Adigrat University

College of Natural and Computational Sciences

Department of Biotechnology

Research Methodology and Report Writing in Science

(Biot4151)

Lecture Notes

2021

1
 Course Contents
Unit 1 – The concept of Research
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Purpose of research
1.3. Types of Research

Unit 2 – 2.1 Steps in Scientific Research (Research Processes)

2.2. Proposal Development
2.3.Reporting and Presenting Scientific findings

Unit 3 – How to write review paper

Unit 4 – Research Ethics

2
 About the Course
Generic

Concept of scientific research (what it is, how to plan,

conduct and report)

Self learning

Do the exercises given at the end of each chapter for better

understanding

For maximum benefit –

read ahead,
attend all lectures and
actively participate
Do assignments 3
Unit 1

The Concept of Research

4
 Unit Objectives

• Identify sources of knowledge

• Define the concept of research
• Explain the purpose of research
• Differentiate the different types of research
• Differentiate Research Method and methodology
• Understand Philosophy of research

5
 Lesson 1. Sources of Knowledge

It is human nature to quest for knowledge.

Research is emanated from this natural interest.
Two major approaches to acquire knowledge:
• Unscientific approach
• Scientific approach

6
 1.1 unscientific Sources of knowledge

• The method of tenacity - Automatic acceptance of beliefs

without exploring them.
• The term tenacity refers to the acceptance of a belief based on
the idea that “we have always known it to be this way”.
• In other words, it represents the automatic acceptance of the
prevailing traditional beliefs and customs in which we have been
socialized
E.g.
2. The sun rises in the east.
3. Ethiopians have burned faces
• As a way of learning about the surrounding world, the method of
tenacity has two problems: :
- Knowledge by familiarity alone – no proof of its truth
- No means for correcting ideas which are proved to be not
7
true.
 Cont’d …

• The method of Authority - Accepting information we

have been told by authority figure.
• We may accept a new idea or information stated by the
authority figure
• Eg. Electrician, civil engineer or chemist, physician
• Remember that authority can be incorrect and at times
can lead people in the wrong directions

E.g. 1. smoking affects our health

Problem:
- It is only useful and beneficial if the authority 8
figure is knowledgeable in the area.
 Cont’d …
The a prior method/deductive reasoning – First we
develop general knowledge, opinion, or belief about the world
through the aforementioned methods or personal observation
of things around us and then we draw new and specific
conclusion from this general knowledge
known as a deductive reasoning
• Reason and logic are the basic tools for a priori method.
E.g.1. Ayele’s family are tall.
Alemitu is in Ayele’s family
Therefore, Alemitu is tall. _False

Conclusion from false premises.

E.g. 2. Human being is mortal
9
Alemu is a human being.
Therefore, Alemu is mortal. _True
 Cont’d …
• Commonsense - Knowledge acquired from past experience or
from our perceptions of the world.
• It originates from our day-to-day practical experiences and in
turn guides our daily interaction with our surrounding
• Note that our experiences and perceptions of the world may
be quite limited. The concepts that we have about the world
may be seriously misleading. Although common sense may
help us deal with the routine aspects of daily life, it may also
form a wall and prevent us from understanding new ideas.
It is good for routines aspects of daily life but hinders to widen
our knowledge.
E.g. 1 The price of teff increases if the rainy season fails
10
E.g.2 Since birr is devaluated, the Ethiopian economy is in
danger.
 1.2 Scientific method as a Source of knowledge

• Knowledge acquired systematically. i.e. evaluate observation

by our bodily senses or measuring devices.

• It is sometimes seen as a controlled extension of

commonsense knowledge.

• Therefore, science relies on information that is verifiable

unlike commonsense.

• Science differs from commonsense:

uses conceptual schemes and theoretical structures.
Has the notion of control
11
gives explanations or reasoning for different observed
phenomena.
 Scientific Vs. Unscientific Research

Scientific research:
Focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step
logical, organized, and rigorous method. i.e.
identify the problems
collect data
analyze and
draw valid conclusions

Non-scientific research:
Based on experience and perception

12
 Cont’d …

Science:
• Systematically build theoretical structure
• Test them for internal consistency
• test empirically subject aspects of the phenomenon.

Logical steps in scientific research:

• Problem statement
• Tentative explanations
• Information gathering
• Test of hypothesis
• Make conclusions as to whether the
hypothesis can be accepted or rejected
13
 Cont’d …

Expectations from scientific research:

• General rules drawn

• Objective evidences collected
• Testable statements made
• A skeptical attitude to all claims
• Creative and productive

14
 Cont’d …

Limitations of scientific research: Apart from its

importance in knowing the world, the scientific method of
knowing has some limitations

• Cannot have answer for all questions

• Results may not be applied everywhere
• Imperfection in the measurement devices

The scope and limitations of your work has to be clearly defined.

The work that will not be undertaken is described as the

delimitations of the research. 15
 Lesson 2. Definition and purpose of research

What Research Is Not

• Research isn’t information gathering:
– Gathering information from resources such as books or
magazines isn’t research.
• Research isn’t the transportation of facts:
– Merely transporting facts from one resource to another
doesn’t constitute research.
– No contribution to new knowledge although this might
make existing knowledge more accessible.

16
 2.1 Scientific Research -Definition

What Research Is
• Research is:

“…the systematic process of collecting and analyzing

information (data) in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon about which we
are concerned or interested.”

Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps

and a rigid standard protocol.
17
 2.1 Scientific Research -Definition

What Research Is
• Research is:

• an attempt to achieve systematically and with the

support of data that answer to a question, the
resolution to a problem, or the greater understanding
of a phenomenon

• a process of generation of new information and testing

of ideas.
18
 2.1 Scientific Research -Definition

What Research Is
Definition by WHO:
Research is a quest for knowledge through diligent
search or investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of new knowledge.
Definition by Advanced Learner’s Dictionary:
Research is a careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge

19
 2.1 Scientific Research -Definition

In general we learn from the definition:

• Any scientific research is systematic - follows a clear
procedure so that the experiment can be replicated and the
results confirmed.

• All scientific research has a goal – involves repeated and

refined experimentation gradually reaching an answer.

• Scientific research is impartial, empirical and logical

• Scientific research leads to the development of

generalizations, principles or theories, resulting in to some
extent in prediction and control of events.
20
 2.1. Scientific Research -Definition

Typical features of scientific research:

• systematic – ordered, planned and disciplined

• Controlled – confidence in research outcomes

• Empirical – putting beliefs, ideas, or assumptions to a test ;

• Critical – many truths are tentative and are subject to

change as a result of subsequent research.

21
1.2. Purposes of Scientific
Research

22
 1.2. Purpose of Scientific Research

• The purpose of research is problem solving and acquiring new

knowledge.
• The problem could be of an immediate and practical value or they
could be of theoretical nature. That is, research focuses on
answering various questions and acquiring new knowledge
• By conducting research, researchers attempt to reduce the
complexity of problems, discover the relationship between
seemingly unrelated events, and ultimately improve the way we
live
• In short, research is used for the purposes of:
describing phenomena
explaining phenomena
predicting phenomena 23

Controlling and comparing phenomena

 1.2. Purpose of Scientific Research

Description –represents efforts exerted to give pictorial account

of the phenomenon being studied. It is actually the first step in
research since it provides the basis for further exploration about
the phenomenon under consideration.

It is the first step to do in scientific research.

It find answers to the questions “what, who and where”.

E.g. If a researcher collects data about women’s participation

in politics and reports their level of participation based on the data
collected, then we can say that females’ participation in politics
has been described.
24
 1.2. Purpose of Scientific Research

• Explanation – exploring the causes of the occurrence of

certain event.
• In explanation, the researcher is interested in exploring the
reasons or the causes of the occurrence of certain behavior or
event.
• It involves understanding the cause – and – effect relationship
between phenomena.
It find answers to the questions “why”.

E.g. 1 Why students fail in Mathematics courses?

E.g. 2 Why plants produce secondary metabolities? 25

 1.2. Purpose of Scientific Research

• Prediction – generalizing about what will happen in the future

• In research, generalization is made not only to explain the past but
also to predict what will happen in the future.
• A widely based conceptual framework or theory will be used to
make prediction about the variable of interest..

E.g., Predicting about global warming based on current status?

26
 1.2. Purpose of Scientific Research

• Control – intervene and subsequently observe an expected

result.
• Researchers are also interested in influencing or changing a
particular event or condition for different purposes.

E.g. Cactus will be disappeared if ….. – intervention of the

researcher. Showing that the research was not done without
aim.

27
 1.2. Purpose of Scientific Research

• Comparison – explore whether two or more groups are

similar or different on a certain behavior or vice versa.

• E.g 1. Is there any connection between disease of animals

and humans?
• E.g. 2. Is there any difference between old and new
biotechnology or gram positive and negative bacteria ?

28
1.2.3 Characteristics of scientific research

• Aim
• Rigorous
• Testability
• Replicability
• Precision and Confidence
• Generalizability
• Parsimony

29
 1.2.3 Characteristics of scientific research

• Aim
The purpose of scientific research is clear – problem solving.
It is always directed towards the solution of a problem

E.g - To generate biogas from wastes

- To produce antibacterial agents fro plants

Research begins with a problem.

– This problem need not be too much general.
– Address only an important question.
– Remember that the aim is also to advance knowledge.

• Sources of problems: Observation, literature

30
reviews, professional conferences, workshopes etc.
 1.2.3 Characteristics of scientific research

• Rigorous
Based on good theoretical base and sound methodology
i.e. Follow carefully designed procedures, always requires careful
and painstaking analysis
Thus,
• Requires expertise
• Requires patience/courage and unhurried activity

• Testability
Based upon observable experience or empirical evidence
Test theoretical model by simulation or experiment

31
 1.2.3 Characteristics of scientific research

• Replicability
The same relationship shall stand repeatedly under the same
design parameters
Demands accurate observation and description
• Precision and Confidence
Precision refers to closeness of the findings to reality
Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are
correct

32
 1.2.3 Characteristics of scientific research

• Generalizability
Emphasizes in the development of generalizations, principles
and theories.
Define scope of applicability

E.g. Development of a New drugs for multidrug resistant

pathogens

• Parsimony
Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problem
Assumptions are critical
Minimize the dependant variable
33
Assumptions are those things that the researcher is taking for granted.
 Unit Summary
• There are two broad sources of knowledge: Everyday experience as a
source of knowledge and scientific method as a source of knowledge.
• Everyday sources of knowledge include the method of tenacity,
authority, a priori method and common sense.
• The scientific method as a source of knowledge represents scientific
research.
• The goal of research is problem solving and acquiring new knowledge.
The problem could be of an immediate and practical value or they
could be of theoretical nature.
• The specific purposes of scientific research include description,
explanation, prediction, control and comparison.
• Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method,
a harnessing of curiosity.
• Research provides scientific information and theories for the
explanation of the nature and the properties of the world around us.
• Research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical 34
investigation of natural, behavioral and social phenomena.
 Individual Assignment (10%)
1. What motivates people to undertake research?
2. Distinguish between research method and research
methodology
3. Discuss on the different types of research (with
example)
Basic vs Applied
Qualitative vs Quantitative
Primary vs Secondary
Final submission date: November 15, 2019
35