BASIC

MATERIALS OF
CONSTRUCTION
STONES
Properties of Stones
Engineering Applications of Stones
BRICKS
Commonly used tools in brick masonry
Quality Wise Bricks are classified as:
First Class Bricks
Second Class Bricks
Third Class Bricks
Properties of Bricks
Engineering Applications of Bricks
CEMENT
Cement in its broadest term means any substance which acts as a
binding agent for materials.
Natural cement (Roman Cement) is obtained by burning and crushing
the stones containing clay, carbonates of lime and some amount of
carbonate of magnesia. The clay content in such stones is about 20 to 40
percent.
Natural cement resembles very closely eminent hydraulic lime. It is not
strong as artificial cement, so it has limited use in practice.
Artificial cement is obtained by burning at very high temperature a
mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials in correct proportion.
Calcined product is known as clinker. A small quantity of gypsum is
added to clinker and it is then pulverized into very fine powder is known
as cement.
Cement was invented by a mason Joseph Aspdin of leeds in England in
1824. The common variety of artificial cement is known as normal
setting cement or ordinary cement or Portland cement.

Ordinary Portland cement contains two basic ingredients, namely

argillaceous and calcareous.
In argillaceous materials, clay predominates and in calcareous materials,
calcium carbonate predominates.
Properties of Cement
Properties of Portland Cement
Engineering Applications of Cement
1. Cement mortar for masonry work, plaster, pointing etc
2. Concreter for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams,
weather sheds, stairs, pillars etc.
3. Construction of important engineering structure such as bridges,
culverts, dams, tunnels storage reservoirs, light houses, deckles etc.
4. Construction of water tanks, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks,
lampposts, roads, telephone cabins etc.
5. Making joints for drains, pipes etc.
6. Manufacture of pre cast pipes, piles, garden seats, artificially
designed urns, flowerpots, etc dustbins, fencing posts etc.
7. Preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths etc.
CONCRETE
 CONCRETE
Cement concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles or crushed rock
and water. When placed in the skeleton of forms and allowed to cure,
becomes hard like a stone.
Cement concrete is important building material because of the following
reasons.
1. It can be moulded into any size and shape of durable structural
member.
2. It is possible to control the properties of cement concrete.
3. It is possible to mechanise completely its preparation and placing
processes.
4. It possesses adequate plasticity for mechanical working.
Properties of Concrete
1. It has high compressive strength
2. It is free from corrosion
3. It hardens with age and continues for a long time after concrete has
attained sufficient strength
4. It is proved to be economical than steel
5. It binds rapidly with steel and it is weak in tension, steel
reinforcement is placed in cement concrete at suitable places to
take up tensile concrete or simply R.C.C.
6. It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion stresses.
This is called reinforced cement.
7. It has tendency to be porous to avoid this proper grading &
consolidation of the aggregates, minimum water-cement ratio
should be adopted.
Engineering Applications of Concrete
1:2:2 - For heavy loaded R.C.C columns and R.C.C arches of long spans
1:2:2 - For small pre cast members of concrete like fencing poles,
telegraph poles etc. watertight construction.
1:2:3 - For water tanks, bridges, sewers etc.
1:2½:3½ - For foot path, concrete roads
1:2:4 - For general work of RCC such as stairs, beams, columns, slabs, etc
1:4:8
1:5:10 For mass concrete for heavy walls, foundation footings etc.
Batch type
Concrete Mixer
 RCC -
Reinforced
Cement Concrete
Concrete is strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. The
reverse is true for slender steel bars. When concrete and steel are used
together, one makes up for the deficiency of the other. The most
common type of steel reinforcement employed in concrete building
construction consists of round bars, usually of the deformed type, with
lugs or projections on their surfaces.

The purpose of the surface deformations is to develop a greater bond

between the concrete and the steel. The bars are made from billet steel,
rail steel, or axle steel, conforming to rigid specifications. Welded-wire
fabric is another type of reinforcement that consists of a series of
parallel-longitudinal wires welded at regular intervals to transverse
wires. It is available in sheets and rolls and is widely used as
reinforcement in floors and walls.
 PSC -
Pre-Stressed
Concrete
Prestressed concrete is a form of concrete used in
construction. It is substantially "prestressed" (compressed)
during production, in a manner that strengthens it against
tensile forces which will exist when in service.

Prestressed concrete is a system devised to provide sufficient

precompression in the concrete beam by tensioned steel
wires, cables, or rods that under working conditions the
concrete has no tensile stresses or the tensile stresses are so
low that no visible cracking occurs.
In a prestressed concrete member, the internal stresses are
introduced in a planned manner so that the stresses resulting
from the imposed loads are counteracted to the desired
degree.

Prestressed concrete is used in a wide range of building and

civil structures where its improved performance can allow for
longer spans, reduced structural thicknesses, and material
savings compared with simple reinforced concrete.

Typical applications include high-rise buildings, residential

slabs, foundation systems, bridge and dam structures, silos
and tanks, industrial pavements and nuclear containment
structures.
Pre-tensioning is a common prefabrication technique, where
the resulting concrete element is manufactured off-site from
the final structure location and transported to site once
cured.

It requires strong, stable end-anchorage points between

which the tendons are stretched. These anchorages form the
ends of a "casting bed" which may be many times the length
of the concrete element being fabricated.

This allows multiple elements to be constructed end-to-end in

the one pre-tensioning operation, allowing significant
productivity benefits and economies of scale to be realized
Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete
where the tendons are tensioned after the surrounding
concrete structure has been cast.
The tendons are not placed in direct contact with the
concrete, but are encapsulated within a protective sleeve or
duct which is either cast into the concrete structure or placed
adjacent to it. At each end of a tendon is an anchorage
assembly firmly fixed to the surrounding concrete.

Once the concrete has been cast and set, the tendons are
tensioned ("stressed") by pulling the tendon ends through the
anchorages while pressing against the concrete. The large
forces required to tension the tendons result in a significant
permanent compression being applied to the concrete once
the tendon is "locked-off" at the anchorage
Structural steel

Structural steel is a category of steel used for making construction

materials in a variety of shapes.
Many structural steel shapes take the form of an elongated beam having
a profile of a specific cross section.
Structural steel shapes, sizes, chemical composition, mechanical
properties such as strengths, storage practices, etc., are regulated by
standards in most industrialized countries.
Common structural shapes

I-beam (I-shaped cross-section – in Britain these include Universal

Beams (UB) and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE,
HE, HL, HD and other sections; in the US it includes Wide Flange (WF or
W-Shape) and H sections)

Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)

HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural

hollow section) and including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and
elliptical cross sections)

Angle (L-shaped cross-section)

Structural channel, or C-beam, or C cross-section

Tee (T-shaped cross-section)

Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)
Railway rail
Vignoles rail
Flanged T rail
Grooved rail
Bar, a long piece with a rectangular cross section, but not so wide so as
to be called a sheet.

Rod, a round or square section long compared to its width; see also
rebar and dowel.
Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 1⁄4 in.

Open web steel joist

Standard structural steels
• Carbon steels
Steel with carbon content from about 0.05 up to 2.1
percent by weight.
It is used to construct buildings, bridges, and other
infrastructure projects.

• High strength low alloy steels

They have a carbon content between 0.05 and 0.25% to
retain formability and weldability.
They are used in cars, trucks, cranes, bridges, roller
coasters and other structures that are designed to handle
large amounts of stress or need a good strength-to-weight
ratio.

• Corrosion resistant high strength low

alloy steels
The most common of the corrosion resistant alloys,
stainless steel, by definition contains a minimum of 10.5%
chromium.
Standard structural steels
• Quenched and tempered alloy
steels
The carbon content of quenched and
tempered steels ranges between 0.20 to
0.60%.

• Forged steel
Forged steel is an alloyed iron-carbon mixture
that has undergone an intense heating process
known as forging. This process creates a very
strong and durable material with a higher
tensile strength than regular carbon steel.
Construction chemicals
Construction chemicals are chemical formulations used with masonry
materials, cement, concrete or other construction materials at the time
of construction to hold the construction materials together.

The global construction chemical market is categorized as:

1. Protective coating
2. Adhesive and sealant
3. Concrete mixtures
4. Asphalt Modifiers
1. Concrete Hardeners
These are chemicals added in floor concrete in order to render it denser and more durable. They
also usually enhance chemical resistance, impact & abrasion resistance, waterproofing capability
etc. besides reducing dusting. All these are required attributes especially for industrial,
commercial or factory floors. Ultimately good quality floor hardeners reduce repairs and
maintenance of concrete floors drastically besides making them long lasting thus adding to cost
effectiveness as well. Floor hardeners can be liquid or solid, metallic or non metallic. Metallic
floor hardeners (solid) are well graded ferrous aggregates. Liquid floor hardeners are water,
silicate etc. based solutions. Pigmented floor hardeners also improve the appearance of floor
surfaces. Floor hardeners are usually applied as per manufacturer’s specifications This
construction chemical Improves the abrasion resistance of dusty or poorly cured concrete by up
to 3 times. Has good resistance to alkali solution and petroleum solvents but poor resistance to
strong acids.
2. Protective and Decorative coating
A protective coating is a layer of material applied to the surface of another material with the
intent of inhibiting or preventing corrosion. A protective coating may be metallic or non-
metallic. Protective coatings are applied using a variety of methods, and can be used for many
other purposes besides corrosion prevention. Commonly used materials in non-metallic
protective coatings include polymers, epoxies and polyurethanes. Materials used for metallic
protective coatings include zinc, aluminum and chromium. Special materials are used in the
finishing coats of plastering or over the plastered surfaces to meet one or more of specific
requirements such as decorative appearance, high durability, fire – proofing, heat insulation,
sound insulation, early completion, high strength etc.
3. Concrete Curing
Concrete curing compound consists essentially of waxes, natural and synthetic resins, and
solvents of high volatility at atmospheric temperatures. The compound forms a moisture
retentive film shortly after being applied on a fresh concrete surface. White or gray pigments are
often incorporated to provide heat reflectance, and to make the compound visible on the
structure for inspection purposes. Curing compound should not be used on surfaces that are to
receive additional concrete, paint, or tile which require a positive bond, unless it has been
demonstrated that the membrane can be satisfactorily removed before the subsequent
application is made, or that the membrane can serve satisfactorily as a base for the later
application.
4. Epoxy Coating
These can come as water or oil based solutions or as solvent-free. They can be single or two-
component. Single-component epoxy paints are usually oil based. Two-component epoxy
coatings are mixed in situ in proportions as prescribed by their manufacturers and they are quite
suitable for factory, industrial or commercial building applications by dint of their excellent
chemical & thermal resistant characteristics, hardness, durability, waterproofing characteristics
etc. They are solvent-free. Epoxy coatings are also used in flooring for decorative purposes.
5. Mould Releasing Agents
Mould release agents come in handy when you have materials that are shaped and constructed
in moulds. Without the releasing agent, your mould may become damaged or even break when
it is time to remove it. Mould release agents come in a variety of textures with the most
commonly used one being an oil type base. If you have never used a releasing agent before, it is
similar to placing oil or butter in the bottom of a dish to remove your final baking product.
Below, you will find the three most commonly used types and their purpose in the
manufacturing industry.
6. Polymer Bonding Agent
Polymer Bonding Agent is an aqueous emulsion of a polymer and chemical admixtures. It is
designed for use as a bonding agent with concrete and cement-based products in interior or
exterior applications. Polymer Bonding Agent is also designed for use as a polymer modifier in
mortars and concretes to develop increased tensile, flexural and bond strengths. The use of
Polymer Bonding Agent in concrete and shotcrete also gives significant improvements in
resistance to penetration by chlorides and de-icing salts.
7. Ready Mix Plaster
Ready mix plaster is a factory mixed/premixed sand-cement based plaster. All the activities that
are generally undertaken on-site are performed in a quality-controlled environment at the plant
to ensure no-batch variation and optimum sand gradation, which is of utmost importance for
any plaster. Other additives such as fly ash and polymers are also added to it, to improve its
performance and various other properties. These are generally used for building houses or
making solid structures of any sort. Apart from these, they can also be used for various other
purposes that require you to put two or more things together that will hold strong for long. You
can also use ready mix plaster to make models.
8. Polymer Modified Mortar
Polymer-modified mortar is made by replacing a portion of the traditional binders with
polymers. Polymers are added to mortar to increase characteristics that may include adhesion,
toughness, flexural or tensile strength, and resistance to chemicals. Polymers act to improve the
workability and adhesion of non-hardened mortar and often require less added water than does
traditional mortar, which results in fewer pores and stronger cements, subsequently reducing
water ingress and permeability to salts. Polymer-modified mortar is often commercially
available with all ingredients already included in the mixture.
9. Waterproofing Chemicals
These chemicals can be quite useful when a structure’s waterproofing capability is to be given a
boost which is especially required for structures constantly dealing with liquids. There are many
varieties. Some of them are crystalline waterproofing chemicals, liquid acrylic elastomeric
waterproofing compounds, polymer modified waterproofing compounds, cementitious
waterproofing compounds etc. Many of these compounds form membranes on the concrete
surfaces to protect them from ingress of water.
MASONRY
Masonry
• Masonry may be defined as the construction of
building units bonded together with mortar.

• The building units may be stones, bricks, or precast blocks of

concrete.
• Masonry is normally used for the construction of
foundations, walls and other similar structural components of
the buildings.
• Masonry has got the highest importance in building industry.

• It performs variety of functions, such as:

(i) supporting loads (ii) subdividing space
(iii) providing thermal and acoustic insulation.
(iv) affording fire and weather protection, Etc.,.
Definition of terms used in Masonry
1. Course: A course is a
horizontal layer of masonry
units. Thus, in stone masonry ,
the thickness of course will be
equal to the height of the
stones plus thickness of one
mortar joint.

2.Header: A header is a full

stone unit or brick which is laid
that its length is perpendicular
to the face of the wall. Thus ,
the longest length of a header
lies at right angles to the face of
the work.

3. Stretcher: A stretcher is a
full stone unit or brick which is
so laid that its length is along or
parallel to the face of the wall.
Thus, the longest length of
stretcher lies parallel to the
face of the work.
4.Natural Bed: Stones are
obtained from rocks which have
distinct planes of divisions along
which the stones can easily be
split. This plane is known as
natural bed.

5. Through stone: A through

stone is a stone header. Through
stones are placed across the wall
at regular interval

6. Sill: The bottom surface of a

door or window opening is
known as Sill.

7. Lintel: It is a horizontal
member of stone, brick , wood,
steel or reinforced concrete, used
to support the masonry and the
super-imposed load above an
opening.
8.Plinth: Plinth is the
horizontal projecting courses
of stone or brick, provided at
the base of the wall above
the ground level.

9.Plinth Course: It is the

uppermost course of the
plinth masonry.

10.Column : It is a vertical
load bearing member of
masonry, which is constructed
in an isolation from the wall
and whose width does not
exceed four times its thickness.

11.Pier: Pier is an isolated

vertical mass of stone or brick
masonry to support beams,
lintels arch etc.
Masonry
Masonry may be of the following types:

1. Stone Masonry

2. Brick Masonry

3. Cement Concrete Blocks Masonry

4. Reinforced Brick Masonry

5. Composite Masonry
STAIRCASE
 CONTENTS
 Introduction

 Technical Terms

 Requirements of good Staircase

 Dimensions of step

 Types of steps

 Classification of Staircase
 INTRODUCTION
 Stairs is a set of steps which give access from floor to
floor.
 The room or enclosure of the building, in which stair
is located is known as staircase.
 Staircase provide access & communication between
floors in multi-storey buildings and are a path by
which fire can spread from one floor to another.
 Therefore it must be enclosed by fire resisting walls,
floors, ceilings and doors.
 It must be designed to carry certain loads, which are
similar to those used for design of the floors.
 Stairs may be constructed of Timber, Bricks, Stone,
Steel or Reinforced Cement Concrete.
 TECHNICAL TERMS
 STEP:- It is a portion of stair which permits
ascent or descent. A stair is composed of a set of
steps.
 TREAD:- It is a upper horizontal portion of a
step upon which foot is placed while ascending or
descending.
 RISER:- It is a vertical portion of a step
providing support to the tread.
 LANDING:- It is level platform at the top or
bottom of a flight between the floors.
 FLIGHT:- This is an unbroken series of steps
between landing.
 TECHNICAL TERMS
 RISE:- It is a vertical distance between two
successive tread faces.
 GOING:- It is a horizontal distance between two
successive riser faces.
 NOSING:- It is the projecting part of the tread
beyond the face of riser.
 SCOTIA:- It is a moulding provided under the
nosing to provide strength to nosing.
 SOFFIT:- it is the underside of a stair.

 PITCH OR SLOPE:- It is the angle which the

line of nosing of the stair makes with the
horizontal.
 TECHNICAL TERMS
 STRINGS OR STRINGERS:- These are the
slopping members which support the steps in a
stair.
 NEWEL POST:- Newel post is a vertical
member which is placed at the ends of flight to
connects the ends of strings and hand rail.
 BALUSTER:- It is vertical member of wood or
metal, supporting the hand rail.
 HEAD ROOM:- It is the clear vertical distance
between the tread and overload structure.
TECHNICAL TERMS
 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD
STAIRCASE
 LOCATION
(a) They should be located near the main entrance to
the building.
(b) There should be easy access from all the rooms
without disturbing the privacy of the rooms.
(c) There should be spacious approach.

(d) Good light and ventilation should be available.

 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD
STAIRCASE
 WIDTH OF STAIR
(a) It should be wide enough to carry the user
without much crowd on inconvenience.
(b) In Residential building, a 90 cm wide stair is
sufficient while in public 1.5 to 1.8 m width may
required.
 LENGTH OF FLIGHT
(a) Thenumber of steps should not be more than 12
& less than 3 from comfort point of view.
 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD
STAIRCASE
 PITCH OF STAIR
(a) Pitch should be limited to 30o to 45o.

 HEAD ROOM
(a) Heightof head room should not be less than 2.1
to 2.3 m.
 BALUSTRADE

(a) Stair should always provided with balustrade.

 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD
STAIRCASE
 STEP DIMENSION
(a) The rise and going should be of such dimensions
as to provide comfort to users.
(b) The going should not be less than 25 cm, though
30 cm going is quite comfortable.
(c) The rise should be between 10 to 15 cm.

(d) The width of landing should not be less than

width of stair.
 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

(a) The material should have fire resistance and

sufficient strong.
 THUMB RULES FOR
DIMENSIONS OF STEP
(a) (2 X Rise in cm) + (Going in cm) = 60

(b) (Rise in cm) + (Going in cm) = 40 to 45

(c) (Rise in cm) X (Going in cm) = 400 to 450

 TYPES OF STEPS
(a) Flier
(b) Bull Nose
(c) Round Ended
(d) Splayed
(e) Commode
(f) Dancing
(g) Winders
 CLASSIFICATION OF
STAIRCASE
 Straight Staircase
 Turning Staircase

(a) Quarter Turn

(b) Half Turn (Dog-Legged & Open well Staircase)

(c) Three-Quarter Turn Staircase

(d) Bifurcated Staircase

 Continuous Staircase

(a) Circular Staircase

(b) Spiral Staircase

(c) Helical Staircase

 STRAIGHT STAIRCASE
 If the space available for stair case is narrow and
long, straight stairs may be provided.
 Such stairs are commonly used to give access to
porch or as emergency exits to cinema halls.
 In this type all steps are in one direction.

 They may be provided in single flight or in two

flights with landing between the two flights
STRAIGHT STAIRCASE
QUARTER TURN
STAIRCASE
DOG-LEGGED STAIRCASE
 It consists of two straight flights with 180° turn
between the two.
 They are very commonly used to give access from
floor to floor.
 Photograph shows the arrangement of steps in
such stairs.
DOG-LEGGED STAIRCASE
 OPEN WELL OR NEWEL
STAIRCASE
 It differs from dog legged stairs such that in this
case there is 0.15 m to 1.0 m gap between the two
adjacent flights.
OPEN WELL OR NEWEL
STAIRCASE
 GEOMETRICAL
STAIRCASE
 This type of stair is similar to the open newel
stair except that well formed between the two
adjacent flights is curved.
 The hand rail provided is continuous.
GEOMETRICAL
STAIRCASE
BIFURCATED STAIRCASE
 Apart from dog legged and open newel type
turns, stairs may turn in various forms.
 They depend upon the available space for stairs.
Quarter turned, half turned with few steps in
between and bifurcated stairs are some of such
turned stairs.
 Figure shows a bifurcated stair.
BIFURCATED STAIRCASE
BIFURCATED STAIRCASE
 SPIRAL STAIRCASE
 These stairs are commonly used as emergency
exits.
 It consists of a central post supporting a series of
steps arranged in the form of a spiral.
 At the end of steps continuous hand rail is
provided.
 Such stairs are provided where space available
for stairs is very much limited.
 Figure shows a typical spiral stair. Cast iron,
steel or R.C.C. is used for building these stairs.
SPIRAL STAIRCASE
SPIRAL STAIRCASE
 MATERIALS USED IN
CONSTRUCTION OF
STAIRCASE
 Timber

 Metal

 R.C.C.

 Stone

 Glass
TIMBER STAIRCASE
METAL STAIRCASE
R.C.C. STAIRCASE
STONE STAIRCASE
GLASS STAIRCASE
 LINTEL
What is Lintel?
A lintel is a beam placed across the openings like doors, windows etc. in buildings to support the
load from the structure above. Lintel is provided above the door and window to transfer the
upward wall load to the surrounding wall. Lintel is generally made up of Reinforced concrete or
cement mortar. The width of lintel beam is equal to the width of wall, and the ends of it is built
into the wall. Lintels are classified based on their material of construction.

Types of Lintel used in Building Construction

1. Timber Lintel
In olden days of construction, Timber lintels were mostly used. But now a days they are replaced
by several modern techniques, however in hilly areas these are using. The main disadvantages
with timber are more cost and less durable and vulnerable to fire.

If the length of opening is more, then it is provided by joining multiple number of wooden pieces
with the help of steel bolts which was shown in fig (a). In case of wider walls, it is composed of
two wooden pieces kept at a distance with the help of packing pieces made of wood. Sometimes,
these are strengthened by the provision of mild steel plates at their top and bottom, called as
flitched lintels
2. Stone Lintel
These are the most common type, especially where stone is abundantly available. The thickness
of these are most important factor of its design. These are also provided over the openings in
brick walls. Stone lintel is provided in the form of either one single piece or more than one piece.

The depth of this type is kept equal to 10 cm / meter of span, with a minimum value of 15 cm.
They are used up to spans of 2 meters. In the structure is subjected to vibratory loads, cracks are
formed in the stone lintel because of its weak tensile nature. Hence caution is needed.

3. Brick Lintel
These are used when the opening is less than 1m and lesser loads are acting. Its depth varies
from 10 cm to 20 cm, depending up on the span.

4. Reinforced Brick Lintel

These are used when loads are heavy and span is greater than 1m. The depth of reinforced brick
lintel should be equal to 10 cm or 15 cm or multiple of 10 cm. the bricks are so arranged that 2 to
3 cm wide space is left length wise between adjacent bricks for the insertion of mild steel bars as
reinforcement. 1:3 cement mortar is used to fill up the gaps.

Vertical stirrups of 6 mm diameter are provided in every 3rd vertical joint. Main reinforcement is
provided at the bottom consists 8 to 10 mm diameter bars, which are cranked up at the ends
5. Steel Lintel
These are used when the superimposed loads are heavy and openings are large. These consist of
channel sections or rolled steel joists. We can use one single section or in combinations
depending up on the requirement.

6. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintel

t present, the lintel made of reinforced concrete are widely used to span the openings for doors,
windows, etc. in a structure because of their strength, rigidity, fire resistance, economy and ease
in construction. These are suitable for all the loads and for any span. The width is equal to width
of wall and depth depends on length of span and magnitude of loading.
 Plinth Level | Sill Level
Plinth Level:-
The level at which Substructure ends and superstructure starts is called Plinth level. It is the part
of the superstructure between natural ground level and Finished floor level. the plinth is provided
to restrict the seepage of stormwater and rainwater into the building.
The plinth height is in between 300mm – 450 mm from ground level.
It is recommended that the minimum plinth height of 150 mm is adopted from the top of the
road.

Damp proof course (DPC) is laid on Plinth level. The purpose of applying DPC is to restrict the
movement of moisture through walls and floors.

In Simple when you climb 3-4 steps to reach the building ground level is called Plinth height.

Sill level or Window Sill level:-

The level between the base portion of the window and portion of the floor above ground level
(upwards) is called Sill level. Mortar bed or concrete bed is laid at the base of the window.
The height of sill level depends upon the type of room for bedroom & bathroom the height may
kept around minimum 1100mm due to privacy concrens and in the living room the window sill
level is kept at minimum 600-650mm from the floor level.

It is recommended that the minimum sill level height of 44 inches

 Cement Mortar: Its Proportion, Preparation, and Uses

Mortar is a homogenous mixture of cement, sand and water. Different types of mortars are
used in masonry construction based on their applications, binding materials, strength,
bulk density and their purposes.

According to ‘Frederick S. Merritt’, (Author of Building Design and Construction

Handbook), mortars are composed of a cementitious material, fine aggregate, sand, and
specific amount of water. Mortar can be used for a number of purposes such as plastering
over bricks or other forms of masonry, for flooring etc., and with the addition of coarse
aggregate, it can also be used to make concrete.
Cement mortar also provides a superior medium to create a smooth surface on walls made
from bricks or other forms of masonry.

Proportion of Cement Mortar

The Proportion means the relative quantity of different components to be mixed to make
good mortar, or simply the ratio between different materials.
 Following are the proportions of cement mortar which is commonly recommended for
different works:

01. Masonry Construction:

 For ordinary masonry work with brick/ stone as a structural unit. – 1:3 to 1:6

 Forreinforced brick work – 1:2 to 1:3.

 For all work in moist situations – 1:3

 For Architectural work – 1:6

 For Load Bearing structures – 1:3 or 1:4

02. Plaster Work:
 For External Plaster and Ceiling Plaster – 1:4

 Internal Plaster (If sand is not fine i.e. Fineness Modulus> 3) – 1:5

 For Internal Plaster (if fine sand is available) – 1:6

Curing of Cement Mortar

Cement gains strength with hydration. So, it is necessary to see that the mortar remains wet
until hydration occurs. After placing the mortar/concrete, the process of ensuring sufficient
moisture for hydration is called curing. Curing is ensured by spraying water. Generally,
curing begins 6–24 hours after using mortar. Initially, more water is required for hydration,
which can be reduced gradually. Curing for cement mortar is recommended for 7 days.
 PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE
Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate(sand) and coarse aggregate
without steel. PCC is an important component of a building which is laid on the soil surface to
avoid direct contact of reinforcement of concrete with soil and water.

Material Used in Plain Cement Concrete

1. Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate used in the PCC must be of hard broken stone of granite or similar stone, free
from dust, dirt and other foreign matter. The stone shall be 20 mm in size and smaller. All the
coarse material should be retained in a 5mm square mesh and should be well graded so that the
voids do not exceed 42%.

2. Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate shall be of coarse sand consisting of hard, sharp and angular grains and shall pass
through a screen of 5 mm square mesh. Sand shall be of standard specifications, clean and free
from dust, dirt and organic matter.

3. Cement
Portland Pozzolana cement (P.P.C) is normally used for plain cement concrete. It should
conform to the specifications and shall have the required tensile and compressive stresses and
fineness.

4. Water
Water used shall be clean and reasonably free from injurious quantities of deleterious materials
such as oils, acids, alkalis, salts and vegetable growth. Generally, potable water shall be used
having a pH value not less than 6.

Proportioning of Plain Cement Concrete

1. The proportioning is done based on the requirement or given specification. Generally

1:2:4 or 1:3:6 mix is used.
 Reinforced Cement Concrete
Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) is the combination of ordinary concrete with the steel
reinforcement to increase its compressive and tensile strength to a great extent.
Nature of Reinforced Cement Concrete:
The main principle in the preparation of the reinforced cement concrete is to make a structural
material in which

(i) Steel serves the purpose of bearing the main tensile stresses;
(ii) concrete bears the main compressive forces, both acting in complete unison;
Some common types of reinforcement are:

(i) Mild Steel Bars:

This steel bar used as reinforcement can be commonly bent easily without cracking at the bends.
(ii) Hot Rolled Bars and Cold Worked Bars:
Hot Rolled Bars has a characteristic strength in tension which is almost double than that of mild
steel bars.
They can be bent by heating (up to 100°C) without developing any defects.
Similarly, the cold worked steel bars come in twisted or stretched forms having elongated ribs or
such structures along their length.
(iii) Steel Fabric:
This is made from a variety of bars and wires.

These may include plain round wires, indented and deformed wires, deformed steel bars of cold-
worked type.

PRECAST CONCRETE
The form of construction where concrete is cast in a reusable mould and then cured in a
controlled environment (precast plant) is called precast concrete. The casted structural member
is then transported to the construction site and then erected. Structural members such as concrete
frames, concrete walls, and concrete floors, etc. can be constructed using precast concrete.

Advantages of Precast Concrete

There are many precast concrete advantages. They are discussed below.

1. Saves Construction Time:.

2. Quality Assurance:
3. Cost-effective:.
4. Durability:
5. Aesthetics:
6. Safe Construction Platform
Photograph of precast concrete

Photograph of constructing precast building

 STRUCTURAL STEEL

Structural Steel is a special kind of Steel. It is used for construction purposes. Due to its rigidity
and high strength-to-weight ratio, structural Steel is mainly employed in buildings. Structural
Steel is used in houses, warehouses, airplane hangars, educational facilities, bridges, stadiums,
etc.

Structural Steel is Steel that contains carbon, not more than 2.1%. These are also called Carbon
Steel, and structural Steel typically has a carbon content of less than 0.6%.

Properties of Structural Steel

 Density: The density of Structural Steel is 7750 to 8100 kg/m3.

 Young's Modulus of Elasticity: Typical values for structural steel range from 190-210
GPa
 Poisson's ratio: For structural Steel, the acceptable value ranges from 0.27 to 0.3.
 Tensile strength: Structural Steel has high tensile strength, so it is preferred over other
construction materials.
 Yield strength: The yield strength, also known as the yield point, is the stress at which
an object permanently deforms. When stress is removed, it does not revert to its former
shape. Carbon structural steel has a yield strength ranging from 187 to 758 MPa. The
values of structural Steel constructed of alloys range from 366 to 1793 MPa.
 Shear strength: The shear strength of steel structure is specified at the failure under
shear stress, and it is about 0.57 times the yield stress of structural Steel.
 Hardness: The resistance of an object to shape change when force is applied is referred
to as hardness. There are three different types of hardness tests. Scratch, indentation, and
rebound are all terms used to describe the process of scratching and indenting, and the
hardness of structural Steel manufactured with alloys ranges from 149 to 627 kg. Carbon
structural steels have a weight range of 86 to 388 kg.

Types of Structural Steel

 Carbon steel: Steel in which the carbon content is upto 2% is known as carbon steel. The
Specified ultimate tensile strength is 410 to 440 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 to 400
MPa.
 High-strength carbon steel: These steels are used in structures such as transmission
lines and microwave towers. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 to 550 MPa,
and the yield strength is 350 to 400 MPa.
 Medium and high strength micro-alloyed steel: Alloys such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, etc., are used to increase the strength while retaining the desired ductility.
The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa, and the yield strength is 300 to
450 MPa.
 High strength quenched and tempered Steel: Heat treatment increases strength
in this type of Steel. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa; the yield
strength is 300 to 450 MPa.
  Weathering Steel: These are corrosion-resistant Steel and are often not Painted. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 MPa.
 Fire-resistant Steel: These steels are also known as thermo mechanically treated (TMT)
steel and are used where the structures are more prone to fire.

Types of Steel Sections

Structural steel members are fabricated in factories according to their intended use. Continuous
casting molds are used to cast rolled steel parts with no joints. The following sections describe
the various shapes and forms of rolled steel sections.

1. Rolled Steel I-sections (Beam sections).

2. Rolled Steel Channel Sections.
3. Rolled Steel Tee Sections.
4. Rolled Steel Angles Sections.
5. Rolled Steel Bars.
6. Rolled Steel Tubes.
7. Rolled Steel Flats.
8. Rolled Steel Sheets

Photograph of different types of steel sections

Different Types of Construction Chemicals

Construction chemicals have always been playing important roles in virtually all sorts of
construction projects, be it industrial projects, residential building projects, commercial
building projects and so on. These chemicals are often used in various elements of projects in
order to achieve various important qualities such as workability, durability etc. Construction
chemicals exist in many varieties from a large number of manufacturers worldwide.

Concrete curing compounds

Concrete curing compound consists essentially of waxes, natural and synthetic resins, and
solvents of high volatility at atmospheric temperatures. The compound forms a moisture
retentive film shortly after being applied on a fresh concrete surface.

Polymer bonding agents

Polymer Bonding Agent is an aqueous emulsion of a polymer and chemical admixtures. It is
designed for use as a bonding agent with concrete and cement-based products in interior or
exterior applications.

Mould releasing agents

Mould release agents come in handy when you have materials that are shaped and
constructed in moulds. Without the releasing agent, your mould may become damaged or
even break when it is time to remove it.

Form release agents

These compounds are applied on the inner surfaces of forms, not only facilitate stripping of
formwork but also render concrete surfaces smoother. They also help enhance the life-span of
the forms. Form releasing agents can be oil based, resin based, water based, organic chemical
based etc.
Concrete floor hardeners
These are chemicals added in floor concrete in order to render it denser and more durable.
They also usually enhance chemical resistance, impact & abrasion resistance, waterproofing
capability etc. besides reducing dusting.

Tile fixing
Tile fixers and tile adhesives form the backbone of your home. A quality tile fixer connects
all your tiles together, to create a beautiful canvas from individual pieces. Tile fixing products
are used for floorings, bathtubs, washbasins, kitchen tops and any other area where two
surfaces need to stick together.
Waterproofing chemicals
These chemicals can be quite useful when a structure’s waterproofing capability is to be
given a boost which is especially required for structures constantly dealing with liquids.
There are many varieties.
Adhesives
These construction chemicals are readily used in all sorts of projects, be it commercial,
residential, industrial etc. construction projects. Adhesives are expected to have strong
bonding capacity besides good waterproofing, weatherproofing etc. qualities.
 COLUMNS
The most commonly encountered compression member in building constructions is a column. A
column is a compression member that transfers load from beam and slab to the structure's
foundation. The IS code refers to the column as a compression member, with an effective length
3 times the least lateral dimension.

What are the Different Types of Columns?

There are many distinct kinds of columns that are utilised in various portions of construction. A
column is a vertical structural component that primarily supports compression loads. It may
distribute the weight from a beam to a floor or foundations, or from a ceiling, floor slab, roof
slab, or other slabs. The bending moments about one or both of the cross-section axes are
frequently present in columns. The different types of columns based on several factors are listed
below.

 Based on shape
 Based on the type of reinforcement
 Based on the type of loading
 Based on the slenderness ratio
 Based on the type of material

Types of Columns Based on Shape

 Square/Rectangular columns- These are generally used in building constructions. Due

to the ease of shuttering and reinforcement placement, these types of columns are both
cost-effective and simple to construct.
 Circular columns- Circular columns are commonly used in piling and elevation of
buildings. It is also used as bridge pillars. They provide better bending resistance than
square or rectangular column
 L-type columns- These types of columns are commonly used at the corners of boundary
walls.
 T-type columns- These types of columns are quite commonly used in bridge
construction.
 Y-type columns- They are used in bridge and flyover construction

Types of Columns Based on the Type of Reinforcement

Tied Columns- These are the types of columns in which the main longitudinal bars are enclosed
within closely and uniformly spaced lateral ties. These are the most commonly used types of
reinforced columns
 Spiral Columns- In these types of columns, the main longitudinal bars are confined
within continuously wound spiral reinforcement. The spiral reinforcements provide
lateral support and delay failure due to axial load.

 Composite Columns- These are the types of columns where the reinforcement is in the
form of structural steel sections or pipes with or without longitudinal bars.
Types of Columns Based on the Slenderness Ratio

The slenderness ratio of a compression member is defined as the ratio of its effective length to its
lateral dimensions. It provides a measure of the column’s susceptibility to buckling failure.
Columns can be divided into two types of columns based on the slenderness ratio.

 Short column- The column is referred to as a short column if the ratio of the effective
length of the column to the least lateral dimension is less than 12. The failure of a short
column is due to crushing (pure compression failure).
 Long columns- A long column is defined as one in which the ratio of the effective length
of the column to the least lateral dimension is more than 12. Bending or buckling is how
a long column fails.

SLABS

What is a concrete slab?

A concrete slab is one of the structural members of buildings or infrastructure. The slab is
constructed generally in uniform thickness, but it may vary in some cases. The slab is usually
constructed with concrete ingredients. It consists of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, cement
material and structural steel. Steel-reinforced slabs, typically between 100 and 500 mm thick, are
most often used to construct floors and ceilings

Why is a concrete slab constructed?

The concrete slab is constructed the supporting the walls, beams and columns of the structures. It
plays an important role in the structures. It is usually constructed with uniform thickness, but it
may be constructed with varying thicknesses.
Classification of slabs

Slabs are generally classified into one-way slab and two-way slab. The former is supported on
two sides and the ratio of long to short span is greater than two. However, the latter is supported
on four sides and the ratio of long to short span is smaller than two.

PLINTH AREA AND CARPET AREA

How do you calculate plinth area?

Plinth area = building carpet area + wall area (both internal and exterior walls) + parasitic
area + elevator openings, etc. The plinth area is the space between the building's exterior and
outer bounds or its walls. The carpet area is the sum of the actual areas of the rooms that you can
carpet.

Plinth area and carpet area of a building is measured for estimation and calculation of building
cost. It is also a measure of usable space of building. Plinth area is the covered built-up area
measured at the floor level of any storey or at the floor level of the basement. Plinth area is also
called as built-up area and is the entire area occupied by the building including internal and
external walls. Plinth area is generally 10-20% more than carpet area.
Carpet area the covered area of the usable spaces of rooms at any floor. It is measured between
walls to walls within the building and is the sum of the actual areas of the rooms where you can
carpet

.
BEAMS

A beam is a structural element or member that largely transfers loads placed along its axis to its
supports, such as walls, columns, foundations, and so on, with bending being the primary way of
deflections

TYPES OF BEAM

1.SimplySupportedBeam:

Fig1:SimplySupportedBeam

It is one of the most basic structural elements because both ends are supported, but it can rotate
freely. There are pinned support at one end, and at the other, there is roller support. It can
withstand shearing and bend depending on the strain.

2.CantileverBeam:

Fig2:CantileverBeam

A cantilever beam is defined as a fastened beam at one end and set to be free at the other. The
load is distributed back to the support, subjected to moment and shear stress. Bay windows,
balconies, and some bridges are all possible using cantilever beams.
3.FixedBeam:

Fig 3: Fixed Beam

This type of beam has fixed ends on both ends. In addition, the fixed beam’s rotating movement
is controlled. The fixed beam’s end cannot be rotated because it is fixed at both ends. The fixed
beam is positioned to withstand high pressure. There is no reaction from this type of beam. It is
employed in the construction of high-rise buildings and industrial structures.

4.OverhangingBeam:

Fig4:OverhangingBeam

A simple supporting beam-like structure is commonly used for this sort of beam. In an
overhanging beam, however, one end extends beyond the support. The beam is often delivered at
each end of the column to transfer the load. A column supports one end of an overhanging beam,
while the other is overhung away from the support. In residential buildings, overhanging beams
are typically employed to create shade or balconies. Both ends of the Double Overhanging Beam
overhang somewhat away from the support.

5.ContinuousBeam:
Fig5:ContinuousBeam

A continuous beam contains more than two or more supports. It’s similar to a supported beam.
When a beam is maintained at both ends with intermediate support, it is referred to as a
continuous beam. There are multiple spans in these types of beams. In bridge construction, a
continuous beam is most usually employed. This sort of beam has more than two supports
running its length.