The Neuquén Super Basin AUTHORS

Ricardo D. Veiga ~ Tecpetrol S.A.,

Ricardo D. Veiga, Gustavo D. Vergani, Ignacio E. Brissón, Buenos Aires, Argentina; ricardo.veiga@
Carlos E. Macellari, and Héctor A. Leanza tecpetrol.com
Ricardo D. Veiga is the exploration manager
for Tecpetrol. He received his B.A. in 1986
ABSTRACT in geology from the University of Buenos Aires.
His interests are basin and regional studies,
With more than 6000 m of sedimentary thickness and several petroleum systems modeling, and play fairway
superimposed petroleum systems, the Neuquén Basin of Ar- analysis.
gentina has all the elements to be considered a super basin. The
Gustavo D. Vergani ~ Pluspetrol S.A.,
basin developed during the Triassic–Early Jurassic in a rift en-
Buenos Aires, Argentina; gvergani@
vironment that generated a localized petroleum system. Con- pluspetrol.net
tinued subsidence during the Early Jurassic resulted in the first
Gustavo D. Vergani received his B.A. in 1980
marine ingression (Los Molles Formation, total organic carbon
in geology from La Plata State University.
[TOC] 1%–7%). This unit matured 120 to 55 m.y.a., before the After several years of working with various
formation of major structures, with the exception of the Huincul companies in Argentina, he currently works at
high. A fast marine flooding in a retroarc setting occurred during Pluspetrol S.A. as an exploration geologist in
the latest Jurassic–Early Cretaceous. At its base lies the Vaca different countries of South America.
Muerta Formation, a 50- to 1000-m-thick world-class source rock,
Ignacio E. Brissón ~ YPF S.A., Buenos
composed by calcareous shales and marls (TOC 2%–9%). This Aires, Argentina; ignacio.brisson@ypf.com
unit reached maturity at 95 Ma, when the only traps available
Ignacio E. Brissón is a senior geologist at YPF
were structures along the Huincul high or stratigraphic. A new
S.A., Buenos Aires, Argentina, and is mostly
marine ingression occurred during the Early Cretaceous, depositing involved in petroleum system analysis and
bituminous shales and marls (Agrio Formation, TOC 2%–5%) that basin modeling. He received his B.A. at La Plata
matured during the Paleogene. National University in 1987.
These superimposed petroleum systems, combined with dif-
ferent structural settings, gave rise to numerous plays and trapping Carlos E. Macellari ~ Tecpetrol S.A.,
Buenos Aires, Argentina; carlosmacellari@
configurations that resulted in the discovery of 14 billion BOE. In
yahoo.com
addition, the unconventional potential of the Vaca Muerta is now
Carlos E. Macellari was formerly the director
being developed, with estimated resources of 91.5 TCF and 14.3
of exploration and development for Tecpetrol.
billion bbl of oil. The Neuquén Basin has gone through three main
He graduated from La Plata University and
phases of development: conventional, tight, and unconventional. received a Ph.D. from The Ohio State
After a century of production, the basin still shows a wide variety of University in 1984. His interests are in regional
opportunities for both conventional and world-class unconventional geology, analysis of exploration potential, and
plays. stratigraphy.

Héctor A. Leanza ~ Museo Argentino de

Ciencias Naturales–National Scientific and
INTRODUCTION Technical Research Council, Buenos Aires,
Argentina; hleanza@macn.gov.ar
The Neuquén Basin is located at the foothills of the Andes be- Héctor A. Leanza earned a Ph.D. in geological
tween parallels 32°S and 42°S and is exposed in the Main sciences at the National University of Córdoba
(Argentina) in 1972. He has worked at the
Argentinean Geological Survey, mapping the
Neuquén Basin. He was president of the
Copyright ©2020. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Argentinean Geological and Paleontological
Manuscript received February 14, 2020; provisional acceptance February 28, 2020; revised manuscript
received April 14, 2020; revised manuscript provisional acceptance May 21, 2020; 2nd revised
Associations, fellow of the Alexander von
manuscript received June 7, 2020; final acceptance July 14, 2020. Humboldt and the Guggenheim Foundations,
DOI:10.1306/09092020023

AAPG Bulletin, v. 104, no. 12 (December 2020), pp. 2521–2555 2521

 and member of the National Academy of Cordillera (Principal and Frontal Cordilleras) as a narrow north-
Sciences. south belt that broadens out south of parallel 35°S. The eastern
boundary of the basin is defined by the San Rafael block, the
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS southern boundary is delimited by the North Patagonian massif, and
the basin is limited to the west by the Andean fold belt (Figure 1).
The authors wish to thank Victor Ramos,
Claudio Bartolini, and two anonymous
reviewers for their valuable comments. We
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
are also grateful to our companies, Tecpetrol,
Pluspetrol, and YPF, for allowing us to publish
The sedimentary infill of the Neuquén Basin above a Devonian to
this information and for their financial
support. Lower Triassic Gondwanan basement (Llambı́as et al., 2018;
Ramos et al., 2020) can be summarized in five main episodes: (1)
Late Triassic to Early Jurassic synrift stage (Precuyano Group), (2)
Early and Middle Jurassic subsidence stage, (3) Late Jurassic in-
version stage, (4) Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous subsidence
stage, and (5) Late Cretaceous foreland stage. The tectonic
history of these stages and their respective chronostratigraphic
development is displayed in Figure 2.

Devonian to Early Triassic Basement

The basement rocks of the Neuquén Basin are exposed at the

northeastern region in the San Rafael block, as part of a broken
foreland (Ramos, 2008). In the southeast, these rocks crop out in
the North Patagonian massif, delimiting the southern part of the
basin (Figure 1). These are mainly metamorphic and plutonic
rocks, which are a key factor in the interpretation of the accreted
terranes of Chilenia and Patagonia bounded by the Huincul high
in the convergent margin of Gondwana during the Devonian to
Permian (Mosquera and Ramos, 2006).

Late Triassic to Early Jurassic Synrift Stage

This stage started in the Late Triassic and persisted up to the

Early Jurassic with isolated rift depocenters, generally oriented
in a northwest-southeast direction. They originated with the
breakup of Pangea, where acidic and mafic rocks (bimodal vol-
canism) coexisted with continental, wedge-shaped deposits or
even marine sediments, grouped under the Precuyano Group
(Gulisano and Pando, 1981; D’Elı́a et al., 2015) (Figures 2–5).
The term “cycle” used in the Neuquén Basin literature refers to a
group of rocks that experienced similar tectonic, sedimentary,
and magmatic conditions and are bounded by regional uncon-
formities below and above.
The Precuyano infill contains at its base epiclastic rocks
composed of organic-rich lacustrine shales, commonly with fossil
tree trunks (Llambı́as et al., 2007). In the subsurface, these shales
are included in the Puesto Kauffman Formation, the oldest source
rock of the basin (Vergani et al., 2011; Llambı́as et al., 2018).

2522 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 1. Geological regions of the Neuquén Basin. Note the conspicuous east-west–trending Huincul high. In blue are shown the
regional cross sections of Figures 3, 4, and 8. 1-D = one-dimensional.

Early and Middle Jurassic Subsidence and in the mid-Toarcian they formed a single, broader
Stage basin in which the previous interbasin highs lost their
identities (Figure 6). The deposits of the Los Molles
A subduction regime started in the Early Jurassic in Formation are characterized by marine black shales,
concomitance with the development of a Jurassic mostly of turbiditic origin (Zavala, 1996), transitionally
magmatic arc along the western margin of Gond- passing laterally and upward to near-shore (Lajas
wana. The sediments that accumulated as the result Formation) and continental (Challacó Formation) de-
of this new tectono-sedimentary regime are included posits (Figures 3, 4). In the subsurface, these units are
in the Cuyo Group. The first marine flooding episode termed the Punta Rosada Formation (Digregorio, 1972)
from the Panthalassa ocean was the result of a ther- and are commonly targeted for both conventional and
mal subsidence regime, corresponding to the sag stage tight-sand reservoirs. The Lotena Group (Callovian–
of the basin. The isolated latest Triassic to earliest Oxfordian) (Leanza, 1992; Gulisano and Gutiérrez
Jurassic depocenters were gradually amalgamated, Pleimling, 1995) is the second transgressive–regressive

VEIGA ET AL. 2523

Figure 2. Chronostratigraphic chart of the Neuquén Basin with main reservoirs and source rocks. See Figure 1 for location (section
AA9). Tectonic history: cycle climax (solid arrow) versus cycle waning (dotted arrows).

2524 The Neuquén Super Basin

VEIGA ET AL.
Figure 3. Simplified south-north cross section of the Neuqu én Basin, flattened on the base of the Neuquén Group, summarizing the main petroleum system elements
and processes. Some key local lithostratigraphic units were added besides basic nomenclature cited in Figure 2. See Figure 1 for location (section AA9). Lw = lower; Up =
upper.

2525
2526
The Neuquén Super Basin
Figure 4. Simplified west-east cross section of the Neuquén Basin, flattened on the base of the Neuquén Group, summarizing the main petroleum system elements and processes.
Some key local lithostratigraphic units were added besides basic nomenclature cited in Figure 2. See Figure 1 for location (section BB9).
Figure 5. Precuyano source rocks. (A) Depocenters’ distribution and thickness (modified from Vergani et al., 1995; Carbone et al., 2011;
Bechis et al., 2014). Thickness is loosely controlled in most of the depocenters. (B) Total organic carbon (TOC) distribution below surface
(circle diameters proportional to measured hydrogen index [HI] [remnant generation potential per TOC], with relative scale for com-
parison only). (C) The HI versus oxygen index (OI) pseudo–Van Krevelen diagram (circle diameters proportional to Tmax [maturity proxy
based on the pyrolysis remnant generation potential peak elusion temperature], with relative scale for comparison only). Colored symbols
denote Precuyano data, and gray symbols denote data from the other source rocks of Neuquén Basin for comparison. Dashed lines in (C)
are average maturity path for typical kerogen types (I–IV, from top to bottom). PSR = proved source rock.

cycle (Figures 2–4), but it was deposited in a much high (Sigismondi and Ramos, 2011; Domı́nguez et al.,
more restricted area than the Cuyo Group (Arregui 2020).
et al., 2011). At this time, the mechanism of subsi-
dence probably shifted from thermal to dynamic
(Scivetti, 2017). The Lotena Group includes, in as- Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous
cending order, siliciclastic sandstones and shales of Subsidence Stage
marine origin, some deposited in a storm-dominated
environment, rich in ammonites (Lotena Formation); The infill of this episode is represented by the
typical marine carbonate facies with common calcare- Mendoza and the Bajada del Agrio Groups (Leanza
ous buildups (La Manga Formation); and, toward the et al., 2001) (Figure 2). The Mendoza Group can be
top, a thick evaporitic sequence (Auquilco Formation). divided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Mendoza
subgroups. The Lower Mendoza Subgroup, first es-
tablished by Vergani et al. (1995), ranges in age from
Late Jurassic Inversion Stage the early Tithonian to the early Valanginian; the
Middle Mendoza Subgroup, including the Mulichinco
During the Kimmeridgian, a major inversion of the Formation and the Pilmatué Member of the Agrio
basin occurred (Vergani et al., 1995; Mosquera and Formation, extends in age from the late Valanginian
Ramos, 2006; Sigismondi and Ramos, 2011). This to the early Hauterivian; and the Upper Mendoza
inversion episode was responsible for the reactivation Subgroup, integrated by the short-lived Avilé, Agua
and uplift of two main internal structures within de la Mula, and Chorreado Members of the Agrio
the basin: the Huincul high and the Los Chihuidos Formation, ranges in age from the late Hauterivian to

VEIGA ET AL. 2527

Figure 6. Cuyo Group source rocks. (A) Los Molles–Tres Esquinas total thickness map. (B) Total organic carbon (TOC) distribution
below surface (circle diameters proportional to measured hydrogen index [HI] [remnant generation potential per TOC], with relative
scale for comparison only). (C) The HI versus oxygen index (OI) pseudo–Van Krevelen diagram (circle diameters proportional to Tmax
[maturity proxy based on the pyrolysis remnant generation potential peak elusion temperature], with relative scale for comparison
only). Colored symbols denote Cuyo Group data, and gray symbols denote data from the other source rocks of the Neuquén Basin for
comparison.

the early Barremian. At the very base of the Mendoza (Figure 8). These units grade up transitionally to the
Group, coarse conglomerates and fluvial and aeolian prograding carbonate ramp of the Quintuco Formation,
sandstones, with scarce volcanic flows of the Tordillo forming, along the northwest-southeast axis of the basin
Formation (Kimmeridgian–lower Tithonian), are center, the highly petroliferous Vaca Muerta–Quintuco
recorded. Sand dunes are well developed in outcrops Formations (González et al., 2016).
as in the subsurface (Boll and Valencio, 1996), forming Continental, mixed, and near-shore marine sili-
good reservoir rocks (Sierras Blancas Formation). ciclastic facies of the Mulichinco Formation were
In the early Tithonian, a very rapid marine deposited in the basin center immediately above the
flooding episode covered the whole basin, marking Vaca Muerta–Quintuco Formations. This unit is
the initiation of the Vaca Muerta Formation depo- sealed by the lowermost biogenic limestone of the
sition, which covers more than any other unit in Agrio Formation. Above this, another flooding epi-
the Neuquén Basin (Weaver, 1931; Groeber, 1946; sode occurred, continuing again with black shale
Legarreta and Uliana, 1991; Gulisano and Gutiérrez deposition, with relatively high TOC content, in a
Pleimling, 1995) (Figures 3, 4, 7, 8). This flooding context of a siliciclastic storm-dominated platform
was probably triggered as a result of an underfilled (Spalletti et al., 2011) (Figure 9). The Avilé Member
depocenter and uplifted peripheral zones, where the was developed during a very short sea-level drop,
sudden ruptures of the Upper Jurassic Andean chain allowing the deposition of good reservoirs composed
allowed several connections with the open sea. There, of fluvial–aeolian sands that developed as incised
organic deposits very rich in total organic carbon (TOC) valley fills on the underlying marine platform (Figures
content are represented by bottomset facies of the Vaca 3, 4). Just above the Avilé Member, another marine
Muerta Formation (Domı́nguez and Catuneanu, 2017) flooding episode occurs at the base, continuing with

2528 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 7. Vaca Muerta source rock. (A) Total thickness map of Vaca Muerta–Quintuco Formations. (B) Total organic carbon (TOC)
distribution below surface (circle diameters proportional to measured hydrogen index [HI] [remnant generation potential per TOC], with
relative scale for comparison only). (C) The HI versus oxygen index (OI) pseudo–Van Krevelen diagram (circle diameters proportional to
maturity proxy based on the pyrolysis remnant generation potential peak elusion temperature], with relative scale for comparison only).
Colored symbols denote Vaca Muerta data, gray symbols denote data from the other source rocks of the Neuquén Basin for comparison.

black shales deposition with good TOC values, rich in a thick clastic–evaporitic sequence deposited in a
marine fossils. This was followed by a restricted car- predominantly continental environment, ranging in
bonate ramp of the Chorreado Member (Gutiérrez age from the late Aptian to Albian, marking the final
Pleimling, 1991; Leanza et al., 2006). The lower and disconnection of the Neuquén Basin with the Pan-
upper parts of the Agrio Formation in subsurface are thalassa ocean.
termed the Lower and Upper Centenario Formations
(Digregorio, 1972).
The Bajada del Agrio Group (Leanza et al., Late Cretaceous Foreland Stage
2001), represented by the Huitrı́n and Rayoso For-
mations, is the result of the final drying stages of By the late Early Cretaceous, the retroarc–sag phase
the basin. In the Huitrı́n Formation, sedimentation ended, and the tectonic regime turned in the
started with fluvial and aeolian sandstones of the southern Central Andes to compressive (Ramos, 1998).
Lower Troncoso Member, which is an excellent Consequently, the Neuquén Basin became a foreland
fluvial–aeolian reservoir rock. This is followed by basin, and eastward migrations of the orogenic front
evaporitic layers rich in anhydrite and important produced the first synorogenic deposits ascribed to the
potassium salt resources, termed the Upper Tron- Neuquén Group of Cenomanian to early Campanian
coso Member. Shallow-marine dolomites of the La age (Legarreta and Gulisano, 1989; Garrido, 2011).
Tosca Member form a seal to the already mentioned The Neuquén Group is composed of continental red
evaporites. beds, in which fine-grained sandstones, siltstones, and
The Rayoso Formation (Uliana et al., 1975a, b) clays predominate, whereas conglomerates are sub-
covers the Huitrı́n deposits. The unit is composed of ordinate. During the Maastrichtian and continuing

VEIGA ET AL. 2529

 into the Danian, a new marine transgression is recor-

Figure 8. Regional cross section of the Vaca Muerta–Quintuco Formations, with the distribution of major sequences (from González et al., 2016, with permission from the Instituto
Argentino del Petróleo y del Gas). See location in Figure 1 (section CC9). B = Berriasian; T = Tithonian; TOC = total organic carbon; TWT = two-way traveltime; V = Valanginian.
ded (Jagüel and Roca Formations), which allowed, for
the first time, a connection of the Atlantic with the
Pacific Ocean.

PETROLEUM SYSTEMS: TEMPORAL AND

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION

The complex paleogeographic history described

above resulted in the development of several petro-
leum systems (Urien and Zambrano, 1994; Legarreta
et al., 2008; Vergani et al., 2011; Brisson, 2015; and
references cited therein). Figures 3 and 4 outline the
geographical distribution of the petroleum system
essential elements, the stratigraphic and tectonic re-
lationship across the basin, and some petroleum
system–related processes (maturity windows and
charge system efficiency).

Source Rocks

High bioproductivity, oxygen restriction, and ade-

quate rate of sedimentation recurrently occurred in
the Neuquén Basin, resulting in the formation of
numerous source rocks units and turning it into one
of the most prolific basins of Argentina. The main
source rocks are described below.

Puesto Kauffman Formation (Precuyano Group)

Of the numerous depocenters that shaped the initial
opening of the basin, just a few of them developed
organic-rich lacustrine facies. In southern Mendoza
and Rı́o Negro Provinces, hydrocarbon charge from
the Precuyano Group has been proved by geochemical
correlation (Rosso, 1990; Villar et al., 2005).
Referred to as Lias or Precuyano (Figures 2–4), these
organic-rich rocks are included in the Puesto
Kauffman and Llantenis Formations. In some of these
peripheral depocenters, thick organic-matter–rich
sections averaging 1%–6% of TOC (in some cases
exceeding 10%) are recognized, with a predominance
of good-quality oil–prone organic material (type I),
deposited in fresh water and saline lakes (Villar
et al., 2005). The areal distribution and some relevant
geochemical parameters of the Precuyano source rocks
are shown in Figure 5.

2530 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 9. Agrio source rock. (A) Lower Agrio organic-rich interval thickness map. (B) The total organic carbon (TOC) distribution below
surface (circle diameters proportional to measured hydrogen index [HI] [remnant generation potential per TOC], with relative scale for
comparison only). (C) The HI versus oxygen index (OI) pseudo–Van Krevelen diagram (circle diameters proportional to Tmax [maturity
proxy based on the pyrolysis remnant generation potential peak elusion temperature], with relative scale for comparison only). Colored
symbols denote Agrio data, and gray symbols denote data from the other source rocks of the Neuquén Basin for comparison. Dashed
lines in (C) are average maturity path for typical kerogen types (I–IV, from top to bottom).

Despite its good geochemical characteristics and volume of produced hydrocarbons correlated posi-
adequate thickness, the small areal extent of the tively with this source rock is substantially less than
kitchens in each depocenter limits the oil volume at a what could be expected. This is mainly because of
basin scale. Nevertheless, the half-graben configuration, the unfavorable synchronization of an early gener-
which contains both the source and the reservoir rocks, ation stage, related to the deposition of the thick
prevents the hydrocarbons from migrating out of them, Lower Cretaceous sediments in the basin center area
creating a highly efficient petroleum system, which has and in the present-day fold-belt areas. Most of the
proved to have commercial production in many fields. hydrocarbons correlated to the Los Molles source
rock in the basin center belong to gas-condensate
accumulations (Hechem et al., 2003), and oil is
Los Molles Formation (Cuyo Group)
restricted in middle- to small-size fields around the
The older basin-scale source rock is located in the
Huincul high (Cruz et al., 2002; Villar et al., 2005)
lowermost part of the Los Molles Formation (Figures
and in the platform area (Mosquera et al., 2008;
2–4, 6). This section shows richness typically not
Veiga et al., 2018).
exceeding 2% TOC in average and important ter-
restrial organic material input, which resulted in a
mixed type II–III kerogen precursor of paraffinic light Vaca Muerta Formation (Lower Mendoza Subgroup)
oil and condensate (Wavrek et al., 1994; Legarreta The Vaca Muerta Formation is the main source rock
and Villar, 2012). in the Neuquén Basin, having been extremely prolific
Although the Los Molles Formation organic-rich generating hydrocarbons and efficient in sourcing
section forms a huge sedimentary prism in the basin most of the oil and gas discovered in the basin
(Legarreta et al., 1993; Arregui et al., 2011), the (Figures 2–4, 7, 8).

VEIGA ET AL. 2531

 The Vaca Muerta Formation displays at its very difficult to quantify. Despite this, an important po-
base an extremely rich section that is progressively tential is perceived based on its thickness, quality,
impoverished upward by clastic or carbonate dilu- maturity, proximity to high-quality reservoirs, and late
tion because of the approach of the prograding generation timing, which favors charging of younger
sedimentary supply that characterizes this section. structures (Cruz et al., 1999a; Gulisano et al., 2001).
The resulting source rock prism is the most exten-
sive in the basin, ranging from a few meters on the
margins of the basin and in the Huincul high up to Reservoirs
several hundred of meters in the basin center. This
unit has an organic content that ranges between 2% The Neuquén Basin has a wide variety of productive
and 12% of high-quality oil–prone marine kerogen reservoirs. These include clastic, carbonate, and ig-
(Legarreta and Villar, 2012; Veiga, 2018, Brisson et al., neous rocks associated with lithological units that
2020). were formed in different tectono-sedimentary cycles
The Vaca Muerta source rock has a very homo- (Figures 2–4). In each tectono-sedimentary cycle, the
geneous organic composition deposited in a clastic distribution and arrangement of the different sedi-
environment in most of the basin, with subtle varia- mentary rocks were governed by the structural
tions on the northern platform area to more carbo- framework of the basin and its relation to the vol-
natic content and south of the Huincul high (Picún canic arc located to the west. This resulted in peri-
Leufú Subbasin) to more sulfur enriched source rocks odic marine transgressions during the Mesozoic and
(Rosso, 1990; Wavrek et al., 1994; Cruz et al., 1999b; its associated deltaic and coastal fluvial environment
Villar et al., 2005, Brisson et al., 2020). (highstand) and marine regressions with sporadic
isolations from the Panthalassa ocean. These episodes
were associated with periods of continentalization
Agrio Formation (Middle and Upper Mendoza with desert environments and recurrent evaporites
Subgroups) in several pulses (lowstand). This complex sedi-
Two source rock sections are developed in the Agrio mentary history resulted in several types of reservoirs,
Formation, associated with the flooding events at the which, together with excellent source rocks, define
base of the Pilmatué and Agua de la Mula Members, multiple play types in addition to the unconventional
respectively (Figures 2–4, 9). Both source rock sec- potential (Vergani et al., 2011; Schiuma et al.,
tions are geographically restricted and commonly a 2018a). Because of this geological framework related
few tens of meters thick each, although they can to a retroarc setting developed on top of an igneous
exceed hundreds of meters in some locations (Cruz and volcanic basement, the clastic reservoirs contain
et al., 1999a). abundant lithic and feldspathic components, which
The average organic richness of the Agrio For- in many cases affect their textural maturity and sub-
mation is approximately 2.5% TOC (with individual sequent diagenesis, and thus its porosity and perme-
measurements more than 8%), composed of oil- ability quality.
prone marine organic matter (Wavrek et al., 1994; At the very beginning of the basin development
Tyson et al., 2005; Legarreta and Villar, 2012). The at the end of the Triassic and Early Jurassic, several
kerogen quality abruptly deteriorates to the south half grabens were formed as a result of the breakup of
and east, where is progressively enriched in woody Pangea, originally disconnected from each other, and
material losing their source rock properties (Figure 9). mostly filled with volcaniclastic input (Precuyano
The Agrio source rocks have similar characteris- Group). Some of them contain scattered gas and oil
tics to the Vaca Muerta regarding sedimentary envi- reservoirs in several fields (Llambı́as et al., 2018). For
ronments, organic facies, and generated products, example, in the Campamento 1 field, located around
because the hydrocarbons generated in both units the Huincul high (Figure 10), the productive unit
are very similar and only distinguishable with the use corresponds to fractured granites of the Gondwanan
of specific analytical techniques not commonly basement with average porosities of 15%, but in the 25
available (Wavrek et al., 1994). Therefore, the po- de Mayo–Medanito field (Figure 10), located on the
tential of the Agrio Formation to source oils has been basin platform, the reservoir rocks are characterized

2532 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 10. General location map of the main hydrocarbon fields recognized in the Neuquén Basin.

by the predominance of ignimbrites, partly un- stage but was still influenced by the volcanic arc
welded, with crystal dissolution that confers good to the west. Thick heterolithic sediments of deep-
porosity (15%–22%) and acceptable reservoir per- marine origin with turbiditic facies (Los Molles
meability. Volcaniclastic reservoirs are found at the Formation) grade up into littoral and fluviodeltaic
Cerro Bandera field located on the Huincul high and facies (Lajas, Challacó, and Punta Rosada Formations).
clastic reservoirs at the Puesto Prado and Loma These rocks form reservoirs in the southern part
Negra fields in the eastern part of the central basin, of the basin, especially around the Huincul high
with primary porosities of 14% in average. (Malone et al., 2018). Their porosities range between
During the Early and Middle Jurassic, the basin 6% and 16%, and their permeabilities range from 0.01 to
evolved from late rift to a subsidence phase (sag) 6.00 md (Figure 11), in many cases characterized as

VEIGA ET AL. 2533

Figure 11. (A) Deltaic sandstones stratified in upward-coarsening sequence of the Lajas Formation (Middle Jurassic) and (B) composite
log of the Lajas Formation. AT = resistivity log; BS = bit size; DTCO = acoustic log; GR = gamma-ray log; NPHI = neutron log; RHOZ =
density log; SP = spontaneous potential log.

primary reservoirs (Cerro Bandera field). In other unit are the Rı́o Neuquén and Lindero Atravesado
regions around the Huincul high and much of the fields.
basin center, where there is significant thickness of Above the basal sandstones of the Mendoza
sands, and burial caused by overburden was more im- Group, the sudden marine flooding represented at
portant, its petrophysical conditions are impoverished. the lowermost part of the Vaca Muerta Formation
In these areas, the rocks must be stimulated by deposited calcareous shales during much of the Ti-
hydraulic fracturing to be productive, and in recent thonian and Berriasian. These rocks are shale reser-
years, they have been developed as tight gas reservoirs. voirs in the basin center and produce oil and gas at the
The first phase of compressive structuring that Loma Campana and Fortı́n de Piedra fields, among
occurred during the Middle and Late Jurassic in the others (see location in Figure 10). Toward the top of
Huincul high region produced a strong relief and the unit, as well as toward the edge of the basin, more
erosion of previous sequences and associated continental calcareous facies were deposited (Quintuco and
fillings in its flanks, dominating a period of regional Loma Montosa Formations) related to near-shore
continentalization that results in the deposition of environments. These rocks are significant reservoirs
terrestrial (fluvial and aeolian) and shallow marine for oil and gas fields (25 de Mayo–Medanito, Entre
(littoral) sediments included in the Lotena and Lomas, El Caracol, Rı́o Neuquén, and Loma La Lata
Mendoza Groups (Maretto et al., 2018; Schiuma fields as well as Lindero Atravesado and Centenario
et al., 2018b). The base of the latter group is com- fields but with dolomitized reservoirs) (Figure 10).
posed of fluvial and aeolian sandstones that repre- During the rest of the Early Cretaceous, regres-
sent the main conventional gas reservoir in the basin sions and transgressions occurred, resulting in the de-
within the Tordillo Formation (Sierras Blancas plus position of the sedimentary cycle composed of the
Catriel Formations in subsurface) (Figures 3, 4, 12). Mulichinco Formation (Vottero and González, 2018),
This unit is the main reservoir in the Loma La Lata field, the Pilmatué Member of the Agrio Formation and its
which is the main accumulation of conventional gas in equivalent, the lower Centenario Formation, and the
the basin (Figure 10). Other accumulations in this Avilé Member and the Agua de la Mula Member of the

2534 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 12. (A) Outcrops of aeolian sandstones in the Picún Leufú Subbasin underlying the Vaca Muerta Formation (Fm.); (B) composite
log of Tordillo Fm. in the basin center area. BS = bit size; DEP = depth; DT = acoustic log; GR = gamma-ray log; ILD = induction log deep;
ILM = induction log medium; NPHI = neutron log; RHOB = density log; SFLU = short focused log; SP = spontaneous potential log.

upper Agrio Formation (Figure 13) and its equivalent as in El Sosneado field on the platform area. In the
upper Centenario Formation (Valenzuela, 2018; Huitrı́n Formation and in fluvial clastic red sand-
Venara et al., 2018; Iñigo et al., 2019). This sedi- stones of the Rayoso Formation (Marteau, 2018),
mentation persisted until the end of the con- reservoirs are developed in continuous layers with
tinentalization related with the withdrawal of the good porosity and permeability (20% and 170 md
Panthalassa ocean. These groups have important average). Heavy oil is produced from this later unit
clastic reservoirs in the basin center and platform at the Puesto Hern ández and Desfiladero Bayo
areas, where there are large accumulations of gas and fields (Figure 10).
oil of conventional type, sourced from the Vaca The Upper Cretaceous represents the stage of
Muerta and Agrio Formations. In the western cen- continental filling of a flexural basin and is represented
tral part of the basin, these reservoirs are mostly
by the Neuquén Group. This unit has oil accumula-
developed in the Mulichinco Formation, which has
tions in the northern part of the basin, both in the fold
gas accumulations in the Aguada Pichana, Sierra
belt as well as in the northeastern region of the
Chata, and Aguada San Roque fields (Figure 10).
platform area. Productive examples from these
Clastic units of the Huitrı́n Formation were
reservoirs are the Cerro Fortunoso, Loma Alta Sur,
unconformably deposited on top of the previous
rocks. Within this package, the Lower Troncoso Llancanelo, and Loma La Mina fields (Manacorda
Member (Figures 2–4, 14) is an important con- et al., 2018).
ventional reservoir with significant oil accumula- Finally, several intrusive pulses of Cenozoic ig-
tions in the central and northern parts of the basin neous rocks, in the form of sills, dykes, or laccoliths,
(Masarik, 2018). Fluvial and eolian facies produce oil mainly hosted in the Vaca Muerta and Agrio For-
and gas in Chihuido de la Sierra, El Trapial, El Portón, mations, can act as reservoirs (Comeron et al., 2018).
Chihuido de la Salina, and Puesto Hernández fields, Some fields like Loma Las Yeguas and Chihuido de la
with average thicknesses of 20 m and porosities of Sierra Negra in the basin center or Los Volcanes and
12%–14%. Less important production of oil and gas Los Cavaos fields in the northern area of the fold belt
is in La Tosca Member related to fractured car- in the Mendoza Province produce oil and gas from
bonates or secondary porosity by dissolution (vugs), these rocks.

VEIGA ET AL. 2535

Figure 13. (A) Outcrops of the Avilé Member (Agrio Formation) at the north of the fold belt, showing wind-dune sandstones in-
terstratified with wet interdune clays. (B) Type log from the Avilé Member. The most important fields that produce from this unit or the
lateral equivalent Centenario Formation are El Corcobo, Auca Mahuida, Phyllo Morado, El Trapial, Chihuido de la Sierra Negra, Puesto
Hernández, and Lomita (see location in Figure 10). GAPI = degrees API; GR = gamma-ray log; ILD = induction log deep; RHOB = density
log; SN = short normal resistivity log; SP = spontaneous potential log.

In addition, unconventional reservoirs (shale and Not only is the distribution important (Figure 15),
tight) contain important oil and gas accumulations in but so is the moment in which the seals were effec-
micro- and nanopores that must be hydraulically tively formed (sufficient compaction, diagenesis, etc.).
stimulated to make them productive. This type of For instance, the Auquilco Formation isolates the
reservoir is associated with calcareous shales related Cuyo Group sourced hydrocarbons (commonly dry
to transgressive rocks of the different marine floodings gas) from those sourced by the Vaca Muerta Forma-
coming from the Panthalassa ocean and carriers of oil tion in the basin center. But it allowed, by wedging
and gas in situ not yet expelled from its matrix. Similarly, out, the early expelled oils from Vaca Muerta at the
several units of the Jurassic (Lajas Formation) and Cre- western part of the basin (present-day fold belt) to
taceous (Mulichinco Formation) constitute compact migrate through the Tordillo carrier and to accumulate
sandstone (tight) reservoirs that must be fractured to in older reservoirs in the Huincul high and in the
allow oil production. Their most favorable zones are eastern platform (Wavrek et al., 1994; Veiga et al.,
located in the western central part of the basin center 2002; Brisson, 2015). In the basin center, before the
and in the northern flank of the Huincul high. generation onset of the Vaca Muerta Formation,
the formation of the diagenetic seal at the top of the
Tordillo Formation prevented any further downward
Seal Rocks and Hydrocarbon Distribution expulsion and, coupled with the thick Quintuco
carbonate-rich seal above, induced significant over-
In the Neuquén Basin, the main seals are the evap- pressure buildup in Vaca Muerta when generation
orites of the Auquilco, Huitrı́n, and Rayoso Formations progressed, establishing the main unconventional
associated with desiccation events (Legarreta, 2002). shale pool of the basin. Eventually, this overpressure
Regional source rocks and highly cemented layers of could overcome sealing entry pressure, allowing
clastic units at the top of the Tordillo Formation minor accumulations above and below (Veiga et al.,
(formally Catriel Formation in subsurface) and the 2018).
base of the Neuqu én Group also act as effective Similarly, the evaporites of Huitrı́n and Rayoso
seals. Formations, although with a more restricted distribution,

2536 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 14. (A) Outcrop of the Lower Troncoso Member in the fold belt, showing dry wind-dune sandstones with cross stratification;
(B) basic log composite of the reservoir from El Trapial field (from Vergani et al., 2002; Masarik, 2018). AT = array tool acoustic log; DT =
acoustic log; GR = gamma-ray log; NPHI = neutron log; RHOB = density log; SP = spontaneous potential log.

helped to seal younger reservoirs, until the anhydrite through the geological time. In the west, at the present-
and salt present in these units wedge out or disappear day fold-belt region, thermal evolution started early,
by dissolution, allowing the hydrocarbons a more delivering large volumes of hydrocarbons from the
efficient vertical migration (Zencich et al., 1999). Cuyo Group (at the end of the Jurassic) and from
On the northeastern platform, hydrocarbons the Vaca Muerta and Agrio Formations (during
migrated long distances from the active kitchens the Albian), which either were lost or migrated to
(tens of kilometers) through the Neuquén Group red old structural highs (e.g., Huincul high, Entre Lomas,
beds confined by regional shale intercalations and etc.) and also to the basin margins. In the present-day
by the overlying marine sediments of the Malargüe basin center, Vaca Muerta started generating in the
Group, or through almost regional continuous highly Late Cretaceous and in the Mendoza Province later
permeable sill intrusions (Spacapan et al., 2019). in the early Cenozoic (Gómez Omil et al., 2014;
These carriers allowed hydrocarbons to accumulate in Rocha et al., 2018) (Figure 16).
peripheral structures (Llancanelo, Cerro Fortunoso, To the south of the Huincul high, in the Picún
etc.) or to disperse at the basin edges. Leufú Subbasin, the maximum burial of Vaca Muerta
was minor, but the generation was efficient given the
presence of more reactive kerogen type deposited
in this restricted circulation depocenter (Wavrek
Overburden, Generation, and Expulsion et al., 1994; Villar et al., 2005).
In some positions of the fold belt, Andean re-
After the Mesozoic and Cenozoic burial, the Neu- verse faulting resumed the generation in localized
quén Basin underwent a posthumous exhumation subthrust kitchens in those cases involving not-yet-
that caused the source rocks to be out of present-day spent source rocks, delivering some late additional
thermal equilibrium. Thus, although they reached hydrocarbon charge with perfect timing into the traps.
a certain level of maturity (oil or gas windows), at
maximum burial they are now frozen, with no active Traps
generation in most of the area with at least fair-quality
source rock presence. Also, the burial asymmetry The Neuquén Basin presents varied styles of hy-
caused the active kitchen to move centrifugally drocarbon traps related to (1) structural types such

VEIGA ET AL. 2537

 define several play types that will not be developed in
this work, but the reader is referred to the extensive
literature on this topic (Cruz et al., 2002; Kozlowski
et al., 2005; Pángaro et al., 2005; Villar et al., 2005;
Legarreta et al., 2008; Mosquera et al., 2011).

Atypical Petroleum Systems

In the Neuquén Basin, there are also accumula-

tions of hydrocarbons not sourced from regional
burial-related kitchens but from sill intrusion–related
heating of immature organic-rich sections of the source
rocks. Both individual and multiple intrusions in
good-quality source rocks proved to form produc-
tive small accumulations and contribute with
significant additional charge in the platform in
the Mendoza Province. Sill thickness, composition,
quantity, and disposition, as well as a sedimentary
compaction and organic matter maturity before in-
trusion, are critical for the efficiency of this charge
system (Rodrı́guez Monreal et al., 2009; Spacapan
et al., 2018).

THE VACA MUERTA UNCONVENTIONAL

PLAY
Figure 15. Regional seals distribution. Magenta denotes Au-
quilco evaporites, yellow denotes Catriel cemented sandstones The Vaca Muerta unconventional play covers an
and impermeable Tordillo, and cyan denotes Rayoso and Huitrı́n area of 20,000 km2, approximately. The play has a
evaporites. In addition, Los Molles, Vaca Muerta–Quintuco, and triangular shape, in which the natural boundaries are
Agrio source rocks (maps in Figures 3, 4) and the base of the thrust belt area to the west, the Huincul high to
Neuqu én Group (present in most of the basin) are high- the south, and a progressive pinch-out and low-maturity
efficiency regional seals not shown in this figure. Red line repre- zone to the northeast. The play can be divided into
sents fold belt front. five regions according to their fluid types: a black oil
zone covers 37% of the total area and a volatile oil
as anticlinal closures in four directions and faults zone represents 19%, whereas the gas-condensate and
with closures by juxtaposition; (2) stratigraphic wet gas zones are narrow belts, which span 7% and
types, associated with the main unconformities of 5% of the area, respectively. Finally, the dry gas zone
the sedimentary infill; (3) diagenetic types, related represents the 32% of the total area of the play
to variations of capillarity; and finally (4) lateral and (Figure 17).
vertical changes of facies with primary permeability The Vaca Muerta and Quintuco Formations cou-
barriers (Kozlowski et al., 2005; Vergani et al., plet total thickness ranges between 300 and 1000 m.
2011). These traps are grouped into families or plays, Typically, the part of greatest prospective interest is
in this case displaying a common reservoir geometry located in the basal section where the TOC is higher
and charge from a shared hydrocarbon source, dis- than 2% (Figure 18). Nowadays, the TOC content in
tributed in the different regions of the basin. the Vaca Muerta Formation ranges from 1% to 10%,
The variety of entrapments in this basin, asso- with 30 to 350 m thick of organic-rich shales (Figure
ciated with all these described factors, allows us to 19). The restoration of the TOC to its original values

2538 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 16. Geohistory and generation diagrams in the Neuquén Basin from south (left) to north (right): (A) Picún Leufú area, (B) basin
center, and (C) fold-belt area (location in Figure 1). Note the different age of generation onset of the different source rocks (SRs), which
are shaded. Primary bulk hydrocarbon generation with specific SR kinetics. Scales are similar for comparison. Ag = Agrio; Cy = Cuyo;
pCy = Precuyano; PT = paleotopography; VM = Vaca Muerta.

(TOCo) reveals that it would have reached average rocks. The organic porosity is related to the pores
values of up to 1% (Veiga, 2018). located within the organic matter. Well logs (in-
The geochemical data show the free hydrocarbons cluding nuclear magnetic resonance) provide a
and remnant generation potential peaks of pyrolysis good regional scale understanding of Vaca Muerta
range from 0.5 to 7 mg HC/g rock and between 2 and storage capacity and show that the inorganic po-
30 mg HC/g rock, respectively (Figure 20A). The rosity ranges from 4% to 16% (Licitra et al., 2018;
hydrogen index (HI) ranges between 20–50 mg Veiga et al., 2018), whereas the organic porosity
HC/g TOC in the western areas and 600 mg HC/g ranges between 1% and 3% (Veiga, 2018). More
TOC in the eastern regions where the source rock sophisticated but still localized analyses including
is less mature (Figure 20B). The transformation material balance quantification, electronic imagery,
ratio ranges from almost 1 in the western zone and adsorption tests indicate a relative bigger volume
to approximately 0.4–0.5 in the eastern region (Fig- contribution of the organic porosity (Brisson et al.,
ure 20C). 2020).
The original HI in the Vaca Muerta Formation The gross mineralogy of the Vaca Muerta Forma-
ranges between 700 and 900 mg HC/g TOC. An tion is composed of (in average weight fraction)
average of 750–800 mg HC/g TOC was used to 30%–40% silica, 30%–40% carbonates, 20%–30%
restore the mass of hydrocarbons transformed into clays, and 0%–5% heavy minerals (Figure 21A). Data
the source rock following the criteria of Peters et al. derived from x-ray fluorescence show that the high
(2005), Modica and Lapierre (2012), Kuchinskiy TOC section presents high content of Mo, Mn, and
(2013), Sari et al. (2015), and Chen and Jiang V, indicating strong reducing conditions and depo-
(2016). The calculated values indicate that the Vaca sition in anoxic stratified waters with the presence of
Muerta Formation would have generated from 20 to H2S. Based on Th/K ratios, the clay minerals are
130 mg HC/g rock (Veiga, 2018) (Figure 20D). The mainly mixed layers and illite, with the Th/K ratio
region with the maximum hydrocarbon generation between 3.5 and 12 (Figure 21B, C). No changes in
coincides with areas with the highest values of TOCo the Th/K ratio are observed in wells located in the oil
and thickness (Figure 20). and gas windows.
The total porosity in a source rock is a combi- The estimation of the water saturation (Sw) is
nation of inorganic and organic porosity. The inor- one of the most complex parameters to calculate.
ganic porosity is associated with the pore space Despite this, a preliminary Sw is necessary to define
observed between particles and minerals of the the rock intervals with the best storage capacity. The

VEIGA ET AL. 2539

 Zoomed area
(A)
(B) Gas zone
Oil zone
(C)
0.
6 Immature zone

Zoomed area

Thrust Belt Area

Neuquén Basin
Vaca Muerta extension
Fluid Types VolaƟle Oil
Dry Gas
Play extension Gas &
Condensate
Thrust Belt Boundary Wet Gas Black Oil

Figure 17. (A) Regional distribution and play extension of the Vaca Muerta Formation in the Neuquén Basin. (B) Maturity map of Vaca
Muerta Formation based on vitrinite reflectance. (C) Fluid types expected from Vaca Muerta Formation based on gas–oil ratio production data.

water salinity that arises from the flowback tests and the top of the organic-rich interval in the
indicates that the salinity ranges from 100,000 to western and eastern areas of the basin center, re-
150,000 ppm of sodium chloride. In general terms, spectively. The pore pressure calculated by Eaton’s
the Sw ranges from 20% to 60%. The lower values of method (Eaton, 1975) and calibrated with mud weight
Sw are located near the base of Vaca Muerta and it shows a pore pressure gradient between 0.6 and 1 psi/ft
increases toward the top of the unit. (Figure 22A, B). The gas formation volume factor
The Vaca Muerta–Quintuco Formations are computed for the dry gas zone is approximately
overpressured cells that can be identified in sonic logs 0.00338–0.00297 reservoir cubic feet/standard cubic
by an increase of the sonic transit time with respect to feet (rcf/scf), with an average of 0.00317 rcf/scf.
the overlying units. Pore pressure and temperature The volumetric factor in the black oil area is be-
affect the gas expansion and the volume factors and, tween 1.07 and 1.58 reservoir barrels/standard bar-
therefore, the hydrocarbon storage capacity of the rels (rb/stb) with a mean of 1.31 rb/stb.
rock. The top of the overpressured zone occurs With the porosity data, Sw, and gas expansion
between 800 and 2000 m below sea level. It is lo- factor (or oil volumetric factor), the storage capacity
cated between the top of the Quintuco Formation of the Vaca Muerta Formation can be calculated. A

2540 The Neuquén Super Basin

 Figure 18. Typical logs in the Vaca Muerta Formation (Fm). Note that the high rich organic section is located in the basal part of the unit. High total organic carbon (TOC) section
shows high gamma-ray (GR) response, high sonic transit time (DT), low density, and a low acoustic impedance. Red arrows show potential landing zones. Gray line shows the top of
Vaca Muerta Fm. Black points represent TOC data from samples.

VEIGA ET AL.
2541
Figure 19. (A) Total organic carbon (TOC) map for Vaca Muerta Formation. (B) Thickness map of the organic-rich shales in the zoomed
region. (C) Original TOC (TOCo) map in the zoomed region. Black point represents well data.

Monte Carlo simulation was computed with data farmers, complex tectonism, volcanos, and so on.
from 30 wells located in the dry gas window and 16 The total recoverable resources at play scale for one
wells in the oil region. In the dry gas zone, the Vaca landing zone of 40 m thick reach approximately 15.2
Muerta Formation stores a volume in place between billion BOE composed of 7.6 billion bbl of liquids (oil
0.5 and 1.5 MMCF/ac-ft, with an average value of 1 and condensate) and 45.6 tcf of gas (Tables 1, 2).
MMCF/ac-ft. For the oil region, the storage capacity The Vaca Muerta play radically changed the per-
of the Vaca Muerta Formation ranges from 292 to spectives in the Neuquén Basin. After a century of
696 bbl/ac-ft, with an average of 440 bbl/ac-ft. Based exploration and development, the conventional
on that, the in-place richness per unit area for a resources achieved a total of approximately 14
landing zone 40 m thick is approximately 57,728 bbl billion BOE. In the last 10 yr, several operators have
of oil/ac and 131.2 MMCF/ac. To calculate the total tested the Vaca Muerta Formation, with good re-
recoverable resources, only 65% of the total area was sults. This play could incorporate 15 billion BOE in
considered. The net area represents the useful region just one navigation level, representing at least
where wells can be drilled without restrictions by doubling in the expected hydrocarbon volumes
environmental issues, topography, national parks, in the basin.

2542 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 20. (A) The free hydrocarbons (S1) map. (B) Hydrogen index (HI) map. (C) Transformation ratio (TR) map. (D) Hydrocarbons
generated map. Black points represent well data. See zoomed area in Figure 19. TOC = total organic carbon.

EXPLORATION HISTORY, PLAYS, AND production in the basin was achieved in 1999 with
STATISTICS 310,000 BOPD, and the peak gas production was
achieved in 2004 with 5 BCF/day. Since then, the
A total of 14 billion BOE (6.7 billion bbl of oil and production began to decline, but with the addition of
45.6 tcf) has been found in the Neuquén Basin in production from tight reservoirs and lately from shale
conventional reservoirs since the discovery in 1918 gas, this trend is now being reversed. To date, a total
of the first oil field in Plaza Huincul (Giusiano et al., of 4200 conventional exploratory wells (including
2011; Carbone et al., 2018) (Figure 23). The peak oil outpost and deeper pool wildcats) have been drilled

VEIGA ET AL. 2543

Figure 21. (A) Ternary diagram of silica, carbonates, and clays for the Vaca Muerta Formation. (B) K and Th crossplot to identify types of
argillaceous minerals. (C) The x-ray fluorescence data show that the high total organic carbon (TOC) section has a high concentration of
U, Mo, Mn, V, and Zn (modified from Veiga et al., 2018).

in the basin, with a success rate of approximately and fold belt (Figures 1, 23B) (Legarreta et al., 2008;
54%. This high success rate can be explained in part Vergani et al., 2011). The platform and the fold belt
by the multiple objectives that many wells have. are mainly oil regions, whereas the basin center and
The Neuquén Basin, which contains the largest the Huincul high areas are gas-rich zones. This fluid
accumulations of gas in Argentina, has 19 types of distribution is related to the maturity of major
conventional plays that can be grouped into 4 areas, source rocks and to the kerogen quality. The largest
namely, the Huincul high, platform, basin center, accumulation of hydrocarbons per area is located

2544 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 22. (A) Sonic transit time (DT) versus depth. Note the change in the DT of the sediments. Above Quintuco–Vaca Muerta, a
regional compaction trend is observed, evidenced by a decrease in the DT with depth. In Quintuco–Vaca Muerta, the DT shows
an increase, and it is separated of the regional trend indicating an overpressured zone. Below Quintuco–Vaca Muerta, the DT continues
to follow the regional trend. (B) Pore pressure gradient map calculated with the method in Eaton (1975). Pore pressure was calibrated
with pressure data and mud weight (Veiga et al., 2018). See location of zoomed area in Figure 19.

near the center of the basin, as shown in Figure 24. which were sealed by argillaceous sections, espe-
This is in contrast to most sub-Andean basins, where cially of the Vaca Muerta Formation. The charge is
the larger accumulations normally are at the flanks of derived from the Los Molles and Vaca Muerta
the basin. This feature might be related to the ineffi- Formations (Cruz et al., 2002; Villar et al., 2005;
cient regional carriers for the long-distance migration of Legarreta et al., 2008; Mosquera et al., 2011). The
the hydrocarbons or to the presence of lowstand clastic main reservoirs are in the Precuyano and the Cuyo
wedges during times in which the basin was isolated Groups (mostly Los Molles and Lajas Formations).
from the Panthalassa ocean, as well as nonmarine Exploration in this area was active until the early
reservoirs also concentrated in the center of the basin 1970s and continues to the present but with rela-
(i.e., Tordillo, Mulichinco, Avil é, and Troncoso tively minor discoveries.
Formations). The basin center contains the greatest number
The first area explored in the Neuquén Basin was of conventional resources discovered to date (7 billion
the Huincul high. A total of 1.7 billion BOE was BOE). This is because of the combination of several
discovered here, mostly in structural traps developed factors, including the presence of the Vaca Muerta
early in the history of the basin. This region is a Jurassic Formation in the thermal window of hydrocarbon
structure uplifted in several extensional and com- generation, with the maximum thickness of hot shales,
pressional events, which led to the formation of good reservoirs related to continental wedges, impor-
anticlinal traps related to basement paleohighs (horsts) tant evaporitic and shale seals of marine origin, and
or anticlines formed by inversion of half grabens during lateral and vertical load efficiency through clastic
the rifting stage. At the same time, the relief caused by carriers and associated faults. Neogene volcanic ac-
this deformation and the subsequent erosion generated tivity caused the reinforcement of migration of many
stratigraphic truncations associated with the uncon- previous deep accumulations toward shallower traps.
formities in the flanks of the structural maximus, The area suffered very minor deformation, and most

VEIGA ET AL. 2545

Table 1. Volumetric Calculation for the Different Fluid Zones

Volumetric Estimation for One Landing Zone (Thickness = 40 m Average)

Oil Recoverable, Gas Recoverable, Total Hydrocarbons,
Area, km2 Million bbl of Oil BCF Million BOE
Fluid Zone Total Net P90 Mean P10 P90 Mean P10 P90 Mean P10

Dry gas 6400 4160 178 454 841 17,333 29,155 43,767 3070 5314 8151
Wet gas 1100 715 77 244 489 2512 4269 6423 498 956 1551
Gas and condensate 1400 910 260 788 1157 3189 5411 8131 799 1690 2894
Volatile oil 3900 2535 1185 2018 3035 1922 4395 7622 1513 2750 4309
Black oil 7400 4810 2469 4113 6032 1209 2445 4025 2670 4520 6698
Totals 20,200 13,130 4169 7616 11,554 26,166 45,676 69,968 8551 15,230 23,603
Net area = 65% of the total area.
Abbreviations: P10 = 10th percentile; P90 = 90th percentile.

of the traps are of stratigraphic nature along re- of permeability of the Mulichinco Formation sealed
gional structural highs. Other plays are related to old the entrapment on the rising flank of the Los Chi-
highs formed as a result of the initial rifting stage, in huidos high to the west (Figures 1, 10). In addition,
which anticlines were formed by differential sub- there are fields developed in Cretaceous reservoirs
sidence that controlled the development and dis- deposited along regional highs (i.e., Agrio Formation,
tribution of the reservoirs (Charco Bayo, Entre Avilé Member), charged from Vaca Muerta and Agrio
Lomas, El Caracol fields), and other plays are asso- source rocks (e.g., El Trapial field) (Gulisano et al.,
ciated with domic anticlines originated by 2001; Valenzuela and Comeron, 2005; Vergani et al.,
the intrusion of igneous rocks, as in to the north of 2011). There have been very few discoveries since the
this region (Chihuido de la Salina, El Trapial, Auca 1990s, but the area is currently the focus of very im-
Mahuida, Loma Las Yeguas fields; Figure 10) portant unconventional activity.
(Gulisano et al., 2001; Valenzuela and Comeron, The fold belt, located in the western part of the
2005; Vergani et al., 2011). basin, includes mostly Cretaceous reservoirs in
The most important field in this region is Loma de complex structural traps developed during the Ce-
La Lata, discovered in the late 1970s (Figure 10). This nozoic Andean deformation and charged from the
is a stratigraphic trap developed in fluvial–aeolian Vaca Muerta and Agrio source rocks. The main
sandstones of the Sierras Blancas Formation just discoveries occurred in the 1980s and early 1990s,
underneath the Vaca Muerta source rock (Veiga with the most prominent fields being Phyllo Morado,
et al., 2001; Maretto and Rodrı́guez, 2005). Also, the El Portón, Chihuido de la Salina, Cerro Fortunoso,
Aguada Pichana and Sierra Chata fields, located to and Puesto Rojas (Kozlowski et al., 1997, 2005)
the west of this region, developed where a lateral loss (Figure 10). Another play of this region is related to

Table 2. Volumetric Calculation for the Recovery Factors, Gas–Oil Ratio, and Yield (Liquids [Condensate] Gas Ratio)

Fluid Zone Recovery Factor, Decimal GOR (Mean Value), scf/sb Yield (Mean Value), sb/MMCF

Dry gas 0.25–0.30 NA 15

Wet gas 0.20–0.25 NA 52
Gas and condensate 0.20–0.25 NA 135
Volatile oil 0.10–0.12 2200 NA
Black oil 0.08–0.10 600 NA

Abbreviations: GOR = gas–oil ratio; NA = not applicable.

2546 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 23. (A) Creaming curve for the Neuquén Basin. (B) Creaming curve for the different areas of the basin. Tight and Vaca Muerta
volumes are grouped independently of the area, but most fall within the basin center. Pto. = Puesto; Sa. = Sierra.

Cenozoic volcanic intrusives (laccoliths and sills) that with the acquisition of three-dimensional seismic
intrude shales of the Vaca Muerta and Agrio Formations, information in the 1990s, subtle structural and strati-
generating domic structures. The total hydrocarbons graphic traps were incorporated. This region is char-
discovered in this area are close to 0.87 billion BOE. acterized by the thinning and wedging of numerous
The platform area includes accumulations in stratigraphic units toward the edge of the basin with
Cretaceous reservoirs with Vaca Muerta oil in predominance of proximal clastic facies and by the
structural traps with basement involvement (Marteau overlap of the main unconformities that make up
and de la Cruz Olmos, 2005; Vergani et al., 2011). various types of stratigraphic traps related to changes in
The larger fields were discovered in the 1960s, but porosity (e.g., Avilé Member at the Puesto Hernández

VEIGA ET AL. 2547

 On the western side of the basin, the production of
tight reservoirs is from Cretaceous Mulichinco For-
mation sandstones. Although tight gas production is
currently of importance, it is believed that most of
these fields are reaching maturity.
In the last years, most of the activity in the basin
has concentrated in the oil and more recently in the
unconventional gas potential of the Vaca Muerta For-
mation. Activity began in the early 2010s, mostly with
the drilling of vertical wells. Today, there are more than
1200 wells drilled in the Vaca Muerta play, most of
them being horizontal. The main activity has been
developed in the oil and wet gas windows, but in the
last few years, industrial production began in the gas
zone. Today, unconventional (tight + shale) is sur-
passing conventional gas production in the Neuquén
Basin, and in 2019, it exceeded the historical peak of
gas production of 2004. Unconventional oil pro-
duction is steadily growing and currently stands at more
than 120,000 bbl/day.
The US Energy Information Administration es-
timated that the total shale potential of the Neuquén
Basin includes technically recoverable resources of
275 tcf and 3.7 billion bbl in the Los Molles For-
mation and of 308 tcf and 16.2 billion bbl in the Vaca
Muerta Formation (US Energy Information Admin-
Figure 24. Distribution of hydrocarbons in the Neuquén Basin istration, 2013). To date, the Los Molles Formation has
representing million barrels of oil equivalent per 100 km2 (values not yet yielded commercially recoverable unconven-
are clipped at 350 million BOE).
tional reserves. Our preliminary analysis, considering
the storage numbers provided in the previous section
field) or because of truncations of reservoirs against (for one landing zone), multiplied by the number of
seals associated with angular unconformities (e.g., landing zones identified per area and scaled by a factor
Centenario Formation at the El Corcobo field) of 65% (to account for the fact that not all the area can
(Marteau and de la Cruz Olmos, 2005; Vergani et al., be developed), gives an estimate of the order of 91.5 tcf
2011; Venara et al., 2018; Iñigo et al., 2019). Struc- and 14.3 billion bbl of oil of Vaca Muerta resources
tural entrapments associated with paleohighs (horsts) (30.1 billion BOE) (Figure 26). These numbers are
also exist where the reservoirs are thinner, resulting in only indicative at a very general level and could be
folds generated by compaction. In this type of play, conservative since they only assume a maximum of
volcanic reservoirs associated with the basement two landing zones in the best areas of the basin, but it is
(e.g., Choiyoi Group, in the Medanito and Jagüel de clear that several areas contain the possibility of three
Los Machos fields) are developed (Llambı́as et al., or even four potential landing zones, which would
2018). A total of 4.5 billion BOE has been discovered considerably increase these resource numbers.
to date in the platform area.
The development of tight reservoirs mostly in
previously discovered structural or stratigraphic traps CONCLUDING REMARKS
began circa 2010. The main fields produce from the
Jurassic Lajas Formation in the axial part of The Neuquén Basin contains a sedimentary sequence
the basin in fields such as Rı́o Neuquén, Lindero more than 6000 m thick and several proven
Atravesado, and Estación Fernández Oro (Figure 25). superimposed petroleum systems that resulted in

2548 The Neuquén Super Basin

Figure 25. Tight projects and main formations in which they are developed (courtesy of GiGa Consulting, 2018).

numerous plays mostly related to successive Meso- In addition, the unconventional potential of the
zoic transgressions that entered the basin from the basin has been lately proven for the Vaca Muerta
west. These gave origin to several trapping configura- Formation. Our analysis indicates that this unit
tions that resulted in the many conventional fields contains resources of 91.5 tcf and 14.3 bbl of oil.
discovered to date. The existence of these fields Some of the aspects we believe make this unit
demonstrates that the disposition of the petroleum unique are as follows. (1) Below ground: very thick
systems’ essential elements and processes were spa- intervals with high TOC and excellent storage ca-
tially and temporarily favorable for the numerous pacity, thus presenting several possible landing ho-
source rocks and reservoirs to become successful rizons, important overpressures, good geomechanical
hydrocarbon accumulations in an extensive variety characteristics, rocks mostly flat lying, and inefficient
of plays basin-wide. migration helped to retain a large part of the generated

VEIGA ET AL. 2549

 lithospheric anisotropies during the Late Triassic to
Early Jurassic rifting in the Neuquén Basin: Insights from
analog models: Journal of Geodynamics, v. 79, p. 1–17,
doi:10.1016/j.jog.2014.04.010.
Boll, A., and D. Valencio, 1996, Relación estratigráfica entre
las Formaciones Tordillo y Vaca Muerta en el sector
central de la Dorsal de Huincul, provincia del Neuquén
[in Spanish]: XIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, III
Congreso de Exploraci ón de Hidrocarburos: Actas,
Buenos Aires, 13 al 18 de Octubre de 1996, Buenos
Aires, Argentina, Asociación Geológica Argentina, v. 5,
p. 205–223.
Brisson, I. E., 2015, Sistemas petroleros de la Cuenca Neu-
quina, in J. Ponce, A. Montagna, and N. Carmona, eds.,
Figure 26. Discovered reserves in the Neuquén Basin versus Geologı́a de la Cuenca Neuquina y sus sistemas petro-
Vaca Muerta estimated resources (14.3 billion bbl of oil and 91.4 leros [in Spanish]: Viedma, Argentina, Universidad
Nacional de Rı́o Negro, p. 22–35.
TCF).
Brisson, I. E., M. E. Fasola, and H. J. Villar, in press, Organic
geochemical patterns of the Vaca Muerta Formation, in
hydrocarbons. (2) Above ground: large tracks of land D. Minisini, M. Fantı́n, I. Lanusse Noguera, and H. A. Leanza,
(average block size is 218 km2), climatic conditions eds., Integrated geology of unconventionals: The case of
allowing drilling operations during most of the year, the Vaca Muerta play, Argentina: AAPG Memoir 121,
moderate to low topographic difficulties, moderate p. 297–328, doi: 10.1306/13682231M1203834.
Carbone, O., J. Franzese, M. Limeres, D. Delpino, and
to easy access to water source, access to oil and gas
R. Martı́nez, 2011, El Ciclo Precuyano (Triásico Tardı́o-
pipelines, easy access and already-built transport Jur ásico Temprano) en la Cuenca Neuquina, in
facilities in many of the areas, and strong domestic H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui, O. Carbone, J. C. Danieli, and
market for gas. Already, seven projects are in full J. M. Valiés, eds., Geologı́a y recursos naturales de la
development scale, thus showing the economic viability provincia del Neuquén: Relatorio del XVIII Congreso
Geológico Argentino, 2 al 6 de Mayo de 1011, Neuquén
of these resources. World-class outcrops allow easy [in Spanish]: Buenos Aires, Argentina, Asociación Ge-
correlation with subsurface. ológica Argentina, p. 465–488.
The Neuquén Basin has gone through three Carbone, O., G. Vergani, A. Giusiano, and M. Raviola, 2018,
main phases of development: conventional, tight, and A un siglo del descubrimiento de petróleo en Neuquén
unconventional. After a century of production, the (1918-2018). Perspectivas sobre la matriz energética
Argentina [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Exploración y De-
Neuquén Basin still shows a wide variety of oppor- sarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina, November
tunities for both conventional old field rejuvenation 5–9, 2018, p. 3–20.
and for exploration and development of world-class Chen, Z., and C. Jiang, 2016, A revised method for organic
unconventional pools. The total resources already porosity estimation in shale reservoirs using Rock-Eval
discovered plus the unconventional potential clearly pyrolysis data: Example from Duvernay Shale in the
Western Canada Sedimentary Basin: AAPG Bulletin,
make the Neuquén Basin in the realm of a super basin. v. 100, no. 3, p. 405–422, doi:10.1306/08261514173.
Comeron, R., J. M. González, and M. Schiuma, 2018, Los
reservorios de las Rocas Ígneas Intrusivas, in M. Schiuma,
G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani, eds., Rocas re-
REFERENCES CITED servorio de la cuencas productivas de la Argentina, 2nd
ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Exploración y De-
Arregui, C., O. Carbone, and R. Martı́nez, 2011, El Grupo Cuyo sarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina, Novem-
(Jurásico Temprano-Medio) en la Cuenca Neuquina, in ber 5–9, 2018, p. 843–866.
H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui, O. Carbone, J. C. Danieli, and Cruz, C., E. Kozlowski, and H. Villar, 1999a, Agrio (Neocomian)
J. M. Vallés, eds., Geologı́a y recursos naturales de la pro- petroleum systems: Main target in the Neuquén Basin thrust
vincia del Neuquén: Relatorio del XVIII Congreso Geo- belt, Argentina, in IV Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo
lógico Argentino, 2 al 6 de Mayo de 1011, Neuquén [in de Hidrocarburos, Instituto Mar del Plata, Argentina, 18–21
Spanish]: Buenos Aires, Argentina, Asociación Geológica de Abril de 1999, Actas [in Spanish]: Buenos Aires, Ar-
Argentina, p. 77–89. gentina Instituto Argentino de Petróleo y Gas, p. 891–892.
Bechis, F., E. O. Cristallini, L. B. Giambiagi, D. L. Yagupsky, Cruz, C., F. Robles, C. Sylwan, and H. Villar, 1999b, Los sistemas
C. G. Guzmán, and V. H. Garcı́a, 2014, Transtensional petroleros jurásicos de la Dorsal de Huincul, Cuenca Neu-
tectonics induced by oblique reactivation of previous quina, Argentina, in IV Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo

2550 The Neuquén Super Basin

 de Hidrocarburos, Instituto Mar del Plata, Argentina, 18–21 Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos,
de Abril de 1999, Actas [in Spanish]: Buenos Aires, Argen- Instituto Argentino del Petroleo y Gas: Sesiones Técnicas,
tina Instituto Argentino del Petróleo y Gas, p. 175–195. Mendoza, Argentina, November 3–7, 2014, p. 71–96.
Cruz, C. E., A. Boll, R. Gómez Omil, E. A. Martı́nez, C. Arregui, González, G., M. D. Vallejo, D. Kietzmann, D. Marchal,
C. A. Gulisano, G. A. Laffitte, and H. J. Villar, 2002, Hábitat P. Desjardins, F. G. Tomassini, L. G. Rivarola, and
de hidrocarburos y sistemas de carga Los Molles y Vaca R. F. Domı́nguez, eds., 2016, Transecta regional de la
Muerta en el sector central de la Cuenca Neuquina, Formación Vaca Muerta: Integración de sı́smica, regis-
Argentina: V Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo tros de pozos, coronas y afloramientos [in Spanish]: Buenos
de Hidrocarburos [in Spanish]: Mar de Plata, Argen- Aires, Argentina, Instituto Argentino del Petróleo y Gas, 244 p.
tina, Instituto Argentino del Petróleo y Gas, Trabajos Groeber, P., 1946, Observaciones geológicas a lo largo del
Ténicos, 20 p. meridiano 70°. 1. Hoja Chos Malal [in Spanish]: Revista
D’Elı́a, L., A. Bilmes, J. R. Franzese, G. D. Veiga, M. Hernández, de la Sociedad Geológica Argentina, v. 1, p. 177–208.
and M. Muravchic, 2015, Early evolution of the southern Gulisano, C., S. Minniti, G. Rossi, and H. J. Villar, 2001, The
margin of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina: Tectono- Agrio petroleum system: Hydrocarbon contribution and
stratigraphic implications for rift evolution and explo- key elements, Neuquén Basin, Argentina, in C . Kluth
ration of hydrocarbon plays: Journal of South American and L . Legarreta, eds., AAPG 2001 Hedberg Research
Earth Sciences, v. 64, p. 42–57, doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2015 Conference, New Technologies and New Play Concepts
.09.004. in Latin America, Mendoza, Argentina, November 5–9,
Digregorio, J. H., 1972, Neuquén, in A. F. Leanza, ed., Ge- 2001, p. 114–115.
ologı́a regional Argentina [in Spanish]: Cordoba, Ar- Gulisano, C., and G. Pando, 1981, Estratigrafı́a y facies de los
gentina, Academia Nacional de Ciencias, p. 439–506. depósitos jurásicos entre Piedra del Águila y Sañicó,
Domı́nguez, R. F., and O. Catuneanu, 2017, Regional Departamento Collón Cura, Provincia del Neuquén [in
stratigraphic framework of the Vaca Muerta-Quintuco Spanish]: XIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, Buenos
System in the Neuquén Embayment, Argentina [in Aires, Argentina, v. 3, p. 553–577.
Spanish]: XX Congreso Geológico Argentino, Simposio Gulisano, C. A., and A. Gutiérrez Pleimling, 1995, Field
5: Geologı́a de la Formación Vaca Muerta, San Miguel guide, the Jurassic of the Neuquén basin, Neuquén Province =
de Tucumán, Argentina, August 7–10, 2017, p. 53–59. Guı́a de campo, el Jurásico de la Cuenca Neuquina, Provincia
Domı́nguez, R. F., H. A. Leanza, M. Fantı́n, D. Marchal, and del Neuquén [in Spanish]: Buenos Aires, Argentina,
E. Cristallini, 2020, Basin configuration at Vaca Muerta Asociación Geológica Argentina, Serie E, v. 2, 111 p.
time, in D. Minisini, M. Fantı́n, I. Lanusse Noguera, and Gutiérrez Pleimling, A. R., 1991, Estratigrafı́a de la For-
H. A. Leanza, eds., Integrated geology of unconventionals: mación Huitrı́n: Un estudio puntual sobre la ruta nacional
The case of the Vaca Muerta play, Argentina: AAPG Memoir n° 40, provincia del Neuquén [in Spanish]: Boletı́n de
121, p. 141–162, doi: 10.1306/13682226M1203832. Informaciones Petroleras, v. September, p. 85–100.
Eaton, B., 1975, The equation for geopressure prediction Hechem, J. J., D. A. Wavrek, M. L. Fernández, F. Pángaro,
from well logs: Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum and H. J. Verzi, 2003, Gas systems in the central region
Engineers of American Institute of Mining, Metallurgi- of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina (abs.): AAPG Annual
cal, and Petroleum Engineers, Dallas, Texas, September Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah, May 11–14, 2003, ac-
28–October 1, SPE-5544-MS, 11 p., doi:10.2118/5544-MS. cessed October 28, 2020, http://www.searchanddiscovery
Garrido, A. C., 2011, El Grupo Neuquén (Cretácico Tardı́o) .com/pdfz/abstracts/pdf/2003/annual/short/ndx_78407
en la Cuenca Neuquina, in H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui, .PDF.html.
O. Carbone, J. C . Danieli, and J. M. Vallés, eds., Ge- Iñigo, J. F. P., P. J. Pazos, M. E. Novara, and M. Comerio, 2019,
ologı́a y recursos naturales de la provincia del Neuquén: The Lower Cretaceous Centenario Formation: A subsur-
Relatorio del XVIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, 2 face unit in the northeastern border of the Neuquén Basin
al 6 de Mayo de 1011, Neuquén [in Spanish]: Buenos revisited: Journal of South American Earth Sciences, v. 92,
Aires, Argentina, Asociación Geológica Argentina, p. 598–608, doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2019.03.031.
p. 231–244. Kozlowski, E., C. E. Cruz, and C. A. Sylwan, 1997, Modelo
GiGa Consulting, 2018, Reporte trimestral no convencionales: exploratorio en la faja corrida de la Cuenca Neuquina,
Cuencas neuquina y austral, Q1-2018 [in Spanish]: Argentina [in Spanish]: VI Simposio Bolivariano: Ex-
Buenos Aires, Argentina, GiGa Consulting, 74 p. ploración Petrolera en las Cuencas Subandinas, Cartagena
Giusiano, A., H. Mendiberri, and O. Carbone, 2011, Introducción de Indias, Colombia, September 14–17, 1997, p. 15–31.
a los recursos hidrocarburı́feros, in H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui, Kozlowski, E., G. D. Vergani, and A. Boll, eds., 2005, Las trampas
O. Carbone, J. C . Danieli, and J. M. Vallés, eds., Geologı́a y de hidrocarburos en las cuencas productivas de Argentina
recursos naturales de la provincia del Neuquén: Relatorio del [in Spanish]: VI Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de
XVIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, 2 al 6 de Mayo de Hidrocarburos, Instituto Argentino del Petróleo y Gas,
1011, Neuquén [in Spanish]: Buenos Aires, Argentina, Mar del Plata, Argentina, November 15–19, 2005, 552 p.
Asociación Geológica Argentina, p. 639–644. Kuchinskiy, V., 2013, Organic porosity study: Porosity de-
Gómez Omil, R., J. Caniggia, and P. Borghi, 2014, La Formación velopment within organic matter of the Lower Silurian
Vaca Muerta en la faja plegada de Neuquén y Mendoza. and Ordovician source rocks of the Poland shale gas trend:
Procesos que controlaron su madurez [in Spanish]: IX AAPG Search and Discovery article 10522, accessed

VEIGA ET AL. 2551

 September 23, 2013, http://www.searchanddiscovery.com Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza,
/pdfz/documents/2013/10522kuchinskiy/ndx_kuchinskiy Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 563–577.
.pdf.html. Llambı́as, E. J., H. A. Leanza, and O. Carbone, 2007,
Leanza, H. A., 1992, Estratigrafı́a del Paleozoico y Mesozoico Evolución tectono-magmática durante el Pérmico al
anterior a los Movimientos Intermálmicos en la comarca Jurásico temprano en la Cordillera del Viento (37°059S
del Cerro Chachil, provincia del Neuquén, Argentina [in -37°159S): Nuevas evidencias geológicas y geoquı́mcas
Spanish]: Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, del inicio de la Cuenca Neuquina [in Spanish]: Revista
v. 45, p. 272–299. de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, v. 62, no. 2,
Leanza, H. A., C. A. Hugo, and D. Repol, 2001, Hoja geo- p. 217–235.
lógica 3969-I, Zapala, provincia del Neuquén: Programa Llambı́as, E. J., M. Schiuma, D. Velo, M. Barrionuevo, D. Lenge,
Nacional de Cartas Geológicas de la República Argentina F. Pángaro, R. Corbera, O. Carbone, and G. Hinterwimmer,
a escala 1: 250.000 [in Spanish]: Buenos Aires, Argen- 2018, Reservorios del Grupo Choiyoi y Precuyano, in
tina, Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Naturales. Servicio M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani,
Geológico Minero Argentino, v. 275, 128 p. eds., Rocas reservorio de las cuencas productivas de
Leanza, H. A., D. Repol, C. A. Hugo, and P. Sruoga, 2006, Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Ex-
Hoja geológica 3769-31, Chorriaca, provincia del Neu- ploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza,
quén: Programa Nacional de Cartas Geológicas de la Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 325–371.
República Argentina a escala 1: 100.000 [in Spanish]: Buenos Malone, P., C. Saavedra, G. D. Vergani, J. C. Ferrero, M. Limeres,
Aires, Argentina, Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Minerales, and M. Schiuma, 2018, Los reservorios del Grupo Cuyo
Servicio Geológico Minero Argentino, v. 354, 93 p. Superior, in M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, and
Legarreta, L., 2002, Eventos de desecación en la Cuenca G. D. Vergani, eds., Rocas reservorio de la cuencas
Neuquina: Depósitos continentales y distribución de hi- productivas de la Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X
drocarburos [in Spanish]: V Congreso de Exploración y Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos,
Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Trabajos Técnicos, Mar del Mendoza, Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 469–494.
Plata, Argentina, October 29–November 2, 2002, p. 37–45. Manacorda, L., S. M. E. Reinante, L. Cazau, and E. R. Penna,
Legarreta, L., and C. Gulisano, 1989, Análisis estratigráfico se- 2018, Los reservorios del Grupo Neuquén, in M. Schiuma,
cuencial de la Cuenca Neuquina (Triásico Superior-Terciario G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani, eds., Rocas reservorio
Inferior), Argentina, in C. S. Argentina, G. A. Chebli, and de la cuencas productivas de la Argentina, 2nd ed. [in
L. A. Spalletti, eds., Cuencas sedimentarias Argentinas [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de
Spanish]: San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina, Serie Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina, November 5–9, 2018,
Correlación Geológica, v. 6, p. 221–243. p. 813–834.
Legarreta, L., C. Gulisano, and M. A. Uliana, 1993, Las secuencias Maretto, H., O. Carbone, C. Gazzera, M. Schiuma, and
sedimentarias Jurásico-Cretácicas, in V. A. Ramos, ed., Rela- S. Valente, 2018, Los reservorios de la Formación Tordillo,
torio geologı́a y recursos naturales de la provincia de Mendoza in M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani, eds.,
[in Spanish]: Relatorio del XII Congreso Geológico Argentino Rocas reservorio de la cuencas productivas de la Argentina,
y II Congreso de Exploración de Hidrocarburos, Buenos Aires, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Exploración y De-
Argentina, Asociación Geológica Argentina, p. 87–114. sarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina, November
Legarreta, L., and M. A. Uliana, 1991, Jurassic-Cretaceous ma- 5–9, 2018, p. 527–562.
rine oscillations and geometry of back-arc basin fill, central Maretto, H., and L. Rodrı́guez, 2005, Yacimiento Loma La
Argentine Andes: International Association of Sedimentol- Lata, descripción de las condiciones de acumulación en la
ogy Special Publication12, p. 429–450. Formación Sierras Blancas, in E. Kozlowski, G . Vergani,
Legarreta, L., and H. J. Villar, 2012, Las facies generadoras and A. Boll, eds., Las trampas de hidrocarburos en las
de hidrocarburos de la Cuenca Neuquina [in Spanish]: cuencas productivas de Argentina [in Spanish]: VI
Petrotecnia, v. 54, no. 3, p. 14–39. Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos,
Legarreta, L., H. J. Villar, C. E. Cruz, G. A. Laffitte, and Instituto Argentino del Petróleo y Gas, Mar del Plata,
R. Varadé, 2008, Revisión integrada de los sistemas Argentina, November 15–19, 2005, p. 271–288.
generadores, estilos de migración-entrampamiento y Marteau, V. M., 2018, Los reservorios de la Formación Rayoso, in
volumetrı́a de hidrocarburos en los distritos productivos M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani, eds.,
de la Cuenca Neuquina [in Spanish]: VII Congreso de Rocas reservorio de la cuencas productivas de la Argentina,
Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos (Simposio 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Exploración y
de Sistemas Petroleros de las Cuencas Andinas), Buenos Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina,
Aires, Argentina, November 5–8, 2008, p. 79–108, doi: November 5–9, 2018, 795–812.
10.3997/2214-4609-pdb.266.5. Marteau, V. M., and M. de la Cruz Olmos, 2005, Yacimiento
Licitra, D., F. J. Vittore, J. J. Fernández, J. R. Quiroga, Puesto Hernandez, in E. Kozlowski, G. D. Vergani, and
C. Hernández, H. Reijenstein, I. Lanusse, and L. Monti, A. Boll, eds., Las trampas de hidrocarburos en las cuencas
2018, Los reservorios de la Formacion Vaca Muerta, in productivas de Argentina [in Spanish]: VI Congreso de
M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani, Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Instituto
eds., Rocas reservorio de la cuencas productivas de la Argentino del Petróleo y Gas, Mar del Plata, Argentina,
Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de November 15–19, 2005, 163–171.

2552 The Neuquén Super Basin

Masarik, M. C., 2018, Los reservorios del Miembro Troncoso Cuenca Neuquina [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Ex-
Inferior de la Formaci ón Huitrı́n, in M. Schiuma, ploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza,
G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani, eds., Rocas re- Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 301–313.
servorio de la cuencas productivas de la Argentina, 2nd Rodrı́guez Monreal, F., H. Villar, R. Baudino, D. Delpino, and
ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Exploración y De- S. Zencich, 2009, Modeling an atypical petroleum sys-
sarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina, No- tem: A case study of hydrocarbon generation, migration
vember 5–9, 2018, p. 749–775. and accumulation related to igneous intrusions in the
Modica, C. J., and S. G. Lapierre, 2012, Estimation of kerogen Neuquén Basin, Argentina: Marine and Petroleum Geology,
porosity in source rocks as a function of thermal trans- v. 26, no. 4, p. 590–605, doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2009.01
formation: Example from the Mowry shale in the Pow- .005.
der River Basin of Wyoming: AAPG Bulletin, v. 96, Rosso, M., 1990, Caracterı́sticas del material orgánico de
no. 1, p. 87–108. rocas y petróleos presentes en el Valle del Rio Grande
Mosquera, A., J. Alonso, C. Zavala, A. Boll, H. Villar, (Cuenca Neuquina-Sur Mendocina): Su vinculación con
M. Arcuri, and M. Alarcón, 2008, Modelo de migración otros petróleos de la Cuenca: X Congreso Geológico
compuesto para los hidrocarburos del sistema petrolero Argentino, San Juan [in Spanish]: Actas, v. 1, p. 210–213.
Molles en el ámbito de la plataforma neuquina, descu- Sari, A., A. Moradi, Y. Kulaksiz, and A. Yurtoğlu, 2015,
brimientos y potencial exploratorio [in Spanish]: VII Evaluation of the hydrocarbon potential, mineral matrix
Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos: effect and gas-oil ratio potential of oil shale from the
Actas, Mar del Plata, Argentina, p. 491–526. Kabalar Formation, Göynük, Turkey: Oil Shale, v. 32,
Mosquera, A., and V. A. Ramos, 2006, Intraplate deformation no. 1, p. 25–41, doi:10.3176/oil.2015.1.03.
in the Neuquén Basin, in S. M. Kay and V. A. Ramos, Schiuma, M., G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani, eds.
eds., Evolution of an Andean margin: A tectonic and 2018a, Rocas reservorio de la cuencas productivas de
magmatic view from the Andes to the Neuquén Basin la Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de
(35° – 39° S latitude): Geological Society of America Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza,
Special Paper 407, p. 97–124. Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, 1128 p.
Mosquera, A., J. Silvestro, V. A. Ramos, M. Alarcón, and Schiuma, M., C. Saavedra, P. Malone, M. Cevallos, L. Rebori,
M. Zubiri, 2011, La estructura de la Dorsal de Huincul,
and G. D. Vergani, 2018b, Los reservorios del Grupo Lo-
in H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui, O. Carbone, J. C. Danieli,
tena, in M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani,
and J. M. Vallés, eds., Geologı́a y recursos naturales de la
eds., Rocas reservorio de la cuencas productivas de la
provincia del Neuquén: Relatorio del XVIII Congreso
Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Exploración y
Geológico Argentino, 2 al 6 de Mayo de 1011, Neuquén
Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina, November
[in Spanish]: Buenos Aires, Argentina, Asociación Ge-
5–9, 2018, p. 495–525.
ológica Argentina, p. 385–397.
Scivetti, N., 2017, Análisis comparativo de los controles
Pángaro, F., A. T. Melli, P. Malone, M. Cevallos, A. Soraci,
tectónicos y eustáticos sobre la estratigrafı́a de post-rift
A. Mosquera, and H. J. Kim, 2005, Modelos de En-
(Jurásico Inferior-Cretácico Inferior) en el sector central
trampamiento de la Dorsal de Huincul, Cuenca Neu-
de la Cuenca Neuquina, Argentina [in Spanish], Ph.D.
quina, Argentina [in Spanish]: VI Congreso de
Exploraci ón y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mar de thesis, National University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina,
Plata, Argentina, November 15–19, 2005, p. 331–368. 187 p.
Peters, K., C. Walters, and J. Moldowan, 2005, The bio- Sigismondi, M. E., and V. A. Ramos, 2011, El basamento de la
marker guide: Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge Cuenca Neuquina, in H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui,
University Press, v. 1, 1155 p. O. Carbone, J. C. Danieli, and J. M. Vallés, eds., Ge-
Ramos, V. A., 1998, Estructura del sector occidental de la faja ologı́a y recursos naturales de la provincia del Neuquén:
plegada y corrida del Agrio, Cuenca Neuquina, Argen- Relatorio del XVIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, 2 al
tina [in Spanish]: X Congreso Latinoamericano de Ge- 6 de Mayo de 1011, Neuquén [in Spanish]: Buenos
ologı́a, Buenos Aires, Argentina, November 8–13, 1988, Aires, Argentina, Asociaci ón Geol ógica Argentina,
v. 2, p. 105–110. p. 327–333.
Ramos, V. A., 2008, Patagonia: A Paleozoic continent adrift?: Spacapan, J. B., A. D’Odorico, J. O. Palma, O. Galland,
Journal of South American Earth Sciences, v. 26, no. 3, K. Senger, R. Ruiz, R. Manceda, and H. A. Leanza,
p. 235–251, doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2008.06.002. 2019, Low resistivity zones at contacts of igneous in-
Ramos, V. A., M. Naipauer, H. A. Leanza, and M. E. Sigismondi, trusions emplaced in organic-rich formations and their
2020, An exceptional tectonic setting along the Andean implications on fluid flow and petroleum systems: A case
continental margin, in D. Minisini, M. Fantı́n, I. Lanusse study in the northern Neuquén Basin, Argentina: Basin
Noguera, and H. A. Leanza, eds., Integrated geology of Research, v. 32, no. 1, p. 3–24.
unconventionals: The case of the Vaca Muerta play, Ar- Spacapan, J. B., J. O. Palma, O. Galland, R. Manceda,
gentina: AAPG Memoir 121, p. 25–38, doi:10.1306 E. Rocha, A. D’ Odorico, and H. A. Leanza, 2018,
/13682222M1202855. Thermal impact of igneous sill-complexes on organic-
Rocha, E., I. E. Brisson, and M. E. Fasola, 2018, Modelado de rich formations and implications for petroleum systems: A
sistemas petroleros a lo largo de la faja plegada de la case study in the northern Neuquén Basin, Argentina: Marine

VEIGA ET AL. 2553

 and Petroleum Geology, v. 91, p. 519–531, doi:10.1016 plataforma nor-oriental de la Cuenca Neuquina. Pro-
/j.marpetgeo.2018.01.018. vincia de Rı́o Negro-Argentina [in Spanish]. X Congreso
Spalletti, L. A., G. D. Veiga, and E. Schwarz, 2011, La de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Men-
Formación Agrio (Cretácico Temprano) en la Cuenca doza, Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 245–266.
Neuquina, in H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui, O. Carbone, Veiga, R., F. Pángaro, and M. Fernández, 2002, Modelado
J. C. Danieli, and J. M. Vallés, eds., Geologı́a y re- bidimensional y migración de hidrocarburos en el ámbito
cursos naturales de la provincia del Neuquén: Rela- de la Dorsal de Huincul, Cuenca Neuquina, Argentina
torio del XVIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, 2 al [in Spanish]: V Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de
6 de Mayo de 1011, Neuquén [in Spanish]: Buenos Hidrocarburos: Actas, Mar del Plata, Argentina, 1 CD-
Aires, Argentina, Asociación Geológica Argentina, ROM.
p. 145–160. Veiga, R., H. Verzi, and H. Maretto, 2001, Modelado bidi-
Tyson, R., P. Esherwood, and K. A. Pattison, 2005, Organic mensional en el ámbito central de la Cuenca Neuquina
facies variations in the Valanginian-mid- Hauterivian in- (Argentina): Boletı́n de Informaciones Petroleras, no. 67,
terval of the Agrio Formation (Chos Malal area, Neuquén, p. 50–63
Argentina): Local significance and global context: Geo- Venara, L., J. M. Herrera, N. Carrizo, S. Ribas, F. Ghiglione,
logical Society, London, Special Publications 2005, v. 252, D. Mallimaci, O. Pioli, and C. Echevarrı́a, 2018, Los
p. 251–266, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2005.252.01.12. reservorios de la Formación Centenario (Actualización) y
Uliana, M., D. Dellapé, and G. Pando, 1975a, Estratigrafı́a de los reservorios del Miembro Pilmatué de la Formación
las sedimentitas rayosianas (Cretácico Inferior de las Agrio, in M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani,
Provincias de Neuqu én y Mendoza, Argentina) [in eds., Rocas reservorio de la cuencas productivas de
Spanish]: II Congreso Iberoamericano de Geologı́a la Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de
Económica, Buenos Aires, Argentina, v. 1, p. 177–196. Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza,
Uliana, M. A., D. A. Dellapé, and G. A. Pando, 1975b, Dis- Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 663–710.
tribución y génesis de las sedimentitas rayosianas (Cretácico Vergani, G., C. Arregui, and O. Carbone, 2011, Sistemas
Inferior de las Provincias de Neuqu én y Mendoza, petroleros y tipos de entrampamientos en la Cuenca
Argentina) [in Spanish]: II Congreso Iberoamericano de Neuquina, in H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui, O. Carbone,
Geologı́a Económica, Buenos Aires, Argentina, v. 1, J. C. Danieli, and J. M. Valiés, eds., Geologı́a y recursos
p. 151–176. naturales de la provincia del Neuquén [in Spanish]:
Urien, M. C., and J. J. Zambrano, 1994, Petroleum systems in Relatorio del XVIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, 2 al
the Neuquén Basin, Argentina, in L. B. Magoon and 6 de Mayo de 1011, Neuquén: Buenos Aires, Asociación
W. G. Dow, eds., The petroleum system–From source Geológica Argentina, p. 645–656.
to trap: AAPG Memoir 60, p. 513–534. Vergani, G., G. Selva, and D. Boggetti, 2002, Estratigrafı́a y
US Energy Information Administration, 2013, Technically re- modelo de facies del Miembro Troncoso inferior, Fm.
coverable shale oil and shale gas resources: An assess- Huitrı́n (Aptiano) en el noroeste de la Cuenca Neuquina,
ment of 137 shale formations in 41 countries outside Argentina, in C. A. Cingolani, N. Cabaleri, E. Linares, M. E .
the United States: Washington, DC, US Department of López de Lucchi, H. A. Ostera, and H. O. Panarello, eds.,
Energy, 76 p. XV Congreso Geológico Argentino, Actas [in Spanish]:
Valenzuela, M., 2018, Los reservorios del Miembro Avilé de Buenos Aires, Argentina, Asociación Geológica Argen-
la Formación Agrio, in M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, tina, p. 613–618.
and G. D. Vergani, eds., Rocas reservorio de la cuencas Vergani, G. D., A. J. Tankard, H. J. Belotti, and H. J. Welsink,
productivas de la Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X 1995, Tectonic evolution and paleogeography of the
Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Neuquén Basin, Argentina, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez,
Mendoza, Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 717–729. and H. J. Welsink, eds., Petroleum basins of South
Valenzuela, M., and R. Comeron, 2005, Yacimiento Chi- America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 383–402.
huido de la Sierra Negra - Lomita, Miembro Avilé, in Villar, H. J., L. Legarreta, C. E. Cruz, G. A. Laffitte, and
E. Kozlowski, G. D. Vergani, and A. Boll, eds., Las G. D. Vergani, 2005, Los cinco sistemas petroleros coex-
trampas de hidrocarburos en las cuencas productivas de istentes en el sector sudeste de la Cuenca Neuquina: Defi-
Argentina [in Spanish]: VI Congreso de Exploración y nición geoquı́mica y comparación a lo largo de una transecta
Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Instituto Argentino del de 150 km [in Spanish]: 6° Congreso de Exploración y
Petróleo y Gas, Mar del Plata, Argentina, November Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Trabajos Técnicos, Mar del
15–19, 2005, 173–180. Plata, Argentina, November 15–19, 2005, p. 34–49.
Veiga, R., 2018, Estimación de hidrocarburos generados, Vottero, A., and J. M. González, 2018, Los reservorios de la
carbono orgánico original y porosidad orgánica a partir Formación Mulichinco, in M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer,
de datos de pirólisis: Ejemplos en la Formación Vaca and G. D. Vergani, eds., Rocas reservorio de la cuencas
Muerta, Cuenca Neuquina, Argentina [in Spanish]: X productivas de la Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X
Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos,
Mendoza, Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 3–21. Mendoza, Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 619–635.
Veiga, R., A. Bande, A. Mosquera, and J. Alonso, 2018, Wavrek, D., J. Quick, J. Collister, N. Dahdah, G. Laffitte,
Análisis de patrones de migración de hidrocarburos en la and S. del Vó, 1994, Neuquén Basin, Argentina: An

2554 The Neuquén Super Basin

 integrated geochemistry study: Columbia, South Caro- Georesearch forum: Zürich-Uetikon, Switzerland, Trans
lina, Earth Sciences and Resources Institute and YPF Tech Publications, v. 1–2, p. 285–294.
Technical Report 94-08-422, 778 p. Zencich, S., I. Brisson, F. Dzelalija, A. Galarza, and
Weaver, C., 1931, Paleontology of the Jurassic and Cre- V. M. Marteau, 1999, Sedimentologı́a, estructura y
taceous of west central Argentina: Seattle, Wash- geologı́a del petróleo del Miembro La Tosca, Formacion
ington, Memoirs of the University of Washington, Huitrı́n, en la regi ón de Paso Bardas Norte, Cuenca
v. 1, 469 p. Neuquina, Argentina [in Spanish]: IV Congreso de
Zavala, C., 1996, Sequence stratigraphy in continental to Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Instituto
marine transitions: An example from the Middle Jurassic Mar del Plata, Argentina, 18–21 de Abril de 1999, Actas:
Cuyo Group, southern Neuquén Basin, Argentina, in Buenos Aires, Argentina Instituto Argentino del Pet-
A. C. Riccardi, ed., Advances in Jurassic research: róleo y Gas, v. 2, p. 825–841.

VEIGA ET AL. 2555