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Psychology of Trauma
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Trauma Studies
An Echo of Ignored Screams
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5
Psychology of Trauma
Smriti Pathak and Roshan Lal Dewangan
General Conceptualisation of Trauma
Trauma is an emotional response to a disastrous event, like an
accident, natural disaster or abuse. The immediate reaction to such
situation is of shock and denial, but in long term individual may
face unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, and physical symptoms
like headaches, tremor, numbness or nausea. Even consequence
maybe so grave that it can lead to dysfunctional pattern of
interpersonal relationships. These feelings and symptoms are
normal for a period but inability to cope with such symptoms for
long duration has an adverse effect on an individual s well-being.
Initially trauma was linked with physical injury, such as,
railway accidents known as railroad spine . Lancet (Acton,
1862; Lewis, 1862) published an article addressing the influence of
rail journey on public health. Initially it was advocated that railway
journey causes spinal diseases, fatigues and affect the whole nervous
system. Physician found that railway accident involves massive
injury due to high force involved train journey. Erichsen, a professor
of surgery at university hospital London, publishes a book on
railway injury cases and found an analogy between spinal injury
and magnet, where magnet tends to lose its magnetic property after
repeated pounding. In spite of organic origin for spinal concussion,
the great devastating impact on psyche could no longer be ignored.
Liability law and compensation process in railway accidents nudged
medical experts to determine the reality of damage occurred in such
Psychology of Trauma 63
accidents. In mid 1860s, psychological impact of trauma was taken
to be accounted. The growing number of accidents with no
significant physical injury caught the attention of medical
professionals as the victim showed severe psychological disruption,
phobia, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive syndrome but had no
physical fatality. In 1842 a case of female patient was reported in
newspaper, who completely lost her memory after Paris-Versailles
line accident but survived with no physical injury.
European physicians in 1860 s noticed the crucial role played
by mental factors in trauma. Dercum emphasised the destructive
impact of trauma and noted that threat to life creates shock and
erupt different range of emotions. Psychic shock after accident
would exhaust the whole nervous system which results in lack of
blood in nervous system and lead to the symptoms of fatigue,
nausea, headache, paralysis, neuralgia etc. (Berd, 1869). This was
the same period when in Paris, a French neurologist. Charcot
(1895) was working on hysteria, and he was among the first who
drew the similarity between hysterical symptom and traumatic
symptom after such accidents and stated that nervous shock after
rail injury substitute for hypnotic trance and autosuggestion thus
impaired the socio occupational functioning of the individual.
During First World War and later again in World War two,
traumatic experiences among soldier were recognised. Terms like
shell shock , war neurosis and combat neurosis emerged during
this period to address and recognise such impact violence.
Traumatic neurosis term was first used by German neurologist
Herman Oppenheim (1889) and assumed that subtle molecular
changes in the central nervous system play a part in functional
problem. Greenacre (1969) identified trauma as an inevitable part
of psychological development
Freud in his short paper Thoughts for the times on war and
death (1915/1957), not only recognised the fear of losing others or
violence faced by others but as well as fear and guilt of violent
behaviour inflicted upon others by oneself. Thus lead to recognition
of the suffering of soldiers in war situation. Kardiner (1941), an
64 Trauma Studies: An Echo of Ignored Screams
American psychoanalyst, during World War two recognised the role
of symptomatic reaction after a traumatic event as a form of
adaptation to the threatening situation. It helps to eliminate the
painful memory of the event itself. An individual adaption is unique
to his current situation as it depends on the individual s
psychological resources and the person s relations to his primary
social group (Kardiner, 1959). Traumatic events create a disturbance
to ego strength and leads to higher level of excitation, to deal with
this disturbance and handling this excitation requires a change in
self-concept in relation to the world. The recognition of
psychological trauma in mental health came into light in world war
one and two again rose to interest among psychologist during the
Vietnam War (1969-1975). This leads to a definition and
classification of trauma in terms of post-traumatic stress disorder
PTSD (Young, 1995; Van der Kolk, McFarlane & Weisaeth, 1996).
There were some other terms used as cardiac neurosis , shell
shock , war neurosis and combat neurosis and finally reached
to the current label of post-traumatic stress disorder. Freud
(1919/1955a) recognised and differentiated traumatic neuroses and
anxiety neuroses, he stated that traumatic neuroses was caused by
the real accidents and disaster whereas anxiety neuroses were the
result of sexual and aggressive fantasies.
Statistical Representation
Lonigan et al (1994) surveyed more than 5000 school going children
to understand the clinical picture of trauma. These children were
victim of Hurricane Hugo three months before. Researcher used
PTSD Reaction Index to obtain Self-reports of PTSD symptoms.
Severity of the damage caused by hurricane, sustained home
damage and continued displacement were high predictor of PTSD
symptoms in children however a correlation was found between
trait anxiety and reported emotional reactivity and occurrence of
PTSD symptoms. This study also suggested that female and
younger children are more vulnerable to develop post-traumatic
symptoms following a traumatic event.
Psychology of Trauma 65
Kessler et al (1995) reported incidence of molestation, physical
attack, rape or experience of war situation among 15 % of USA
population. The chances of physical assault were higher in male in
comparison to female (11.1% vs. 10.3%), whereas female found to
be more subjected to sexual assault. The half of these victims were
below the age of 25.Women and children were more at the risk of
being subjected to trauma caused by harassment or assault in their
close family group. The period of 1994 in USA shows that female
victim were mostly attacked by the known person and domestic
abuse caused more serious injury (van der Kolk, 2000). Domestic
abuse and child abuse were found to be related, and in such
dysfunctional family environment the chance of child abuse was
1500% higher than the national average (National Victim Center,
1993).
A study done in Uttarakhand (Nisha, Kiran & Joseph, 2014)
between October-November 2013, three months after the natural
disaster of 2013 indicated that 32.8% residents were still facing
trauma related stress. Result showed gender difference in the
presentation PTSD symptoms. Insomnia was the highest reported
issue in females whereas males reported hard to stop worrying
and concentration problems.
Benjet et al (2016) presented the epidemiology of trauma and
reported occurrence of traumatic event among over 70% of
respondents and 30.5% were exposed to four or more traumatic
events in their life. Over half of this exposure includes these five
types witnessing death or serious injury, the unexpected death of a
loved one, being mugged, being in life-threatening automobile
accident, and experiencing a life-threatening illness or injury.
Country, socio-demographics and history of prior traumatic events
played an important role in exposure variations. Marriage emerged
as one of the most consistent protective factor. Early exposure to
interpersonal violence strongly predicted subsequent traumatic
events.
Housen et al (2017) in their study on Kashmir valley
population reported 19% of people having PTSD like symptom due
66 Trauma Studies: An Echo of Ignored Screams
to stressful political and social environment. The other probable
mental health issues were identified as anxiety and depression.
Some characteristics, like being female, over 55 years of age, no
formal education, rural area resident and marital status, were
significantly related to occurrence of PTSD.
Causes
According to American Psychological Association (APA)
Dictionary of Psychology, trauma is an emotional response to an
extremely negative event which affects a person s overall stability for
long time. Trauma studies reflected shell shock and traumatic
neurosis after first and Second World War among soldiers. Natural
disaster like Tsunami etc. impacted the mental health of victims.
Trauma is not necessarily associated with the physical presence of
the victim at site, young children are more vulnerable for such
impact. Examples of traumatic events include: Rape, natural, disaster,
domestic violence, death, loss and separation of significantone, witnessing
the violence, severe injury or accident cause trauma. Serious illness,
witnessing a death, moving to a new location, prison stay for a considerable
duration can also expose a person to such impact.
Symptoms
The basic and first sign of trauma is shaken and disoriented
appearance of the victims; they may not be able to respond to ask
question and could not carry a casual conversation for a significant
time period. The moment a person recovers from the site of trauma
the second sign emerged anxiety, which manifests itself in various
ways such as night terrors, edginess, irritability, poor concentration
and mood swings. These are the most common symptom of trauma
but subjected to individual differences. Trauma can manifest days,
months or even years after the actual event and also may have a
silent outreach to the victim. There are cases when people close to
the victim are found to be totally unaware of his or her suffering as
the symptoms are not visible. Therefore, it is important to talk and
provide an opportunity to catharsis to the victim after the traumatic
in spite of the absence of any clear disturbance.
Psychology of Trauma 67
Emotional Symptoms of Trauma
Emotional expression is the common way to deal with trauma. An
individual immediate after the traumatic event shows denial, anger,
sadness and emotional outburst. They may redirect or project their
emotions towards others due to the overwhelming burden of
emotion itself. It is obviously a challenging time period for family
and close ones too as the person deny the social and emotional
support and shows withdrawal or sometime aggressive behaviour.
Depression, spontaneous crying, despair and hopelessness, anxiety,
extreme vulnerability, panic attack, emotional numbness may occur
in the victim.
Physical Symptoms of Trauma
Emotions exhaustion leads to physical sign of trauma which
commonly includes paleness, lethargy, fatigue and a racing
heartbeat. The victim may suffer anxiety or panic attacks and feels
unable to cope in certain circumstances. Such periods can aggravate
the challenge in case of physical injury or illness after the traumatic
events. Eating, sleep disturbance and persistent undefined chronic
pain are most common symptoms in trauma.
Behavioural Symptoms of Trauma
This includes self-harm behavior, substance abuse, gambling, self-
destructive behaviour and isolation. A victim may withdraw
himself/herself from any kind of social interaction or lands up to
take help from substance abuse. An evaluation of individual s
current socio occupational functioning helps to understand the
behavioural symptoms after the traumatic event.
Cognitive Symptoms of Trauma
Flashback of traumatic event, numbness create cognitive difficulty
in the person. Some victims show forgetting or total memory loss
especially about the trauma. Disturbed time perception, poor
decision making, distraction are other symptoms. Rumination of
thoughts makes a man overwhelmed with recollections of the
68 Trauma Studies: An Echo of Ignored Screams
trauma which further increases complication in retuning to a
normal life after the trauma.
Short-Term and Long-Term Effects of Trauma
Short term effects of a traumatic event as anxiety, disorientation,
and panic attack can emerge immediately but it may turn into long
term effects also. It is crucial to address the effect as soon as possible
as it enhances the good prognosis of symptoms. Both Short-term
and long-term effects of trauma are subjected to proper care but a
long gap in occurrence of these signs create more danger for the
victim.
Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Approach to Trauma
According to Laplanche and Pontalis (1973) the term trauma or
wound in psychoanalytic reference implies three ideas:
a violent shock,
a wound (cause by castration anxiety or narcissistic injury),
and consequences that affect the whole psychological
organisation of an individual.
A fundamental principle of the psychodynamic approach is
that behaviour is the result of conflict between the conscious and
unconscious systems. Herman (1992) termed trauma as an affliction
of powerless.
Psychoanalytic Construction of Trauma
Furst (1978) identified three factor in formation of PTSD as
stimulus intensity, ego strength and life experiences. These life
experiences include both prior and after the trauma experiences.
Freud (1953) also advocated the role of life experiences in
individual development. The intensity of trauma and phase of origin
played major role in pathology formation. Ego strength defines the
capacity to integrate such experiences and the nature and
mechanism of defense used by individual in coping.
Psychology of Trauma 69
The role of above three factors comes in scenario right with
childhood. The vulnerability of early stage and ego formation
taking place in childhood decides the course and nature of
pathology formation. Childhood memories play an important part
in constructing self-image, any traumatic experience in such
venerable phase leads to difficulty in forming secure relationship to
others and self-image also impacted. Traumatic memory creates
pathology as it fails to settle in our consciousness like ordinary
memories. So remerges in form of desire, regrets and dream.
Re-enactment plays a major role in PTSD and it follows
repetitive compulsion principal (Freud, 1955). Freud introduced the
repetitive compulsion principal with the understanding of repetitive
nature of trauma. This principle establishes the continuity in
different experiences of life. Victims have conscious, repetitive
recollection of physical sensation, thoughts related to trauma. It is
the waking memories of traumatic events which haunt more than
memories that come in sleep. The role of victim himself and role of
person who inflicted that trauma creates a fusion within victim, and
because of the distorted self-belief victim tends to blame himself
and often end up with re-enacting both the role of a victim and of a
perpetrator. This re-enactment also reflects the ongoing conflict
within the personality of a victim. Van der Kolk, McFarlane and
Weisaeth (1996) identified three ways of re-enactment of the
trauma; harm to others, self-destructiveness and re-victimisation.
The pathological formation of such memories nurture the
basic need to look out for a supportive environment in order to
sustain the pathology. Traumatic memories first trigger the anxiety,
for immediate relief, person uses his defenses. Use of defenses
prevent not only anxiety ridden memory but also prevent memory
from fully coming to the consciousness and get analysed properly.
Thus leads to further cycle of anxiety. This cycling and processing
make traumatic memories as part of inactive memory of individual
and raise the endorphin level which act as an immediate
tranquilliser (Young, 1995). Similar to addiction pattern, PTSD
victims also become addicted to this endorphin and indulged in re-
enactment. Beside avoidance, numbing and acting out they also use
70 Trauma Studies: An Echo of Ignored Screams
ddissociation as defense mechanism to distribute and divide the
traumatic experience in different parts of conscious level. But this
dislocation mechanism of memory continues to surface and haunt
the internal equilibrium of the individual.
The Quest of Meaning in Trauma: Humanistic View
The role of found or perceived meaning in trauma has been a
subject matter of interest among empirical researcher. Third Force
of psychology gave more importance to subjective experiences.
Humanistic-Existentialist prefers to study subjective world of the
person rather than the objective reality of world. This approach
thrives to attain the closest possible understanding of the individual
and his or her experience and existence.
Nietzsche (1887), Frankl (1959), Allport (1950) recognised the
importance of suffering in human existence. An unpredictable event
in life creates vulnerability and helplessness in victim as it lead to
disbelief in person regarding everything. On the contrary, some
individuals are able to derive the meaning from the traumatic
events. Frankl in his book Man s Search for Meaning (1959) described
the meaning and dignity in suffering crucial for existence. His own
life experience in concentration camp lead him to his theory of
search for meaning in life. In his observation with his fellow inmates
in concentration camp, Franks found that this meaning or WHY
in life can be derived from love, work and dignity. Doing a deed,
experiencing something, encounter someone and have dignity in
suffering provide this meaning to a victim.
Janoff-Bulman (1992) in his book Shattered Assumptions
highlighted the general belief about a just world which we all have
in our mind since our childhood. This belief not only provides us a
security but also creates an illusion of invulnerability , or in
simple words, hinders us to see the unreasonable nature of world.
Trauma destroys predictability of life and sense of self-worth.
Trauma makes victim to think about making sense of reality so this
threat in perceived safe world triggers a search for meaning.
People try to derive the meaning from traumatic events which may
Psychology of Trauma 71
evolve over time and it helps to overcome the trauma, loss and guilt
associated with the event. But it is not a simple process, search for
meaning starts with a restless search for reason. PTSD victim looks
for the reason of such events occurred to him, which further
increases the stress level. Kampman et al (2015) supported the work
of Janoff-Bulman, also included that such trauma not only creates
stress in victim, it further enhances an insight about personal
growth and growing acceptance for changes. In post-trauma phase,
victims are more able to recognise their physiological and
psychological potential. Updegraff et al (2008) in their study after
the 9/11 attack reported that any kind of direct or indirect exposure
to terrorism destroys the fundamental belief about harmony and
predictability of life, this acute stress lead the immediate quest to
find and attach a meaning to the event faced by victim. They also
reported that inability to find this meaning for long time may
present the PTSD symptoms in individual. This search for the
answer includes the attribution of the event which alleviates the
apprehension of unpredictability about life and also seeks for
philosophical and religious explanation (McIntosh, Silver, &
Wortman, 1993). Positive consequences from such unexpected
events are reported which help to reduce the emotional exhaustion
after trauma. Vietnam war veterans were more able to see gratitude
and humanity in simple things in their post-traumatic phase
(Jayawickreme & Blackie, 2014). The quest for meaning and final
attainment of this meaning is significantly related to the desire to
look out positivity from any negative event also the ability to seek
the required support from social gathering. Studies have suggested
higher probability to find meaning in victims who try to seek
positive consequences and instrumental support from others in form
of help and advice after the trauma have more (Janoff-Bulman &
Frantz, 1997). The ability to appreciate attained social support
facilitate the healing but without the acceptance of such event, only
seeking emotional support could not contribute in finding the
meaning of event itself (Updegraff, Silver & Hollman,2008).
72 Trauma Studies: An Echo of Ignored Screams
Perceived Support in Wake of Trauma
Personal meaning of trauma differs from victim to victim, among
victims and also between victim and observer of that traumatic
event. This meaning or attribution plays a crucial role in deciding
the social support received by a victim. Lindy and Titchener (1983)
termed the social support as the trauma membrane . When the
outside event creates a trauma on emotional world of the victim it
evokes an emotional response and person looks for emotional
attachment to receive the stress, this need of support is vital in
recovering from the trauma. It is not easy to get this support due to
complicated nature of attribution style of events. The evoked
emotions due to trauma triggers the search for a scapegoat or
someone and something to blame upon for the trauma. This
attribution differs in victims and bystanders so any discrepancy
leads to lack of social support for the victim. Victim tends to show
anger outburst, withdrawal tendencies and other disruptive
behaviour in absence of any social support (McFarlane & Van der
Kolk, 1996). Studies reported the lesser effect of trauma in presence
of social support for victim (Solomon & Horn, 1986). This lack of
support from others also changes victims way to handle the trauma
itself and creates more painful experience than the traumatic event
itself.
Both the victim and others fails to recognise traumatic event as
the real cause of suffering even any revelation of such events
actually offend the society as it threatens the idea and illusion of
justice and safety in real world (McFarlane &Van der Kolk, 1996).
Thus society fails to attempt a rational and objective assessment of
trauma, victim becomes representation of painful memory or brutal
truth about the real world which society wishes to forget. As
Herman (1992) correctly quotes Repression, dissociation and
denial are phenomena of a social as well as individual
consciousness . Both social support and internal locus control
played a complicated role in recovering. Social support in the
absence of an internal locus of control may affect negatively on
healing processes. The presence of perceived social support and
Psychology of Trauma 73
good internal locus of control predicts positive recovery after
trauma but poor internal locus of control leads to worsen the
healing process even in presence of good social support (Kobasa &
Puccetti, cited in McFarlane & Van der Kolk, 1996, p.29). The
amount of comfort provided to the victim and ability to motivate
the victim decide the impact of present social support. Victims are
also used for political and social gain. Society and government
provide compensation to victims which reflects recognition of
suffering. Few victims may ask for strong compensation and
privileges but mostly hide their suffering. Many victims choose to
save their independence, dignity and avoid to relive the memory of
trauma and never ask for such privileges. Research has also indicted
the vulnerability of trauma victims to be victimised again (Breslau,
Davis, Andreski & Petersen, 1995; Russell, 1986).
Conclusion
Anything that s human is mentionable, and anything that is
mentionable can be more manageable. When we can talk about
our feelings, they become less overwhelming, less upsetting, and
less scary.
― Fred Rogers
Pain and trauma have been an inevitable part of our psyche which
affects the belief in the continuity of life and the painful memories
never get settled in consciousness like ordinary memory. A
recollection of such memories occurs in the form of body sensation,
recurrent thought and panic attacks. This state leads to an
intrapersonal conflict in the victim as s/he accepts and rejects both
the role of a victim and preparatory. A victim has to deal with
societal perception, the aftereffect of the event itself and fear of
disillusionment about just world. This ongoing conflict arises due to
trauma not only leads to self-destructiveness or re-victimisation but
also a quest for meaning. Scholars like Frankl, Allport considered
suffering as an inevitable part of human existence which motivates
a person to seek for WHY in life. The victim tries to seek for this
meaning either through religious or philosophical explanation or
through assigning the responsibility of events after trauma. This
74 Trauma Studies: An Echo of Ignored Screams
quest also triggers stress and anxiety but helps to live through the
trauma. The question is can we really escape from pain or suffering
in our lives? NO! Life is as surprising as unpredictable as long we
live and predictability may kill the true essence of life. The attempt
to understand the psychological mechanism of trauma is not only
for the sake of understanding but also to put forward the
possibilities to deal effectively with such events by providing a true
emotional insight about trauma.
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