religious
and ethical viewpoints. Hence, the Renaissance in these countries was less artistic.
Though painting culture did flourish, it had limited accomplishments. Furthermore, the
sculptural art was nearly ignored in these countries. Therefore, in these countries, the
Renaissance was expressed in literature and philosophy. The Humanism of these
countries focused more on bringing reforms in the church and society.

Germany

Germany had the greatest impact of Italian Humanism. It was because firstly, Germany
was not too far away from Italy, and the second reason was that many German students
had studied in Italian universities. From 1450 onwards, Renaissance culture had begun
to spread in Augsburg, Nuremberg, Munich, and Vienna. The most famous Humanists
in Germany were Ulrich Von Hutten (1488-1523) and Crotus Rubnianus (1480-1539).
They used literature as a medium to oppose the corruption in religious and political
systems. They both, in their satirical work, ‘The Letters of Obscure Men’ mocked
various corrupt practices prevalent in the church.

Art in Germany

German art was largely confined to paintings. Alberecht Durer (1471-1528) and Hons
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Apostles’ and ‘The Crucified Christ’ are noteworthy works of Durer. ‘Melancholy’ is NOTES
another work Durer is famous for. It depicts a woman who has very small wings, and
she is unable to fly. It actually is an indication to problems of women which seemingly
had no remedy. Germany also made important contributions in scientific discoveries.
Johan Kepler (1571-1603) proved that the sun’s orbit is not circular, rather it is elliptical.
Thus, his ideas demolished the long-held views of Pythagoras and Plato.

The Netherlands

In the Netherlands, the most popular Renaissance man was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-
1536). It was Erasmus who internationalised Renaissance humanism. He was Dutch,
but he was a widely travelled man. He used his writings to underscore various evils
which had crept into the society. He used satire as a potent tool of criticism in his
writings. ‘Praise of Folly’ is his magnum opus in this regard. He wanted to free the
church from all kinds of evils and all those tendencies which used to hide truth. He
wanted to establish more principled and rational Christian tenets. At the same time, he
also made efforts to make people aware of superstition. He believed that the real
religion is not in religious ostentation, rather it exists in its purest form in the Bible.
Therefore, Erasmus emphasised upon naturalism, tolerance, kindness, and humanistic
knowledge as important features of Humanism. Art form in Holland and neighbouring
countries was confined to painting only. Jan Van Eycks, Hans Memling, and Roger
Van Der Weyden were popular Flemish painters.

France

In France, the Renaissance can largely be seen in literature, philosophy, and sciences.
In literature, France registered significant achievements. Francois Rabelais (1494-
1553) enriched French literature. He strongly opposed superstitions which had entered
into religious beliefs. He produced satire on various religious and orthodox practices.
In ‘Gargantua and Pantagruel’, Rabelais advocated to seek happiness and pleasures
of the world. He supported non-sectarian knowledge systems and admonished church-
controlled dissemination of knowledge. Thus, Rabelais advocated that ‘one should do
as it pleases him’. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) also made critical intervention
in Humanistic ideas and culture. He was of the view that God is beyond human
comprehension, therefore, rather than thinking about life after death, one should focus
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NOTES on living a clean and best life in this world. Montaigne was also not in favour of austerity.
He was also against unnecessary persecution of people on various grounds. Thus, the
works of these people created conditions for the rise of the Reformation movement
later.
Francois Viete (1540-1603) was a famous mathematician. He is credited with
the beginning of modern algebra. Ambroise Pare made pioneering efforts in surgery.
He was particularly known for improving the way to cure bullet injuries. He also
improved methods to stop bleeding at the time of amputation.

Spain

The Spanish Renaissance was largely manifested in its paintings and literature. Spanish
art was greatly influenced by Flemish and Italian art forms. Spanish paintings depicted
religious matters, human emotions, and tragedies. Luis de Morales (1517-1586) was
a master of this art. His ‘Lamentation of the Christ’ and ‘Virgin and Child with the
Infant St. John the Baptist’ are popular works. El Greco was another famous artist.
He was a pupil of Titian, the highly accomplished Venetian painter. One can see the
display of acute emotions and tragic elements in his paintings. He is especially known
for ‘The Burial of the Count of Orgaz’ and ‘The Apocalyptic Vision’. The Spanish
literary world also flourished during the Renaissance. It finds manifestation in plays
and other forms of literature. Most of the Spanish plays of this phase were allegorical.
If some plays extolled the bourgeois culture, then elsewhere hatred for feudal elements
which were weakening was presented. Lope De Vega (1562-1635) was a famous
Spanish playwright. Known for both happy-ending and allegorical plays, he is credited
for creating more than a thousand works. His non-religious plays showcased two
features: one, he has shown the staunch opposition to the elites’ ostentatious and the
conspiracies orchestrated by them to remain in power, two, he also showed the greatness
of the country. That is, he also praised Spain as a country, and presented the king as a
saviour of the poor.

England

The Renaissance movement also reached England. The ideas of Humanism also struck
roots in English society. However, English humanism flourished only in philosophy and
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literature. English Humanists largely concentrated on the practical aspect of Humanism. NOTES
They wanted religion to be based on rationality which provided space for individual
freedom and tried to end evil practices. Thomas More (1478-1535) was perhaps the
greatest English renaissance figure. He studied at Oxford. He was a successful lawyer
and parliamentarian. His philosophy is evinced in his magnum opus ‘Utopia’. In this
work, he drew attention to all kinds of evils present in the society and provided
suggestions regarding consequent reforms. ‘Utopia’ is conceptualised as an island
where there are no restrictions or rules. There is complete freedom and people just
follow their free will. Francis Bacon was another important figure of the English
renaissance. He was a philosopher and is known for many works. ‘Novum Organum’
and ‘The Advancement of Learning’ are his most credit-worthy writings. He was a
supporter of inductive methods in learning, and argued that it is the pivot of genuine
knowledge.
In literature, the earliest traces of renaissance culture can be seen in the writings
of Geoffrey Chaucer (d. 1400). His ‘Canterbury Tales’ is a marvellous work which
pays attention to the affairs of the world and is thus imbued with Humanistic elements.
Edmund Spenser (1552-1599), in his ‘The Faerie Queene’, underscores the greatness
of England during the time of Elizabeth. This work is significant because it supports
similar ideas which characterised typical Humanism. That is, it envisages a human life
full of happiness and pleasure. The English renaissance was also manifested in plays.
Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), John Fletcher (1579-1625), and Ben Jonson
(1572-1637) were famous playwrights. But, it was William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
who is considered as the most talented. Through his works, Shakespeare showcased
the very spirit of Humanism. His works manifest not only human emotions but also
myriad struggles that humans do to stay afloat in life amid various challenges. In this
manner, Shakespeare’s plays are perfect illustrations of humanistic ideas.
Thus, we see that the Italian renaissance reached different parts of Europe and
acquired regional hues. Humanism in these countries found manifestation in art, literature,
philosophy, sciences, and plays. Through these works of art and literature, these
countries showed their social, cultural, religious, and political moorings, and also
contributed to reorient people to focus more on the real world and make it a better
place.

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NOTES
In-Text Questions
15. Alberecht Durer and Hons Holbein were famous writers.
16. Desiderius Erasmus is known for the ‘Praise of Folly’.
17. Ambroise Pare made pioneering efforts in mathematics.
18. Lope De Vega was a famous painter.
19. Thomas More is known for ‘The Faerie Queene’.

2.6 SUMMARY

Thus, in this lesson we learnt about Renaissance and Humanism, origin of Renaissance
in Italy, and its gradual spread to other parts of Europe. Renaissance culture was
manifested in many forms: paintings, music, sculpture, literature, etc. Renaissance had
its own trajectory of growth in different countries of Europe.

2.7 ANSWER TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. ‘The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy’

2. Pierre Belon
3. arts, literature, architecture, philosophy, and sciences
4. Giorgio Vasari
5. True
6. False
7. True
8. True
9. False
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11. Giovanni Boccaccio NOTES

12. Giotto di Bondone
13. Sculptor
14. Michelangelo
15. False
16. True
17. False
18. False
19. False

2.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Describe the various manifestations of Italian renaissance. Was it a mass

movement?
2. Discuss important achievements made in the sciences during the Renaissance.
3. Give an account of various philosophies that emerged at the time of Renaissance.
4. How the Renaissance in other European countries was different from the Italian
renaissance.

2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Jacob Burckhardt. 1965. The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy.

University of Virginia: Phaidon Press.
 Peter Burke. 1986. The Italian Renaissance, Culture and Society in Italy.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, (Chapters 1,2,3,4 and 6).
 Kaborycha, Lisa. 2011. A Short History of Renaissance, Italy. New York:
Pearson.
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NOTES  Nauert, C.G. 2006. Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe.
Cambridge University Press.
 Kraye, J. and Jill K. (eds). 1996. The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance
Humanism. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press.
 Arvind Sinha. 2010. Europe in Transition: From Feudalism to
Industrialization. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributions.
 M. Gilmore. 1962. The World of Humanism, 1453-1517. New York: Harper
Torchbooks.
 Peter Burke. 2009. Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe. Oxfordshire:
Routledge.

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UNIT III: UPHEAVAL IN RELIGION

LESSON 3 UPHEAVALS IN RELIGION

Upheavals in Religion

LESSON 3 NOTES

UPHEAVALS IN RELIGION
Ratna Raj Brahma,
Assistant Professor,
Ramjas College, University of Delhi
Structure
3.0 Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Upheavals in Religion
3.2.1 The Papacy and its Critics
3.2.2 The Spread of Protestant Sects in Northern Europe
3.2.3 Spread of Lutheranism to other Countries
3.2.4 Counter Reformation and Religious Strife
3.2.5 The Economic and Cultural Impact of Reformation
3.3 Summary
3.4 Answers to In-Text Questions
3.5 Self-Assessment Questions
3.6 Suggested Readings

3.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To understand the different dimensions of Reformation and Counter-reformation.

 To discuss the challenges and changes in the religious sphere.
 To explain the influences on the economic and socio cultural life of the people.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The Renaissance had brought revolutionary changes to Europe. What began as an

interest or revival in the pre-Christian learning of ancient Europe, mainly Greek and
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NOTES Roman, and which began in the Italian States gradually spread to other areas of Europe
led to a rejuvenation in the fields of philosophy, arts, sciences, literature, and politics.
The popular spread of the ancient ideas of Greece and Rome paved the way for
humanism, rationalism and critical thinking which eventually ended up questioning the
absolute authority of the Catholic Church and the Pope, so we can see that one of the
far reaching changes and impact of Renaissance was felt in religious beliefs and we can
say that the genesis of Reformation lay during the period of Renaissance.
The Reformation had two important phases: the first was the separation from
the Catholic Church by the Protestants led by Martin Luther, which is known as the
Protestant Revolution, and the second was the formation of national churches, which
were independent from the Catholic Church and were established by monarchs such
as the Anglican Church of England. The second phase is concerned with reforms that
took place within the Catholic Church in response to the formation of Protestant sects
and national churches, which is called the Counter Reformation.

In-Text Questions
1. The absolute authority of the Catholic Church was never questioned.
2. The Reformation had two important phases.

3.2 UPHEAVALS IN RELIGION

3.2.1 The Papacy and its Critics

Christianity was the dominant religion in Europe, the ideal state of Christendom was
upheld as a model whereby the Monarch, Subjects and Church professed the same
faith. The Theory of the Divine Origin of the State prevailed in medieval Europe whereby
unquestioned obedience by the subjects was the norm of the day by the subjects; the
view which prevailed was that the princes and kings reigning over various countries of
Catholic Europe should accept the over lordship of the Pope or the Holy Roman
Emperor, implying the limited powers which the rulers enjoyed. There was no
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only implement the laws as propagated by the Pope. Thus, the Catholic Church could NOTES
be said to be a Supra-State in Catholic Europe. Majority of the Christians belonged to
the Roman Catholic Church. Those who lived in Russia and Balkan Peninsula identified
themselves as followers of the Orthodox Church, after the ‘Great Schism’ of 1054
CE. Apart from Christians, a significant minority of Muslim population lived in the
Balkan Peninsula, Spain and Portugal, while in Poland and Germany lived sizable
groups of Jews.
The head of the Roman Catholic Church was the Pope, whose seat of power
emanated from the Vatican. He was the Vicar of Christ or the one who represented
Christ on earth. According to Roman Catholic traditions, the foundations of church
were laid by St. Peter, a disciple of Jesus Christ. The Catholic Theological system was
based on the principles or doctrines of seven sacraments namely- Baptism,
Confirmation, Penance, Holy Eucharist, Unction, Ordination and Matrimony.
These sacraments were regarded vital for securing God’s blessings. It was the priest
ordained by the Bishop, who in turn was appointed by the Pope, who was indispensable
for carrying out the Seven Sacraments. The Church tolerated no dissent, it was regarded
as blasphemy or heresy and dissenters were condemned and punished by being burnt
at the stake. The Catholic Monastic Order, which initially had been founded to facilitate
people to live a life of monasticism degenerated into a system for carrying out spying
and blackmail. Usually the wandering monks would go to a village or town and would
order the people to report any suspected heretic. Some people misused it to make
false accusations out of personal rivalries. In Europe, after the period of Renaissance
and emergence of National Monarchies, a period of growing unrest was prevailing
against the Roman Catholic Church, due to corruption and scandals which were
happening in the church. Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) was notorious for securing
estates and social positions for his children. Leo X (1513-1521) resorted to unfair
means for collecting money in rebuilding of St. Peter’s Basilica at Rome. The immorality
and worldliness was reflected in lives of the clergy class too. Bishops and Abbots
neglected their ecclesiastical duties, while becoming involved in political affairs in pursuit
of wealth and sensual pleasures. Thus, religious offices could be bought by paying
bribes. The clergy class charged high sums for the religious services they performed,
while dispensations or exemptions which the Church could offer to people regarding
matters in marriages or penances were sold. Thus, in Catholic Christendom, by the
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NOTES by clergymen or laymen resulting in the rise of heresies like that of Jan Hus (in Bohemia)
and John Wycliffe (in England). However, such heresies and schisms were temporary
and weren’t supported by the political class. The monarchs at that time had suppressed
the followers of Jan Hus and the disciples of Wycliffe.
During the feudal age, the Catholic Church had proved to be a stabilising factor
in the society. Since the monarchy was weak, Catholic Popes took advantage of the
helplessness of the monarchs and interfered in the internal, political and financial matters
of the State. In the economic sphere, due to the decline in the population, there were
shortages of agrarian production, which affected the landowners resulting in the decrease
of land revenues. The situation changed dramatically after the emergence of the middle
class or the bourgeoisie class. The Renaissance as mentioned above had rekindled
interests in Ancient Greek and Roman philosophies which led to the questioning of the
principles propounded by the Roman Catholic Church. Italian Humanism rejected
Church views of leading a life of frugality, piety and devotion while strengthening secular
values, which lead to the criticism of the existing Catholic religious order and hypocrisy
prevailing in the church. Elsewhere, the rapid discovery of the new world and growth
of capitalism tempted many Europeans to discard or repudiate the Christian idea of
leading a monastic life. The Reformation reflected the rise of educated elite class of
laymen who were ready and eager to take over the spiritual and administrative functions
of discredited clergy. On the other hand, the newly emerging National Monarchies
which were laying the foundations of a strong State, however couldn’t break the
hegemony of Catholic Church, also began to harbour ambition for coveting the wealth
and privileges of the Catholic Church.
Ultimately, the last straw that paved the way for the Protestant Revolution was
the sale of Indulgence. Pope Leo X needed money for rebuilding the basilica of St.
Peter’s at Rome, so to collect the funds he dispersed his agents across Catholic Europe
to issue indulgences. According to the Catholic Church, an indulgence was not a
certificate to commit sin or forgiveness for the sins which an individual carried out in
life, rather it was a promise of reduction for the punishment given to a person after
death. An indulgence couldn’t be effective if the person wasn’t sorry and didn’t carry
out certain good deeds associated with penance. Among the good deeds associated
with indulgence was payment of money for obtaining Indulgence. It was against the
sale of Indulgences, Martin Luther raised his banner of revolt against the Pope.
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NOTES
In-Text Questions
3. Christianity was the dominant religion in Europe.
4. The Catholic Church cannot be said to be a Supra-State in Catholic Europe.
5. Those who lived in Russia and Balkan Peninsula identified themselves as
followers of the Orthodox Church.
6. The ‘Great Schism,’ took place in 1054 CE.
7. The Pope was the Vicar of Christ.
8. The Catholic Theological system was based on the principles or doctrines of
Seven Sacraments.
9. St. Peter’s Basilica is in Paris.
10. It was against the sale of Indulgences that Martin Luther raised his banner of
revolt against the Pope.

3.2.2 The Spread of Protestant Sects in Northern Europe

Martin Luther, who was a Monk attached to the Order of St. Augustine, originally
worked as a professor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg, before becoming
Monk. He attacked the Catholic Church, for the sale of Indulgences, in 1517, and he
nailed his ninety five theses at the church doors at Wittenberg challenging the authority
of the Catholic Church.
Luther presented three points in his thesis. He attacked the financial corruption
prevailing in the Catholic Church, the dogmatism of Catholic doctrine and other religious
issues. He published his thesis in the year 1520, where he addressed the German
nobility of the German States to reform the church. He questioned the seven sacraments
upheld by the Catholic Church, where he held only three to be important namely –
Baptism, Marriage and Eucharist. He questioned the authority of the Church and
priest to grant forgiveness on behalf of God and he presented his doctrine of
Justification by Faith. In response, the Pope excommunicated Martin Luther from
the Catholic Church by issuing a Papal Bull, which he burnt before the Holy Roman
Emperor who had summoned him to appear before the Diet (Parliament) at Worms to
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NOTES face trail. He proclaimed an outlaw, but here he was protected by Frederick- Elector
of Saxony. Luther utilised his time to translate the New Testament of the Bible into
German, thus his supporters came to be called Lutherans or Protestants. The teachings
of Martin Luther appealed to people of all classes, to the pious it was freedom from
the dogmas and abuses from the Catholic Church and from the Pope, for others it was
a way to capture the rich ecclesiastical properties of the Catholic Church. Thus,
Lutheranism spread in central and northern Germany. The Diet (Parliament) of the
Holy Roman Empire which met in the year 1526 at Speyer saw German princes
divided into two opposite parties- Catholic and Lutheran, while an attempt for
reconciliation by the German humanist Philip Melanchthon in 1530 failed, the Lutheran
Princes for mutual protection against the Holy Roman Emperor formed the League at
Schmalkalden. Thus between 1546-1555, a religious civil war raged which was put to
an end by the Peace of Augsburg. According to the terms of this treaty, firstly the
princes were free to decide whether they would follow Lutheranism or Catholicism,
secondly confiscated church properties won’t be returned to the Church and lastly
Lutheranism was the only non-Catholic denomination to be recognized, no other form
of Protestantism was recognized in the German States.

In-Text Questions
11. Martin Luther was a Monk attached to the Order of St. Augustine.
12. Martin Luther nailed his ninety five thesis at the church doors at Wittenberg
challenging the authority of the Catholic Church.
13. Luther presented thirty points in his thesis.
14. Luther published his Thesis in the year 1520.
15. Luther presented his doctrine of Justification by Faith.
16. Luther translated the New Testament of the Bible into German.
17. Luther’s supporters came to be called Lutherans or Protestants.
18. Humanist Philip Melanchthon was a Frenchman.

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3.2.3 Spread of Lutheranism to other Countries NOTES

Lutheranism failed to spread all over Germany, but gradually it spread to the other
countries of Northern Europe like Denmark, Sweden and Norway, which were linked
to Germany via trade and shared linguistic similarities. Scandinavians who got education
in German universities brought Luther’s ideas and influence back home. In Denmark,
it was spread by Hans Tausen, (1494-1561), a former student of Martin Luther during
the reign of Frederick I (1523-1533), the Diet (Parliament) of Odensee asserted its
political and religious freedom from Rome, but gave protection to the rights of Catholics.
During the reign of Christian III (1534-1559), the doctrines of Lutheranism were
made the official state religion. Johann Bugenhagen (1485-1558), who was a friend of
Martin Luther became the main organiser of Lutheran Churches in the Scandinavian
countries. Norway, which was a part of Denmark became part of the changes; however
the rural parts still remained Catholic.
In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa (1496-1560) proclaimed his independence from
Denmark, and broke away from the Catholic Church when the Pope refused to remove
the Archbishop of Uppsala, who was hostile against the Independence of Sweden
from Denmark. In 1527, the Diet (Parliament) at Vasteras voted for separation from
Rome and in 1529, reforms were initiated in the Swedish Church. The spread of
Lutheranism was executed by the Petri brothers, who were disciples of Luther. There
were other variations of Protestantism other than Lutheran movement which began in
other countries of Europe namely the Anabaptists sect founded by Thomas Muntzer,
who was a peasant leader during the Peasant War in Germany who gave a radical
interpretation to religious reformation. In his writings, Luther condemned the peasant
war. Calvinism, which started in Switzerland, was initiated by Huldreich Zwingli in
1523 and later carried forward by John Calvin, who was responsible for the spread of
Protestantism to the far corners of Catholic Europe. It was known by different names
in various countries; in France its followers were called Huguenots, while in Scotland
and England it was known by the name of Presbyterianism. In England, the Anglican
Church was founded by Henry VIII who broke from the Catholic Church due to the
refusal of the Pope to grant divorce to his wife Catherine.

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NOTES
In-Text Questions
19. In Denmark Lutheranism was spread by Hans Tausen.
20. During the reign of Christian III the doctrines of Lutheranism was made the
official State religion.
21. Johann Bugenhagen became the main organiser of Lutheran Churches in the
Scandinavian countries.
22. The Anabaptists sect was founded by Thomas Muntzer.
23. In England the Anglican Church was founded by Henry VIII.

3.2.4 Counter Reformation and Religious Strife

The Protestants weren’t the only group who were critical of the abuses of the Catholic
Church; even among the Catholics many sincere believers had demanded reforms
without disturbing the structures and doctrines of the Catholic Church. The Catholic
reformation now proceeded to remove the abuses and shortcomings within the Church,
and thus a Counter Reformation began under Pope Paul III (1534-1549). The Council
of Trent, which met from 1545-1565,proceeded with carrying out reforms and putting
an end to ecclesiastical abuses in the Church. In Spite of the difficult conditions owing
to wars between the Catholic ruling families of France, Spain and Habsburg dynasties
in Germany and a general atmosphere of hostility between the Catholics and Protestants,
the Council of Trent initiated reforms within the Catholic Church. The Pope invited the
Protestants for discussion but they remained absent. The general outcome of the Council
was reformatory and dogmatic. It was reformatory in the sense that strict discipline
was enforced and the sale of offices for money was prohibited. While Bishops and
other Church officials were ordered to live in their respective jurisdictions, seminaries
were established for a proper training and education of the priests. Latin continued to
be the official and liturgical language, but sermons were to be given in local languages.
The sale of Indulgences was prohibited and sacraments were to be done free of charge.
With regards to the Protestants, the Council made no concessions, it reaffirmed the
Catholic theology which had been expounded by St. Thomas of Aquinas, belief in the
seven sacraments, authority of the Pope and the Church in matters of interpretation of
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or the Society of Jesus founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534, the Jesuits wielded NOTES
both arms and books in their hands to defend Catholic Christianity.
The split in Christianity led to religious intolerance between the Catholics and
Protestants. For the Catholics, it was the time to defend the Church from the forces of
anarchy, rebellion and greed. Martin Luther and the reformers were said to be possessed
by the Devils while for the Protestants, the Pope was the Devil or Anti-Christ. Pope
Leo X banned Protestants while urging rulers to suppress the Protestants. Similarly,
Martin Luther urged rulers to use force not only against the Catholics but also against
other radical Protestants like Anabaptist. John Calvin tolerated, neither the Catholics
nor other Protestants. Since it was an old idea that there should be political and religious
unity, naturally the rulers were anxious to tolerate Christianity of their personal choice.
Catholics wanted the King to force Protestants to become Catholics while the
Protestants wanted its rulers to suppress the Catholics. Monarchies in Spain, France,
Portugal and Italy sought to keep Protestantism out of their kingdoms, while under the
Holy Roman Emperor many princes became Lutherans or Calvinists. In France, Henry
IV granted the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted religious toleration to the
Protestants. In Poland, King Sigismund II initiated a policy of harmony between the
Catholics and Protestants.

In-Text Questions
24. Counter Reformation began under Pope Paul III.
25. The Council of Trent aimed to put an end to ecclesiastical abuses in the Church.
26. Seminaries were established for a proper training and education of the priests.
27. Latin continued to be the official and liturgical language.
28. Sermons were to be given in local languages.
29. The Jesuit Order or the Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius of Loyola in
1634.
30. Pope Leo X did not ban the Protestants.
31. Henry IV granted the Edict of Nantes.
32. In Germany King Sigismund II initiated a policy of harmony between the
Catholics and Protestants.
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NOTES 3.2.5 The Economic and Cultural Impact of Reformation

The Reformation in Europe was a revolutionary movement which had a far reaching
effect in the political and socio economic life of Europe. It led to the growth of national
consciousness, the Supra-State status of the Catholic Church was broken and
Christianity became nationalised. Lutheranism became a national identity for the
Germans and Scandinavians, Anglicanism in England, and Calvinism in Netherlands
and Scotland. In the sphere of social life, the Protestant and Catholic reformations
played an important part in the everyday life of Europeans. It led to the transformation
of popular rituals and festivals into popular culture and gave fillip to new developments
in the field of art. The Catholic Church promoted a new style of art called ‘Baroque’.
Economically, it marked the end of feudalism and led to the development of Capitalism.
The destruction of the Catholic Church led to the confiscation of Church properties by
the monarchs. Wherever Protestantism spread, the nobility increased its strength and
material wealth. This religious individualism was a counterpart to the intellectual
individualism of Humanism and it encouraged the growth of Capitalism.

In-Text Questions
33. The Reformation in Europe had a far reaching effect in the political and socio
economic life of Europe.
34. Lutheranism became a national identity for the Germans.
35. Reformation led to the transformation of popular rituals and festivals into popular
culture.
36. The Catholic Church did not promote a new style of art called ‘Baroque’.

Theology and Structures of the Catholic Church

In his lifetime, Jesus Christ had chosen twelve disciples to be his apostles or messengers
to spread word of God throughout the world to all people, the leader of the twelve
apostle was Peter, whose real name was Simon, but was given the name of Peter or
“rock” in Hebrew. After the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, his twelve apostles spread
themselves across the known world at that time — the Roman Empire, North Africa,
the Mediterranean world, and even far to India, and started preaching the teachings of
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Christ. In the Bible, Jesus was said to have told Peter that the Church would be built NOTES
on such rock, and therefore the Roman Catholics consider Peter to be the first Pope
of their Church. Initially, from being a persecuted secret cult in the Roman Empire, the
Roman Catholic Church gradually increased its mass followings among the population
of the empire.

Early History of the Roman Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Church claimed itself to be the true inheritor of the teachings of
Jesus Christ, since Peter was chosen by Christ and had founded the first Church at
Rome; the Roman Catholic Church claimed its legacy from Peter. To understand the
teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, one needs to understand the teachings of
Jesus Christ which were interpreted and spread by his apostles. Initially, Christianity
started not as a separate religion but as a sect within Judaism. The twelve disciples
remained loyal to the Judaic laws, however as more non-jews or gentiles were becoming
Christians, the fear came within the Jewish Christian community that if the gentiles
become large than the Jewish character, Christianity might be lost. The first conversion
to Christianity of the Gentiles took place in Antioch, an ancient Greek city, leading to
the growing number of Non-Jews becoming Christians. However Saul later known as
Paul, after his conversion to Christianity spread the teachings of Christ among the
Gentiles, his teachings known as Pauline Christianity became the dominant form of
Christianity in the Roman Empire. By 200 CE, the Bishop of Lyon Irenaeus started
organising the basic structures of the Catholic Church by which a system of administering
the Churches from Rome was made and the basic doctrines of Catholicism was
formalized. In 313 CE, the Roman Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity
and gave legal recognition to the Catholic Church. He moved his capital to
Constantinople, leaving Rome to become the seat of power for the Catholic Church
and by 380 CE, Roman Catholicism became the official religion of the Roman Empire.
The First Council at Nicaea, which met in 325 CE, attempted to build the church on
the structures of the Roman system. In 551 CE, the Council at Chalcedon declared
the head of the Constantinople Church to be the head of the Eastern branch of the
Catholic Church, which was equal in authority to the Pope, and when Gregory I
became the Pope in 590 CE, the Catholic Church began a large-scale conversion of
the non-Christians to Roman Catholic Christianity.
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NOTES In 1054 CE, the great East-West Schism took place which marked the first
split within the Roman Catholic Church, whereby its eastern branch became separate
from its western counterpart on account of theological and practical differences and
became the Greek Orthodox Church. By the Medieval ages, the Roman Catholic
Church had got a mass following in Western Europe. The general idea which prevailed
was that every individual born should become the member of the Church, so it was not
a voluntary organisation. Support to the Church was not voluntary but every faithful
was expected to contribute to support the expenses of Church. The government which
was monarchical that time was obliged to ensure loyalty of its subjects towards the
Church. Anyone rebelling or violating the Church doctrines was liable to be punished
by the State. The Roman Catholic Church believed that its foundations were divine
and therefore its goal was greater than of any other organisation, it believed that through
its agency, human beings would know how to lead life.

Reformation, Church and Popular Culture

Most of the cultural practices from the late Middle Ages underwent significant
metamorphosis as we move towards the early modern phase of European history.
Elites and notables of the late middle ages caused many changes in the cultural practices
of this phase. There were clerical campaigns too to regulate the sacred religious practices
and also to segregate them from the popular practices. This was done perhaps to
ensure that the divinity maintains a good distance from the masses. No doubt, popular
culture in Europe underwent a significant change and it became the significant domain
in which the elites and the masses both developed and contested new patterns of
power. Scholars generally believed that elites regarded the community celebrations
and festivals as primitive and backward. No doubt, this was to curb and regulate the
socio-cultural practices which were now being shaped by many factors. Humanism
was also instrumental in this regard. The festival licences that were granted to the
commoners declined during the period from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries.
Festivals and popular gatherings were often regarded as catalysts to revolts and protests,
that is why they were curbed to a greater extent. Wars, economic depression and
even epidemics adversely affected the traditional communities and abandonment of
many popular practices. Ritual behaviour of the masses was also regulated by the

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conflicts between the Protestants and the Catholics. Doctrinal and philosophical debates NOTES
were being invoked in bringing out the meanings of the sacred and the rituals.
Some community gatherings such as the bonfire of St. John’s Eve provided a
chance for the mixing of the sacred and the profane. The disagreements between the
Protestants and the Catholics regarding the sacredness of acts often led to ugly civil
violence in the streets. Gradually, the community usage of public space also declined
and it came to be heavily guarded by the officials concerned with the maintenance of
law and order. In Paris, the Parlement banned masking in 1514 and even condemned
mystery plays in 1524. This was the result of the growing belief that mixing religion and
theatre was irreverent. At the same time, the new sovereign princes developed new
disciplinary techniques and also laid claims over new rights of taxation and imparting
of justice. This newly assumed moral authority by the state intervened in the rural
social structure as well. In the urban spaces, the popular celebrations were gradually
replaced by highly organised, disciplined and sophisticated processions representing
power and authority of the political elites. Thus, there can also be seen a hierarchy of
norms of morality. Community based practices were also being replaced by government
legislation. This brought uniformity of language, command and even the practice across
the state. There were established patriarchal norms of authority, both at the domestic
and the social level. This reformation of social behaviour was adding discipline to both
the elites and the masses. There was also a gradual withdrawal of the elites from their
former participation in rites of popular culture. They even resisted sharing or supporting
the carnival.

3.3 SUMMARY

In this lesson, students learnt that Reformation and Counter-reformation had a great
impact on the popular culture of Europe. Martin Luther challenged the authority of the
Catholic Church. The Reformation had two important phases. First was the separation
from the Catholic Church by the Protestants led by Martin Luther which is known as
the Protestant Revolution. The second was the formation of National Churches which
was independent from the Catholic Church and which were established by Monarchs.
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NOTES
3.4 ANSWER TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
6. True
7. True
8. True
9. False
10. True
11. True
12. True
13. False
14. True
15. True
16. True
17. True
18. False
19. True
20. True
21. True
22. True
23. True
24. True
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Upheavals in Religion

26. True NOTES

27. True
28. True
29. False
30. False
31. True
32. False
33. True
34. True
35. True
36. False

3.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the changes and upheavals in Religion in context of the Papacy and its
critics.
2. Explain how the Protestant Sects in Northern Europe brought new cultural
changes.
3. Discuss the Economic and Cultural Impact of Reformation.
4. Write Short Notes on:
(1) Spread of Lutheranism to other countries
(2) Counter Reformation and Religious Strife

3.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

 King, L.Margaret. 1999. Western Civilisation: A Social and Cultural History.

NewYork: Prentice Hall. Self-Instructional
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NOTES  Parish, Helen. L. 2018. A Short History of the Reformation. London: I.B
Tauris.
 MacCulloch, Diarmaid. 2004. Reformation: Europe’s House Divided. 1490-
1700. London: Penguin Books Limited.
 Cameron, E. 2005. The European Reformation. New Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
 McCulloch, D. 2005. The Reformation. New Delhi: Penguin.
 Sinha, Arvind. 2016. Europe in Transition: From Feudalism to
Industrialisation. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors.

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UNIT IV: THE CONQUEST OF THE NEW
WORLD: MATERIAL, SOCIAL AND
CULTURAL ASPECTS

LESSON 4 THE CONQUEST OF THE NEW WORLD:

MATERIAL, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL
ASPECTS
The Conquest of the New World: Material, Social, and Cultural Aspects

LESSON 4 NOTES

THE CONQUEST OF THE NEW WORLD:

MATERIAL, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL ASPECTS
Dr. Sujay Biswas,
Assistant Professor,
Department of History, Hindu College ,
University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Structure
4.0 Learning Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Conquest of the New World
4.2.1 Western Europe’s Overseas Expansion
4.2.2 Explanations for Voyages
4.2.3 Timing of Voyages of Discovery
4.2.4 The Conquistadors Plunder the New World for Gold
4.2.5 Paternalism and Mercantilism
4.2.6 The High Human Cost
4.3 Summary
4.4 Answers to In-Text Questions
4.5 Self-Assessment Questions
4.6 Suggested Readings

4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To examine the processes of initial colonisation.

 To investigate Europe’s changing political and economic landscapes, as well as
their connections to the rest of the world.
 To learn about the economic benefits that came to Europe as a result of its
colonial expansion and the exploitation of native and slave workers.
 To explain how Western Europe, the New World, West Africa, and certain
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NOTES
4.1 INTRODUCTION

The Renaissance was a time of great cultural upheaval, which profoundly impacted the
development of the modern world. The colonial expansions of Spain and Portugal and
the Protestant Reformation were among the other most significant events when Western
European history transitioned from the Middle Ages to the early modern era. These
two events permanently altered the path that European history would take. The Christian
civilisation that originated in Europe had remained geographically isolated over the
previous thousand years, except for the relatively short period during which it
participated in the Crusades. However, between 1490 and 1520, Europeans set sail
on the open seas and established colonies throughout the Western Hemisphere and
Southeast Asia. Events on the European continent and European involvements across
the globe have interacted ever since, shaping Europe’s historical trajectory.

4.2 THE CONQUEST OF THE NEW WORLD

Maritime activities like geographical expeditions and the hunt for undiscovered territories
led to the commencement of international trade and the expansion of the European
commercial economy. The process mentioned above commenced gradually but gained
momentum during the final decades of the fifteenth century, ultimately culminating in
the establishment of colonies in the continents of America, Asia, and Africa. Portugal
and Spain were the first countries to establish colonial empires in far-off lands. After
then, the countries of northern and western Europe began establishing their very own
colonies around the world. The competition between colonial powers resulted in many
armed conflicts. The establishment of colonial empires marked a pivotal moment in
Europe’s rise to power and its subsequent global hegemony.

4.2.1 Western Europe’s Overseas Expansion

The rapidity with which Europeans, beginning in about 1500, started to travel the high
seas may, at first look, seem baffling and almost inexplicable. During the latter half of
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the fifteenth century, people widely believed that Christian civilisation was in a defensive NOTES
position rather than an offensive one. In 1453, the city of Constantinople, which had
previously been considered an impenetrable obstacle to Islamic expansion, was
conquered by the Turkish forces under the leadership of Sultan Mehmed II, also
known as ‘the Conqueror’. In 1459, the Ottoman Turks conquered Serbia, and
subsequently, in 1470, Albania was also annexed by the Ottoman Empire. Most
terrifying to the Western Europeans was the 1480 Turkish invasion of the Italian
peninsula, which resulted in the capture of Otranto and the massacre of half the city’s
population. The Turks gave up their stronghold in Italy only after Sultan Mehmed died
in 1481. However, people were anxious that the so-called “Infidels” may soon return.
Pope Pius II (1458-64) observed, amidst an unsuccessful effort to establish a unified
European opposition against the Turks, “I see nothing good on the horizon.”
Pope Pius II, however, was completely incorrect in his assessment of the situation.
While Christians in Eastern Europe continued to be on the defensive with the Turks
until the latter part of the sixteenth century, they quickly became masters of the globe
due to the Portuguese and Spanish maritime ships that appeared on the Atlantic horizon.
Quite a few pieces of evidence support this claim. The Portuguese established a
stronghold at Elmina, Ghana, in 1482 and swiftly came to control commerce along the
“Gold Coast” of West Africa. Christopher Columbus first caught sight of the West
Indies in 1492. On the western coast of India, the Portuguese built their first commercial
outpost in 1500. Hernan Cortes, a Spanish conquistador, successfully established his
control over Montezuma’s Aztec Empire in Mexico between 1519 and 1521.

4.2.2 Explanations for Voyages

How could all of this have taken place in such a short period? The academic community
has two competing schools of thought, and their answers are quite different. The
“Renaissance School” argues that the development of Renaissance culture coincided
with the Portuguese and Spanish discoveries. Christopher Columbus lived during the
same period as Leonardo da Vinci. The “Renaissance School” claims that the only
plausible explanation for the European expansion into new lands is that it was a direct
result of purportedly new Renaissance values like curiosity and practical self-reliance.
However, this approach makes the incorrect assumption that individuals in the Middle
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NOTES Ages were neither inquisitive nor independent. The “Renaissance School” drew attention
to the historical fact that many seafarers who embarked for Spain and Portugal were
born in Italy. However, in this particular instance, they ignored that many Italian
explorers, including Columbus, hailed from Genoa. This city had a minor role in
developing Italian Renaissance civilisation. The prominent Italian Renaissance nations
did not support the voyages of discovery, further undermining the Renaissance
interpretation. Unquestionably, classical geographic facts that Renaissance humanists
learned while living in Italy helped some explorers decide to follow specific maritime
routes. However, the theory that the overseas expansion drive originated in medieval
preparations is a far more plausible explanation than the Renaissance narrative.
To put it more simply, the reasons for the significant discoveries, the knowledge
that led to them, and the resources that enabled them all dated back to the middle
ages. Pursuing Asian spices and other luxury goods was, without a doubt, the single
most important economic factor that led to the oceanic journeys. Only in the tropical
temperatures of Southeast Asia could spices like cloves, ginger, pepper, nutmeg, and
cinnamon be successfully cultivated. Due to their ability to preserve food, Europeans
highly valued these spices during the high and late middle ages. Imagine a society
without access to refrigeration; in such a society, affluent Europeans would have craved
spices to prevent their food from going bad and break up their routine of salt
consumption. Intermediaries from Islamic countries, Venice, and Genoa were
responsible for bringing Asian spices, opulent textiles, and priceless jewels to the homes
of Europeans throughout the latter stages of the Middle Ages. However, the
expenditures were prohibitive, and anybody who could go straight to the place of
origin by sea stood to gain enormous wealth. The unsuitability of land routes was due
to the precarious circumstances prevailing in Central Asia, rendering them highly
hazardous. In addition, before the advent of rail transportation, the cost of land
transportation of goods was typically significantly higher than that of water transportation.
In addition to economic incentives, religious motivations also played a significant role
in driving overseas exploration. These religious motivations included aspirations to
convert non-Christian individuals to the faith and the desire to locate purportedly “lost
Christians” in the East who could potentially serve as valuable allies in the fight against
Islam. Evidently, the aspirations mentioned above, akin to the desire for exotic spices,
thrived during the middle ages without direct influence from the Italian Renaissance.
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The knowledge underpinning significant discoveries and the corresponding NOTES

technological advancements were also rooted in the medieval era, just as the driving
forces behind these developments. The prevalent belief that pre-Columbian Europeans
subscribed to a flat earth cosmology is an erroneous assumption. After the twelfth
century, it seems inconceivable that a knowledgeable individual or sailor would have
continued to reject the notion that the globe is round. Moreover, this information did
not stay merely theoretical. In 1291, two brothers from Genoa, known as the Vivaldis,
set sail across the Atlantic Ocean, intending to sail the “westward route” to the East
Indies. The Vivaldis never returned. However, Portuguese sailors engaged in regular
transatlantic voyages during the mid-fourteenth century, extending as far westward as
the Azores Islands. The Portuguese expeditions proved that by approximately 1350,
European construction of ships and navigational techniques had successfully met the
demands of exploring new continents. Considering the Azores’ location, which is at a
distance of one-third between America and Europe. We can infer from a technological
standpoint that any vessel capable of navigating from the country of Portugal to the
Azores might have traversed the entire distance to the continent of America.

4.2.3 Timing of Voyages of Discovery

The question thus is: why were not the Americas found a century earlier than they
were? Historians face a significant challenge when attempting to elucidate events that
did not occur. However, it is possible to propose two hypotheses in this regard. One
aspect to consider is that a significant economic downturn and political instability across
Western Europe characterised the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Given the economic
recession and prolonged conflicts experienced by the primaryAtlantic powers, namely,
France, England, and Castile, the dominant kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula, it is
unsurprising that none of these nations undertook costly and hazardous maritime
expeditions towards the West. The second, more realistic argument relates to a shift in
the routes taken by Portugal, the onlyAtlantic power already heavily invested in ambitious
seaward journeys before the discovery of America. During the latter half of the
fourteenth century, the Portuguese established colonies on the Azores and Madeira
islands. These colonies proved highly profitable due to the production and trade of
sugar and wine. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Portuguese focused on
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NOTES exploring the West African coast, as it held the potential for increased wealth in the
form of gold and slaves. Subsequently, a series of Portuguese explorations in Africa
ensued, culminating in the circumnavigation of the “Cape of Good Hope” in 1487,
which marked the onset of the vigorous pursuit of Asian spices and the consequential
European overseas expeditions. Therefore, when seen from the context of Portuguese
maritime and commercial history in the late medieval era, the significant discoveries
seem far less strikingly innovative than they initially did at first appearance. The significant
advancements made around 1500 were facilitated mainly by the Portuguese expeditions
of the fifteenth century. Prince Henry, “the Navigator” of Portugal initiated these
expeditions between 1418 and 1460. Initially, the Portuguese established their
headquarters in Ceuta, North Africa. From there, they gradually sailed south down the
coast of West Africa, erecting forts and trade posts along the way as they braved the
sun’s increasing heat. One can readily discern the remarkable bravery the sailors aboard
these vessels exhibited from a historical record dating back to the mid-fifteenth century.
Four galleys were stocked with provisions sufficient for multiple years and embarked
on a voyage that lasted three years. However, only one of the galleys ultimately returned,
and also, on that vessel, the majority of crew members had perished. The individuals
who managed to survive were scarcely identifiable as humans. Their physical condition
had deteriorated to the extent that they had experienced a loss of bodily tissue, including
flesh and hair. Their nails had also become detached from their hands and feet. Their
eyes were sunken very profoundly into their skulls, and their skin was as dark as that
of Moors. They described a heat so intense that it was a miracle that it did not vaporise
the ships and the people. In addition, they said that they did not see any homes or land
and could not sail any farther. The ocean’s turbulence intensified as they progressed
into their voyage, and the temperature escalated significantly. They were under the
impression that the other vessels had gone too far, and it was improbable that they
could make their way back. However, they did return, and despite the frightening
accounts narrated by such crews, European countries consistently dispatched new
expeditions which explored even more distant regions.
Following the demise of Henry in 1460, there was a period of decreased activity
in the Portuguese venture. However, with the ascension of King John II (1481-1495),
the enterprise regained its strength and momentum. Given that the Portuguese had
now acquired complete dominance over the Gold Coast of Africa and the trade of
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enslaved individuals, it was only natural for them to shift their focus towards accessing NOTES
the riches of Asia. The fortuitous circumnavigation of the southernmost tip of Africa by
Bartholomew Dias, a Portuguese captain, in 1487 marked a significant turning point in
this endeavour, literally and figuratively. Considering that Dias had only reached this
point by being trapped in a storm, he cynically christened this peninsula the “Cape of
Storms,” but John II had a more positive view of the situation and called it the “Cape
of Good Hope.” John II also decided to organise a significant maritime undertaking
aimed at voyaging past the cape, with the ultimate destination being India.
Following a series of postponements, Manuel I (1495-1521), the successor of
John II, dispatched a fleet in 1497 under the leadership of Vasco da Gama, which
successfully achieved all of its intended objectives. The accomplishments of da Gama
were of such great magnitude that they subsequently served as the foundation for the
national epic of Portugal, The Lusiad. Following a period of four months without any
visual contact with land, the daring captain successfully navigated around the continent
of Africa. He then proceeded to travel along the eastern coast of Africa until reaching
Kenya. Subsequently, he traversed the Indian Ocean to reach the west coast of India,
where he procured a shipment of various spices. Following a two-year absence, da
Gama returned, having experienced significant losses in his fleet and personnel, losing
half of the former and one-third of the latter. However, the high value of his pepper and
cinnamon commodities mitigated the impact of his losses, rendering them acceptable.
Having become proficient in the most expeditious path to wealth in the entire world,
King Manuel expeditiously took advantage of da Gama’s achievement. Portuguese
trading fleets began regular voyages to India from the sixteenth century onwards. By
1510, the Portuguese military had gained complete authority over the western coast of
India. In 1511, the Portuguese captured Malacca, a prominent trade hub in spices on
the Malay peninsula. So, John II’s foresightful naming of the Cape of Good Hope
proved accurate, and Europeans established permanent settlements in the Far East.
The success of the Portuguese expeditions significantly impacted the choice
that the rulers of Spain made to finance Christopher Columbus’s historic journey. The
Portuguese were highly likely to establish dominance over the sea routes leading to
Asia through the eastern direction following the triumphant return of Dias in 1488.
Consequently, the Spanish rivals of Portugal had no other option but to provide financial
support to an individual who possessed the courage to attempt to reach Asia by
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NOTES navigating through the Western direction. The common conception of Columbus, in
which people portray him as a visionary who battled to persuade obstinate, uninformed
people that the earth was round, does not hold up under closer examination. Columbus’s
belief in the earth’s sphericity was not a point of contention. The Genoese seaman,
who was known for his stubbornness and had established his residence in Spain,
made a significant miscalculation by vastly underestimating the longitudinal distance
between Europe and Asia. If Columbus had known the globe’s precise diameter, he
would have refrained from embarking on his journey as he would have comprehended
that the voyage to Asia, without any obstructions, was impossible for the ships of his
era. The discovery of America, scholars argue, was the outcome of a significant
miscalculation. Upon receiving financial support from Queen Isabella of Castile,
Columbus embarked on a voyage that led him to the present-day Bahamas and
Hispaniola in 1492, a mere month after setting sail. This achievement served as a
validation of his efforts.
From a strictly academic perspective, it is not accurate to assert that Christopher
Columbus “discovered America” due to two primary reasons. Most scholars today
believe the Vikings were the first Europeans to arrive in the Western Hemisphere.
During their travels around 1000, the Vikings visited the area that is now known as
Newfoundland and Labrador. They may have also visited New England. Columbus’s
discovery of America cannot be considered as such, as he was unaware of the nature
of the land he encountered and believed it to be the outer fringes of Asia, a conviction
he held until his death. However, it is essential to note that these arguments cannot
diminish Columbus’s accomplishments because the Viking missions had been
disregarded or overlooked across Europe for several centuries. Moreover, even if
Columbus was unaware of what he had discovered, subsequent explorers who followed
in his footsteps soon realised the significance of his findings. Despite the lack of Asiatic
spices acquired during Columbus’s 1492 voyage, he did bring back a limited quantity
of gold and a small number of indigenous individuals who exhibited the potential for
enslaving entire tribes. Columbus and his contemporaries did not perceive any
contradiction between the proselytization of non-Christian individuals and their
subjugation into slavery. The circumstance mentioned above served as sufficient
motivation for the Spanish rulers, Ferdinand and Isabella, to fund an additional trio of

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voyages led by Columbus and numerous subsequent expeditions undertaken by other NOTES
explorers. As time passed, explorers found even more landmasses than previously
known islands. Columbus would not acknowledge the reality until his death. However,
by 1500, it was clear that he had discovered a new continent. Amerigo Vespucci, an
Italian geographer, is credited with being the first person to acknowledge that Columbus
had stumbled onto a new world. As a result of Vespucci’s efforts, the Western
Hemisphere was subsequently given the name “America” in honour of his name.
It would have been reasonable to assume that the knowledge of the new world
about 1500 would have thrilled the Spanish emperors who funded it, but it was a
disappointment. Given the significant landmass that separates Europe and Asia, it is
unlikely that Spain would have been able to outcompete Portugal in the pursuit of
acquiring spices. In 1513, after Vasco Nunez de Balboa made his first trip to the
Isthmus of Panama, he was able to have his first glimpse of the Pacific Ocean. Balboa’s
voyage provided conclusive evidence that not one but two enormous oceans divided
Europe and East Asia. In 1519, King Charles approved Ferdinand Magellan’s proposal
to circumnavigate South America to determine whether or not it was possible to find a
path to Asia that went around that region of the world. Magellan’s expedition illustrated
that the hazards associated with a voyage around the southern tip of Argentina were
insurmountable. Out of the five vessels that departed from Spain, only a single ship
completed the circumnavigation of the earth after three years. Magellan, unfortunately,
did not survive to recount the events. However, a mere eighteen individuals out of the
initial crew of 280 provided an account of the incident. According to their testimony,
many of their fellow crew members perished due to scurvy or starvation. Their leader
died during a confrontation with indigenous people from the East Indies. Following
this debacle, prospects for a straightforward “southwest passage” were extinguished.

In-Text Questions
1. Prince Henry “the Navigator” belonged to which country?
A. Portugal
B. England
C. Holland
D. France
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NOTES 2. Who first circumnavigated the southernmost tip of Africa?

A. Captain Cook
B. Christopher Columbus
C. Bartholomew Dias
D. Vasco da Gama
3. Who named the southernmost tip of Africa the “Cape of Good Hope”?
A. Elizabeth I
B. King John II
C. Manuel I
D. Queen Isabella
4. Amerigo Vespucci, a geographer, belonged to which country?
A. Holland
B. Spain
C. Portugal
D. Italy

4.2.4 The Conquistadors Plunder the New World for Gold

Although the presence of America as an obstacle to the East was initially disheartening,
the Spanish eventually realised that the continent of America possessed a significant
amount of wealth. Since the beginning, the gold samples brought by Columbus, although
insignificant in quantity, had instilled the belief that there might be vast reserves of gold
in America. The spread of rumours further fuelled this notion until a handful of Spanish
explorers eventually discovered an abundance of gold that surpassed even their wildest
greed. Initially, Spain acquired wealth through remarkable military victories. Between
1519 and 1521, the Spanish conquistador Hernando Cortes led a force of six hundred
men in the conquest of the Aztec Empire of Mexico, which had a population of
approximately one million. As a result of this conquest, the Aztecs’ vast wealth was
seized by the Spanish. Then, in 1533, a different conquistador named Francisco Pizarro
conquered Peru. This time, he only had one hundred eighty soldiers under his command,
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yet he could loot the fabled riches of the Incas. Although Pizarro and Cortes benefited NOTES
from a few cannons and a few horses, the primary reasons for their victory were their
tremendous courage, deceit, and brutality. Rarely in history have a small group of men
triumphed over such formidable obstacles to conquer vast territories, yet a ruthless
and morally reprehensible approach marked their actions.
Individual adventurers, many of whom hailed from the lower echelons of society,
carried out the conquests of the Americas for Spain and Portugal. The governments
under whose auspices they operated granted these individuals considerable autonomy.
As Spain and Portugal acquired new territories through the entrepreneurial efforts of
experienced military personnel or unscrupulous adventurers, the governing authority
of the motherland asserted its ownership over them. The swiftness with which the
Spanish conquered South and Central America contrasts the careful manner in which
the English spread their colonies over North America sometime later. By 1540, the
Spanish controlled the northern portion of South America, Central America, and
Mexico. The subjugation of Chile and Argentina required intense conflict due to the
indigenous population’s resistance to centralised rule. In contrast to the Aztecs and the
Incas, these groups had not experienced such a system of governance previously. It
was not until 1580 that the Spanish established firm control over Buenos Aires. Despite
being far outmatched by Spain in terms of population and naval force and being beset
by actions of Britain, France, and the Netherlands to secure a presence on the continent,
Portugal had still built a colonial authority in Brazil that was relatively stable by the year
1549. Therefore, in less than a hundred years, the two Iberian nations built empires
that were more than twice as big as the United States as a whole.
Spain and Portugal used colonial administration and colonisation techniques
that had far-reaching effects on Latin American history. Spain exemplified this
phenomenon and established a precedent for her neighbouring nation, as Spain and
Portugal were under a shared ruler from 1580 to 1640. Despotism and paternalism
were essential tenets of the Spanish colonial administration’s approach to governing its
colonies. The viceroys held the highest position of authority within the empire and
ruled as the direct agents of the Spanish monarch. There were initially two viceroyalties,
one in Peru and the other in New Spain, which included Mexico and Central America.
During the eighteenth century, Spain established two more viceroyalties. These
viceroyalties were New Granada and La Plata, also known as Buenos Aires. The
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NOTES viceroys received substantial remuneration, reaching the monetary value of $200,000
annually at a particular time. The intention behind such benevolence was to inhibit
corruption, a goal that the Spanish monarch did not necessarily achieve. Simultaneously,
the monarch implemented measures to avert the possibility of the viceroys attaining
excessive authority. The monarchs limited the scope of the viceroys’ jurisdiction. They
needed to endure the presence of an advisory council, commonly referred to as an
audiencia, which concurrently functioned as a tribunal of higher jurisdiction to review
their rulings. The audiencia possessed the privilege to correspond with the monarch
concerning the actions of the viceroys. The viceroys were subject to a thorough inquiry
or investigation after their tenure and on occasion throughout it, during which a royal
judge heard accusations about their misconduct.
The role played by the Catholic Church in the New World was very similar to
its role in the Old World, where it had helped lay the groundwork for the establishment
of Spanish absolutism. The monarchy retained the prerogative of appointing church
officials and a portion of the collected tithes. The crown prohibited the erection of any
religious institution without its express authorisation. The priests instructed the populace
to follow the monarch and those who acted on his behalf. Moreover, the priests fought
against innovative ideas and demonstrations of dissatisfaction. When there was a crisis
of practically any kind, the hierarchy was always reliable in providing unwavering
assistance to the government. Following the loss of their magnificent temples, the
indigenous population of the Americas embraced the colonisers’ religion, resulting in a
swift conversion process. However, there were some debates among religious authorities
regarding the existence of souls within the American Indian population. The imagery
and symbolism of Catholicism appealed greatly to the indigenous people, as it stimulated
their imagination. At the same time, its teachings provided a glimmer of hope for eventual
liberation from their arduous existence.

4.2.5 Paternalism and Mercantilism

Paternalism was the guiding principle behind the governance of the economy in the
colonies. The doctrine postulated that the American continent’s territory was the
monarch’s private property. America was his personal property, and he was free to
dispose of it however he saw suitable. The principles of mercantilism significantly
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influenced the economic management of the colonies of Spain, which were gaining NOTES
prominence in the economic thought of Western countries during that period. The
economic doctrine of mercantilism stipulated that colonies were primarily to advance
the interests of the mother country, which involved the acquisition of bullion to augment
the mother country’s treasury, as well as the provision of various forms of support
aimed at enhancing her wealth and influence. Imperial nations anticipated that the
colonies would provide essential resources, including ores from Mexico and Bolivia,
sugar from the West Indies, the mainland Spanish colonies, and Brazil, as well as
forest goods, especially the red brazilwood, which bestowed Brazil its name.
Consequently, the government back home had the legal authority to supervise and
direct the economic activity of the colonies to serve its purposes. Essentially, this
entailed granting exclusive control over colonial commerce to the traders of the imperial
power while simultaneously prohibiting the development of indigenous manufacturing.
The conquerors came to see the land in the colonies and the people who worked
it as the true source of the country’s riches. The Spaniards implemented the encomienda
system as a means of advancing agriculture. This system involved placing indigenous
individuals into agricultural units, overseen by a designated trustee, to utilise their labour
for productivity. Theoretically, the intention was to safeguard the Indians from
exploitation during their Christianisation and civilisation. In practical terms, the individual
remained tied to the land, who provided tribute and labour to the encomendero, who
exercised complete control over land as if it were his own.
The European conquerors brought with them a social structure that was highly
stratified and aristocratic, which they introduced to the New World. This social structure
derived from European nations, were still semi-feudal. The highest social stratum
comprised military leaders, civil servants appointed by the monarchy, and religious
authorities. The Creoles, who were Iberian-born Americans, came in second in the
hierarchy. This class of landed aristocracy amassed the vast majority of the riches,
both in the commercial and agricultural sectors. The group exercised dominion over
municipal governance through town councils but could not attain the position of upper
ecclesiastical and governmental authority classes. The Creoles harboured deep
resentment towards their subjugation under the crown’s authority, ultimately culminating
in their leadership of the colonial revolutions aimed at achieving independence. They
reaped the most benefits from these revolutions than anybody else. A third social
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NOTES group emerged due to the interbreeding between individuals of European and Indian
descent. The individuals of mixed race, referred to as mamelucos in Brazil and mestizos
in the colonies of Spain, encountered social discrimination and faced significant
challenges in their pursuit of recognition and fundamental rights. Despite this, they
actively participated in subjugating those in lower social classes. The Indians were
positioned at the lower end of the social hierarchy, primarily viewed as a commodity
and the most lucrative spoils of conquest. Their situation deteriorated so that, with a
few notable exceptions, it became one of real or virtual slavery. The plight of enslaved
Africans was even direr than that of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The
number of slaves was relatively low except in the West Indies and Brazil.

4.2.6 The High Human Cost

During the three centuries that passed, from the start of the conquests to the establishment
of independent republics in Latin America, many vivid and spectacular events occurred,
all accompanied by an unimaginable amount of human misery. The imperial powers
dismantled the advanced societies of the Mayas, the Aztec people, and the Incas and
displaced the native cultures across various regions. The imposition of foreign values
led to the erosion of the indigenous population’s solid and enduring communal instincts.
The era of colonialism established a practice of utilising and reinforcing a system of
exploitation and social stratification, supported by discriminatory ideologies that
categorised individuals based on the perceived level of their Caucasian heritage. The
high death rate among the native population was a shocking result of the conquests.
While there is a lack of precise data, there are verified instances that serve as good
illustrations. The indigenous population of approximately 2,50,000 residing on the
Caribbean island of Hispaniola in 1492 experienced a significant decline, with only
5,000 individuals surviving by 1548. Over fifty years, the Indian population in Florida
experienced a substantial decrease from an estimated one million individuals to
approximately 50,000. Similarly, during the first hundred years of Spanish rule, the
overall population of Mexico also experienced a decline at a comparable rate. Some
of the fatalities were not a result of deliberate cruelty. Conversely, a significant proportion
of the indigenous population perished due to the outbreak of infectious diseases, namely,
smallpox and measles, brought over by the European colonisers, against which they
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colonisers subjected them to such strenuous labour that they perished from fatigue and NOTES
inadequate attention. The advent of the white man in the New World proved to be an
absolute catastrophe for the indigenous population, while the Europeans derived
economic gains from such colonisation.
Some individuals bravely challenged the prevailing social and economic injustices
during the colonial period. Although the royal administrations of the time made periodic
attempts to impose reforms, these efforts seldom resulted in significant change. However,
under the Bourbon monarchs who ascended to the Spanish throne at the beginning of
the eighteenth century, administrative efficiency significantly improved throughout the
Spanish colonies. Despite the Church’s institutional role as a stronghold of authority,
the clergy emerged as the most ardent advocates for protecting Indian rights. As the
missions expanded and gained significant land ownership, they implemented more
conscientious practises in managing their properties, particularly concerning the treatment
of labourers, which differed from the customary practises observed in encomiendas.
During the onset of the sixteenth century, a cohort of priests in Mexico initiated the
establishment of missions that integrated the cooperative principles of Thomas More’s
Utopia. They aimed to safeguard the indigenous population and establish a virtuous
model for European civilisation. The priests established a community comprising a
hospital and school, which served as a residential area for approximately 30,000
individuals of Indian descent. The Jesuit missionaries which laboured in the frontier
region separating Argentina and Brazil during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
exhibited remarkable commitment and perseverance. The priests demonstrated
extraordinary courage and determination to clear the dense jungle and establish self-
sustaining communities. Through their endeavours, the indigenous population could
partake in the benefits of their collective labour, and the priests safeguarded them from
the incursions of slave traders from Brazil. Unfortunately, following the royal order of
1767, which resulted in the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain and its colonies, the
settlements that had previously served as crucial economic and humanitarian hubs
experienced a rapid decline.
The initial voyages of discovery had significant repercussions for possibly two
profound reasons. The ascendance of Spain and Portugal as the major long-distance
trading nations in Europe during the sixteenth century resulted in a permanent shift of
the European economic power centre from the Mediterranean and Italy towards the
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NOTES Atlantic. Following the loss of their function as intermediaries of Oriental commerce,
Genoa assumed the role of Spain’s financial institution, whereas Venice gradually
transformed into a destination for tourists. Meanwhile, ports along the Atlantic thrived
with maritime activity and exhibited opulence. Although Portugal and Spain experienced
a brief period of prosperity, the other Atlantic states, namely England, Holland, and
France, assumed the role of dominant economic powers on a global scale. Second,
the expansion of the market for imported products and the rapid flood of bullion
throughout Europe stoked the fires of entrepreneurial aspirations across the continent.
Exploring the oceans around 1500 created magnificent chances for those with the
talent and courage to establish new fortunes, which inspired the notion that perseverance
would only result in success. Consequently, not only did numerous ambitious persons
experience a sudden increase in wealth, but the whole period of the sixteenth century
witnessed a significant expansion in the economy of Western Europe.

In-Text Questions
5. Who led a force against the Aztec Empire?
A. Francisco Pizarro
B. Christopher Columbus
C. Bartholomew Dias
D. Hernando Cortes
6. Where was the Inca Empire located?
A. Brazil
B. Mexico
C. Peru
D. Chile
7. The Spaniards implemented the encomienda system to advance
_____________.
A. Agriculture
B. Industry
C. Trade
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8. What was the annual salary of Spanish viceroys? NOTES

A. $150,000
B. $200,000
C. $250,000
D. $300,000

4.3 SUMMARY

The initial impetus for exploration and expansion beyond European borders ultimately
led to acquiring new territories driven by commercial and strategic interests. The imperial
powers promoted slavery to exploit newly acquired territories’ untapped resources to
maximise profits. Frequent confrontations between opposing forces often resulted in a
clash, leading to the domination of the weaker side through overwhelming naval and
military might, ultimately resulting in the establishment of a colony for economic benefit.
The transition from contact to collision, which resulted in the almost destruction of the
native people in some locations, was visible right from the beginning of Christopher
Columbus’s first voyage. It was pushed further by the conquistadors of Spain. The
voyages of discovery laid the foundations of the modern world between the expeditions
of Columbus (1451-1506) and Captain Cook (1728-79). Expanding knowledge,
broadening perspectives and facilitating trade in valuable commodities altered the
character of subsequent interactions. These encounters were a contest for territorial
expansion involving the active participation of most European nations.

4.4 ANSWER TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. A. Portugal
2. C. Bartholomew Dias
3. B. King John II
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NOTES 5. D. Hernando Cortes

6. C. Peru
7. A. Agriculture
8. B. $200,000

4.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Trans-Oceanic voyages of the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries changed the
map of the world. Elaborate.
2. Write a short essay on the impact of the sea voyages on the social, cultural and
intellectual life of early modern Europe.

4.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Anderson, M. S. 1976. Europe in the Eighteenth Century, 1713-1783. 2nd

Edition. New York: Longman.
 Burke, Peter. 2009. Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe. Burlington,
USA: Ashgate.
 Davies, Norman. 1998. Europe: A History. New York: Harper Collins.
 McAlister, Lyle N. 1984. Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492-1700.
Vol. 3. Minneapolis, USA: University of Minnesota Press.
 Sinha, Arvind. 2016. Europe in Transition: From Feudalism to
Industrialisation. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors.

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