Development of scientific agriculture in world and India. Green revolution in India.

Revolutions related to agriculture and allied activities

It began in India when sugarcane, cotton and tobacco were grown for export purpose.

1970 – Joint department of Agriculture, revenue and commerce were established

1877 and 1978 – Famine

1880 – Famine Commission appointed and recommended for separate DOA and DOA was established

th th
It got the momentum in the 19 century. Indian land tax was levied in the middle of the 19
century. In 1887, 1878, 1889, 1892, 1897, 1900 population decreased due to continuous famines.
Due ot these famines Britishers started various development programmes like railways, telegraph
and postal departments (1848-1856 during Lord Dalhousie) He constructed “Upper Bari Doab
Canal” in Punjab; laid roads and established PWD. Improvement of Agriculture started in his period.
Lord Curzon’s period (1898-1905) the “Great Canal System” of Western Punjab was constructed.
During his period Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was started at Pusa, Samstipur district in
Bihar in 1903. His period is called as golden period in Agriculture. During his period Department of
Agriculture and Agricultural Colleges for provinces were started at Coimbatore, Poona, Kanpur,
Nagpur, Lylipur in 1906. Sugarcane Breeding Institute established in 1912 at Coimbatore.

Due to earthquake IARI was shifted to New Delhi in 1936. In 1926 Royal Commission on Agriculture
was setup and was responsible for giving recommendation to dug canal, lay roads etc. Based on the
recommendation of Royal Commission, ICAR-Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was started in
1929 with objective to conduct Agriculture Research. Later it was named as Indian Council of
Agriculture after Independence. State Agriculture Universities were started after 1960s. ICAR had also
started research institutes of its own in different centers in India for various crops.

1942- Department of Food was created to cope up with the difficult food situation

1945- Indian Meteorological Department was established for weather services for agriculture

1950- Planning commission was set up

1951- First V year plan implemented

After 1947, ICAR totally adapted to Land Grant Colleges. In 1962 a Land Grant College was started
at Pantnagar (UP). It is the first University with 16,000 acres.
 18
1965-67- Green Revolution due to introduction of HYV in wheat, rice, use of fertilizers, construction
of dams and use of pesticides.

Important events in the history of Agriculture

Period Event

10,000B.C. -Hunting,gathering

8700 B.C. -Domestication of sheep

7700 B.C. -Domestication if goat

7500 B.C. -Cultivation of crops (Wheat and barley)

6000 B.C. -Domestication of cattle and pigs

4400 B.C. -Cultivation of maize

3500 B.C. -cultivation of potato

3400 B.C. -Wheel was invented

3000 B.C. -Bronze was used to make tools

2900 B.C. -Plough was invented. Irrigated farming started.

2700 B.C. -Silk moth domesticated in China

2300 B.C. -Cultivation of chickpea, pear, sarson and cotton

2200 B.C. -Domesticated of fowl, buffalo, and elephant. Cultivation of

rice

1800 B.C. -Cultivation of finger millet (Ragi)

1725 B.C. -Cultivation of sorghum

1700 B.C -Taming if horses

1500 B.C. -Cultivation of sugarcane. Irrigation from wells.

1400 B.C. -Use if iron

 19

15 Century -Cultivation of Sweet orange, sour orange, wild brinjal,

A.D.
pomegranate

16 Century -Introduction of several crops into India by Portuguese. They

A.D. are potato, sweet potato, arrow root, cassava, tomato chilies,
pumpkin, papaya, pineapple, guava, custard apple, groundnut,
cashewnut, tobacco, American cotton, rubber.
 National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS): ICAR- mandate, research institutions
their mandate

ICAR

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous organisation under the
Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers Welfare, Government of India. Formerly known as Imperial Council of Agricultural
Research, it was established on 16 July 1929 as a registered society under the Societies
Registration Act, 1860 in pursuance of the report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture. The
ICAR has its headquarters at New Delhi.

The Council is the apex body for co-ordinating, guiding and managing research and education in
agriculture including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences in the entire country. With 101
ICAR institutes and 78 agricultural universities spread across the country this is one of the
largest national agricultural systems in the world.

he ICAR has played a pioneering role in ushering Green Revolution and subsequent developments in
agriculture in India through its research and technology development that has enabled the country to
increase the production of food grains by 5 times, horticultural crops by 9.5 times, fish by 12.5
times , milk 7.8 times and eggs 39 times since 1951 to 2014, thus making a visible impact on the
national food and nutritional security. It has played a major role in promoting excellence in higher
education in agriculture. It is engaged in cutting edge areas of science and technology development
and its scientists are internationally acknowledged in their fields.

The Mandate

1. Plan, Undertake, Coordinate and Promote Research and Technology Development for
Sustainable Agriculture.
2. Aid, Impart and Coordinate Agricultural Education to enable Quality Human Resource
Development.
3. Frontline Extension for technology application, adoption, knowledge management and
capacity development for agri-based rural development.
4. Policy, Cooperation and Consultancy in Agricultural Research, Education & Extension.
 23
Organization

Union Minister of Agriculture is the ex-officio President of the ICAR Society. Secretary,
Department of Agricultural Research & Education Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India &
Director-General, ICAR – the Principal Executive Officer of the Council. Governing Body is the
policy-making authority.
Regional Agricultural Research institutions of ICAR. State Agricultural Universities.

ICAR Institutions, Deemed Universities, National Research Centres, National Bureaux &
Directorate/Project Directorates
Deemed Universities - 4
1. ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
2. ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
3. ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar
4. ICAR-Central Institute on Fisheries Education, Mumbai

Institutions - 64
1. ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute , Port Blair
2. ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur
3. ICAR-Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar
4. ICAR-Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore
5. ICAR-Central Institute Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai
6. ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hissar
7. ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom
8. ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal
9. ICAR-Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner
10. ICAR-Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur
11. ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin
12. ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubneshwar
13. ICAR-Central Institute of Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai
14. ICAR-Central Institute of Sub Tropical Horticulture, Lucknow
15. ICAR-Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture, Srinagar
16. ICAR-Central Institute on Post harvest Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana
17. ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi
18. ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasargod
19. ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla
20. ICAR-Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore
21. ICAR-Central Research Institute of Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad
22. ICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack
 25
23. ICAR-Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan
24. ICAR- Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Dehradun
25. ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal
26. ICAR-Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry
27. ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum
28. ICAR-ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna
29. ICAR-ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani
30. ICAR-Central Coastal Agricultural Research Institute, Ela, Old Goa, Goa
31. ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi
32. ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
33. ICAR-Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Ranchi
34. ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru
35. ICAR-Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Ranchi
36. ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur
37. ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Sciences, Bhopal
38. ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut
39. ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow
40. ICAR-Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi
41. ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research & Management, Hyderabad
42. ICAR-National Institute of Biotic Stresses Management, Raipur
43. ICAR-National Institue of Abiotic Stress Management, Malegaon, Maharashtra
44. ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bengaluru
45. ICAR-National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology, Kolkata
46. ICAR-National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics, Hebbal, Bengaluru
47. ICAR-Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore
48. ICAR-Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan, Almora
49. ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Cattle, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh
50. ICAR-National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal
51. ICAR-Indian Institute of Maize Research,New Delhi
52. ICAR- Central Agroforestry Research Institute , Jhansi
53. ICAR-National Institute of Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, New Delhi
54. ICAR- Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal
55. ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Modipuram
56. ICAR- Indian Institute of Millets Research, Hyderabad
57. ICAR- Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad
 26
58. ICAR- Indian Institute of Oil Palm Research, Pedavegi, West Godawari
59. ICAR- Indian Institute of Water Management, Bhubaneshwar
60. ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research, Hyderabad
61. ICAR- Central Institute for Women in Agriculture, Bhubaneshwar
62. ICAR-Central Citrus Research Institute, Nagpur
63. ICAR-Indian Institute of Seed Research, Mau
64.
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Post Box No. 48, Hazaribag 825 301, Jharkhand

National Research Centres - 15

1. ICAR-National Research Centre for Banana, Trichi
2. ICAR-National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune
3. ICAR-National Research Centre for Litchi, Muzaffarpur
4. ICAR-National Research Centre for Pomegranate, Solapur
5. ICAR-National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner
6. ICAR-National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar
7. ICAR-National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad
8.. ICAR-National Research Centre on Mithun, Medziphema, Nagaland
9. ICAR-National Research Centre on Orchids, Pakyong, Sikkim
10. ICAR-National Research Centre on Pig, Guwahati
11. ICAR-National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi
12. ICAR-National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer
13. ICAR-National Research Centre on Yak, West Kemang
14. ICAR-National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi
15.
National Research Centre on Integrated Farming (ICAR-NRCIF),Motihari

National Bureaux - 6
1. ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetics Resources, New Delhi
2. ICAR-National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Micro-organisms, Mau, Uttar Pradesh
3. ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru
4. ICAR-National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur
5. ICAR-National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal
6. ICAR-National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow
 27
Directorates/Project Directorates - 13
1. ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagarh
2. ICAR-Directorate of Soybean Research, Indore
3. ICAR-Directorate of Rapeseed & Mustard Research, Bharatpur
4. ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan
5. ICAR-Directorate on Onion and Garlic Research, Pune
6. ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur
7.. ICAR-Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Anand
8. ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, Pune, Maharashtra
9. ICAR-Directorate of Weed Research, Jabalpur
10. ICAR-Project Directorate on Foot & Mouth Disease, Mukteshwar
11. ICAR-Directorate of Poultry Research, Hyderabad
12. ICAR-Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture (DKMA), New Delhi
13. ICAR-Directorate of Cold Water Fisheries Research, Bhimtal, Nainital
 International Agricultural Research Centers (IARC)

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTES

Sl Institutes Location
No

1 CIAT* Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical Palmira, Colombia

( International Centre for Tropical Agriculture)

2 CIDA Canadian International Development Agency Cubac, Canada

3 CIFOR* Center for International Forestry Research Bogor, Indonesia

4 CIMMYT* Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maizy Mexico city, Mexico

Trigo

(International Center for the Improvement of

Maize and Wheat

5 CIP* Centro Internacional de la Papa (International Lima, Peru, South

Potato Center) America

6 FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Rome, Italy

Nations

7 IBPGR* International Board for Plant Genetic Resources Rome, Italy

8 ICRAF* International Council for Research in Agro Nairobi, Kenya

Forestry

9 ICARDA* International Center for Agricultural Research in Aleppo, Syria

the Dry Areas

10 ICRISAT* International Crops Research Institute for the Patancheru, Hyderabad,

Semi-Arid Tropics India

11 IFPRI* International Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC, USA

12 IITA* International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Ibadan, Nigeria

 38
13 ILCA* International Livestock Center for Africa Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

14 ILRAD* International Laboratory for Research on Animal Nairobi, Kenya

Diseases

15 International Livestock Research Institute Nairobi, Kenya

ILRI*

16 IRRI* International Rice Research Institute Manila, Philippines

17 INSAR International Service for National Research The Hague, Netherlands

18 INSFFER International Network on Soil Fertility and Manila, Philippines

Fertilizer Evaluation on Rice (IRRI)

19 IWMI* International Water Management Institute Colombo, Sri Lanka

20 WARDA* West African Rice Development Association Monrovia, Liberia

21* World Fish Center Penang, Malaysia

*Established under CGIAR

 61

8. Empowerment of informal innovators and knowledge holders: It is obvious that creativity

exists in formal as well as informal sectors. Just as the scientists can generate a creative and
innovative solution to a problem, a farmer or an artisan can too1. The global bias against
innovations in informal sector is very obvious. Inability of formal research system to listen to
and learn from informal innovators not only deprives the organized sector of agricultural
research and technology of the insights from the margin but also prevents it from being inspired
by the values of many of the grassroots innovators.

MEANING, DEFINITION AND CONNOTATIONS OF RURAL

DEVELOPMENT

Meaning of Rural Development

Rural development in general is used to denote the actions and initiatives taken to improve the
standard of living in non-Urban neighborhoods, countryside, and remote villages. These
communities can be exemplified with a low ratio of inhabitants to open space. Agricultural
activities may be prominent in this case whereas economic activities would relate to the primary
sector, production of foodstuffs and raw materials.

Rural development actions mostly aim at the social and economic development of the areas.
These programs are usually top-down from the local or regional authorities, regional
development agencies, NGOs, national governments or international development
organizations. But then, local populations can also bring about endogenous initiatives for
development. The term is not limited to the issues for developing countries. In fact many of the
developed countries have very active rural development programs. The main aim of the rural
government policy is to develop the undeveloped villages. To develop a country not only
industrialization is sufficient but also the every common man has to survive.

Rural Development is defined as improving the living standards of the masses of the low income
population residing in rural areas.

Definition of Rural Development

According to World Bank rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic
and social life of a specific group of people by extending the benefits of development to the
poorest among those who seek livelihood in the rural areas.

According to Finance Ministry rural development is systematic and integrated use of national
resources enabling every person to engage himself in production and social useful occupation
and earn income that will meet at least the basic needs.

According to National Commission on Agriculture rural development means development of

an area and the people through optimum development and utilization of local resources by
bringing about necessary institutions, structures and attitudinal changes and by delivering
package of services to improve all fields of the rural poor and rural weak.
 65

The term rural development is a subset of the broader term ‘Development’. However we define
it, development is a universally cherished goal of individuals, families, communities and nations
all over the world. Development is also natural in the sense that all forms of life on Planet Earth
have an inherent urge to survive and develop. Given these two attributes, i.e, its universal
supremacy as a goal and its natural occurrence, development deserves a scientific study and
analysis. Hence it is not surprising that the subject of development has been studied by scholars
of all faiths, ideologies and disciplines.

Connotation of Rural Development:

The term rural development connotes overall development of rural areas with a view to improve the
quality of life of rural people. In this sense, it is a comprehensive and multidimensional concept, and
encompasses the development of agriculture and allied activities, village and cottage industries and
crafts, socio-economic infrastructure, community services and facilities, and, above all, the human
resources in rural areas. As a phenomenon, rural development is the end-result of interactions
between various physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors. As a
strategy, it is designed to improve the economic and social well-being of a specific group of people –
the rural poor. As a discipline, it is multi-disciplinary in nature, representing an intersection of
agricultural, social, behavioural, engineering and management sciences.

Rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group of people, poor rural women and men, to
gain for themselves and their children more of what they want and need. It involves helping the
poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the
benefits of rural development. The group includes small scale farmers, tenants, and the landless.

Thus the term rural development may be used to imply any one of the above-mentioned
connotations. To avoid ineffective floundering among the myriad definitions, we shall define
rural development as; ‘A process leading to sustainable improvement in the quality of life of
rural people, especially the poor.’
Basic elements of rural development:
 66

Whatever the geographic location, culture and historical stage of development of a society, there
are at least three basic elements which are considered to constitute the ‘true’ meaning of rural
development.

1. Basic necessities of life: People have certain basic needs, without which it would be
impossible (or very difficult) for them to survive. The basic necessities include food, cloths,
shelter, basic literacy, primary health care and security of life and property. When any one or
all of them are absent or in critically short supply, we may state that a condition of ‘absolute
underdevelopment’ exists. Provision of the basic necessities of life to everybody is the
primary responsibility of all economics, whether they are capitalist, socialist, or mixed. In
this sense, we may claim that economic growth (increased per capita availability of basic
necessities) is a necessary condition for improvement of the ‘quality of life’ of rural people,
which is rural development.
2. Self-respect: Every person and every nation seeks some sort of self-respect, dignity, or
honour. Absence or denial of self-respect indicates lack of development.
3. Freedom: In this context, freedom refers to political or ideological freedom, economic
freedom and freedom from social servitude. As long as a society is bound by the servitude of
men to nature, ignorance, other men, institutions, and dogmatic beliefs, it cannot claim to
have achieved the goal of ‘development’. Servitude in any form reflects a state of
underdevelopment.

Rural Development in India – The Concept:

The development of rural areas in India is a multi-dimensional problem, which has been so far
viewed by the policy makers and academicians mainly from the economic aspect only. In India rural
development is not only an economic problem but also a more social problem. Michael P. Todaro
views rural development most suitable, in Indian Context, in following manner:

i. Improvement in the level of living standard including employment, education, health

nutrition, housing and a variety of social services.
ii. Decreasing inequality in distribution of rural incomes and in the rural urban imbalances
in incomes and economic opportunities.
iii. To sustain the capacity of rural sector.
It seems that in Indian Context rural development is a more sociological problem rather
than an economic problem. With the process of economic development and growing awareness,
the social system in the country is becoming more complicated and unfavourable to economic
 67

conditions. The caste system continues to be a strong moral phenomenon of social structure in
India, which undoubtedly is an ordering system in marriage, basis of communal participation, a
social control agency, and a political instrument affecting the rural development process
adversely. So the policies of rural development may so designed to crack down the prevalent
social structure in the country.
 68

Rural Development Policies and Strategies

Rural development programmes and polices followed in India after independence reveal four
strategies of development.

1. Growth Oriented Strategy:

This is based on the philosophy that rural people, like any other people, are rational decision
makers. Who when given adequate opportunity and a proper environment, will try to maximise
their incomes the role of the state in this strategy is to build infrastructure, and maintain a
favourable climate to stimulate the growth of rural of rural enterprises. The critical assumption of
this strategy is that the benefits of increased production will gradually ‘trickle down’ to the poor.
The regulation and coordination of the activities of private and public agencies is primarily
through market mechanisms. This paradigm formed the basis of the predominant agricultural
development strategy of the 1960s, when programmes like the Intensive Agriculture District a
programme (IADP), the Intensive Cattle Development Programme (CIDP), the High yielding
varieties Programme (HYVP), were launched. But this paradigm failed to make any dent on the
basic problems of poverty, unemployment and inequality, and had to be abandoned.

2. Welfare Oriented Strategy:

This seeks to promote the well-being of the rural population in general, and the rural poor in
particular, through large – scale social programmes like the Minimum Needs Programme,
Applied Nutrition Programme, Mid-day Meals programme, etc. the primary means used in this
strategy are free provisions / distribution of goods, services and civic amenities in rural areas.

The critical assumption of this strategy are that people are not competent to identify and resolve
their problems, and that government specialists can identify their needs and meet them with the
financial and administrative resource available with the government. The role of villagers id that
of passive receptors of services. This strategy has paternalistic orientation. The performance of
the programme is judge by the orientated programmes present a mixed picture: the rural poor
have benefited significantly through some programme in a few areas, but not in others There are
two major criticism of this strategy, namely,(a) it has created dependence: and (b) it require
resources that are beyond the means of governments.
 69

3. Responsive Strategy:

This is aimed at helping rural people help themselves through their own organizations and other
support systems. Its concern is with responding to the felt needs of the rural people, as defined
by them. The role of the government is to facilate the self-help efforts of villagers by providing
technologies and resources that are not locally available. The critical assumption of this strategy
is that the rural poor will identify and resolve their problems if provided with minimal support,
and otherwise left to their own devices and initiatives. Community participation in , and control
pf, project activities is the primary performance indicator of this strategy. India’s Operation
Flood, which was launched in 1970 in 18 milksheds in 10 states, is a good example of this
strategy. Operation Flood aimed at modernising and developing India’s dairy industry through a
three –tire structure of Anand pattern dairy cooperatives. Many voluntary agencies are also
following this paradigm of development.

4. Integrated or Holistic Strategy:

This combines all the positive features of the earlier three strategies, and is designed to
simultaneously achieve the goals of growth, welfare, equity and community participation. This
paradigm takes a very comprehensive but integrated view of the basic problems of poverty,
unemployment and inequality, and seeks to address the physical, economic, technological, social,
motivational, organisational and political bases of these problems.

The multiple goals of this strategy are sought to be achieved by building the capacity of the
community to involve itself in development in partnership with the government. The critical
assumption underlying this approach is that the government can restructure societal power
relationship, and centralised bureaucracies can learn to share power with community groups.
Successful implementation for vertical and lateral integration, a combination of specialist and
generalist skills, institutional leadership, social intervention capability and systems management.
of this strategy requires complex decentralised matrix structure, with permanent mechanism.
 70

Rural Development Programmes: Community Development Programme and Intensive

Agricultural District Programme

Community Development Programme

nd
The Community Development Programme was launched in India on 2 October, 1952 with 55
Community Development Projects (CDPs0. Each project had an operational area of about 400 to
500 square miles, comprising 300 villages and a population of about 2 lakhs. The project area
was divided into 3 development blocks, each consisting of about 100 villages and a population of
60 to 70 thousand. The project was headed by a Project officer, and a number of subject matter
Extension Officers in the disciplines of agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation, industries,
rural engineering, social education etc. each project had about 60 multi-purpose. Village Level
Workers (VLWs), one for each group of 5 to 10 villages. They were government appointed
extension functionary at the lowest level. Who were nearest to the people. The multipurpose
VLWs were common to the development departments engaged in rural work.

The people in all the project areas responded enthusiastically and the need for a rapid expansion
of the programme to other parts of the country was urgently felt. Limited resources, however, did
not permit a rapid expansion of the CD projects. A year later, in 1953, the National Extension
Service (NES) programme was launched with the idea of having wider coverage at less cost and
more peoples’ participation. Each NES block had about 100 villages and about 65 thousand
population. The NES block was headed by a Block Development Officer (BDO) and had a
number of Extension Officers (EOs). For the NES blocks funds were drastically reduced and the
number of multipurpose of VLWs was brought down to 10. NES was through of as the agency
and CD as the method to bring about socio-economic transformation of the rural people.

The momentum gained by the NES programme was intensified by converting some selected
NES blocks to Community Development Blocks (CDB). The programme was initiated in 1954.
The NES blocks which produced good results and where peoples’ participation had been in
abundance, were selected for the purpose. In these blocks funds were increased and some
additional staff was provided.

Concepts of Community Development;

The term Community Development appears to have originated from Cambridge in England. In
1948, the Cambridge Summer Conference on African Administration recommended this term
defining it as a movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with the
 71

active participation, if possible on the initiative of the community, but if this initiative is not
forthcoming spontaneously, by the use of techniques for arousing and stimulating it in order to
secure its action and enthusiastic response to the movement.

The United Nations (1956) defined Community Development as the process by which the efforts
of the people themselves are united with those of the governmental authorities to improve the
economic, social and cultural conditions of the communities, to integrate these communities into
the life of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national progress.

The International Cooperation Administration (1957) in its guidelines stated that Community
Development is a process of social action in which the people of a community organize themselves
for planning and action, define their common and individual needs and problems, make group and
individual plans to meet their needs and solve their problems, execute these plans with a maximum of
reliance upon community resources, and supplement these resources when necessary, with services
and materials from governmental and non-governmental agencies outside the community.

Taylor and others (1965) conceived Community Development as the method by which people
who live in local villages or communities are involved in helping to improve their own economic
and social conditions and thereby become effective working groups in programmes of national
development. The adoption of this method is based upon a knowledge that villages who in past
have seemed to be lethargic and not interested in change, will become dynamic if they are
permitted to take decisions concerning, exercise responsibility for, and are helped to carry out
projects and programmes for improvements in their own villages.

Community Development has also been defined as a balanced programme for stimulating the
local potential for growth in every direction. Its promise is of reciprocal advance in both wealth
and welfare, not on the basis of outside charity but by building on the latent vitality of the
beneficiaries themselves with the minimum of outside aid.

Mukherji (1967) summed up these concepts by stating that Community Development is a

process of changing from the traditional way of living of rural comities to progressive ways of
living, as a method by which people can be assisted to develop themselves on their own capacity
and resources, as a progress for accomplishing certain activities in fields concerning the welfare
of the rural people, and as a movement for progress with a certain ideological content.
 72
Objectives of Community Development Programme in India:

The community development programme was outlined by the Planning Commission in the first
three Five Year Plans as essential for the improvement of all phases of village life. The Ministry
of Community Development and Cooperation, Government of India (1962) stated the specific
objectives of the community development programme as follows :

1. To assist each village in having effective panchayats, cooperatives and schools; and
2. Through these village institutions plan and carry out integrated, multi-phased family,
village, block and district plans for :
a. Increasing agricultural production
b. Improving existing village crafts and industries and organizing new ones,
c. Providing minimum essential health services and improving health practices,
d. Providing recreational facilities and programmes,
e. Improving housing and family living conditions, and
f. Providing programmes for village women and youth.

Basic Assumptions in Community Development:

Ross (1967) made some basic assumptions in community organization, which appear to hold
good for community development as well. They are :

1. Communities of people can develop capacity to deal with their own problems
2. People want change and can change
3. People should participate in making, adjusting, or controlling the major changes taking
place in their communities.
4. Changes in community living that are self-imposed or self-developed have a meaning and
a permanence that imposed changes do not have.
5. A holistic approach can deal successfully with problems with which a fragmented
approach can not cope.
6. Democracy requires cooperative participation and action in the affairs of the community,
and that people must learn the skills which make this possible.
7. Frequently communities of people need help in organizing to deal with their needs, just
as many individuals require help in coping with their individual problems.
 74
Activities of Community Development Programme

The following rural community development activities are undertaken in such varying degrees
(within the limits of the available funds), as are advisable under the circumstances peculiar to
each block (Ensminger 1972-105-07):

Agricultural and related matters:

1. Reclamation of available virgin and waste land.

2. Provision of water for agriculture through irrigation canals, tube wells, surface wells,
tanks, lift irrigation from rivers, lakes and pools etc.
3. Development of rural electrification.
4. Provision of commercial fertilisers.
5. Provision of quality seeds.
6. Promotion of improved agricultural techniques and land utilisation.
7. Provision of veterinary aid.
8. Provision of technical information, materials and bulletins on agriculture.
9. Provision for the dissemination of information through slides, films, radio broadcast and
lectures.
10. Provision of improved agricultural implements.
11. Provision of marketing and credit facilities.
12. Provision breeding centres for animal husbandry.
13. Development of inland fisheries.
14. Promotion of home economics.
15. Development of fruit and vegetable cultivation.
16. Provision of soil survey and information.
17. Encouragement of the use of natural and compost manures.
18. Provision of arboriculture, including plantation of forests.
Communications:

1. Provision of roads.
2. Encouragement of mechanical road transport services.
3. Development of animal transport facilities.
Education:

1. Provision of compulsory and free education, preferably basic education, at the elementary
stage.
 2. Provision of high and middle schools.

3. Provision of adult and library services.

Health:

1. Provision of sanitation (including drainage and disposal of wastes) and public health
measures.
2. Provision for the control of malaria and other diseases.
3. Provision of improved drinking water supplies.
4. Provision of medical aid for the ailing.
5. Antenatal care of expectant mothers and midwifery services.
6. Provision of generalised of public health services and education.
Training:

1. Refresher courses to improve the existing standard of artisans.

2. Training of agriculturists
3. Training of extension assistants.
4. Training of artisans.
5. Training of supervisors, managerial personnel, health workers and excutive officers for
project.
Social welfare:

1. Organisation of community entertainment.

2. Provision of audio-visual aids for instruction and recreation.
3. Organisation of sports activities.
4. Organisation of melas ( village fairs)
5. Organisation of the cooperative and self-help movement.
Supplementary Employment:

1. Encouragement of cottage industries and craft as the main or subsidiary occupation.

2. Encouragement of medium and small-scale industries to employ surplus hands for local
needs, or for export outside project areas.
3. Encouragement of employment through trade, auxiliary and welfare services.
4. Construction of brick kilns and sawmills to provide building materials for local needs.
Housing:

1. Demonstration and training in improved techniques and designs for rural housing.
2. Encouragement of improved rural housing on a self –help basis.
 76

Intensive Agricultural District Programme popularly known as Package Programme “Was

thus launched in the country from Kharif 1960. On a pilot basis in seven selected districts. The
Central idea behind the IADP was that increased agricultural productivity shall lead to economic
growth, which shall bring welfare to the society.

The programme aims at combining technical know-how, credit and production supplies for
stepping up agricultural production.

The method adopted in IADP was to demonstrate the feasibility of increased agricultural
production rapidly by concentrating all factors of production at the same time in an integrated
action programme in selected areas fulfilling optimum conditions. Agriculture, like all other
industry needs high degree of investment before it can be self-generating and self-financing.
There was a deviation from the multi propose approach in community development to single
purpose approach in increasing agricultural production through IADP.

The preparatory stage in IADP consisted of the following steps :

i. Selection of district. Criteria for selection were –

a. Assured water supply
b. Not exposed to natural hazards
c. Should have well developed cooperative credit structure.
d. Should have maximum potential to show increased production within the shortest
possible time.
ii. Strengthening of the cooperative institutions
iii. Creating general awareness amongst the people
iv. Selection, appointment and posting of staff
v. Training of staff
vi. Organizational and resources bench mark survey
vii. Assessing the needs for supplies
viii. Construction and/or hire of godowns
ix. Strengthening of transport arrangements
x. Establishment of agricultural implements workshop, seed and soil testing laboratories and
implementation of local works programme having a direct bearing on production increase.
Implementation of the programme is to be done to a phased way. In the first year 20 percent
and by the end of 5 years, 65 percent area is to be covered. The programme is to be
 77

implemented slowly, taking into consideration whether people have understood the basic
philosophy. The essential features of the implementation stage were –

i. Presentation of individual farm and village production plans. Simple plan for
majority and more comprehensive plan for a few progressive cultivators.
ii. Adequate and timely supply of credit and inputs based on production plans.
iii. Organizing cooperative marketing societies.
iv. Strengthening transport
v. Analysis and evaluation of the programme
vi. Intensification of information and extension education activities, such as
demonstrations and use of information media.

The distinctive features of IADP were as follows:

i. Through factors of production were known earlier, they were not provided
simultaneously, timely and adequately.
ii. Essential input like fertilizers etc. to be made available 100 percent of the requirement.
iii. Previously credit was available only to the credit-worthy farmers. In this programme,
any farmer who joins the programme has a farm production plan and has the potential
to get increased yield, will be given credit.
iv. In selected areas more agricultural and cooperative staff will be posted.
v. Composite demonstrations instead of single factor demonstrations. Economics of the
demonstrations will be worked out.
vi. Periodical training of staff
vii. Analysis and evaluation.

The shortcoming of the IADP were as follows:

i. Educational approach to reach the cultivators was lacking. Emphasis was anyhow to
make the cultivators join the programme.
ii. Training programme of staff was not clear. In many cases, the VLWs were found
below standard and were not able to impress the farmers.
iii. Staffs were not clear about the methods to reach the cultivators. The staffs were target
minded even in filling up agricultural production plans.
iv. Posting of staff was not adequate and timely.
v. Workshop, seed testing and soil testing laboratories were not functioning to the
required level.
 78

vi. Transport and land development programmes were not progressing satisfactorily
vii. Cultivators were not using insecticides, fungicides and seed treatment of their own.
viii. There was problem of communication.
ix. Cooperatives were not functioning well.
x. There was lack of action research.
xi. There was very little programme in animal husbandry, fisheries etc.
xii. Stereotyped farm production plans
xiii. Very little participation by women in the programme.
 79

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

• Launched on 1-4-1999
• Largest self employment programme for rural poor
• SGSY was introduced after restructuring and merging the following programmes
a) Development of Women and Children in Rural Area (DWCRA)
b) Million Well Scheme (MWS)
c) Training Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM)
d) Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA)
e) Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY)
Aims: 1.To bring the assisted families above poverty line in rural area

2.To establish a large number of micro-enterprises in the rural area and building upon
the potential of the rural people.
Target beneficiaries are BPL family members and SHG consisting of 10-20. BPL family
members in rural area

Salient Features:

• It is a holistic programme covering all aspects of self-employment, i.e. organization of

the rural poor into SHG, training and capacity building activity, credit, technology,
infrastructure and marketing.
• It is a credit - cum subsidy programme, in which credit is critical component, subsidy
being only a minor and enabling element.
• It support for individual and group projects.
 81

Individual Projects:

Subsidy; 30% or Rs.7500/- for general category and 50% or

Rs.10, 000/- for SC/ST

Margin Money Contribution by Beneficiary: No margin money upto

Rs.50, 000/-and 15-25% margin money (including subsidy)

for Rs.50, 000/- and above

Group Project:

Subsidy: 50% or Rs.1.25 Lakhs or Rs.10, 000/- per member for group

schemes consisting 10-20 BPL family members in rural area.

Margin Money Contribution by Beneficiary: No margin money upto

Rs.3.00 Lakhs and 15-25% margin money (including subsidy)

For Rs. 3 Lakhs and above

Implementing Agency: Zilla Panchayat / Taluk Panchayat

 82

NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT AND SAMPOORNA

GRAMEEN ROZGAR YOJANA
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) was enacted in September 2005 and
brought into force w.e.f February 2006 in 200 most backward districts.

Objective:

To providing 100 days of guaranteed unskilled wage employment to each rural household opting
for it.

The NREGA marks a paradigm shift and stands out among the plethora of wage employment
programmes, as it bestows a legal right and guarantee to the rural population through an Act of
Parliament and is not a scheme unlike the other wage employment programmes.

Coverage:

It covers all the districts of the country within five years. The focus of the act is on works
relating to water conservation, drought proofing (including afforastation / tree plantation), land
development, flood control/ protection (including drainage in waterlogged areas) and rural
connectivity in terms of all-weather roads. Each district has to prepare perspective plan of 5
years with a bottom up approach deriving from the needs of the local community. The said plan
should have the approval of the community and the PRIs.

Implementation:

Panchayats have a key role in planning, implementation and monitoring of the Act through
preparation of perspective plan, approval of projects, execution of works at least to the extent of
50 per cent in terms of costs. The Act envisages strict vigilance and monitoring. Gram Sabha has
the power of social audit. Local Vigilance and Monitoring Committees are to be set up to ensure
the quality of works. Provision for due representation in such communities for SC/STs, women
rd
has also been made. At least 1/3 of the beneficiaries are to be women. Key records such as
muster rolls, asset registers and employment registers are to be maintained and public access to
them ensured. The Act also envisages a grievance redressal mechanism and helpline. A
comprehensive MIS, has been developed to capture work wise and household –wise data and
track the progress of resources invested.
 83

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana

Pursuant to the announcement made by the Hon'ble Prime Minister in his Independence Day
speech, a new Centrally Sponsored Scheme, namely, Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana
(SGRY) was launched on 251h September, 2001 by merging the on-going schemes of EAS and
the JGSY.

Objectives:

The objective of the programme is to provide additional wage employment in the rural areas as
also food security alongside the creation of durable community, social and economic
infrastructure in the rural areas. The programme is self-targeting in nature with special emphasis
to provide wage employment to women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and parents of
children withdrawn from hazardous occupations.
Strategy: The Programme is being implemented in two streams:

The First Stream of the Programme is implemented at the District and Intermediate level.
Panchayats. Fifty per cent of the funds available under the SGRY are earmarked for First Stream,
these are distributed between the Zilla Parisad and the Intermediate Panchayats in the ratio of
40:60.
The Second Stream of the Progarmme will be implemented at the Village Panchayat level. Fifty
per cent of the SGRY funds are earmarked for this Stream. The entire funds are released to the
Village Panchayats through the DRDAs/Zilia Parishads.

Salient features of SGRY

The salient features of the proposed Scheme are as under:-

• The Sampoorna Grameen RozgarYojana (SGRY) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS)

being implemented with a total outlay of Rs.10,000 crores.

• Under the Scheme, 50 lakh tonnes of food grains amounting to Rs.5,000 crores (at economic
cost) is provided every year, free of cost to the State Governments and Union Territory
Administrations.

• The remaining funds (Rs.5,000 crores) is utilized, to meet the cost component of wages and
material cost.

• The cost of the cash component of the Programme is shared by the Centre and States in the
ratio of 75:25.
 84

• The payment for food grains is made by the Ministry of Rural Development to the Food
Corporation of India (FCI) directly.

• About 100 crore mandals of employment are envisaged to be generated every year in the
rural areas through the SGRY.

• Fifty per cent of the total available funds under the SGRY are provided to each stream.

• Every worker seeking employment under the SGRY are provided 5 kg. of food grains (in
kind) per mandal as part of wages.

• The balance of wages are paid in cash so that they are assured of the notified minimum wages.

• The State Governments and UT Administrations are free to calculate the cost of food grains
(paid as part of wages) at either BPL rates or APL rates or anywhere between these two rates.

• The SGRY has been in operation from the financial year 2002-2003. Since the Scheme was
launched in the middle of 2001-02, the ongoing schemes of the EAS and the JGSY were
merged with the new Scheme.
The Programme permits works which lead to the creation of additional wage employment, durable
assets and infrastructure, particularly those which assist in drought proofing such as soil and moisture
conservation works, watershed development, promotion of traditional water resources, afforestation
and construction of rural infrastructure and link roads, primary school buildings, dispensaries,
veterinary hospitals, marketing infrastructure and Panchayat Ghars in rural areas.

Monitoring and evaluation

The overall supervision of the programme rests with the Zilia Parisad. The programme will be
regularly monitored by the Department of Rural Development in accordance with the in-built
monitoring mechanisms, including periodical reports and returns, Vigilance and Monitoring
Committees, visits by officers of the Central and State Governments and by the Area officers of the
Ministry of Rural Development. The programme would also be evaluated through the studies
conducted by reputed institutions, organizations and sponsored by the Central/State Governments.
 85

Panchayat Raj Institutions in implementation of Rural Development Programmes

The passage of the Constitution (7311 Amendment) Act, 1992 marks a new era in the federal
democratic set up of the country and provides Constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj
Institutions . The Act which came into force on 24 April, 1993 stipulates that Panchayats shall be
given powers and authority to function as institutions of self-government.

Salient features of the Act:

• A 3-tier system of Panchayati Raj for all States having a population of over 20 lakhs
• Regular Panchayat elections every 5 years
• Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their
population and not less than 113 seats for women
• State Finance Commission to make recommendations on financial powers of the Panchayats
• Independent State Election Commissions

Powers and responsibilities of Panchayats:

• Preparation of plan for economic development and social justice.

• Implementation of schemes and rural development programmes for economic development
and social justice in relation to 29 subjects given in Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution.
• To levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees.

The panchayats receive funds from three sources – (i) local body grants, as recommended by the
Central Finance Commission, (ii) funds for implementation of centrally-sponsored schemes, and
(iii) funds released by the state governments on the recommendations of the State Finance
Commissions.

Panchayati Raj is a system of governance in which gram panchayats are the basic units of
administration. It has 3 levels: village, block and district. At the village level, it is called a
Panchayat, at the taluk level it is Taluk Panchayat and at district level it is Zilla Panchayat.

Village Panchayat
 86

It is a local body working for the good of the village. The number of members usually ranges
from 7 to 31; occasionally, groups are larger, but they never have fewer than 7 members.

Gram sabha

Gram sabha is constituted by all members of a village over the age of 18 years.The Gram Sabha
elects the Gram Panchayat a council of elected members taking decisions on issues key to a
village's social, cultural and economic life: thus, a Gram Panchayat is also a village's body of
elected representatives. The council leader is named Sarpanch in Hindi, and each member is a
Gram Panchayat Sadasya or Panch. The panchayat acts as a conduit between the local
government and the people. Decisions are taken by a majority vote (Bahumat). It is said that in
such a system, each villager can voice his opinion in the governance of his village. Decisions are
taken without lengthy legal procedures and the process remains for the most part transparent.
Panchayat is an ancient Indian word that means Five Persons ( Headman ).

Taluk Panchayat

Taluk Panchayat is a local government body at the tehsil or Taluka level in India. It works for the
villages of the Tehsil or Taluka that together are called a Development Block. Itis the link
between the Gram Panchayat and the district administration. There are a number of variations of
this institution in various states. It is known as Mandal Praja Parishad in Andhra Pradesh, Taluka
panchayat in Gujarat.

Constitution

It is composed of ex-officio members (all sarpanchas of the area, the MPs and MLAs of the area
and the SDO of the subdivision), coopted members (representatives of SC/ST and women),
associate members (a farmer of the area, a representative of the cooperative societies and one of
the marketing services) and some elected members.

The Taluk Panchayat is elected for 5 years and is headed by the chairman and the deputy chairman.
The common departments in the General administration are: Finance, Public works, Agriculture,
Health, Education, Social welfare, Information Technology and others. A government appointed
officer is the executive officer to the taluk panchayat and the chief of its administration.

Functions

• Implement schemes for the development of agriculture.

• Establishment of primary health centres and primary schools.
• Supply of drinking water, drainage, construction/repair of roads.
 87

• Development of cottage and small-scale industries and opening of cooperative societies.

• Establishment of youth organisations.
Sources of income

The main sources of income of the Taluk panchayat are grants-in-aid and loans from the State
Government.

Zilla Panchayat

Zilla Panchayat looks after the administration of the rural area of the district and its office is located
at the district headquarters. It is headed by the "District Collector" or the "District Magistrate" or the
"Deputy Commissioner". It is the link between the state government and the taluk panchayats.

Constitution

Members of the Zilla Panchayat are elected from the district on the basis of adult franchise for a
term of five years. Zilla Panchayat has minimum of 50 and maximum of 75 members. There are
seats reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, backward classes and women. The
Chairmen of all the Taluk Panchayat form the members of Zilla Panchayat. It is headed by a
President and a Vice-President.

Functions

1. Provide essential services and facilities to the rural population and the planning and
execution of he development programmes for the district.

2. Supply improved seeds to farmers. Inform them of new techniques of training. Undertake
construction of small-scale irrigation projects and percolation tanks. Maintain pastures and
grazing lands.

3. Set up and run schools in villages. Execute programmes for adult literacy. Run libraries.

4. Start Primary Health Centers and hospitals in villages. Start mobile hospitals for hamlets,
vaccination drives against epidemics and family welfare campaigns.

5. Construct bridges and roads.

6. Execute plans for the development of the scheduled castes and tribes. Run ashramshalas for
adivasi children. Set up free hostels for scheduled caste students.

7. Encourage entrepreneurs to start small-scale industries like cottage industries, handicraft,

agriculture produce processing mills, dairy farms, etc. implement rural employment schemes.

8. They construct roads, schools, & public properties. And they take care of the public properties.
 88

9. They even supply work for the poor people.(tribes, scheduled caste, lower caste)
 89

NGOs/ VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The world conference on agrarian reform and world development convened by U. N in 1979 in
Rome made certain observations with regard to rural development which were of far reaching in
nature. It felt that high percentage of failure of R. D. programmes in many of the developing
countries was mainly due to lack of peoples’ participation in the development programmes. It
also felt that peoples participation was most essential for the success of development programme
and this could be brought about only by voluntary organizations which work closely with the
people and therefore know their pulse.

Voluntary organization is an agency, organized or unorganized, structured or unstructured which

work for the welfare of a community in any given area of its volition (willingness). So it can be
said that it is a non-political, secular, non-profit making, non-governmental and philanthropic
(urge to serve people) organization which operates through programmes and projects to eradicate
poverty.

“The greatest experiences in reaching disadvantage groups through innovative participatory

methods are found in voluntary organization methods”.

Special features of Voluntary Organizations:

1. Voluntary action
2. Innovativeness ( newness of idea)
3. Commitment and dedication among workers for effective implementation.
4. Flexibility in approach to suit local conditions
5. High level of motivation
6. Minimum procedural practices
7. Natural capabilities
8. Better grasp of needs and problems of people
Intermediately functions of NGOs (Voluntary Organization):

1. Facilitating communication between people and government

2. Helping to identify and voice community needs
3. Supporting, participation and group formulation
4. Training and building the capacity of community groups
5. Channelising resources at the community level
 90

Effective NGO’s:

BAIF – Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation

IDS – India Development Service

ISARD - Institute for Studies on Agriculture and Rural Development

MYRADA – Mysore Resettlement and Development Agency

CAPART – Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and Rural Technologies

Funding of Voluntary Organizations:

Government, non-government, foreign agencies, donations

Weakness:

1. Many of the agencies are headed by strong and dominant personality without much devolution of
power and authority to the lower section thereby giving an impression of are one man show.
2. Recruitment of personnel is generally done on the basis of personal consideration
3. Overdependence on funding agencies and government rather than mobilizing local resources
and funds
4. A general tendency to blame other agencies and authorities in case of failure without
accepting their responsibilities.
 Problems / Constraints in Implementation of Rural Development Programmes

Inadequate Coordination
As per the Guidelines all the developmental programmes in the rural areas are to be planned /
formulated by DRDA in corporation and coordination of other departments and financial
institution, agencies of peoples representatives etc. It is often observed that these agencies,
organization failed to maintain proper coordination among each other. All the agencies /
organizations are trying their best to stick to their own principles and ideologies. In the process
cooperation and coordination are not maintained. The Agencies responsible for the formulation,
implementation and evaluation of the Rural Development Programme are required to maintain
good coordination among them.

Inadequate funds:
The rural development programmes require more capital investment. The Economic Sectors of
rural areas remain more or less traditional. These sectors also adopt traditional methods of
production. In order to attain rural development the transformation of technologies is required.
The conditions of weaker section people are not improved even after 50 years of planned
economic development. The upliftment of their socio-economic condition also require high dose
of investment. In our country, a fixed amount of funds are allocated for a particular rural
development programme. These are distributed among States/Districts as per the importance,
such as geography, concentration of weaker section population etc. The share of the Fund to
cope with the local problems seems to be inadequate.

Leakage of benefits:
It is observed that, there is considerable leakage of benefits to non-target sectors and groups.
Most of the rural development programmes are conceived to improve the Socio-economic
condition of the weaker section like small, marginal farmers, agricultural and nonagricultural
labourers, rural artisans, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and deprived women etc. It is
observed that benefits are not properly reaching to these classes.

Low Sustaining Impact

It is observed that a considerable number of rural developments programmes/schemes having no
or little sustaining impact for changing the socio-economic status of the beneficiaries. The assets
created from the credit assistance of financial institutions and subsidies of the development /
administrative agencies are short lived (Particularly incase of livestock assets) failed to push the
beneficiaries up on the scale of production and productivity. This is perhaps due to the existence
 94

of low or no development approach / thoughts. This factor again dominated by the lack of
awareness about the programmes.

Dominance of welfare over productivity

In India, most of the rural development programmes are based on the basic welfare principles.
These schemes are backed by both credit and subsidy components. Besides, development of
infrastructure facilities is also emphasized under these programmes. It is also evident that
provision of long term credit and based on the principle of write off by political parties also have
adverse effect on the productivity of economic sectors. It is observed that the subsidy component
is often extending up to 100 percent in some selected schemes and class of beneficiaries. This
reduces the productivity motive and attitude of the beneficiaries.

More Generalized Programme

Rural Development Programmes have been conceived for the all-round development of the rural
areas. However, the rural development Programmes are launched in the context of general problems
of the rural areas. It fails to give importance to some particular and area issues. The rural
development programmers should be micro in nature and growth oriented based on real values.
 Various Rural Development Programmes Launched by Govt. of
India
Sr. Name of Programmes Year of Importance Remark
Starting
1. Panchayat Raj System 1959 • Political will of the Govt in sharing
authority and responsibility with the
Panchayats. Enactment of laws relating to
PRIs.a basic pattern of
• Democratic decentralization with
theGrampanchayat (Village Council) at the
village level, the Panchayat Samiti at the
block level and the ZillaParishad (district
council) at the district level.
2. Antyodaya Anna Yojana Dec., • The main objective of the scheme is to
(AAY) 2000 ensure food security and to create hunger
free India.
• Twenty five kilograms (kg) of food grains
were made available to each eligible family
at a highly subsidized rate of Rs. 2 per kg
for wheat and Rs.3 per kg for rice. This
quantity has been enhanced from 25 to 35 kg
with effect from April, 2002.

3. DeenDayalUpadhyayaGrame 25th Sept., • The Vision of DDU-GKY is to "Transform

enKaushalyaYojana(DDU- 2014 rural poor youth into an economically
GKY) independent and globally relevant
workforce".
• The scheme aims to provide skill to the poor
youth of the country, thereby giving them
opportunities for growth.
4. Deendayal Disabled 13th July, • NGOs are provided financial assistance for
Rehabilitation Scheme 2013 providing various services to people with
(DDRS) disabilities, such as special schools,
vocational training centers, community-based
rehabilitation, pre-school and initial
interference etc.
5. GraminBhandharanYojana 1st April, • Government provides supports to an
Or Rural Godown Scheme, 2001 individual, a company, a farmer, local
government, NGOs and various associations,
if they build or renovate rural godowns.
• The scheme has been subsumed into capital
investment subsidy sub-scheme "Agricultural
Marketing Infrastructure (AMI)" of

38
 Integrated Scheme for Agricultural
Marketing (ISAM) scheme w.e.f 01.04.2014.
6. Rural Housing January, Rural housing programme,as an independent
(IndraAwasYojana) 1996 programme , started with Indira AwaasYojana
(IAY) in January 1996. Although IAY
addressed the housing needs in the rural areas,
certain gaps were identified during the
concurrent evaluations and the performance
Audit by Comptroller and Auditor General
(CAG) of India in 2014.
2. To address these gaps in the rural housing
program and in view of Government’s
commitment to providing “Housing for All’’
by the scheme 2022, the of has IAY has been
re-structured into PradhanMantriAwaasYojana
–Gramin (PMAY-G) w.e.f. 1st April 2016.
7. The Integrated Child 2nd Oct., The Integrated Child Development Services
Development Services 1975 (ICDS) scheme is a government initiative for
(ICDS) the all-round development (health, nutrition
and education) of children under 6. Its aim is to
reduce infant mortality, child malnutrition and
to provide pre-school education.
8. Integrated Rural 1978-79 • Programme aims at providing self
Development Programme employment to the rural poor through
acquisition of productive assets or
appropriate skills to generate additional
income on sustainable base.
• It is for small and marginal farmers,
agricultural labourers and rural artisans living
Bellow Poverty Line (BPL), Scheduled
Caste/ Scheduled Tribe families and
physically handicapped person.
9. Swarnjayanti Gram 1999 • For rural poor living Bellow Poverty Line
SwarozgaraYojana (BPL) in rural area for taking of self
employment as individuals or in a group-
which called as Self Help Group
10. Livestock Insurance Scheme 2008-09 • To Safe Guard assured protection to the
animals of the farmer against eventual
losses.
• Benefit of subsidy is to be restricted to 5
animals per beneficiary per household for
all animals except sheep, goat, pig and
rabbit.
11. Mahatma Gandhi National August • The "Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Rural Employment Guarantee 25, 2005 Employment Guarantee Act", MGNREGA),
Act is an Indian labor law and social

39
 security measure that aims to guarantee the
'right to work'.
• It aims to enhance livelihood security in rural
areas by providing at least 100 days of wage
employment in a financial year to every
household whose adult members volunteer to
do unskilled manual work.
12. RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana( 29th May, • To orient agricultural development strategies,
RKVY) 2007 to reaffirm its commitment to achieve 4 per
National Agriculture cent annual growth in the agricultural sector
Development Programme during the 11th plan.

13. National Food Security October, • For stagnating food grain production and an
Mission 2007 increasing consumption need of the growing
population, Government of India has
launched this Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
• The aim is to bridge the yield gap in respect
of these crops through dissemination of
improved technologies and farm management
practices.
14. National Rural Livelihood June, • It is a poverty alleviation scheme
Mission 2011 implemented by Union Ministry of Rural
Development.
15. PradhanMantriAwasYojana 2015 • PradhanMantriAwasYojana has been
(PMAY) established by the Government of India to
offer affordable houses to various sections of
the society. This scheme offers interest
subsidy on the home loans taken by
individuals belonging to EWS (Economically
Weaker Section), LIG (Low Income Group),
and MIG 1 & 2 (Middle Income Group 1 &
2).

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