Environmental

Sociology: Nature
UNIT 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY: and Scope

NATURE AND SCOPE 

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Emergence of Environmental Sociology
1.3 Conceptualization of Society – Environment Relationship
1.3.1 Human Ecology Model

1.3.2 Society – Environment Interactions

1.3.3 Society – Environment Dialectic

1.4 The Environmental Predicament
1.4.1 Global Warming
1.4.2 Ozone Depletion

1.4.3 Smog

1.4.4 Acid Rain

1.4.5 Other Ecosystem Disruptions
1.5 The Societal Response – The Way Forward
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 References
1.8 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:

 Discuss the context of origins of Environmental Sociology as a

discipline;
 Give an account of some of the theoretical accounts to understand the
nature of relationship between society and environment;
 Examine some of the crucial environmental concerns brought upon itself
by the human society;
 Note that Environmental Sociology as a discipline is an ongoing
endeavour.


Written by Bhawana Sharma Jha , Delhi University

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Envisioning
Environmental 1.1 INTRODUCTION
Sociology
The term environmental sociology is a compound of two words ─
‗environment‘ and ‗sociology‘. Environmentcomprises a close
interconnection between people, other living beings, land, water, air─ all that
is essential for physical life on earth. Sociology is the systematic study of the
society we live in. It is about people, groups, institutions, interactions
between them and the resulting processes and structures in the society ─ all
that is essential for social life. Therefore, environmental sociology is the
study of relations between human societies and their physical environments,
or according to R. Dunlap and Catton, ‗societal-environmental interactions‘
(Dunlap and Rosa. 2000. Encyclopedia, 2000). These interactions, at the
interface of society and environment have a reciprocal influence on each
other. However, environmental problems or concerns emerged as a
consequence of these interactions. Some of the glaring environmental
concerns being ─ global climate change, soil degradation, declining bio-
diversity, ozone layer depletion, solid waste problem, pollution, acid rain,
water scarcity, and many more.

The unit will start with an account of the emergence context of

Environmental Sociology as a discipline. Following which we will examine
some of the theoretical accounts of the nature of the relationship between
humans and their environment. Underlying these environmental problems is
the recognition of detrimental impact of industrialisation, urbanisation and
the continuing globalisation on the bio physical environment.
Acknowledging the pervasive environmental degradation has led to
recognition of exercise of power and the consequent conflict deriving from
environmental issues. Since, exercise of power tends to operate unequally in
the society, conflicts in the realm of environmental problems tend to
highlight the significant role of social inequality. Thus leading to the
emergence of environmental activism through the various environmental
movements (like, Chipko, Narmada BachaoAandolan, Earth Hour,
Environmental Justice Movement, Greenpeace, etc.) which try to bring about
a balance in the relationship between society and environment, which has
become highly skewed in favour of society apparently, but does not favour
either society or the environment in the long run.

Hence, the emergence of a new field of Environmental Sociology ―…out of

the intellectual and political ferment generated by movements for social
reform and change.‖ (Hannigan, 1995).

1.2 EMERGENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

SOCIOLOGY
Thinking about the environment, prior to the emergence of discipline of
Environmental Sociology, lay at the door of Conservationist (like George
Perkins Marsh, Gifford Pinchot, Aldo Leopold and others) and
2
Preservationists (like John Muir, Robert Marshall and others) who Environmental
Sociology: Nature
highlighted the fragility of the biosphere and the attendant ecosystem. and Scope
However, with the advance of industrialisation,specially its rapid pace after
the Second World War, led to not only unsustainable encroachments on the
natural environments, but even over-exploitation through resource extraction
and waste addition, such that they increasingly underwent depredations and
environmental degradations and even destruction in some instances.

Box 1. Environmental Concern landmarks

 The term ‗environmental sociology‘ was coined by Samuel Klausner in

his book On Man in His Environment (1971).

 22nd April, 1970 was celebrated as the ‘Earth Day 1970’, a debut of the
modern environmental movement.

 1970‘s was identified as the ‗Environmental Decade‘.

 Publication of Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel Carson, an expose of

ecosystem damage consequent to the use of agricultural pesticide.

Prior to the 1970‘s , American interest in environment was restricted to ‗rural

sociology‘, with a two-pronged interest in – communities dependent on
nature for their livelihood, and in parklands as wilderness areas. However,
1960‘s and 1970‘s turned out to be environmentally turbulent decades –
socially, politically and economically, which compelled the intellectuals and
academicians to rethink their academic standpoints in terms of the
environment.

Box 2Silent Spring (1962)

Is an environmental science book written by Rachel Carson after almost a

decade of research on the adverse environmental impact of indiscriminate use
of synthetic pesticides, like DDT. The effects of these pesticides are not
simply limited to eliminating pests from the natural ecosystems, but are also
harmful to human existence.

Not only did this book bring environmental concerns to the forefront of
American public, but it brought about numerous policy changes and led to the
creation of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Riley Dunlap and William Catton, founders of the field of ‗environmental

sociology‘ in US and other key contributors to this field have made a
distinction between – ‗Sociology of environmental issues‘ and
‗environmental sociology‘. Sociology of environmental issues is, ― the
application of traditional sociological perspectives on public opinion, social
movements and formal organisations to topics such as the characteristics of
environmental activists , and the tactics and strategies employed by
environment groups‖ (Hannigan, 1995). Whereas, ―‗Environmental 3
Envisioning Sociology‘ focused on the study of environment- society interaction…[i.e.]
Environmental
Sociology the underlying relationship between modern industrial societies and the
physical environments they inhabit.‖ (Hannigan, 1995)

Box 3. Love Canal Debacle

Love Canal is a neighborhood in Niagara Falls, New York, US. It came into
prominence subsequent to an environmental disaster befell the community
living there. During the 1940‘s, the Love Canal became a landfill for
dumping chemical wastes by the Hooker Chemical Company. As the
population increased gradually, the landfill too became inhabited. However,
during construction of various buildings the dumping sites were partially
exposed, such that during and after the rains the chemicals started seeping
above ground into people‘s homes and backyards and started adversely
impacting their health and wellbeing. Result of blood tests showed high white
blood cell count, a precursor to leukemia, and chromosomal damage among
the residents up to 33%, and many other ailments.

By the 1970‘s, the Love Canal became the most appalling environmental
tragedy in American history. It was identified as a ‗federal health emergency‘
by the then US President, Jimmy Carter. Congress passed the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)in
1978, also known as the Superfund Act, in response to such environmental
hazards. Simultaneously, environment (‗greens‘) became a political force to
be reckoned with, on the European Continent through activist non-
governmental organisations, green political parties and environmental
movements. In Britain, though initially, interest in the environment tended to
be theoretical, linking classical sociological perspectives to the relationship
between nature and society. However, by the 1980‘s, due to the establishment
of Global Environmental Change Programme, empirical research in the field
of environment flourished. Unlike Britain, in Netherlandsresearch in
environmental sociology focused on agriculture and riskassessment, thereby
searching for practical solution to the problem of inundation, as 26% of
Netherlands land area falls below sea level.

Environmental Sociology as a discipline established in the early 1990‘s in the

East– Japanand Korea.However, in Japan, research in the field of
environment had begun in the 1950‘s, subsequent to the identification of
Minimata disease as a man-made environmental casualty. In 1992, Japanese
Association for Environmental Sociology was established. Even though, the
Korean Association for Environmental Sociology was established in 2000,
research in and teaching of the discipline of ‗environmental sociology‘ began
in the early 1990‘s in Korea.

Box 4. Minimata Disease is a neurological syndrome, caused by severe

methyl mercury poisoning. Symptoms include, ataxia, numbness in hands
and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of vision and
4
damage to hearing and speech; and many other depending upon the severity Environmental
Sociology: Nature
of poisoning. Minimata disease is caused by the daily consumption of large and Scope
quantities of fish and shellfish, which were heavily contaminated with
methyl mercury. Methyl mercury is a toxic chemical waste generated by the
chemical factories during the process of production of acetaldehyde ( a raw
material of octanol, a chemical used in polyvinyl chloride manufacturing,
much in demand in international markets ), which was then dumped into the
sea.

The first case of Minimata epidemic occurred in the 1950‘s in the Southern
coastal area of the Yatsushiro Sea in the Minimata Bay, Japan. And, the
second epidemic occurred in 1960‘s in tbhe basin of the Agano River,
Japan.Minimata disease is caused by environmental pollution due to
industrial activity. (Noriyuki Hachiya, 2006).

Check Your Progress 1

Complete the following sentences by filling in the blank spaces:

1) Environmental sociology is the study of relations between

………………………………………………….

2) Some of the glaring environmental problem are (give at least three)

……………………………………………..

3) ……………………………… is the sustainable use and proper

management of the biosphere.

4) Research in environmental sociology in Netherlands focused on

……………………………………….

1.4 CONCEPTUALISATIONS OF SOCIETY –

ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP
Deriving our understanding of ‗society - environment relationship‘ from the
definition of environmental sociology given above, as societal-
environmental interactions – includes the ways in which human actions in
the society influence the environment, and the environment modified as a
consequence of human actions influence the society, reciprocally. This
relationship also includes the manner in which such interactions are socially
construed and acted upon. However, these interactions gain significance due
to the value of biophysical environment for the survival of humankind. This
necessitates an understanding the nature of relationship between the
biophysical environment and the society undergoing a continuous change due
to imperatives of development.

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Envisioning 1.3.1 Human Ecology Model
Environmental
Sociology
The human ecology model given by Robert E. Park in the 1920‘s, borrows a
series of principles from the biophysical environment given by Charles
Darwin and other naturalists. Park derives his understanding of the inter-
relation and interdependence between plants and animals in nature and
related it to inter-relations andinterdependence between individuals and
communities in human societies. He begins with an explanation of ‗web of
life‘ (a succession of organisms in the biophysical environment that are
linked to each other through transfer of energy and nutrients)establishing a
‗biotic balance‘ or ‗ecological balance‘ i.e. a state ofequilibrium in the
natural systems. He uses the metaphor of ‗biotic balance‘ to explain ‗social
equilibrium‘ in the human society.

A key principle of ‗web of life‘ is ‗competition‘ and ‗struggle for survival’,

processes which disrupts the equilibrium established in nature / society. This
disruption is overcome by the survivors finding their ‗niches‘ in the physical /
social environment, and also through ‗division of labour‘ among different
species in the ecosystem / categories of people in the society. In the human
society, the disequilibrium is usually due to famine, disease, war, excessive
urban development and industrial pollution, which artificially breaks the
chain of web of life in the social environment. However, ―he believed that
such changes had the capacity to give a new and often superior direction to
the future course of events forcing adaptation, change anda new
equilibrium.‖(Hannigan,1995).

Even though Park identified similarities between the physical environment

and human society, yet he acknowledges the differences between human
ecology and bio-physical ecology. According to him, the main difference lies
in the fact that human society is organised at two levels ─ biotic and cultural;
whereas, the natural environment is organised at another set of two levels ─
biotic and abiotic. Therefore, culture and its attendant features play a
significant role in not only distinguishing society from physical environment,
but also becomes the context for human mastery over nature, and setting in
motion ecological depredations.

Box 5. Chicago School and Environment

Robert E. Park, E. Burgess and Mckenzie applied the principles of human

ecology to the urban spatial arrangements in the city. The city was seen as
territorially based ecological system in which a continuous struggle over land
use produced changes and redistribution of urban population in various
zones, arranged concentrically. This is known as Concentric Zone Theory.

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1.3.2 Society - Environment Interactions Environmental
Sociology: Nature
and Scope
One of the best enunciation of ‗ society-environment interactions ‘ is W.
Cotton and R. Dunlop‘s model of ‘ three competing functions of the
environment‘which serves the human society.

First, the environment provides the sustenance base or acts as the supply
depot for human societies. Humans need air, water, food, forests, fuels,
manufacture many other articles for consumption for their sustenance.
Environment is the source of all these renewable (e.g. forests) and non-
renewable (e.g. fossil fuels) natural resources. However, when we use
resources faster than the environment can supply them, we create resource
shortages or scarcities.

Second, environment provides the living space or habitatfor human societies

to exist. It provides us with our home, workspace, playgrounds, travel and
transportation systems; in other words, all the essentials of our daily life.
However, overuse of this function results in overcrowding and congestion. It
also impinges on the ability of the environment to sustain other species.

Third, the environment also functions as a sink or waste repository. In the

process of living and consuming the various resources provided by the
environment, humans produce vast quantities and varieties of waste products.
The environment then acts as a sink or waste repository for these wastes,
either absorbing or recycling them (e.g. when trees absorb carbon dioxide and
produce oxygen). However, modern societies which are densely populated
generate more waste than the environment can absorb or recycle. Thereby,
resulting in various kinds of pollution ─ land, water, air, and others.

Furthermore, with the advancement of civilization each of the three functions

of the environment compete for space to expand their activities. Such a
competition is especially obvious in conflicts between the living space and
waste repository functions. Using an area for a waste site usually makes it
unsuitable for living, for instance, the Love Canal Debacle. Similarly,
increasing urbanisation creates more living space for people, but the land can
no longer be used as a sustenance base for humans or wildlife. In recent
years, competition and conflict among the three competing functions of the
environment has grown considerably. Also, when human societies overuse
their bio-physical environment‘s ability to fulfill these three functions,
environmental problems / disruptions in the form of pollution, resource
scarcities and overpopulation, result.

1.3.3 Society-Environment Dialectic

With the increase in environmental problems coming to public attention in
the 1970‘s, a need to examine, ―the structural relationship between societal
organisation and physical environment‖ (A. Schnaiberg, 1975) came to fore
in the discipline of environmental sociology. A groundbreaking study by
Allan Schnaiberg, Social Syntheses of the Societal – Environmental 7
Envisioning Dialectic: The Role of Distributional Impacts (1975) to address the issue led
Environmental
Sociology to an understanding of a dialectical relationship between the society and
environment due to the modern industrial societies excessive extractive
demands from the natural surroundings, and the consequent environmental
degradation which followed. It is this relationship of reciprocal influences
between the society and environment,that this approach examines. This
dialectic focuses on:

a) economic expansion of societies necessarily requires increased

environmental extraction;

b) increased levels of environmental extraction inevitably lead to ecological

problems, ranging from the disorganisation of natural biotic systems to
the depletion of fixed (non-renewable) resources; and

c) these ecological problems pose potential restrictions on further economic

expansion.

(A. Schnaiberg, 1975)

Thus, outlining the nature of contradictory relations between the imperatives

of economic development and environmental degradation. This means that a
complex industrial society, requires to continually expand its economic
system by generating more demand, even when the ecosystem has reached its
physical limits to growth and even exceeded it, and can no longer sustain it.

Furthermore, Schnaiberg identifies a dialectic tension between the demands

for increasing economic expansion and environmental protection during the
process of policy formulation in advanced industrial societies. In such a
scenario, the state needs to increasingly balance its dual role--as a promoter
of economic development, and as an environmental regulator. Caught in a
contradictory position, different governments have taken various positions in
the balancing act.

The society – environment dialectic has been further examined and taken
forward analytically by Allan Schnaiberg through Treadmill of
Productionapproach in his book, The Environment: From Surplus to Scarcity
(1980).

Check Your Progress 2

1) What is the focus of Environmental Sociology?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….
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2) Elucidate the ‗society – environment interactions‘ given by R. Dunlap Environmental
Sociology: Nature
and W. Catton. and Scope

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

3) Examine the ‗human ecology model‘ to understand the relationship

between society and environment.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

1.4 THE ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICAMENT

The reciprocal influence of modern industrial society on the environment and
vice-versa, has led many environmentalists and environmental sociologists to
pay close attention to the potential challenges to sustainability. Awareness
about the different kinds of environment problems and the extent to which
the well-being of societies are being impacted by them needs to be examined.
Furthermore, societal responses to the environmental concerns and problems
or the threat thereof, does merit attention as well.

Some of the potential threats to sustainability have been enumerated as

follows:-

1.4.1
Global Warming, is a consequence of a rapid increase in carbon-di-oxide
(Co2) in the earth‘s atmosphere produced by burning of fossil fuels (coal, gas
and oil), wood, and forest lands. This buildup of Co2 in the earth‘s
atmosphere traps the sun‘s heat, increasingly raising the temperatures on
earth. This is known as the ‗greenhouse effect ‘. Carbon-dioxide accounts for
only about half of human induced climate change. Other greenhouse gases
like methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ozone, soot or
black carbon released by various processes of human activity, contribute as
much or even more to the process of global warming.

Some of the glaring consequences of global warming impacting our lives are-
broiling hot summers; drought alerts; melting glaciers; rising sea levels; 9
Envisioning changes in rainfall patterns and weather conditions; increasing hurricanes;
Environmental
Sociology increasing forest-fires; increase in number and variety of diseases unknown
until now; and many more known and unknown consequences.

Since, different regions of earth are experiencing various kinds of changes,

directly or indirectly induced by global warming, many environmentalists
prefer to label the associated issues as global climate change.

1.4.2 Ozone Depletion

Ozone (O3) forms a vital layer in the upper atmosphere, which protects life
on earth‘s surface from the harmful effects of the sun‘s ultraviolet radiations.
Exposure to ultraviolet radiations can cause skin cancer, cataracts in the eyes,
damage to the immune systems and disruptions in the ecosystem. Therefore,
ozone layer forms a protective covering in the upper atmosphere for all the
life-forms living on the earth.

However, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) generated through refrigerants (like

coolants used in refrigerators, cars, air conditioners, etc.), fire suppression
systems in aircraft and aerosols and other pollutants escape into the upper
atmosphere and compromise the integrity of the ozone layer. Massive
depletion of ozone layer, as discovered by scientists in 1985 over the South
Pole, leads to the creation of ozone hole. This depletion of ozone layer is also
found over the North Pole, but to a smaller extent. Most worrisome is that the
area of high depletion might spread to heavily populated areas, leading to
harmful consequences of exposure to ultraviolet light/ radiation. (See also:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aU6pxSNDPhs )

1.4.3 Smog is a consequence of air pollution.

There are two varieties of smog:-

a) Photochemical Smogor the brown smog is found in all the cities of the
world as a brown haze. The key component of photochemical smog is
Ozone. Ground levelozone is formed when sunlight comes in contact
with the polluted air on earth‘s surface. Fossil fuel combustion, cars and
factories discharge large volumes of various nitrogen oxide compounds
(NOx, pronounced ‗Knocks‘) reacts with ‗volatile organic compounds‘
(VOC) in the presence of sunlight to form photochemical smog, the
brown haze.

Although, ozone in the upper atmosphere is crucial in preserving life-

forms on the earth, but its presence on the earth in the inhabited parts are
harmful to all life forms. It burns the lung tissue in humans and animals
during inhalation, and the leaf tissues of plants. When it drifts out of the
urban areas into the countryside, it reduces crop yields and damages
forests.

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b) White Smogcomprises of fine particulates in the air. These particles are Environmental
Sociology: Nature
microscopic (ie.2.5 microns, or smaller than the diameter of a human and Scope
hair), which deeply penetrate the lung tissue. Half of these particulates
are primarily dust, released as a result of poor fuel combustion in cars,
trucks, power plants, traffic, construction, outdoor burning and wind
erosion from farms. Rest of the fine particulate comprises of tiny pieces
and droplets of sulfates, nitrates ammonium compounds and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) -- known as ‗secondary‘ particulates.

Unlike the brownish haze of the photochemical smog, fine particulates cover
the city/ urban areas with white smog. Deeply penetrating the lung tissue, the
fine particulates decrease lung capacity, asthma and increased heart attack
rates; thereby, multiplying pre-mature deaths.

1.4.4
Acid Rain results when sulfur dioxide and NOx emissions on the earth
combine with water in the atmosphere. Acid rain directly damages plant
tissues, leaching of nutrients from the soil leading to decrease in crop
production, acidification of water bodies resulting in sharp decline in the
population of some varieties of fish, frogs, marine life, and even wildfife in
the forests, as extensive signs of stress and dieback in many forests have been
observed. Various studies have also corroborated to increase in percentage of
defoliation rates of trees in some Chinese forests up to 40%. Despite efforts
to curb nitrogen emissions in various parts of the world, acid rain continues
to be a worrying phenomenon.

1.4.5 Other Ecosystem Disruptions

As more and more people overuse the resources in the natural environment
through expansion in agriculture and industry in the name of development,
more is the threat posed to land and water resources (air pollution has been
examined earlier) through erosions and pollutions, more are we reducing the
earth‘s capacity to sustain life.

a) Soil erosionis a gradual process of removal of surface layer of nutrient

rich soil, through the action of wind or water. Usually, soil erosion
exceeds replacement rates through ecological processes. According to
estimates, almost 23% of the world‘s cropland, pasture lands, forests and
woodlands have been degraded. Top-soil erosion not only negatively
impacts the agricultural production, but also degrades the quality of
water (i.e. Water pollution) as the fertilizer in the fields washes off into
streams, river and groundwater. Thereby increasing the possibility of
pesticide residues in food, endangering the health of human and other
species.

b) Salinisation and Water-logging – With an increasing population in the

20th century world over, irrigation became the means by which gains in
crop production could be brought about to feed them. But, irrigation can 11
Envisioning also be the source of soil salinisation.Since most irrigation occurs in
Environmental
Sociology parched regions, the intense sunlight of dry climates evaporates much of
the water, leaving salts in the ground. Many regions of the world, like
Egypt and China suffer from excessive salinisation.

Irrigation has also been identified as one of the sources of water-logging

of poorly drained soils. Water-logging is a drainage problem resulting
from high water inflow caused by rain, runoff, rise in groundwater,
flooding, or even over-irrigation. Drainage problems could be because of
low water outflow, or slowdown in the rate of evaporation through the
leaves of plants due to clearing of forests / land for agriculture or other
human activities, as in the case of Western Australia.

Thus, over irrigation can lead to both, creation of swamps as well as

salinisation, simultaneously.

c) Water Shortageis a glaring scenario in the 21st century. Studies of

‗water stressed‘ regions like Middle East specially, show that these
countries no longer have sufficient water resources to fulfill their
agricultural or industrial needs, nor even their population‘s residential ,
everyday needs. Even in countries which have not been classified as
water- stressed, increasing water shortage is a factual reality. Falling
‗water tables‘ result from rapidly depleting groundwater resources.
Ground water extracted for everyday uses in urban areas and agricultural
purposes in rural areas far exceeds the rate of replenishment. Over-
extraction of groundwater has not only led to dropping of water tables to
the bottom of the acquifier, but also degraded the quality of remaining
groundwater due to increase in ‗salinisation‘. Furthermore, lowering of
water tables is causing major ‗land subsidence‘ (i.e. a gradual settling or
sudden sinking of the earth‘s surface due to subsurface movement of
earth materials, like groundwater) in many regions of the world like
Venice, Mexico City, and others.

d) Water Pollutionis the release of substances (harmful or otherwise) into

subsurface groundwater, lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries and oceans, to
the extent that these substances interfere with the natural functioning of
the ecosystems. Various kinds of pollutants released in water may be-
domestic sewage, toxic waste from industries or hospitals, sediment,
thermal pollution, oil spills, etc. Usable and accessible freshwater and
their sources are decreasing rapidly, not only due to water pollution, but
also due to global warming as glaciers and polar ice caps melt, flood the
streams and rivers which ultimately flow into the ocean. However, with
the advances in technology, cleaning of polluted water is possible, which
can then be used for various human activities.

e) Loss of Species or Biodiversity Loss – According to Charles Darwin‘s

theory of natural selection, species have always come and gone, whether
of plants, animals, insects or others. However, the rate of these losses has
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 greatly increased since the Industrial Revolution. As per the estimates of Environmental
Sociology: Nature
a study by the World Conservation Union, as of 2007, 16,306 species of and Scope
plants and animals are threatened with extinction – out of which 12% of
bird species, 20% of mammal species, 4% of fish, 5% of reptiles and
29% of amphibians. (M.M. Bell, 2008). Some have disappeared because
of habitat loss, pollution, or even no defense against animals, plants and
diseases brought about by human activities unintentionally. The loss of
global gene pool means a declining genetic resource base for
development of new crops, drugs and chemicals. Additionally, decreased
biodiversity destabilises the ecosystem.

f) Deforestationrefers to the loss of forests across the world due to human

activities like agriculture, urbanisation or mining of minerals, greatly
accelerated since the 1960‘s. About one-third of world‘s forestlands are
‗primary forests‘ which are little disturbed by human use. According to
estimates, about 30 million hectares of primary forests during 2000 and
2005 have been lost, with their richness of species and habitat (M.M.
Bell, 2008). Thus, deforestation has negatively affected natural
ecosystems, biodiversity and the climate.

Activity 1

Identify at least one species each of plant, animal and bird, which have
been lost to your habitat. Also enumerate the reasons for this loss.

Check Your Progress 3

i) Complete the following sentences by filling in the blank spaces:-

a) ……………….. is the release of substances into subsurface

groundwater, lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries and oceans.

b) Sulfur di-oxide and NOx emissions on the earth‘s surface combine

with water in the atmosphere, resulting in …………………….

c) Removal of nutrient rich, top layer of soil, through the action of

wind and water is known as …………………………….

1.5 THE SOCIETAL RESPONSE: THE WAY

FORWARD
The ways in which human societies have been overusing the ecosystems and
altering their environments have created ‗ecological disruptions‘, which over
a period of time have become ‗ecological problems‘ to be understood and
dealt with. There are two ways in which environmental problems have been
conceptualised – at the level of ideas, and at the level of practice.

At the level of ideas, environmentalists whether scientists or sociologists

have been thinking through ideas to explain the problematic condition of the 13
Envisioning environment theoretically through – conservationism, preservationism, the
Environmental
Sociology New Ecological Paradigm (NEP), Human Exemptionalism Paradigm (HEP),
Treadmill of Production (society-environment dialectic), Ecological
Modernisation, Reflexive Modernisation, Risk Society thesis, Political
Ecology, Social Ecology, Environmental Justice, Deep Ecology,
Ecofeminism, Environmental / Green Criminology, Critical Animal Studies
and ongoing debates such as Realism vs. Constructionism or even Co-
Constructionism.

At the level of practice, however, environmental activism through the various

environmental justice movements have made their presence felt nationally
and internationally in many parts of the world. Some of these being – the
Sierra Club in the US, Greenpeace movement and Earth Hour are two of the
most well-known movements worldwide. India too is home to many growing
environmental issues the Chipko movement, Narmada BachaoAandolan,
Save Silent Valley Movement, Appiko Movement, anti –miming movements,
anti-GM crops and many more.

The two dimensions of environmental concern – ideas and practices – are in

constant conversation and interaction with each other, such that power,
politics, social inequality and conflict play a significant role in determining
the form of environmental issues. It is these issues and their attendant
theoretical and practical dialectic, is the concern of Environmental Sociology
as a discipline.

1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we saw the emergence of Environmental Sociology as a
discipline in various parts of the world, its nature deriving from the varied
contexts of its origin. Next, we examine the conceptualisations of Robert E.
Park, Riley Dunlap and William Catton, and Allan Schnaiberg‘s
understanding regarding the reciprocal influence of human actions on the
environment, and vice versa, and the social constructions of these
interactions. Further, we enumerated some of the environmental problems
and ecosystem disruptions/degradations visited upon the natural environment
by the actions of human beings living in the society. Finally, we see that to
understand the scope of relationship between the human society and its
biophysical environment, one must comprehend societal response to
environmental crisis. This conceptualisation is a never-ending dialogue
between the theoretical ideas of environmental scientists/sociologists and the
environmental activism of the varied environmental movements across the
globe. Hence, the continuously evolving nature and scope of the discipline of
Environmental Sociology.

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 Environmental
1.7 REFRENCES Sociology: Nature
and Scope
Bell, M.M. 2008. An Invitation to Environmental Sociology. 3rd Edition.
Thousand Oaks. Pine Forge Press. CA: Sage Publications. India. Chapter- 1,
(pp. 1- 29)

Dunlap, R.E and Eugene A. Rosa. 2000. Environmental Sociology. entry in

Encyclopedia of Sociology. 2nd Edition. Vol.2. edited by E.F. Borgatta and
Rhonda J.V. Montgomery. Macmillan Reference. USA. (pp. 800-813)

Hannigan, J.A. 1995. Environmental Sociology. 2nd Edition. Routledge:

London and New York. Chapters- 1&2. (pp. 1-35)

Hachiya, N. 2006. The History and the Present of Minimata Disease –

Entering the Second Half of a Century. article in JMAJ. March 2006. Vol.49.
No.3. (pp. 112-118)

Pellow, D.N. and H.N. Brehm. 2013. An Environmental Sociology for the
Twenty-First Century. article in Annual Review of Sociology. 2013.39. (pp.
229-250)

Schnaiberg, A. 1975. Social Synthesis of the Societal – Environmental

Dialectic: The Role of Distributional Disputes. article in Social Science
Quarterly. June 1975. Vol. 56. No.1. (pp. 1-7)

White, R. 2004. Controversies in Environmental Sociology. Cambridge

University Press. Introduction (pp. 1-7).

1.8 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1

a) Human societies and their physical environment.

b) Global warming, declining biodiversity and pollution.
c) Conservation
d) Agriculture and risk assessment

Check Your Progress 2

1) 1960‘s and 1970‘s turned out to be environmentally turbulent decades –

socially, politically and economically, which compelled the intellectuals
and academicians to rethink their academic standpoints in terms of the
environment.Environmental Sociology‘ focused on the study of
environment- society interaction. In the contemporary context it would
be the relationship between modern industrial societies and the physical
environments they inhabit.

2) One of the best enunciation of‗society-environment interactions ‘ is W.

Cotton and R. Dunlop‘s model of ‘ three competing functions of the 15
Envisioning environment‘which serves the human society:First, the environment
Environmental
Sociology provides the sustenance base or acts as the supply depot for human
societies. Environment is the source of all these renewable (e.g. forests)
and non-renewable (e.g. fossil fuels) natural resources. However, when
we use resources faster than the environment can supply them, we create
resource shortages or scarcities. Second, environment provides the living
space or habitatfor human societies to exist. However, overuse of this
function results in overcrowding and congestion. It also impinges on the
ability of the environment to sustain other species. Third, the
environment also functions as a sink or waste repository.Modern
societies which are densely populated generate more waste than the
environment can absorb or recycle. Thereby, resulting in various kinds of
pollution ─ land, water, air, and others. In recent years, competition and
conflict among the three competing functions of the environment has
grown considerably. Also, when human societies overuse their bio-
physical environment‘s ability to fulfill these three functions,
environmental problems / disruptionsin the form of pollution, resource
scarcities and overpopulation, result.

3) The human ecology model given by Robert E. Park in the 1920‘s,

borrows a series of principles from the biophysical environment given by
Charles Darwin and other naturalists. Park derives his understanding of
the inter-relation and interdependence between plants and animals in
nature and related it to inter-relations andinterdependence between
individuals and communities in human societies. According to Park,
culture and its attendant features play a significant role in not only
distinguishing society from physical environment, but also becomes the
context for human mastery over nature, and setting in motion ecological
depredations.

Check Your Progress 3

i) a) Water Pollution
b) Acid Rain
c) Soil Erosion

16