CSSH

Col
l
egeofSoci
al
Sci
encesand
Humani
ti
es
DRM&SD

Rev
iewoff
unct
ional
i
stt
heor
y
(
DRM_
512)

Pr
epar
edby
:Gr
oup_
__

Team member
s
1.Mr
.DhabaKekebaEl
fet
a I
D.No._
___
___
___
___
_
2.Mr
.Sol
omonAl
eneh I
D.No._
___
___
___
___
_
3.Mr
. I
D.No._
___
___
___
___
_
4.Mr
. I
D.No_
___
___
___
___
__

Januar
y2023

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Ji
gji
gaUni
ver
sit
y

i
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Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
1. Funct
ional
i
sm 1
1.
1. Ov
erv
iewofFunct
ional
i
stt
heor
ies 1
1.
2. TheFunct
ional
i
sm ofAugust
eComt
e 2
1.
3. Thef
unct
ional
i
sm ofHer
ber
tSpencer 3
1.
4. Funct
ional
i
sm i
nEmi
l
eDur
khei
m'sAnal
ysi
s 4
1.
5. TheBasi
cEl
ement
sofEar
lyFunct
ional
Theor
ies 6
1.
6. Var
iet
iesofFunct
ional
i
sm 6
1.
7. Moder
nFunct
ional
i
sm'
sEv
olut
ion 7
1.
8. Ant
hropol
ogi
cal
Funct
ional
i
sm 7
1.
9. TheDownf
all
,OnceAgai
n,ofFunct
ional
i
sm 8
2. Concl
usi
on 9
Ref
erances 10

i
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i
i
i|Page
 1.Funct
ional
i
sm
One ofthe maint heoreti
c alviewpointsi ns oc
iology ist he f
uncti
onal i
stapproach,
commonlyknownasf uncti
onalis
m.I t
sr ootsc anbef oundinEmileDurk hei
m'swriti
ngs,
whowasparti
cul
arl
yi nt
erestedinhows oc i
alordermightex i
storhows ocietycoul
dremai n
l
argel
yst
abl
e.So,ratherthanc oncentrat
ingont hemi nut i
aeofdail
yli
vi
ng,itisatheor
yt hat
emphasi
zesthemac rolevelofs oci
als tr
ucture.Her bertSpencer
,TalcottParsons,and
Rober
tK.Mert
onar eaf ewnot abl
et heori
s t
s.
Accordi
ngt ofunct
ional
i
sm, soci
etyisnotjus
tt hesum ofi
tsindi
vidualpi
eces;rat
her,each
onec ontr
ibutestothes t
abil
it
yoft hewhole.Si nceeachelementofs oci
etyservesan
essenti
alpurposebutc annotfuncti
onalone,Dur k
hei
mv ieweds ociet
yasanor ganism.
Othersmus tadj
usttosomehowf il
lt
heholeleftbyoneport
iongoingt hr
oughac ri
si
s.
Asperf unct
ionali
s ttheory,socialins
t i
tutions,eachc reatedt oaddr es
sas peci
fi
cneed,are
whatmak eupt hev ari
ouss egment sofs ociet
y .Toc ompr ehendt hi
st heoryandt he
fundamentali nsti
tutions thatc onstitutes oc i
ology,iti sv i
talt o underst
and family
,
government,ec onomy ,medi a,educ ation,andr eli
gion.Ani nsti
tuti
onc anonl yexi
s t
,in
accordancewithf unc ti
onali
sm, ifi
tplay sac ruc i
alpartins ociet
y'soperati
on.Aninsti
tut
ion
will
fadeawayi fits t
opspl ayi
nganec es sar
yf uncti
on.Newi nsti
tuti
onswi l
lbedevel
opedt o
addressanynewdemandsast heydev elopors urface.
I
nmanyc ountri
es,thes tat
epay sf orthef amily'
sc hi
ldr en'seduc at
ion,whi chi nt urn
generatesther evenueneededt omaintai
nt hes t
ate.Thef ami l
ydependsont hes choolt o
as s
istkidsinget ti
ngdec entcareer
sasadul t
ss ot heyc ans upportandr aisethei rown
famili
es.Inthepr ocess,thekidsdevelopi ntolaw-abidi
ng,t ax-payi
ngc i
tizenswhoas si
st
thegov ernment .Thef uncti
onali
stperspec tiv
ear guest hat ,underi dealc ondit
ions ,the
elementsofs oc i
etypromoteproducti
on,s t
abi l
it
y,andorder .Ifthingsdonotgoaspl anned,
soc i
ety
'scit
izenswi l
lhavetoadaptandc reat enewk i
ndsofpr oducti
on,stabili
ty,andor der.
Funct
ional
isms tr
es s
ess ociet
alconsens usandor der
,putt
ingas peci
alemphasisonpubli
c
val
uesands oci
al cohes i
on.Accordi
ngt othisv i
ewpoi
nt,sy
s t
emicdisorder
,suc
hasdev i
ant
behavi
or,resul
tsinc hangebec auses ocialelementsmus tadapttoes t
abl
ishs t
abi
l
ity
.
Whenonec omponentofas yst
em isbr ok en,itaf
fect
st heothercomponent s
,causes
soci
etali
ssues,anddemandss oc i
alchange.
1.
1. Ov
erv
iewofFunct
ional
i
stt
heor
ies
TheFunc t
ional
istperspect
iv
ei satypeofSt ruct
urali
stsoci
ology
,andass uch,wec an
i
niti
al
lycharact
erizei
tasat y peofmac rosoci
ologi
c alt
heor
isi
ng.Int
hisregard,themain
theor
eti
calques t
ionaddressedbyf uncti
onal
is
ts ociol
ogi
stsis(DONALDM.BORCHERT,
2006),(
Turner,
2014),(Comte, 2009)
,(Nordetal.
,2018),(
Abai
lard&King,
1995) ,(
Hall
i
nan,
2006),(
Grusky,2008)
,(Basu&Kanbur ,2008)
:
 How dosoci
alsy
stems(
"soc
iet
ies
")hol
dtoget
her
?Whatk
eepss
oci
als
yst
ems
(
"soc
iet
ies
")t
oget
her?
Func
tionali
stsf
ocus
edini
ti
al
lyontwoconceptst
hatar
ec l
osel
yrel
atedt
othei
ssuesr
ais
ed
abov
ei nthei
ratt
emptst
oofferas
olut
iont
ot hi
squest
ion.
Theseare:
 Howi
sor
dermai
ntai
nedi
nanys
oci
ety
?

1|
Page
  Whatar
ethemai
nsour
cesofs
tabi
l
it
yinanys
oci
ety
?
Whenex ami
ni
ngdif
fer
entf
unc
tional
ists
oci
ol
ogi
calappr
oac
hes
,itbec
omesc
leart
hatt
hey
al
lst
artbyel
abor
ati
ngontwokeyideas:
 Soci
alSys
tem:Inthesimplestter
ms,"soc
iet
y"i
spercei
vedasanorgani
zed
st
ruct
ure(
orfr
amework
)ofinter
connec
tedpart
s(c
all
edI
nsti
tut
ions
).
 Soci
alStr
ucture:
Thisi
sthespeci
fi
cframewor konwhi
chanys
oci
etyi
sbased(i
n
ef
fect
,socialstr
uct
ureref
erstothes pec
ifi
cway si
nwhichv
ari
ousi
nst
it
uti
ons
ar
erelat
edt ooneanot
heronafuncti
onalbasis)
.
I
nt hi
ssens
e,aninst
it
uti
onref
erstobr
oad,
organi
zed,
andl
ong-
l
ast
ingbehav
ior
alpat
ter
ns.
Examplesf
rom ours
ociet
yinc
lude:
 Fami
l
y,
 Wor
k,
 Educ
ati
on
 Rel
i
gion.
Theys tartbyexamini
nginst
it
uti
onalrelat
ionshi
psandar r
angement
sbec ausetheyare
thoughtt obethefundament
alfoundat
ionsofanys oci
ety.Anysoci
ety
'sbasics
t r
uct
ure
andc haract
erar
edetermi
nedbyhowi t
sinstit
uti
onsi
nter
actwit
honeanother.
I
nsti
tuti
onalst
ructurespl
ayasi
gni
fi
cantr
olei
ntheconceptofc
ult
ure,
whichi
sdef
inedas
l
argepat t
ernofv aluesandbel
i
efsthatbot
hc har
act
eri
zeandar epas
seddownf rom
generat
iontogenerati
on.
Peopl
ear
ebornintoanestabl
ishedsy
stem ofinst
it
uti
onalar
rangement
s,whi
chi
sthe
mainf
act
orex
plai
ni
ngthes
ignif
icanc
eofther
elat
ions
hip.
Throughav ar i
etyofs ocial
izingi ns t
it
uti
ons ,val uesandbel i
efsar etrans mit
tedt opeopl e
(andinternali
z ed, whichmeanst heybec omeanes senti
alpartofaper s on'ssocialmak eup)
(thefamily,peergr oup,mas smedi aands ofor th).Thesegr oupsmaybei nsti
tutionsinand
ofthems elves ,suchast hef ami l
y ,ortheymaybeapar tofani nsti
tut i
onals t
ruc t
ure( the
poli
ce,forex ampl e,arepartofal egalinsti
tution).Func t
ionalist
sc l
aimt hatanys oci
et yis
founded,mai nt ai
ned,andr epr oduc edbas edonabr oadv aluec onsens usinor derf ort he
guidi
ngpr i
nc iplesofanys oc i
etyt obei nternalizedbyi ndividual
st hrought hes oci
alizing
process.Ex ampl esoff unctionalistsinc l
udeTal cottParsons ,G.P.Mur doc k,andWi lli
am
Goode( inthisr espect,
broadl evelsofagr eementov erfundament alvalues ,f
orins t
anc e).
Fr
om theaf or
ementioned,i
tisperhapsclearwhyfunct
ional
istwri
ter
sarenotpart
icul
arl
y
i
nter
estedintheac t
ionsofspeci
fi
cs oci
alactor
sortheinter
pret
ati
onsandmeaningsthey
gi
vetov ar
iousbehavior
s,t
hus:
 Soci
etyisv i
ewedasac ol
lect
ionofint
erconnect
edandmutual
lydependentsoci
al
st
ructur
esthatexis
tbeforeanyindi
vi
dual
;assuch,howani
ndi
vi
dualbehav
esinsoci
ety
i
seffect
ivel
ypredeter
minedbythesesoci
alstr
uctur
es.
 Al
lhuman act
iv
ityand c
hoice,bydefini
ti
on,tak
es pl
acei
nthe contextofthi
s
i
nst
it
uti
onal
l
ydeter
minedcul
turalor
derbecausepeopl
eares
oci
al
iz
edi ntoasetof

2|
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 pr
eex
ist
ingc
ult
ural
val
ues(
andt
heyl
i
vet
hei
rli
vesi
nac
cor
danc
ewi
ths
uchv
alues
).
 Peopl
e'shor
izons
,perspec
tiv
esonpossibleacti
ons,
andot
heraspect
soft hei
rthi
nki
ng
ar
ec onst
rai
nedbyt hesoci
ali
zat
ionpr
oc ess,whi
chishowcul
turalv
aluesarepassed
ontoanindi
vi
dual.
 Peopledon'tdevi
atefrom socialnorms,forinstance,becausetheyareunreasonable,
"
nat ur
all
ybad,"oranyothers ucht hi
ng.Wenow needt otur
ntoanunder s
tandingof
thesec oncept
sbec ausedev iati
onhappenswhenpeopl ear es ubj
ectedtov ari
ous
formsofs oci
alpr
essurethateffecti
vel
yrest
ri
c tt
heiravai
labl
eoptionsforact
ion.
1.
2. TheFunct
ional
i
sm ofAugust
eComt
e
Byt heearlydec adesoftheni net
eenthcentury,t
heti
mehadc omef oranew dis c
ipl
ine
dedicatedtot hes yst
emi
cs tudyoft hesocialworl
d.Augus teComt egav eanamet oa
growingc orpusoft heor
izi
ngaboutt henatureanddy namicsofs ociet
ies,namingthis
di
s c
ipline"
soc i
ology,
"orthestudyoft hesocial
.Comtec hosetheter
m" s
ocialphy
s i
cs"to
desc r
ibehi
si ntent
iontor
esearchtheunderly
ingessenc
eoft hes oc
ial
wor l
d.
Comt eunderst
oodthatthenineteent
hc enturywoul dbeknownast he" centuryofbi ol
ogy"
becauset heconceptofevoluti
onwasi nt heai r
,butheal sorecognizedt hatt hemos t
successfuloft
hes ci
ences,whatev entual
lybec amek nownas" phy si
cs"repr esentedthe
appropri
atemodelofhow s c i
ences houldf ormulat
etheories
.Biologymi ghts er v
easa
metaphoraswel lasanent r
ypoi ntforlegiti
mi z
ingthenew s ci
enceofs oc iety,whereas
physic
sc oulds
erveasamodel f
orhows oci
ol ogi
call
awss houl
dbewr i
tt
enandt ested.
TheAppl
i
cat
ionofBi
ol
ogybyComt
e
Comt earguedt hatsoc i
ologywoul dbet hefinalandmos tdiff
icultsciencetoemer geint he
newer aof" posit
ivi
s m,"ortheor etic
all
ydr i
venr esearch.Soc i
ologywast obet hes t
udyof
socialor
ganisms ,ortheex ami nationofs tr
uc t
uredpatternsofr el
ations hi
psamongs pec i
es.
Thisnot i
onofas oc i
alorgani sm of f
eredas pecif
ict ec hni
queofanal ys i
s,k nownas
functi
onali
sm ors truc t
uralfunc t
ionali
sm.Thi s" organicanal ogy "prov i
dedt hef oundation
forthef i
rsttheoreti
c alperspec t
ivei ns oci
ology.Comt ec l
ass i
fi
eds ociol
ogyi ntos tati
cs
(str
uctur
alpr opert
iesoft hes ocial
)anddy nami cs( proc essest hatc r
eate,sus tai
n,and
changet hequal i
ti
esandr el
ations hipsbetweent hesepr opert
ies )
.Thi snotionofas ocial
organi
s m off
eredas pecif
ictechniqueofanal ysi
s,whic hbec amek nownasf unc t
ionali
s m.
Aspert heComt e,mec hanismsofmut uali
nter
dependenceamongs ys t
em part
s,center
s
ofpowerf orpol
iti
calcontrolandregul
ati
onofs y
stem par
ts,andcul
turalcodessharedby
al
ldiffer
enti
ateds oci
aluni t
sar ethemos tlik
elytos at
isf
yt herequir
ementf ors oci
al
i
ntegrati
on.
Appli
cati
onofEarlyPhys i
csbyComt e
Comt ewasac hampionofa" nat
uralsc i
ence"vi
ewofwhats oci
ologyc ouldbe.Li k
eany
science,sociol
ogycandev el
opexplanatoryl
awsaboutt heproperti
esanddy nami c soft
he
soc i
alwor l
d,andt hebes toftheselawswoul dbet hoset hatareaboutt i
mel essand
fundament alprocess
est hatal
waysoc curwhenhumansor ganizet hems elv
esi ntos ocial
systems .Thiswastheimageofs ci
enc eintheeraaf
terNewt on’sformulationoft helawof
gravit
y,whichwast hought,att
heti
me, t
obec apabl
eofex pl
ai ni
ngmanyoft hepr opert
ies
anddy namicsoft hec osmos.Thes ame,Comt eargued,waspos s
iblef orthes ocial

3|
Page
universe;expl
anat
ionwouldcomefr
om ar t
iculat
ingabs t
rac
tlawsaboutt
hedynami
csof
fundament alpr
operti
esofacosmosc ompos edofs oci
alsyst
ems.Forhi
m,themodelof
sociologywaspul ledfr
om ananalogywithbi ology,butthemethodol
ogycamefrom
phys i
cs.
1.
3. Thef
unct
ional
i
sm ofHer
ber
tSpencer
HerbertSpencerwasoneofthemostcreat
iveandwell-
knownschol
arsoftheni
net
eenth
centur
y.Hisgoalwast oi
ncorporat
eethi
cs,physi
cs,psychol
ogy
,bi
ology
,andsoci
ology
undersomebasi cl
awsoftheuniv
erse.
Wil
li
am Henr ySpenc er,as ociologi
st,sharedComt e'
snot iont hats oci
ol
ogymi ghtbe
consi
deredaf iel
dofnat uralscience.Regardi
ngt hework i
ngdy nami csofeac hofthese
uni
verses,Spencerproposeds everalhighl
yabstractr
ulesorl aws .Hisvi
ews ,whi
chwer e
fi
rstpubli
shedi nthreev olumesi n1876andwer etit
ledPr incipl
esoft heOper at
ing
DynamicsoftheSoc i
alSystem, were"deriv
ed"fr
om thephy si
csoft hetime.
 Thefir
stvol
umeintroducesSpence'
stheor
yofs ociol
ogy,di
scuss
eshow peopl
e
i
nter
actwit
honeanot heri
ngroupsandhowi ns
tit
uti
onschangeoverti
me.Spenc
e
begi
nshisexami
nat
ionofinst
it
uti
onswit
has ect
iononthefamil
y,marr
iage,
women,
andchi
ldr
en.
 Pol
i
ti
cal
and"
cer
emoni
al
"i
nst
it
uti
onsar
ecov
eredi
nthes
econdv
olume.
 Rel
i
gious ins
tit
uti
ons,professi
onalinst
it
uti
ons
,and "
indus
tri
al
" or ec
onomi
c
i
nst
it
utionsar
eallcov
eredinthethi
rdv
olume.
HerbertSpencerwaswel l-
knownf uncti
onali
stsociol
ogistwhocompar edthewor ki
ngs
ofsocietyt otheorgansinthebody .Tounderstandsociety
,functi
onal
ism l
ooksathow
i
tsinsti
tutions,nor
ms,conv ent
ions,andt r
adit
ionsallworktogether
.Thus,accor
dingto
spencer,thef unct
ionalset
upasoci et
yisanaloguestot hefuncti
onsetupofahuman
body.
Thehumanbody 'sorgansar edependentononeanot her.Whenanor ganint hehuman
bodyismal f
unctioni
ngornotf uncti
oningproperl
y,itaffectstheot
herorgansandhasan
i
mpac tontheent ir
ebody .Inthes ameway ,thes ocietyisseenasac ompli
c at
edsy st
em,
muchlikethehumanbody .Ac omplexs yst
em ismadeupofnumer ouss oc
iali
nsti
tuti
ons
worki
ngtogether.Eachs ocial
ins t
it
uti
onhasac er
tai
npur poseandper
formsas peci
ficjob;
i
fallsoci
alinsti
tuti
onswor keffecti
vel
y,soci
etywi l
lr unmor esmoothl
yandwi l
lbemor e
l
ikel
ytoencourages ol
idari
ty.
I
tdiscus seshowonegr oupinteract
swi t
hanothergroupandhowonegr oupc aninfl
uence
anothergr oup.Howgroupsbehav ec anaff
ecthowanot hergr
oupbehaves,andvi
c eversa.
Understandings oci
etyasac ompl exs ys
tem whos ec omponent
sc ooperat
et of ost
er
cooperati
onands t
abil
i
tyforourc hil
drenisthedef ini
ti
onofs t
ruct
uralfunct
ionali
sm.
Str
uc t
uralFunc ti
onal
is
m,i nHer ber
tSpenc er'
sopinion,istheconceptofs oci
etyasa
humanor gani sm.(El
wick,
J.,2003)
Str
uctur
alFunctionali
smi samac rolevelor
ient
ation.Itconcer
nsbr oadpatter
nst hat
shapessoci
ety
.Ift her
eisamac r
o-l
evel
,t
herewil
lbeami cr
olevel
.Macrolevel
cons i
stsof
manyt y
pesofmi crolevel
.ThemodelofStr
uct
uralFuncti
onali
smismadeupofi ns
tit
uti
on.
Forexample,schoolisami crowhichi
salsoas oc i
alinst
it
uti
on.Schoolisaoneoft he

4|
Page
microl
evel
s.Gover
nmentisalsoamic r
olev el
whichisal
soanothersoc
ial
ins
tit
utioninour
soci
ety
.Therearesti
llalotofsoci
alinsti
tuti
onsinoursoci
etys uc
hasbank s,hospit
als
,
shoppi
ngmalls
,churc
h,famil
ies
,educati
on,rel
igi
on.
1.
4. Funct
ional
i
sm i
nEmi
l
eDur
khei
m'sAnal
ysi
s
AlotofEmi l
eDur kheim'sideascamef rom Spencer.Hestressed,asdidSpencer
,the
fundamentalconnectionbetweenst ructur
aldiff
erenti
ati
onandpopul ati
onexpansi
on.
ContrarytoSpencer,Dur kheim assertedthattheshi f
tfrom asi mpletoacompl ex
societyposed one maj orr equir
ementf orsocietalsurviv
al:the requi
rementfor
i
ntegrati
onamongdi f
ferenti
ati
ngact ors.
Whi l
ehe,l ikeComt e,pr oposedpat hologicalformsofdi sti
nctionint hisshiftfrom
simpl etocompl exsoci eti
es,heal sobel ievedthatovertimet hecor rectmechani sms
ofint egrati
onwoul dev entual
lyev olve.Durkheim,incont r
astt oSpencerandmor ein
l
inewi thComt e,highlightedthesi gnif
icanceofcul t
uralsy st
emsasauni ti
ngf actor
,
particularlythedev elopmentoft hei nsti
tuti
onofl aw t o coor di
nateandmanage
connect ionswi thi
nandbet weensoci alunits.Heunder stoodt hatcul t
uralvaluesor
gener almor alpr i
nciples ofr ightand wr ong mustbecome mor e ether
ealand
"enfeebl ed"tober elevantt oallact orspursuingv ar
iousai msandi nterestsinhighly
diversifi
edsoci alsystems.
Asar esul
t,t
heissuei ncomplexsoci alsystemsbecomeshowt oretr
ofitmor epr eci
se
culturallawsandbel iefs,deri
vedf r
om ex tremelyabstr
actideals,intoallthev ari
ous
domai nsofi nsti
tutionalactivi
ty.Thiswoul denabl eactor
sf uncti
oningi nthev ari
ous
socialwor ldsformedbyst r
ucturaldiff
erenti
ationtobeawar eofandconsi dert he
mor alit
yofasoci etyasex pressedini tsv al
ues.Durkhei
m begant oemphasi z ethe
signif
icanceofcol lectivesymbol smar kedbyt otemsthatwoul dper soni
fyt heent ir
e
societyandt owhi chi tsmember swoul dber equir
edtoobserver i
tualstost rengthen
theiremot i
onalti
est obot hlocalgroupingsandt heunit
yoftheent i
resocietylaterinhis
career ,ashefocusedont hestudyofreligi
on.
Incommuni t
ieswithgr eatdi
versi
ty,t
hemast errequi
rementforintegrati
oncouldbe
achiev
edinthisfashion.Numerousot hertheoret
icall
ineagesinsociologyhavebeen
i
mpact edbythi
sv i
ewofcul tur
alprocesses,freeoffuncti
onal
istbaggage.Theperson
whoexpandedComt e'
sv i
ewsandgav efunctional
ism aconceptual
izat
ionofcult
ureas
essenti
altoful
fi
ll
ingt herequi
rementofi ntegrat
ionincompl exsocialsy st
emswas
Durkheim.

Emi l
eDurkheim'swor kdomi natesanyanal ysi
soff uncti
onali
sttheory
,pri
mar il
y
becausehei sf r
equentlyr
egardedast hef
ir
stsoci
ologisttoexpli
cit
lyatt
emptt he
systemati
ct heori
zingandempi ricalst
udyofthesoci
alwor l
d.Thatis,hemadean
effortt
ocr eatet heor
iesexplainingwhypeopl ebehav edincertai
npr edi
ctable,
routi
neway s,and,mor eimpor t
ant l
y,hemadeanef forttotestthesetheor
iesby
gatheri
ngresearchdata.
Thel
ogical
eleganceofDurkhei
m'swri
ti
ngi
swhatdisti
nguishesi
t,andhi
satt
empt
tosi
tuat
ecriminalbehav
iorwit
hinanexpl
i
cit
lysoci
ologi
calcont
extservesasan

5|
Page
i
nst r
uctiveexample.Therefor
e,wheni tcamet ocr i
meanddev i
ance,Durkhei
m
wasi nit
iall
yconf
rontedwithamet hodol
ogicali
ssuethatresul
tedf r
om thewayhe
tr
iedt ot heor
izethef undamentalcharact
eri
sti
csoft hesoci alwor l
d.Inbasic
Funct i
onali
stter
ms,i fsomethingexist
si nsocietyitmusthav eapur posefor
existi
ngandhencei tmustser vesomeki ndoffuncti
on.Forinstance,si
ncecri
me
existed,itwasnecessarytoclari
fythepurposesitservedfort hepersonand/or
society.

From Dur kheim' sperspect

ive,iti
snecessar ytoexaminehowt henat ur
eoft wo
fundament altypesofsoci et
ies,small-
scalesocieti
esandlarge-scal
esocieti
es,
hav ebeendef i
ned,inordert ocompr ehendt hefunct
ionofcr i
me.Smal l
-scal
e
societies,suchasr ur
al,pre-i
ndustr
ialsocieti
es,werethoughtt ohav esocial
structurest hatwer eprimaril
ybasedondeepl yhel
dnor msandv al
ues.These
societiesdon' thavemanysoci ali
nteracti
ons,andthosethatdotendtobebased
oncl ose-knit,pri
vat
enor msandv alues.

Becausenor msandv aluesfr

equent
lyactasthesoci
algluethatbi
ndspeopl
e
togetheri
ngr oups,Dur
kheim bel
i
evedthatt
hecombi nat
ionofinf
ormalsoci
al
contr
ols,rest
ri
ctedgeographi
cmobil
it
y,andsi
milarf
actor
sservedasthebasis
forsocial
order.

Dur kheim arguedt hatassocieti

esadv anceandchange,t hemor altiest
hatbind
peopl e t ogether weaken because t hey can no l onger be cont inuously
strengt henedbyi nti
mat e,per
sonalcont act.Therefore,amechani sm tocontrol
theset ypesofr el
ationshi
psmustbedev eloped associ et
iesbecomemor e
compl exi ntermsoft hewidev ari
etyofsoci alrelati
onshipst hatexist;this
mechani sm is,ineffect,alegalsystem.Legalsy stemsev olvet ocodifymor al
behav ior,and i n doi ng so,t his pr ocess l ays the f oundat i
on for our
compr ehensionoft her ol
esplayedbybot hlaw andcr i
me.Thef ollowi
ngi san
outlineoft hesetasks:

 Inanyl arge-scal esociety,lawsdel i

neat ethel imi t
sbetweenaccept ableand
unaccept ablebehav i
or.Inthesamewayt hatnor msr epr esentspeci ficsoci al
rules,theyt husser veasgener alsocialgui delinesforhow peopl eshoul d
behav e.
 Lawsar eav eryv i
siblewayt o draw boundar ies,theyar ecodi f
iedand
relevanttoev erymemberofasoci ety,unli
kenor ms, forinst ance.Inthi sway ,
enshr i
ningmor alpri
ncipl
esi nt helawnecessi tatesopendecl ar
ati
onsoft he
existenceofsuchbounds.Thesedemonst r
ationsmaybeapar tofthewor k
ofor ganizationsl i
kemassmedi a(wher ebycr i
minalbehav iouri spublicised),
Cour ts(wher et hetradit
ionsandr it
ual soft hel egalsyst em ser v
et oseti t
apar tfr
om ev erydaybehav iour.
 Dur khei
m bel iev edthatcrimi nalbehaviorwasawayf orthel awt obet ested.
Unl essamechani sm exi
stedt oprovidet heimpet uswher ebychangecoul d
beaccommodat ed,hearguedt hatsincelawswer enecessar il
ysocial statics
(theyar esl ow t ochangeonceadopt ed),itwaspossi blet hatchangesi n

6|
Page
 peopl e's behav i
orov ert ime woul df ailt o be r eflected by appr opr iate
changesi nt hel aw.
 Crimi nalbehav i
oract ual lyser vesasamet aphorf ort hedy nami cf orcet hat
forcespeopl et or eev aluat et heappl icabi l
it
yofv ar i
ousl aws.Lawst hatar e
i
nconsi stentwi thsoci albehav iorshoul dbechanged.
 Crimeser vesani ntegr atingpur posebybr ingi ngt hel aw- abidi ngpeopl e
closert oget hert hrough publ ic out rage and al arm ov ercr imi nalact s.
Accor dingt oDur khei m,t hishel pst or aisel ev elsofsoci alsol idari
ty( i.e.,
peopl ef eeli
ngmor econnect edt ooneanot herandasenseofbel ongingt oa
l
ar gersoci algr ouporsoci ety).Int hisway ,itwasbel ievedt hatcr imi nal
behav i
orconsi st ent l
yst rengt henedsoci al ti
es.
 Dur kheim wasawar et hatcr imeser vedapur pose,butheal sounder st ood
thatt oomuchcr imewoul dbepr oblemat i
cf orasoci ety .I nt hisr egar d,
Dur kheim bel iev ed t hatexcessi ve crimi nalact ivitywoul d be pot ent i
al ly
disruptive( ordy sfunct i
onal )as i twoul d ser i
ousl y under mi ne soci et al
mor alit
y .Peopl ewoul d,inef fect,nol ongerknowwhatwasmor all
yr i
ghtor
wr ongandwoul dbeuncer tainoft hel i
mi tsofaccept ablebehav ior .
 Ther efore,Dur khei m ar gued t hatt he basi s ofsoci alor deri n compl ex,
i
ndust r
ial,soci et ieswast obef oundi nt her elationshi pbet weent woi deas,
namel y:
o TheGener alConsci ousness:Consci ousnessi saconceptt hat
reflect st hei deat hat" society"isj ustasal iveasahumanbei ngi s,
andt hatsoci ety'sconsci encei sexpr essedast hesum oft he
belief sand v aluesofi tsmember s.Thei ndividualconsci ence
repr esent st hewi llofpar ticularpeopl e,j ustast hecol l
ect ive
consci encedoesf orsociet yasawhol e.
o Legalr ules:Asoci ety'scol l
ect i
veconsci encepr oducesi tsl egal
rules,whi chmeanst hatt heyar eanexpr essionoft hatsoci ety '
s
collect iv e consci ence.I nt his sense,l aws ar ej ust nor ms,
standar dsofconductt hatappl yt oev eryonei nsoci etyf ormal ly
rathert hanj usti nf ormal l
yt ocer taingr oups.
Thus,Durkhei
m arguesthati
ft hecol
lect
iveconsci
enceisweakened( by,forexample,
toomuchcr i
minalbehavi
our
)t henthemor alt
iesthatbindpeopletogetherarealso
weakened.Aswehav eseen,peopleareshapedbyt heirsoci
alexperiences-they
exper
iencesociet
yasamor alforcebeari
ngdownupont hem.
1.
5. TheBasi
cEl
ement
sofEar
lyFunct
ional
Theor
ies
Functional
ism haddiedi nsociologybyt hetimeDur kheim passedawayi nthesecond
decadeoft hetwenti
et hcentur
y ,
butant hropologi
ststookitupandkeptitaliveunti
lthe
middleoft hecentur
y.Att hisjuncture,funct
ionali
sm woul dunexpect
edlyresurgeand,
atleastforali
ttl
eperiod,overt
akeot hertheoreti
calperspecti
vesinsoci
ology.
1.
6. Var
iet
iesofFunct
ional
i
sm
Thethreemai
nsub-
vari
eti
esoffunct
ional
i
sttheor
yareasfol
lows.Thesei
ncl
ude"machine
funct
ional
i
sm,
""psy
chofunct
ional
i
sm,"and"analy
ti
cfunct
ional
ism,
"andtheyarethought
7|
Page
tohavedevel
opedf r
om twoear
lyi
deasofbehav
ior
ism,
logi
calbehav
ior
ism,
andempi
ri
cal
behav
ior
ism,respect
ivel
y.
Howev er,it'
scruci altounder standt hatthesevariousst r
ainsoffunctionali
sm haveatl east
somegenet icancest r
ies,andt hattherear efunctionalistviewsfrom bot hthepastandt he
presentthatf al
lsomewher eint hemi ddle.Forinst ance,Wi l
fr
idSell
ar s'(
1956)accountof
ment alstatesas" t
heoreticalent i
ti
es"iswi del
yr egar dedasasi gnifi
cantearlyv er
sionof
functi
onalism.Howev er,ittakest hepr operchar act er
izat
ionoft houghtsandex peri
ences
todependont heirr ol
ei nof f
eringasci entif
icex planationofbehav ior,aswellasonwhat
hecal l
st he" l
ogi c,"ort heapr ior
ii nt
errel
ati
ons,oft her elev
antconcept s.Ev enso,i tis
i
nformat i
vet odi scusst het hreemai nschoolsoft houghtsepar atel
yifthesewar ningsar e
takenintoconsi der ati
on.
1.
7. Moder
nFunct
ional
i
sm'
sEv
olut
ion
Sociologydidnotgi veuponf unctional t
heor i
esasawayofdescr i
bingsociet
ybecauseof
i
tsmanyf aults,butr at
herbecauseoft hei
remphasi sonev oluti
on.Theev olut
ionof
civi
l
izationsfrom simplet ocompl exfor mswasemphasi zedinthecont extofallfuncti
onal
schemes.Whi te Europeans hav et raditional
lyviewed the transiti
on fr
om si mpleto
compl ex soci et
ies as ev i
dence of " progr
ess" and " advancement ,
" accor di
ng to
Enli
ght enmentopi nion.Unfortunately,thiscomment ar
yondev elopmentt endedt ov i
ew
thosesoci et
iest hathadnoty etreachedt helevelofindustr
ial
izati
oni nEuropeasbei ng
i
nferior,notonlyintermsoft heirstructuresandcul t
uresbutalsoint er
msoft hebi ol
ogyof
thepeopl ewhol ivedthere.
Fornon- i
ndustri
alsocietiesandt hei
rinhabitants,thet er
ms" sav
age"and" pr i
mi t
ive"were
fr
equent l
yused.
The not -
so-subtl
er acism i n manyoft hese r epresentati
ons ofpr eli
ter ate societ
ies
eventuall
yl ed to a si gni
fi
cantback lash,par ti
cularlywhen Soci alDar wi ni
sm,whi ch
promot esawor ldoft he" survi
valofthef i
ttest,
"emer gedt odef endt hemi st r
eatmentof
"i
nferi
or"peoplesasa" natural
part"oftheev oluti
onarypr ocess.Contrarytopopul arbel
ief
,
Darwinnev erexpressedhi sv i
ewsonnat uralselecti
oni nthisway .Spencer ,whospok eit
ni
ney earsbeforeDar win'sontheOr i
ginofSpeci eswaspubl ishedinSoci alSt aticsin1850,
i
st heauthorofthet erm.
Asar esult
,DarwinandSpencerweredemoni zedmor ethanev erbefor
e,butmor e
i
mpor tant
ly,Dar
wini
anmodelsofpr ogr
essiveev oluti
onwer edemoni z
ed.Additi
onal
ly
,
functi
onal
ism wastossedoutwiththeproverbialbathwaterast hesefr
equent
lyrat
her
raci
stmodel swere.However
,itdi
dnotper ish;instead,i
tflour
ishedasat heoryaft
er
fi
ndinganewandhospi t
abl
ehomeinanthropology.
Becauseofi tssuccess, sociologi
stshadr eintroducedf uncti
onali
sm toit
sori
ginalpl
aceby
themi ddleofthe20t hcent ury.Befor ethenumer ousflawsoff unct
ional
ism wereusedt o
buil
dasev erecrit
iqueoft heent i
r epr of
essionasady sf
uncti
onalstyl
eoft heori
zi
ng,i t
remai ned t he preemi nent t heoreticaldirection in sociology for about 10 y ear s.
Funct i
onal i
sm appear edt obedy i
ngoncemor e,butitreall
yunderwentat ransf
ormat ion
i
nto amor eaccept ablev ersioni nwhi cht heconcept sof" f
uncti
on"and " f
unctional
requisites"weremi nimi zed,ifnothi ddenfrom v i
ew,mak i
ngitmoreaccept abl
etolar ger
audiencesofsoci al scienti
sts.

8|
Page
 1.
8. Ant
hropol
ogi
cal
Funct
ional
i
sm
In anthr
opology,t he f
ail
ure of evol
uti
onar
y stage model
s,which anthropol
ogist
s
contr
ibutedtobecausetheygaveinfor
mationonpri
mit
ivesoci
eti
eswi
delyacknowledged;
but,
unlik
ei nsoci
ology,
funct
ional
i
sm wasnott hr
ownoutwitht
heevol
uti
onarytheor
y.
Functi
onali
sm hasper sist
ed because itwasdi ff
icul
tf orant hropologi
stsconducting
fi
eldworkinpr i
mitivesoci et
iest oexplai
nwhycer t
ainst ruct
uresandcul t
uralpract
ices
exi
stedamongpr eli
teratepopulati
ons.Researcherswer eunabl et otracethehist
oryofan
i
mpor t
antst r
ucture,suchasabl oodl
ine,orpracti
ce,suchasar eli
giousrit
ualorbel i
ef,
becausethesepopul at i
onslackwr i
tt
enhistor
ies.Asar esul t,i
twasdi ffi
cul
ttounderst
and
whypr el
it
erat
epopul ati
onshaddev el
opedsuchst ructuresorcamet oengagepracti
ces,
evenwi t
htheaidofor altr
adit
ions,whi
chwer eheavil
ymy thologized.
Functi
onalism off
eredasol ution:lookathow apr act
iceorsystem operatestof ul
fil
l
specif
icf unct
ionalr equir
ement s oft he soci
alwhol et hator gani
zes populati
on
member s.Thenot ionofhav ingdescr i
bedt hatstruct
urewasaccompl i
shedbybei ng
abletopost ul
atether olethatast ructureorapr acti
ceperfor
medf orpreser
vingthe
viabi
l
ityofapr el
it
eratecivil
ization.Thi shasal waysbeent her eassuri
ngaspectof
funct
ional
ism; i
toffer
st heimpr essionthatthebasicproblemsconcer ni
ngaci v
il
izati
on,
such as what enabl es itt o per si
st,hav e been addressed.For t hisr eason,
anthr
opologist
shav eembr acedf unct i
onali
sttechni
quesofexplanation.

1.
9. TheDownf
all
,OnceAgai
n,ofFunct
ional
i
sm
Functi
onali
sm speci f
icall
yl ostfavori nthe United States.Due t ot he presence of
competingtheoreti
caltradit
ions,
functi
onal
ism wasl esscommoni nEuropet hanitwasi n
theUnit
edSt ates.Functionalanal
ysishascont i
nuedi nEuropeev enthought hecrit
ici
sm
offuncti
onali
sm wasi niti
all
ymadebyEur opeanconf l
i
ctt heori
sts,i
ncont rasttowhat
happenedintheUni t
edSt ates,wherefunct
ionali
sm hasallbutdisappeared.
Fori nstance,Ni klasLuhmannpr oducedal esscompl i
catedpr ogram bef orehi sdeat h,
positingt henecessi tytol essencompl ex i
tyinher enti ntempor al,cultural,andmat eri
al
element soft hesoci alwor ld.Ri char dMünchhascont i
nuedt heAGI LPar sonianagenda
i
nt othet wenty-fir
stcent ur y .Addi tionall
y, Luhmann, oneoft hemostsi gnifi
cantEur opean
theorists,conti
nuedPar sons'emphasi songener aliz
edsy mbol icmedi aofi nsti
tutional
domai nsandcar riedoutsomei ncrediblyt horoughex aminationsoft heiroper ationin
numer ousdomai ns.Thi sk i
ndoft heorizi
ngi sst il
ldoneandwi del yread, buti nt heUni t
ed
States,f unct
ionalism asar ecogni zablet heoryv ani shedundert her el
ent l
essassaul tof
attack s.
Thecr it
ici
smsoff unct i
onal ism wer e:
 f unct ionalexpl anat i
onsf requent l
ydev olvedi ntof alset eleol ogiesand
tautol ogies, al thoughbei ngl ogical,
 meani ngf uli nt hatf unct i
onal i
sm wasper cei vedasaconser vati
ve
i
deol ogyt hatov eremphasi zedf actor spreserv ingt hest at usquowhi l
e
downpl ay ingi nequi t
yandconf l
i
ct .
 expl anator yi nt hati tplacest oomuchf ocusonanal y t
icalcat egor i
es
rathert hant hemodel sandpr inciplest hatdescr ibedy nami cpr ocesses.

9|
Page
 1.Logi
cal
Probl
emsi
nFunc
tional
Expl
anat
ions
Philosophers ofs cience and logic
ians have been grappli
ng witht wo bi
g pr oblems :
i
llegiti
mateteleologiesandt autologi
es.Anill
egi
ti
mat etel
eologydes c
ribesanends tateor
outc omeofapr oc essasc ausi
ngt heprocessesthatbroughtaboutthisends tat
e,wi thout
spec if
ying t
hemec hanismsbywhi chthisreversalofmeans -
end c aus
ali
tyoc curs .A
tautology is ci rcular reasoning.Many f uncti
onalt heories demonst r
at e circular
reasoni ngandt husar etautol
ogous.Manyt heori
es,forexampl e,arguethataspeci fic
structure sati
sfiesa speci f
icr equir
ementand t huspr omotest he socialsy stem' s
surv i
val.

2.Subs
tant
iv
ePr
obl
emswi
thFunc
tional
Expl
anat
ions
Inthe1950sand1960s, Parsons'sfuncti
onal
i
sm wascr it
iquedbytheori
stswhoar gued
thati
tov eremphasi
zedhow st r
ucturesandpr ocessesmai nt
ainsoci
eties.Incontrast,
confl
icttheor
ist
sargued,
struct
uralneedsaremetbyex i
sti
ngsocialst
ructures(because
thesystem wouldnotsur
viv
eot herwise)andt
ensionisseenasdy sf
unctionalorpetty.
Parsons'theoryofhumandev elopmentwasatt
ackedi npolemi csbynewgenerati
onsof
theori
stsands oci
ol
ogis
tswhov iewediti
nhost
il
eterms .Par
s onsasaper sonwasseenas
reacti
onaryandc onser
vat
ivewhenhewasav er
yliberalpersonpol i
ti
cal
ly
.Cri
ti
quesof
Parsonswentbey ondint
ell
ectualcri
ti
ci
smtoc r
it
ici
smsoff unct
ional
isti
ndi
vi
dualsas
persons,orevenhumanbeings.

3. Def ic
ientMet hodsofEx planati
on
Theor igi
nalar chi
tectureoft heAGILs chemebox edanyac t
iontheor i
stinbecause,once
commi ttedt oc ategorizat
ioninbox es,ther
ewer efew otheroptionsf orexplai
ningthe
socialuniverse.Durkhei m'sDurkheimi sthemostdamagi ngcr i
ti
cism off uncti
onali
sm,
especiallythatpr acticedbyPar sons,andy etitistheleastent ioned.I
ncont rastto
Parsons' str
ategyofexpl anati
on,HerbertSpencerusedhiscategor i
estoemphasi zethe
domai nsofr ealit
ymosti nneedofexpl anat
ionwithabstr
actprinciples.

Parsons' t
heor
yofhumandev el
opmentwasat t
ackedinpol
emi csbynewgener at
ionsof
theori
stsandsociol
ogi
stswhov ieweditinhost
il
eterms.Parsonsasapersonwasseen
asreactionar
yandconservati
vewhenhewasav eryl
iber
alpersonpoli
ti
cal
l
y .Cr
iti
quesof
Parsonswentbey ondintel
lectualcri
ti
cism tocri
ti
ci
smsoff unct
ional
i
stindiv
idual
sas
persons,orevenhumanbeings.

2.Concl
usi
on
Because Spencer 's and Dur kheim's f unctional appr oaches pr ovi
ded theoret
ical
explanationsforkeysoci alprocesses, t
heansweri sdef ini
tivelyyes.Asaresult
,adopt
ing
theex planator
ymet hodspr oposedbyComt e,Spencer ,andDur khei
m whil
eabandoning
theconceptoff uncti
onalneedsandr equi
sites,atleasti nt hef or
m emphasizedbymost
functi
onalt heori
es,ist heonl ywayt ofullysav ef unct i
onal i
sm.I ntheend,Radcli
ffe-
analysisBrown'swasi l
legiti
mat el
yteleologicalandf ulloftaut ol
ogies.
Parsons' t
heor
yofhumandev el
opmentwasatt
ackedinpol
emi csbynewgenerat
ionsof
theorist
sandsoci
ologi
stswhov i
ewediti
nhost
il
eterms.Parsonsasapersonwasseen
asr eacti
onar
yandconserv
ati
vewhenhewasav eryl
iber
alpersonpol
it
ical
l
y.Cr
iti
quesof

10|
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Par
sonswentbey
ondint
ell
ect
ualcr
it
ici
sm t
ocr
it
ici
smsoff
unct
ional
i
sti
ndi
vi
dual
sas
per
sons,
orev
enhumanbei
ngs.
Traditi
onalf unct
ionalanal ysi
s shortci
rcuitst he anal
ysi
s off or
ces and selecti
on
pressuresbyposi t
ingal istoffuncti
onalrequisi
tesandsocialst
ruct
ur esmeet
ingthese
requisi
tes.Thesameki ndofat t
enuatedar gumentoccursinphy si
ologyandmedi ci
ne
whent alkinginshorthand.Whati slefti
mpl ici
tinthephysi
ologi
calaccountoflungsis
thewel l
-underst
oodev oluti
onaryargument .
Ther earepr essuresonhumanpopul ati
onst ochangeorper i
sh.Andi nt hepast ,many
popul ati
onsmaynothav ebeenabl et ocr eatenew soci alandcul t
uralsy st emsi n
responset othesesel ecti
onpr essures,leadi ngt oint ernalpopulati
ondi sintegr ationor
external conquestbyapopul ati
onthatwasmor ewel l-organized.Ther efore,inr esponse
tosel ectionpressures,actorstrytodev elopnewt ypesofst ruct
ures,whet hert hrough
i
mi tationofothersoci eti
es,ori
ginali
ty,ort ri
al-and-error.Thenewst ructureswi llbekept
i
nasoci etyand,mor eov er
,copiedbyot hers,leadingt othedi ff
erent i
ation,ift heyar e
successf ulindev el
opingast r
ucturet hatl essenst hesesel ecti
vepr essur es( aki ndof
socioculturalspeciati
on).Ear l
yfunctionalar gument swer eimpl i
cit
lyusi ngt hisl ogi
cif
wel ookbackatt hem.
Superor ganisms,in contrastt o bli
nd naturalselecti
on on t he phenotypes and
underlyi
nggenotypesofor ganisms,arecapabl eofmobili
zingresour cesbecauset hey
haveconsciousness,goals,andpur posesatal ll
evel
sofor ganizati
on.Indiv
idualsand
the units or
ganizi
ng t hei
ract ivi
ti
es hav et he abil
it
yt oi nnovate,borrow,and
experiment,i
ncontrasttoorganismswi t
houtagency.Ifani nnovati
oni ssuccessfulin
resolvi
ngapr obl
em likedistr
ibuti
on,itwillbecopiedandspr eadacr ossapopul ation
veryquickl
y.Fornewt rai
ts,t
heydonotneedt owaitforchancemut at i
onsorselection
ont heextr
emeendsofadi stri
buti
on.
Production,reproducti
on,regulati
on(thr
oughpowerandcul ture),anddist
ri
buti
onare
fundament alforcesinherentini nt
ell
i
gentlife-cr
eatingsuper organi
smst hatchannel
select
ionpr essures,forci
ngact or
swi t
hagent i
alcapaciti
est oeitherdevel
opnew
typesofsoci ocultur
alformationsorsufferthedi si
ntegr
ativeconsequencesoff ai
lur
e
todoso.Thesef or
cesar enotsomuchf unct i
onalneedsast heyarefundamental
forcesthatareinherentinintell
i
gentli
fe-
creatingsuperorganisms.
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&King,P.P.(
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