Venus

Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is a terrestrial planet and is the closest in mass and size to
its orbital neighbour Earth. Venus is notable for having the densest atmosphere of the terrestrial
planets, composed mostly of carbon dioxide with a thick, global sulfuric acid cloud cover. At the surface
it has a mean temperature of 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F) and a pressure of 92 times that of Earth's at sea
level. These extreme conditions compress carbon dioxide into a supercritical state close to Venus's
surface.

Internally, Venus has a core, mantle, and crust. Venus lacks an internal dynamo, and its weakly induced
magnetosphere is caused by atmospheric interactions with the solar wind. Internal heat escapes through
active volcanism,[20][21] resulting in resurfacing instead of plate tectonics. Venus is one of two planets in
the Solar System, the other being Mercury, that have no moons.[22] Conditions perhaps favourable for
life on Venus have been identified at its cloud layers. Venus may have had liquid surface water early in
its history with a habitable environment,[23][24] before a runaway greenhouse effect evaporated any
water and turned Venus into its present state.[25][26][27]

The rotation of Venus has been slowed and turned against its orbital direction (retrograde) by the
currents and drag of its atmosphere. It takes 224.7 Earth days for Venus to complete an orbit around the
Sun, and a Venusian solar year is just under two Venusian days long. The orbits of Venus and Earth are
the closest between any two Solar System planets, approaching each other in synodic periods of 1.6
years. Venus and Earth have the lowest difference in gravitational potential of any pair of Solar System
planets. This allows Venus to be the most accessible destination and a useful gravity assist waypoint for
interplanetary flights from Earth.

Historically, Venus has been a common and important object for humans, in both their cultures and
astronomy. Orbiting inferiorly (inside of Earth's orbit), it always appears close to the Sun in Earth's sky,
as either a "morning star" or an "evening star". While this is also true for Mercury, Venus appears more
prominent, since it is the third brightest object in Earth's sky after the Moon and the Sun.[28][29] In
1961, Venus became the target of the first interplanetary flight, Venera 1, followed by many essential
interplanetary firsts, such as the first soft landing on another planet by Venera 7 in 1970. These probes
demonstrated the extreme surface conditions, an insight that has informed predictions about global
warming on Earth.[30][31] This finding ended the theories and then popular science fiction about Venus
being a habitable or inhabited planet.

Physical characteristics
Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System,
meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth. It is similar to Earth in
size and mass and is often described as Earth's "sister" or "twin".[32]
Venus is close to spherical due to its slow rotation.[33] Venus has a
diameter of 12,103.6 km (7,520.8 mi)—only 638.4 km (396.7 mi) less
Venus to scale among the terrestrial than Earth's—and its mass is 81.5% of Earth's, making it the third-
planets of the Solar System, which smallest planet in the Solar System. Conditions on the Venusian
are arranged by the order of their surface differ radically from those on Earth because its dense
Inner Solar System orbits outward atmosphere is 96.5% carbon dioxide, with most of the remaining
from the Sun (from left: Mercury,
3.5% being nitrogen.[34] The surface pressure is 9.3 megapascals (93
Venus, Earth and Mars)
bars), and the average surface temperature is 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F),
above the critical points of both major constituents and making the
surface atmosphere a supercritical fluid out of mainly supercritical carbon dioxide and some
supercritical nitrogen.

Atmosphere and climate

Venus has a dense atmosphere composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide,
3.5% nitrogen—both exist as supercritical fluids at the planet's
surface with a density 6.5% that of water[35]—and traces of other
gases including sulphur dioxide.[36] The mass of its atmosphere is 92
times that of Earth's, whereas the pressure at its surface is about 93
times that at Earth's—a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of
nearly 1 km (5⁄8 mi) under Earth's ocean surfaces. The density at the
surface is 65 kg/m3 (4.1 lb/cu ft), 6.5% that of water[35] or 50 times
as dense as Earth's atmosphere at 293 K (20 °C; 68 °F) at sea level.
The CO2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect
in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K
Cloud structure of the Venusian
(462 °C; 864 °F).[37][38] This makes the Venusian surface hotter
atmosphere, made visible through
than Mercury's, which has a minimum surface temperature of 53 K
ultraviolet imaging
(−220 °C; −364 °F) and maximum surface temperature of 700 K
(427 °C; 801 °F),[39][40] even though Venus is nearly twice Mercury's
distance from the Sun and thus receives only 25% of Mercury's solar irradiance. Because of its runaway
greenhouse effect, Venus has been identified by scientists such as Carl Sagan as a warning and research
object linked to climate change on Earth.[30][31]

Venus temperature[41] Venus's atmosphere is rich in primordial noble gases compared to that
of Earth.[42] This enrichment indicates an early divergence from Earth
Surface
Type in evolution. An unusually large comet impact[43] or accretion of a
temperature
more massive primary atmosphere from solar nebula[44] have been
Maximum 900 °F (482 °C) proposed to explain the enrichment. However, the atmosphere is
depleted of radiogenic argon, a proxy for mantle degassing, suggesting
Normal 847 °F (453 °C)
an early shutdown of major magmatism.[45][46]
Minimum 820 °F (438 °C)
Studies have suggested that billions of years ago, Venus's atmosphere
could have been much more like the one surrounding the early Earth, and that there may have been
substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface.[47][48][49] After a period of 600 million to several
billion years,[50] solar forcing from rising luminosity of the Sun and possibly large volcanic resurfacing
caused the evaporation of the original water and the current atmosphere.[51] A runaway greenhouse
effect was created once a critical level of greenhouse gases (including water) was added to its
atmosphere.[52] Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any Earth-like life
that may have formed before this event, there is speculation on the possibility that life exists in the
upper cloud layers of Venus, 50 km (30 mi) up from the surface, where the atmospheric conditions are
the most Earth-like in the Solar System,[53] with temperatures ranging between 303 and 353 K (30 and
80 °C; 86 and 176 °F), and the pressure and radiation being about the same as at Earth's surface, but
with acidic clouds and the carbon dioxide air.[54][55][56] Venus's atmosphere could also have a potential
thermal habitable zone at elevations of 54 to 48 km, with lower elevations inhibiting cell growth and
higher elevations exceeding evaporation temperature.[57][58] The putative detection of an absorption
line of phosphine in Venus's atmosphere, with no known pathway for abiotic production, led to
speculation in September 2020 that there could be extant life currently present in the atmosphere.[59]
[60] Later research attributed the spectroscopic signal that was interpreted as phosphine to sulphur

dioxide,[61] or found that in fact there was no absorption line.[62][63]

Thermal inertia and the transfer of heat by winds in the lower
atmosphere mean that the temperature of Venus's surface does not
vary significantly between the planet's two hemispheres, those facing
and not facing the Sun, despite Venus's slow rotation. Winds at the
surface are slow, moving at a few kilometres per hour, but because of
the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, they exert a
significant amount of force against obstructions, and transport dust
and small stones across the surface. This alone would make it
difficult for a human to walk through, even without the heat,
pressure, and lack of oxygen.[64]

Above the dense CO2 layer are thick clouds, consisting mainly of
sulfuric acid, which is formed by sulphur dioxide and water through
a chemical reaction resulting in sulfuric acid hydrate. Additionally,
the clouds consist of approximately 1% ferric chloride.[65][66] Other
possible constituents of the cloud particles are ferric sulfate, Types of cloud layers, as well as
aluminium chloride and phosphoric anhydride. Clouds at different temperature and pressure change
levels have different compositions and particle size distributions.[65] by altitude in the atmosphere
These clouds reflect, similar to thick cloud cover on Earth,[67] about
70% of the sunlight that falls on them back into space,[68] and since
they cover the whole planet they prevent visual observation of Venus's surface. The permanent cloud
cover means that although Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun, it receives less sunlight on the ground,
with only 10% of the received sunlight reaching the surface,[69] resulting in average daytime levels of
illumination at the surface of 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth "in the daytime with overcast
clouds".[70] Strong 300 km/h (185 mph) winds at the cloud tops go around Venus about every four to
five Earth days.[71] Winds on Venus move at up to 60 times the speed of its rotation, whereas Earth's
fastest winds are only 10–20% rotation speed.[72]

The surface of Venus is effectively isothermal; it retains a constant temperature not only between the
two hemispheres but between the equator and the poles.[4][73] Venus's minute axial tilt—less than 3°,
compared to 23° on Earth—also minimises seasonal temperature variation.[74] Altitude is one of the few
factors that affect Venusian temperatures. The highest point on Venus, Maxwell Montes, is therefore the
coolest point on Venus, with a temperature of about 655 K (380 °C; 715 °F) and an atmospheric pressure
of about 4.5 MPa (45 bar).[75][76] In 1995, the Magellan spacecraft imaged a highly reflective substance
at the tops of the highest mountain peaks, a "Venus snow" that bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial
snow. This substance likely formed from a similar process to snow, albeit at a far higher temperature.
Too volatile to condense on the surface, it rose in gaseous form to higher elevations, where it is cooler
and could precipitate. The identity of this substance is not known with certainty, but speculation has
ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide (galena).[77]

Although Venus has no seasons, in 2019 astronomers identified a cyclical variation in sunlight
absorption by the atmosphere, possibly caused by opaque, absorbing particles suspended in the upper
clouds. The variation causes observed changes in the speed of Venus's zonal winds and appears to rise
and fall in time with the Sun's 11-year sunspot cycle.[78]

The existence of lightning in the atmosphere of Venus has been controversial[79] since the first
suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes.[80][81][82] In 2006–07, Venus Express
clearly detected whistler mode waves, the signatures of lightning. Their intermittent appearance
indicates a pattern associated with weather activity. According to these measurements, the lightning rate
is at least half that on Earth,[83] however other instruments have not detected lightning at all.[79] The
origin of any lightning remains unclear, but could originate from clouds or Venusian volcanoes.

In 2007, Venus Express discovered that a huge double atmospheric polar vortex exists at the south pole.
[84][85] Venus Express discovered, in 2011, that an ozone layer exists high in the atmosphere of Venus.
[86] On 29 January 2013, ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of Venus streams outwards in a

manner similar to "the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions."[87][88]

In December 2015, and to a lesser extent in April and May 2016, researchers working on Japan's
Akatsuki mission observed bow-shaped objects in the atmosphere of Venus. This was considered direct
evidence of the existence of perhaps the largest stationary gravity waves in the solar system.[89][90][91]

Geography
The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation
until some of its secrets were revealed by planetary
science in the 20th century. Venera landers in 1975
and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in
sediment and relatively angular rocks.[92] The
surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990–
91. The ground shows evidence of extensive
volcanism, and the sulphur in the atmosphere may
indicate that there have been recent eruptions.[93]
[94]

About 80% of the Venusian surface is covered by Color-coded elevation map, showing the elevated
smooth, volcanic plains, consisting of 70% plains terrae "continents" in yellow and minor features of
Venus.
with wrinkle ridges and 10% smooth or lobate plains.
[95] Two highland "continents" make up the rest of

its surface area, one lying in the planet's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator.
The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra after Ishtar, the Babylonian goddess of love, and is about
the size of Australia. Maxwell Montes, the highest mountain on Venus, lies on Ishtar Terra. Its peak is
11 km (7 mi) above the Venusian average surface elevation.[96] The southern continent is called
Aphrodite Terra, after the Greek mythological goddess of love, and is the larger of the two highland
regions at roughly the size of South America. A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area.
[97]

There is recent evidence of lava flow on Venus (2024),[98] such as flows on Sif Mons, a shield volcano,
and on Niobe Planitia, a flat plain.[99] There are visible calderas. The planet has few impact craters,
demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, at 300–600 million years old.[100][101] Venus has
some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found
on rocky planets. Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called "farra", which look somewhat like
pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km (12 to 31 mi) across, and from 100 to 1,000 m (330 to
3,280 ft) high; radial, star-like fracture systems called "novae"; features with both radial and concentric
fractures resembling spider webs, known as "arachnoids"; and "coronae", circular rings of fractures
sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin.[102]

Most Venusian surface features are named after historical and mythological women.[103] Exceptions are
Maxwell Montes, named after James Clerk Maxwell, and highland regions Alpha Regio, Beta Regio, and
Ovda Regio. The last three features were named before the current system was adopted by the
International Astronomical Union, the body which oversees planetary nomenclature.[104]
The longitude of physical features on Venus is expressed relative to
its prime meridian. The original prime meridian passed through the
radar-bright spot at the centre of the oval feature Eve, located south
of Alpha Regio.[105] After the Venera missions were completed, the
Surface panorama taken by Venera
prime meridian was redefined to pass through the central peak in 13
the crater Ariadne on Sedna Planitia.[106][107]

The stratigraphically oldest tessera terrains have consistently lower thermal emissivity than the
surrounding basaltic plains measured by Venus Express and Magellan, indicating a different, possibly a
more felsic, mineral assemblage.[26][108] The mechanism to generate a large amount of felsic crust
usually requires the presence of water ocean and plate tectonics, implying that habitable condition had
existed on early Venus with large bodies of water at some point.[109] However, the nature of tessera
terrains is far from certain.[110]

Studies reported on 26 October 2023 suggest for the first time that Venus may have had plate tectonics
during ancient times and, as a result, may have had a more habitable environment, possibly one capable
of sustaining life.[23][24] Venus has gained interest as a case for research into the development of Earth-
like planets and their habitability.

Volcanism
Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by
volcanic activity. Venus has several times as many volcanoes as
Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km (60 mi)
across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big
Island of Hawaii.[102]: 154 More than 85,000 volcanoes on Venus
were identified and mapped.[111][112] This is not because Venus is
more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older
Radar mosaic of two 65 km (40 mi) and is not subject to the same erosion process. Earth's oceanic crust
wide (and less than 1 km (0.62 mi) is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic
high) pancake domes in Venus's plates, and has an average age of about 100 million years,[113]
Eistla region
whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300–600 million
years old.[100][102]

Several lines of evidence point to ongoing volcanic activity on Venus. Sulfur dioxide concentrations in
the upper atmosphere dropped by a factor of 10 between 1978 and 1986, jumped in 2006, and again
declined 10-fold.[114] This may mean that levels had been boosted several times by large volcanic
eruptions.[115][116] It has been suggested that Venusian lightning (discussed below) could originate from
volcanic activity (i.e. volcanic lightning). In January 2020, astronomers reported evidence that suggests
that Venus is currently volcanically active, specifically the detection of olivine, a volcanic product that
would weather quickly on the planet's surface.[117][118]

This massive volcanic activity is fuelled by a superheated interior, which models say could be explained
by energetic collisions from when the planet was young. Impacts would have had significantly higher
velocity than on Earth, both because Venus's orbit is faster due to its closer proximity to the Sun and
because objects would require higher orbital eccentricities to collide with the planet.[119]

In 2008 and 2009, the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express, in
the form of four transient localized infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma,[120][note 1] near
the shield volcano Maat Mons. Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit.
These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions.[121][122] The actual
temperatures are not known, because the size of the hot spots could not be measured, but are likely to
have been in the 800–1,100 K (527–827 °C; 980–1,520 °F) range, relative to a normal temperature of
740 K (467 °C; 872 °F).[123] In 2023, scientists reexamined topographical images of the Maat Mons
region taken by the Magellan orbiter. Using computer simulations, they determined that the topography
had changed during an 8-month interval, and concluded that active volcanism was the cause.[124]

Craters
Almost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed
across its surface. On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the
Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon,
degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is
caused by wind and rain erosion. On Venus, about 85% of the craters
are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their
well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global
resurfacing event 300–600 million years ago,[100][101] followed by a
decay in volcanism.[125] Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous
Impact craters on the surface of
motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process.
Venus (false-colour image
Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus
reconstructed from radar data)
instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures
rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then,
over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling
the crust.[102]

Venusian craters range from 3 to 280 km (2 to 174 mi) in diameter. No craters are smaller than 3 km,
because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain
kinetic energy are slowed so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater.[126]
Incoming projectiles less than 50 m (160 ft) in diameter will fragment and burn up in the atmosphere
before reaching the ground.[127]

Internal structure
Without data from reflection seismology or knowledge of its moment
of inertia, little direct information is available about the internal
structure and geochemistry of Venus.[128] The similarity in size and
density between Venus and Earth suggests that they share a similar
internal structure: a core, mantle, and crust. Like that of Earth, the
Venusian core is most likely at least partially liquid because the two
planets have been cooling at about the same rate,[129] although a
completely solid core cannot be ruled out.[130] The slightly smaller
size of Venus means pressures are 24% lower in its deep interior The differentiated structure of Venus

than Earth's.[131] The predicted values for the moment of inertia

based on planetary models suggest a core radius of 2,900–3,450 km.[130] This is in line with the first
observation-based estimate of 3,500 km.[132]

The principal difference between the two planets is the lack of evidence for plate tectonics on Venus,
possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous. This results in
reduced heat loss from the planet, preventing it from cooling and providing a likely explanation for its
lack of an internally generated magnetic field.[133] Instead, Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic
major resurfacing events.[100]
Magnetic field and core
In 1967, Venera 4 found Venus's magnetic field to be much weaker than that of Earth. This magnetic
field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind,[134][135] rather than by an
internal dynamo as in the Earth's core. Venus's small induced magnetosphere provides negligible
protection to the atmosphere against solar and cosmic radiation.

The lack of an intrinsic magnetic field on Venus was surprising, given that it is similar to Earth in size
and was expected to contain a dynamo at its core. A dynamo requires three things: a conducting liquid,
rotation, and convection. The core is thought to be electrically conductive and, although its rotation is
often thought to be too slow, simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo.[136][137] This implies
that the dynamo is missing because of a lack of convection in Venus's core. On Earth, convection occurs
in the liquid outer layer of the core because the bottom of the liquid layer is much higher in temperature
than the top. On Venus, a global resurfacing event may have shut down plate tectonics and led to a
reduced heat flux through the crust. This insulating effect would cause the mantle temperature to
increase, thereby reducing the heat flux out of the core. As a result, no internal geodynamo is available
to drive a magnetic field. Instead, the heat from the core is reheating the crust.[138]

One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core,[139] or that its core is not cooling, so that the entire
liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature. Another possibility is that its core has
already been completely solidified. The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of
sulphur, which is unknown at present.[138]

Another possibility is that the absence of a late, large impact on Venus (contra the Earth's "Moon-
forming" impact) left the core of Venus stratified from the core's incremental formation, and without the
forces to initiate/sustain convection, and thus a "geodynamo".[140]

The weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind is interacting directly with its outer
atmosphere. Here, ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of water molecules
from ultraviolet radiation. The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient
velocity to escape Venus's gravity field. This erosion process results in a steady loss of low-mass
hydrogen, helium, and oxygen ions, whereas higher-mass molecules, such as carbon dioxide, are more
likely to be retained. Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind could have led to the loss of most of Venus's
water during the first billion years after it formed.[141] However, the planet may have retained a dynamo
for its first 2–3 billion years, so the water loss may have occurred more recently.[142] The erosion has
increased the ratio of higher-mass deuterium to lower-mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times
compared to the rest of the solar system.[143]

Orbit and rotation

Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU (108 million km; 67 million mi), and
completes an orbit every 224.7 days. Although all planetary orbits are elliptical, Venus's orbit is
currently the closest to circular, with an eccentricity of less than 0.01.[4] Simulations of the early solar
system orbital dynamics have shown that the eccentricity of the Venus orbit may have been substantially
larger in the past, reaching values as high as 0.31 and possibly impacting early climate evolution.[144]

All planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in an anticlockwise direction as viewed from above Earth's
north pole. Most planets rotate on their axes in an anticlockwise direction, but Venus rotates clockwise
in retrograde rotation once every 243 Earth days—the slowest rotation of any planet. This Venusian
sidereal day lasts therefore longer than a Venusian year (243 versus 224.7 Earth days). Slowed by its
strong atmospheric current the length of the day also fluctuates by up to 20 minutes.[145] Venus's
equator rotates at 6.52 km/h (4.05 mph), whereas Earth's rotates at
1,674.4 km/h (1,040.4 mph).[note 2][149] Venus's rotation period
measured with Magellan spacecraft data over a 500-day period is
smaller than the rotation period measured during the 16-year period
between the Magellan spacecraft and Venus Express visits, with a
difference of about 6.5 minutes.[150] Because of the retrograde
rotation, the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter
than the sidereal day, at 116.75 Earth days (making the Venusian
solar day shorter than Mercury's 176 Earth days — the 116-day figure
Venus is the second planet from the
is close to the average number of days it takes Mercury to slip Sun, making a full orbit in about 224
underneath the Earth in its orbit [the number of days of Mercury's days
synodic orbital period]).[11] One Venusian year is about
1.92 Venusian solar days.[151] To an observer on the surface of
Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east,[151]
although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the
planet's surface.[152]

Venus may have formed from the solar nebula with a different
rotation period and obliquity, reaching its current state because of
chaotic spin changes caused by planetary perturbations and tidal
effects on its dense atmosphere, a change that would have occurred
over the course of billions of years. The rotation period of Venus may Venus and its rotation in respect to
represent an equilibrium state between tidal locking to the Sun's its revolution.
gravitation, which tends to slow rotation, and an atmospheric tide
created by solar heating of the thick Venusian atmosphere.[153][154]
The 584-day average interval between successive close approaches to Earth is almost exactly equal to
5 Venusian solar days (5.001444 to be precise),[155] but the hypothesis of a spin-orbit resonance with
Earth has been discounted.[156]

Venus has no natural satellites.[157] It has several trojan asteroids: the quasi-satellite 524522 Zoozve[158]
[159] and two other temporary trojans, 2001 CK [160] In the 17th century, Giovanni
32 and 2012 XE133.
Cassini reported a moon orbiting Venus, which was named Neith and numerous sightings were reported
over the following 200 years, but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity. Alex Alemi's and
David Stevenson's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the California Institute of
Technology shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge impact event billions of years
ago.[161] About 10 million years later, according to the study, another impact reversed the planet's spin
direction and the resulting tidal deceleration caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until
it collided with Venus.[162] If later impacts created moons, these were removed in the same way. An
alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides, which can destabilize
large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets.[157]

The orbital space of Venus has a dust ring-cloud,[163] with a suspected origin either from Venus–trailing
asteroids,[164] interplanetary dust migrating in waves, or the remains of the Solar System's original
circumstellar disc that formed the planetary system.[165]

Orbit in respect to Earth

Earth and Venus have a near orbital resonance of 13:8 (Earth orbits eight times for every 13 orbits of
Venus).[166] Therefore, they approach each other and reach inferior conjunction in synodic periods of
584 days, on average.[4] The path that Venus makes in relation to Earth viewed geocentrically draws a
pentagram over five synodic periods, shifting every period by 144°. This
pentagram of Venus is sometimes referred to as the petals of Venus due to
the path's visual similarity to a flower.[167]

When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction, it
makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of
41 million km (25 million mi).[4][note 3][168] Because of the decreasing
eccentricity of Earth's orbit, the minimum distances will become greater
over tens of thousands of years. From the year 1 to 5383, there are 526 Earth is positioned at the
approaches less than 40 million km (25 million mi); then, there are none centre of the diagram, and
for about 60,158 years.[169] the curve represents the
direction and distance of
While Venus approaches Earth the closest, Mercury is more often the Venus as a function of time.
closest to Earth of all planets.[170][171] Venus has the lowest gravitational
potential difference to Earth than any other planet, needing the lowest
delta-v to transfer between them.[172][173]

Tidally Venus exerts the third strongest tidal force on Earth, after the Moon and the Sun, though
significantly less.[174]

Observability
To the naked eye, Venus appears as a white point of light brighter
than any other planet or star (apart from the Sun).[175] The planet's
mean apparent magnitude is −4.14 with a standard deviation of 0.31.
[18] The brightest magnitude occurs during the crescent phase about

one month before or after an inferior conjunction. Venus fades to

about magnitude −3 when it is backlit by the Sun.[176] The planet is
bright enough to be seen in broad daylight,[177] but is more easily
visible when the Sun is low on the horizon or setting. As an inferior Venus, pictured centre-right, is
planet, it always lies within about 47° of the Sun.[178] always brighter than all other
planets or stars at their maximal
Venus "overtakes" Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun.[4] As it brightness, as seen from Earth.
does so, it changes from the "Evening Star", visible after sunset, to Jupiter is visible at the top of the
image.
the "Morning Star", visible before sunrise. Although Mercury, the
other inferior planet, reaches a maximum elongation of only 28° and
is often difficult to discern in twilight, Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest. Its greater
maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset. As the brightest point-like object
in the sky, Venus is a commonly misreported "unidentified flying object".[179]

Phases
As it orbits the Sun, Venus displays phases like those of the Moon in a telescopic view. The planet
appears as a small and "full" disc when it is on the opposite side of the Sun (at superior conjunction).
Venus shows a larger disc and "quarter phase" at its maximum elongations from the Sun, and appears at
its brightest in the night sky. The planet presents a much larger thin "crescent" in telescopic views as it
passes along the near side between Earth and the Sun. Venus displays its largest size and "new phase"
when it is between Earth and the Sun (at inferior conjunction). Its atmosphere is visible through
telescopes by the halo of sunlight refracted around it.[178] The phases are clearly visible in a 4" telescope.
[180] Although naked eye visibility of Venus's phases is disputed, records exist of observations of its

crescent.[181]
Daylight apparitions
When Venus is sufficiently bright with enough angular distance from
the sun, it is easily observed in a clear daytime sky with the naked
eye, though most people do not know to look for it.[182] Astronomer
Edmund Halley calculated its maximum naked eye brightness in
1716, when many Londoners were alarmed by its appearance in the
daytime. French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte once witnessed a
daytime apparition of the planet while at a reception in Luxembourg.
[183] Another historical daytime observation of the planet took place

during the inauguration of the American president Abraham Lincoln

in Washington, D.C., on 4 March 1865.[184]
The phases of Venus and evolution
of its apparent diameter
Transits
A transit of Venus is the
appearance of Venus in front of
the Sun, during inferior
conjunction. Since the orbit of
Venus is slightly inclined relative
to Earth's orbit, most inferior
conjunctions with Earth, which
occur every synodic period of 1.6 Venus is often visible to the naked
years, do not produce a transit of eye in daytime, as seen just prior to
the lunar occultation of December
Venus above Earth.
7th, 2015
Consequently, Venus transits
above Earth only occur when an
inferior conjunction takes place during some days of June or
December, the time where the orbits of Venus and Earth cross a
2012 transit of Venus, projected to a straight line with the Sun.[185] This results in Venus transiting above
white card by a telescope Earth in a sequence of currently 8 years, 105.5 years, 8 years and
121.5 years, forming cycles of 243 years.

Historically, transits of Venus were important, because they allowed astronomers to determine the size
of the astronomical unit, and hence the size of the Solar System as shown by Jeremiah Horrocks in 1639
with the first known observation of a Venus transit (after history's first observed planetary transit in
1631, of Mercury).[186]

Only seven Venus transits have been observed so far, since their occurrences were calculated in the 1621
by Johannes Kepler. Captain Cook sailed to Tahiti in 1768 to record the third observed transit of Venus,
which subsequently resulted in the exploration of the east coast of Australia.[187][188]

The latest pair was June 8, 2004 and June 5–6, 2012. The transit could be watched live from many
online outlets or observed locally with the right equipment and conditions.[189] The preceding pair of
transits occurred in December 1874 and December 1882.

The next transit will occur in December 2117 and December 2125.[190]

Ashen light
A long-standing mystery of Venus observations is the so-called ashen light—an apparent weak
illumination of its dark side, seen when the planet is in the crescent phase. The first claimed observation
of ashen light was made in 1643, but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed.
Observers have speculated it may result from electrical activity in the Venusian atmosphere, but it could
be illusory, resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright, crescent-shaped object.[191][81]
The ashen light has often been sighted when Venus is in the evening sky, when the evening terminator of
the planet is towards Earth.

Observation and exploration history

Early observation
Venus is in Earth's sky bright enough to be visible without aid, making it one of the classical planets that
human cultures have known and identified throughout history, particularly for being the third brightest
object in Earth's sky after the Sun and the Moon. Because the movements of Venus appear to be
discontinuous (it disappears due to its proximity to the sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears
on the other horizon), some cultures did not recognise Venus as a single entity;[192] instead, they
assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star.[192] Nonetheless, a
cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period and the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa from the First
Babylonian dynasty indicate that the ancient Sumerians already knew that the morning and evening
stars were the same celestial object.[193][192][194] In the Old Babylonian period, the planet Venus was
known as Ninsi'anna, and later as Dilbat.[195] The name "Ninsi'anna" translates to "divine lady,
illumination of heaven", which refers to Venus as the brightest visible "star". Earlier spellings of the
name were written with the cuneiform sign si4 (= SU, meaning "to be red"), and the original meaning
may have been "divine lady of the redness of heaven", in reference to the colour of the morning and
evening sky.[196]

The Chinese historically referred to the morning Venus as "the Great White" (Tàibái 太白) or "the
Opener (Starter) of Brightness" (Qǐmíng 啟明), and the evening Venus as "the Excellent West One"
(Chánggēng 長庚).[197]

The ancient Greeks initially believed Venus to be two separate stars: Phosphorus, the morning star, and
Hesperus, the evening star. Pliny the Elder credited the realization that they were a single object to
Pythagoras in the sixth century BC,[198] while Diogenes Laërtius argued that Parmenides (early fifth
century) was probably responsible for this discovery.[199] Though they recognized Venus as a single
object, the ancient Romans continued to designate the morning aspect of Venus as Lucifer, literally
"Light-Bringer", and the evening aspect as Vesper,[200] both of which are literal translations of their
traditional Greek names.

In the second century, in his astronomical treatise Almagest, Ptolemy theorized that both Mercury and
Venus were located between the Sun and the Earth. The 11th-century Persian astronomer Avicenna
claimed to have observed a transit of Venus (although there is some doubt about it),[201] which later
astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy's theory.[202] In the 12th century, the Andalusian
astronomer Ibn Bajjah observed "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun"; these were thought
to be the transits of Venus and Mercury by 13th-century Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi,
though this cannot be true as there were no Venus transits in Ibn Bajjah's lifetime.[203][note 4]

Venus and early modern astronomy

When the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei first observed the planet with a telescope in the early 17th
century, he found it showed phases like the Moon, varying from crescent to gibbous to full and vice
versa. When Venus is furthest from the
Sun in the sky, it shows a half-lit phase,
and when it is closest to the Sun in the
sky, it shows as a crescent or full phase.
This could be possible only if Venus
orbited the Sun, and this was among the
first observations to clearly contradict the
Ptolemaic geocentric model that the Solar
System was concentric and centred on In 1610 Galileo Galilei observed with his telescope that Venus
showed phases, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first
Earth.[206][207]
image). This proved that it orbits the Sun and not Earth, as
predicted by Copernicus's heliocentric model and disproved
The 1639 transit of Venus was accurately
Ptolemy's geocentric model (second image).
predicted by Jeremiah Horrocks and
observed by him and his friend, William
Crabtree, at each of their respective homes, on 4 December 1639 (24 November under the Julian
calendar in use at that time).[208]

The atmosphere of Venus was discovered in 1761 by Russian

polymath Mikhail Lomonosov.[209][210] Venus's atmosphere was
observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter. Schröter
found when the planet was a thin crescent, the cusps extended
through more than 180°. He correctly surmised this was due to
scattering of sunlight in a dense atmosphere. Later, American
astronomer Chester Smith Lyman observed a complete ring around
the dark side of the planet when it was at inferior conjunction,
providing further evidence for an atmosphere.[211] The atmosphere
complicated efforts to determine a rotation period for the planet,
and observers such as Italian-born astronomer Giovanni Cassini and
Schröter incorrectly estimated periods of about 24 h from the
motions of markings on the planet's apparent surface.[212]
The "black drop effect" as recorded
during the 1769 transit
Early 20th century advances
Little more was discovered about Venus until the 20th century. Its
almost featureless disc gave no hint what its surface might be like, and it was only with the development
of spectroscopic and ultraviolet observations that more of its secrets were revealed.

Spectroscopic observations in the 1900s gave the first clues about the Venusian rotation. Vesto Slipher
tried to measure the Doppler shift of light from Venus, but found he could not detect any rotation. He
surmised the planet must have a much longer rotation period than had previously been thought.[213]

The first ultraviolet observations were carried out in the 1920s, when Frank E. Ross found that
ultraviolet photographs revealed considerable detail that was absent in visible and infrared radiation.
He suggested this was due to a dense, yellow lower atmosphere with high cirrus clouds above it.[214]

It had been noted that Venus had no discernible oblateness in its disk, suggesting a slow rotation, and
some astronomers concluded based on this that it was tidally locked like Mercury was believed to be at
the time; but other researchers had detected a significant quantity of heat coming from the planet's
nightside, suggesting a quick rotation (a high surface temperature was not suspected at the time),
confusing the issue.[215] Later work in the 1950s showed the rotation was retrograde.
Space age
Humanity's first interplanetary spaceflight was achieved in 1961 with the robotic space probe Venera 1
of the Soviet Venera programme flying to Venus, but it lost contact en route.[216]

The first successful interplanetary mission, also to Venus, was Mariner 2 of the United States' Mariner
programme, passing on 14 December 1962 at 34,833 km (21,644 mi) above the surface of Venus and
gathering data on the planet's atmosphere.[217][218]

Additionally radar observations of Venus were first carried out in the 1960s, and provided the first
measurements of the rotation period, which were close to the actual value.[219]

Venera 3, launched in 1966, became humanity's first probe and lander to reach and impact another
celestial body other than the Moon, but could not return data as it crashed into the surface of Venus. In
1967, Venera 4 was launched and successfully deployed science experiments in the Venusian
atmosphere before impacting. Venera 4 showed the surface temperature was hotter than Mariner 2 had
calculated, at almost 500 °C (932 °F), determined that the atmosphere was 95% carbon dioxide (CO2),
and discovered that Venus's atmosphere was considerably denser than Venera 4's designers had
anticipated.[220]

In an early example of space cooperation the data of Venera 4 was joined with the 1967 Mariner 5 data,
analysed by a combined Soviet–American science team in a series of colloquia over the following year.
[221]

On 15 December 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to soft land on another planet and the first
to transmit data from there back to Earth.[222]

In 1974, Mariner 10 swung by Venus to bend its path towards Mercury and took ultraviolet photographs
of the clouds, revealing the extraordinarily high wind speeds in the Venusian atmosphere. This was the
first interplanetary gravity assist ever used, a technique which would be used by later probes.

Radar observations in the 1970s revealed details of the Venusian surface for the first time. Pulses of
radio waves were beamed at the planet using the 300 m (1,000 ft) radio telescope at Arecibo
Observatory, and the echoes revealed two highly reflective regions, designated the Alpha and Beta
regions. The observations revealed a bright region attributed to mountains, which was called Maxwell
Montes.[223] These three features are now the only ones on Venus that do not have female names.[104]

In 1975, the Soviet Venera 9 and 10

landers transmitted the first images
from the surface of Venus, which
were in black and white. NASA
obtained additional data with the
Pioneer Venus project, consisting of First view and first clear 180-degree panorama of Venus's surface as well
two separate missions: [224] the as any other planet than Earth (1975, Soviet Venera 9 lander). Black-and-
Pioneer Venus Multiprobe and white image of barren, black, slate-like rocks against a flat sky. The
ground and the probe are the focus.
Pioneer Venus Orbiter, orbiting
Venus between 1978 and 1992.[225]
In 1982 the first colour images of the surface were obtained with the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 landers.
After Venera 15 and 16 operated between 1983 and 1984 in orbit, conducting detailed mapping of 25%
of Venus's terrain (from the north pole to 30°N latitude), the Soviet Venera programme came to a close.
[226]
In 1985 the Soviet Vega programme with its Vega 1
and Vega 2 missions carried the last entry probes
and carried the first ever extraterrestrial aerobots for
the first time achieving atmospheric flight outside
Earth by employing inflatable balloons.

Between 1990 and 1994, Magellan operated in orbit

until deorbiting, mapping the surface of Venus.
Furthermore, probes like Galileo (1990),[227]
Cassini–Huygens (1998/1999), and MESSENGER
(2006/2007) visited Venus with flybys en route to
other destinations. In April 2006, Venus Express,
the first dedicated Venus mission by the European Global topographic map of Venus, with all probe
Space Agency (ESA), entered orbit around Venus. landings marked
Venus Express provided unprecedented observation
of Venus's atmosphere. ESA concluded the Venus
Express mission in December 2014 deorbiting it in January 2015.[228]

In 2010, the first successful interplanetary solar sail spacecraft IKAROS travelled to Venus for a flyby.

Active and future missions

As of 2023, the only active mission at Venus is Japan's Akatsuki,
having achieved orbital insertion on 7 December 2015. Additionally,
several flybys by other probes have been performed and studied
Venus on their way, including NASA's Parker Solar Probe, and ESA's
Solar Orbiter and BepiColombo.

There are currently several probes under development as well as

WISPR visible light footage (2021)
multiple proposed missions still in their early conceptual stages. of the nightside, showing the hot
faintly glowing surface, and its
Venus has been identified for future research as an important case Aphrodite Terra as large dark patch,
for understanding: through the clouds, which prohibit
such observations on the dayside
▪ the origins of the solar system and Earth, and if systems and when they are illuminated.[229][230]
planets like ours are common or rare in the universe.
▪ how planetary bodies evolve from their primordial states to
today's diverse objects.
▪ the development of conditions leading to habitable environments and life.[231]

Search for life

Speculation on the possibility of life on Venus's surface decreased significantly after the early 1960s
when it became clear that conditions were extreme compared to those on Earth. Venus's extreme
temperatures and atmospheric pressure make water-based life, as currently known, unlikely.

Some scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the
cooler, acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere.[232][233][234] Such speculations go back to 1967,
when Carl Sagan and Harold J. Morowitz suggested in a Nature article that tiny objects detected in
Venus's clouds might be organisms similar to Earth's bacteria (which are of approximately the same
size):
 While the surface conditions of Venus make the hypothesis of life there implausible, the clouds of
Venus are a different story altogether. As was pointed out some years ago, water, carbon dioxide
and sunlight—the prerequisites for photosynthesis—are plentiful in the vicinity of the clouds.[235]

In August 2019, astronomers led by Yeon Joo Lee reported that long-term pattern of absorbance and
albedo changes in the atmosphere of the planet Venus caused by "unknown absorbers", which may be
chemicals or even large colonies of microorganisms high up in the atmosphere of the planet, affect the
climate.[78] Their light absorbance is almost identical to that of micro-organisms in Earth's clouds.
Similar conclusions have been reached by other studies.[236]

In September 2020, a team of astronomers led by Jane Greaves from Cardiff University announced the
likely detection of phosphine, a gas not known to be produced by any known chemical processes on the
Venusian surface or atmosphere, in the upper levels of the planet's clouds.[237][60][59][238][239] One
proposed source for this phosphine is living organisms.[240] The phosphine was detected at heights of at
least 30 miles (48 km) above the surface, and primarily at mid-latitudes with none detected at the poles.
The discovery prompted NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine to publicly call for a new focus on the
study of Venus, describing the phosphine find as "the most significant development yet in building the
case for life off Earth".[241][242]

Subsequent analysis of the data-processing used to identify phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus has
raised concerns that the detection-line may be an artefact. The use of a 12th-order polynomial fit may
have amplified noise and generated a false reading (see Runge's phenomenon). Observations of the
atmosphere of Venus at other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in which a phosphine absorption
line would be expected did not detect phosphine.[243] By late October 2020, re-analysis of data with a
proper subtraction of background did not show a statistically significant detection of phosphine.[244]
[245][246]

Members of the team around Greaves, are working as part of a project by the MIT to send with the
rocket company Rocket Lab the first private interplanetary space craft, to look for organics by entering
the atmosphere of Venus with a probe, set to launch in January 2025.[247]

Planetary protection
The Committee on Space Research is a scientific organisation established by the International Council
for Science. Among their responsibilities is the development of recommendations for avoiding
interplanetary contamination. For this purpose, space missions are categorized into five groups. Due to
the harsh surface environment of Venus, Venus has been under the planetary protection category two.
[248] This indicates that there is only a remote chance that spacecraft-borne contamination could

compromise investigations.

Human presence
Venus is the place of the first interplanetary human presence, mediated through robotic missions, with
the first successful landings on another planet and extraterrestrial body other than the Moon. Currently
in orbit is Akatsuki, and other probes routinely use Venus for gravity assist manoeuvres capturing some
data about Venus on the way.[249]

The only nation that has sent lander probes to the surface of Venus has been the Soviet Union,[note 5]
which has been used by Russian officials to call Venus a "Russian planet".[250][251]

Crewed flight
Studies of routes for crewed missions to Mars have since the 1960s proposed opposition missions
instead of direct conjunction missions with Venus gravity assist flybys, demonstrating that they should
be quicker and safer missions to Mars, with better return or abort flight windows, and less or the same
amount of radiation exposure from the flight as direct Mars flights.[252][253]

Early in the space age the Soviet Union and the United States proposed the TMK-MAVR and Manned
Venus flyby crewed flyby missions to Venus, though they were never realized.

Habitation
While the surface conditions of Venus are inhospitable, the
atmospheric pressure, temperature, and solar and cosmic radiation
50 km above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface.[58]
[57] With this in mind, Soviet engineer Sergey Zhitomirskiy (Сергей

Житомирский, 1929–2004) in 1971[254][255] and NASA aerospace

engineer Geoffrey A. Landis in 2003[256] suggested the use of
aerostats for crewed exploration and possibly for permanent
"floating cities" in the Venusian atmosphere, an alternative to the Artist's rendering of a NASA High
popular idea of living on planetary surfaces such as Mars.[257][258] Altitude Venus Operational Concept
Among the many engineering challenges for any human presence in (HAVOC) crewed floating outpost on
the atmosphere of Venus are the corrosive amounts of sulfuric acid Venus
in the atmosphere.[256]

NASA's High Altitude Venus Operational Concept is a mission concept that proposed a crewed aerostat
design.

In culture
Venus is a primary feature of the night sky, and so has been of
remarkable importance in mythology, astrology and fiction
throughout history and in different cultures.

The English name of Venus was originally the ancient Roman name
for it. Romans named Venus after their goddess of love, who in turn
was based on the ancient Greek goddess of love Aphrodite,[261] who
was herself based on the similar Sumerian religion goddess Inanna
(which is Ishtar in Akkadian religion), all of whom were associated
with the planet.[262][263] The weekday of the planet and these Venus is portrayed just to the right of
goddesses is Friday, named after the Germanic goddess Frigg, who the large cypress tree in Vincent van
has been associated with the Roman goddess Venus. Gogh's 1889 painting The Starry
Night.[259][260]
Several hymns praise Inanna in her role as the goddess of the planet
Venus.[192][263][262] Theology professor Jeffrey Cooley has argued
that, in many myths, Inanna's movements may correspond with the movements of the planet Venus in
the sky.[192] The discontinuous movements of Venus relate to both mythology as well as Inanna's dual
nature.[192] In Inanna's Descent to the Underworld, unlike any other deity, Inanna is able to descend
into the netherworld and return to the heavens. The planet Venus appears to make a similar descent,
setting in the West and then rising again in the East.[192] An introductory hymn describes Inanna
leaving the heavens and heading for Kur, what could be presumed to be, the mountains, replicating the
rising and setting of Inanna to the West.[192] In Inanna and Shukaletuda and Inanna's Descent into the
Underworld appear to parallel the motion of the planet Venus.[192] In Inanna and Shukaletuda,
Shukaletuda is described as scanning the heavens in search of
Inanna, possibly searching the eastern and western horizons.[264] In
the same myth, while searching for her attacker, Inanna herself
makes several movements that correspond with the movements of
Venus in the sky.[192]

The Ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks possibly knew by the

second millennium BC or at the latest by the Late Period, under
mesopotamian influence that the morning star and an evening star
were one and the same.[265][266] The Egyptians knew the morning
star as Tioumoutiri and the evening star as Ouaiti.[267] They The eight-pointed star a symbol
depicted Venus at first as a phoenix or heron (see Bennu),[265] used in some cultures for Venus,
calling it "the crosser" or "star with crosses", [265] associating it with and sometimes combined into a star
Osiris, and later depicting it two-headed with human or falco heads, and crescent arrangement. Here the
eight pointed star is the Star of
and associated it with Horus,[266] son of Isis (which during the even
Ishtar, the Babylonian Venus
later Hellenistic period was together with Hathor identified with
goddess, alongside the solar disk of
Aphrodite). The Greeks used the names Phōsphoros (Φωσϕόρος), her brother Shamash and the
meaning "light-bringer" (whence the element phosphorus; crescent moon of their father Sin on
alternately Ēōsphoros (Ἠωσϕόρος), meaning "dawn-bringer"), for a boundary stone of Meli-Shipak II,
the morning star, and Hesperos (Ἕσπερος), meaning "Western one", dating to the twelfth century BC.
for the evening star, [268] both children of dawn Eos and therefore
grandchildren of Aphrodite. Though by the Roman era they were
recognized as one celestial object, known as "the star of Venus", the traditional two Greek names
continued to be used, though usually translated to Latin as Lūcifer and Vesper.[268][269]

Classical poets such as Homer, Sappho, Ovid and Virgil spoke of the star and its light.[270] Poets such as
William Blake, Robert Frost, Letitia Elizabeth Landon, Alfred Lord Tennyson and William Wordsworth
wrote odes to it.[271]

In India, Shukra Graha ("the planet Shukra") is named after the powerful saint Shukra. Shukra which is
used in Indian Vedic astrology[272] means "clear, pure" or "brightness, clearness" in Sanskrit. One of the
nine Navagraha, it is held to affect wealth, pleasure and reproduction; it was the son of Bhrgu, preceptor
of the Daityas, and guru of the Asuras.[273] The word Shukra is also associated with semen, or
generation.

Venus is known as Kejora in Indonesian and Malaysian Malay.

In Chinese the planet is called Jīn-xīng (金星), the golden planet of the metal element. Modern Chinese,
Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the "metal star" (金星), based
on the Five elements.[274][275][276][277]

The Maya considered Venus to be the most important celestial body after the Sun and Moon. They called
it Chac ek,[278] or Noh Ek', "the Great Star".[279] The cycles of Venus were important to their calendar
and were described in some of their books such as Maya Codex of Mexico and Dresden Codex. The
Estrella Solitaria ("Lone Star") Flag of Chile depicts Venus.

Modern culture
The impenetrable Venusian cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions
at its surface; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to
Earth, it possessed a substantial atmosphere. Closer to the Sun than Earth, the planet was often depicted
as warmer, but still habitable by humans.[280] The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s,
at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus, but not yet the harsh reality of its surface
conditions. Findings from the first missions to Venus showed reality to be quite different and brought
this particular genre to an end.[281] As scientific knowledge of Venus advanced, science fiction authors
tried to keep pace, particularly by conjecturing human attempts to terraform Venus.[282]

Symbols
The symbol of a circle with a small cross beneath is the so-called Venus symbol, gaining its
name for being used as the astronomical symbol for Venus. The symbol is of ancient Greek
origin, and represents more generally femininity, adopted by biology as gender symbol for
female,[283][284][285] like the Mars symbol for male and sometimes the Mercury symbol for
hermaphrodite. This gendered association of Venus and Mars has been used to pair them
heteronormatively, describing women and men stereotypically as being so different that they can be
understood as coming from different planets, an understanding popularized in 1992 by the book titled
Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus.[286][287]

The Venus symbol was also used in Western alchemy representing the element copper (like the symbol
of Mercury is also the symbol of the element mercury),[284][285] and since polished copper has been
used for mirrors from antiquity the symbol for Venus has sometimes been called Venus mirror,
representing the mirror of the goddess, although this origin has been discredited as an unlikely origin.
[284][285]

Besides the Venus symbol, many other symbols have been associated with Venus, other common ones
are the crescent or particularly the star, as with the Star of Ishtar.[288]

See also
▪ Outline of Venus Solar System
▪ Physical properties of planets in the Solar System portal

▪ Venus zone Outer space portal

Astronomy portal
Notes
1. Misstated as "Ganiki Chasma" in the press release and scientific publication.[121]
2. The equatorial speed of Earth is given as both about 1674.4 km/h and 1669.8 km/h by reliable
sources. The simplest way to determine the correct figure is to multiply Earth's radius of 6 378 137 m
(WGS84) and Earth's angular speed, 7.292 1150 × 10−5 rad/s,[146] yielding 465.1011 m/s =
1674.364 km/h. The incorrect figure of 1669.8 km/h is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial
circumference by 24 h. But the correct speed must be relative to inertial space, so the stellar day of
86 164.098 903 691 s/3600 = 23.934 472 h (23 h 56 m 4.0989 s) must be used.[147] Thus
2π(6378.137 km)
23.934472 h
= 1674.364 km/h.[148]
3. It is important to be clear about the meaning of "closeness". In the astronomical literature, the term
"closest planets" often refers to the two planets that approach each other the most closely. In other
words, the orbits of the two planets approach each other most closely. However, this does not mean
that the two planets are closest over time. Essentially because Mercury is closer to the Sun than
Venus, Mercury spends more time in proximity to Earth; it could, therefore, be said that Mercury is
the planet that is "closest to Earth when averaged over time". However, using this time-average
definition of "closeness", it turns out that Mercury is the closest planet to all other planets in the solar
system. For that reason, arguably, the proximity-definition is not particularly helpful. An episode of
the BBC Radio 4 programme "More or Less" explains the different notions of proximity well.[168]
4. Several claims of transit observations made by mediaeval Islamic astronomers have been shown to
be sunspots.[204] Avicenna did not record the date of his observation. There was a transit of Venus
within his lifetime, on 24 May 1032, although it is questionable whether it would have been visible
from his location.[205]
5. The American Pioneer Venus Multiprobe has brought the only non-Soviet probes to enter the
atmosphere, as atmospheric entry probes only briefly signals were received from the surface.

References
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"Venusian" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Venusian). Merriam-Webster.com
Dictionary.
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External links
▪ Venus profile (https://web.archive.org/web/20150906034051/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/ve
nus) at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
▪ Missions to Venus (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planets/venuspage.html) and Image
catalogue (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgcat/thumbnail_pages/venus_thumbnails.html) at the
National Space Science Data Center
▪ Soviet Exploration of Venus (http://www.mentallandscape.com/V_Venus.htm) and Image catalogue
(http://www.mentallandscape.com/C_CatalogVenus.htm) at Mentallandscape.com
▪ Image catalogue from the Venera missions (https://web.archive.org/web/20151015045714/http://ww
w.strykfoto.org/venera.htm)
▪ Venus page (http://www.nineplanets.org/venus.html) at The Nine Planets
▪ Transits of Venus (http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/transit/catalogue/VenusCatalog.html) at NASA.gov
▪ Geody Venus (http://www.geody.com/?world=venus), a search engine for surface features
▪ Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the pentagram that the orbit of Venus traces when Earth is held
fixed at the centre of the coordinate system (https://gravitysimulator.org/solar-system/pentagram-of-v
enus)

Cartographic resources
▪ Map-a-Planet: Venus (https://web.archive.org/web/20071005184007/http://www.mapaplanet.org/expl
orer/venus.html) by the U.S. Geological Survey
▪ Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Venus (https://web.archive.org/web/20160112001040/http://pl
anetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/VENUS/target) by the International Astronomical Union
▪ Venus crater database (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/vc/vchome.shtml) by the Lunar and
Planetary Institute
▪ Map of Venus (http://planetologia.elte.hu/venusz-terkep-elte-ttk-kavucs.pdf) by Eötvös Loránd
University
▪ Google Venus 3D (https://www.google.com/maps/space/venus/@33.5623476,-46.1493481,7057278
m/data=!3m1!1e3), interactive map of the planet