Main menu















Search
Create account
 Log in
Personal tools



Contents

hide

(Top)


Etymology


Description


Prehistory


Historiography


Methods
Toggle Methods subsection

Areas of study
Toggle Areas of study subsection
 
Historians


Judgement


Pseudohistory


Teaching
Toggle Teaching subsection

See also


References


Further reading


External links

History
233 languages
 Article
 Talk
 Read
 View source
 View history
Tools

















 

Appearance
hide
Text


Small
Standard
Large
Width


Standard
Wide

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Histroy)
This article is about the academic discipline. For a general history of human beings,
see Human history. For a general history of Earth, see History of Earth. For other
uses, see History (disambiguation).

Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) has been considered

the "father of history" in the Western world.
History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) 'inquiry; knowledge acquired
by investigation')[1] is the systematic study and documentation of the human past.[2][3]

The period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory.
[4]
"History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory,
discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these
events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as
written documents, oral accounts or traditional oral histories, art and material
artifacts, and ecological markers.[5] History is incomplete and still has debatable
mysteries.

History is an academic discipline which uses a narrative to describe, examine,

question, and analyze past events, and investigate their patterns of cause and effect.
[6][7]
Historians debate which narrative best explains an event, as well as the
significance of different causes and effects. Historians debate the nature of
history as an end in itself, and its usefulness in giving perspective on the problems of
the present.[6][8][9][10]

Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such
as the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural
heritage or legends.[11][12] History differs from myth in that it is supported by
verifiable evidence. However, ancient cultural influences have helped create variant
interpretations of the nature of history, which have evolved over the centuries and
continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes
the study of specific regions and certain topical or thematic elements of historical
investigation. History is taught as a part of primary and secondary education, and the
academic study of history is a major discipline in universities.

Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the "father of

history", as one of the first historians in the Western tradition,[13] though he has been
criticized as the "father of lies".[14][15] Along with his contemporary Thucydides, he
helped form the foundations for the modern study of past events and societies.
[16]
Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused
Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or
approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and
Autumn Annals, was reputed to date from as early as 722 BC, though only 2nd-
century BC texts have survived. The title "father of history" has also been attributed
to Sima Qian and Ibn Khaldun in their respective societies.[17][18]

Etymology

History by Frederick Dielman (1896)

The word history comes from historía (Ancient
Greek: ἱστορία, romanized: historíā, lit. 'inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge'[19]). It
was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his History of Animals.[20] The
ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus,
the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boeotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either
"judge" or "witness", or similar). The Greek word was borrowed into Classical Latin
as historia, meaning "investigation, inquiry, research, account, description, written
account of past events, writing of history, historical narrative, recorded knowledge of
past events, story, narrative". History was borrowed from Latin (possibly via Old
Irish or Old Welsh) into Old English as stær ("history, narrative, story"), but this word
fell out of use in the late Old English period.[21] Meanwhile, as Latin became Old
French (and Anglo-Norman), historia developed into forms such as istorie, estoire,
and historie, with new developments in the meaning: "account of the events of a
person's life (beginning of the 12th century), chronicle, account of events as relevant
to a group of people or people in general (1155), dramatic or pictorial representation
of historical events (c. 1240), body of knowledge relative to human evolution, science
(c. 1265), narrative of real or imaginary events, story (c. 1462)".[21]

It was from Anglo-Norman that history was brought into Middle English, and it has
persisted. It appears in the 13th-century Ancrene Wisse, but seems to have become
a common word in the late 14th century, with an early attestation appearing in John
Gower's Confessio Amantis of the 1390s (VI.1383): "I finde in a bok compiled | To
this matiere an old histoire, | The which comth nou to mi memoire". In Middle
English, the meaning of history was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning
"the branch of knowledge that deals with past events; the formal record or study of
past events, esp. human affairs" arose in the mid-15th century.[21] With
the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek
sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote
about natural history. For him, historia was "the knowledge of objects determined by
space and time", that sort of knowledge provided by memory (while science was
provided by reason, and poetry was provided by fantasy).[22]

In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English

like Chinese (史 vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human history
and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic
and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same
word is still used to mean both "history" and "story". Historian in the sense of a
"researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In all European languages, the
substantive history is still used to mean both "what happened with men", and "the
scholarly study of the happened", the latter sense sometimes distinguished with a
capital letter, or the word historiography.[20][further explanation needed] The adjective historical is
attested from 1661, and historic from 1669.[23]

Description
 The title page to The Historians' History of the World
Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current
dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons
for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary
history". History is facilitated by the formation of a "true discourse of past" through
the production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race.
[24]
The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this
discourse.

All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the
historical record.[25] The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which
can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past.
Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a
more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by
falsifying their claims to represent the "true past"). Part of the historian's role is to
skillfully and objectively use the many sources from the past, most often found in the
archives. The process of creating a narrative inevitably generates debate, as
historians remember or emphasize different events of the past.[26]

The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities, other
times part of the social sciences.[27] It can be seen as a bridge between those two
broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some historians strongly
support one or the other classification.[28] In the 20th century the Annales
school revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines
as economics, sociology, and geography in the study of global history.[29]

Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by

passing on an oral tradition, and attempted to answer historical questions through
the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians
have used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the
sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is
written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult
all three.[30] But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before.
Archaeology is especially helpful in unearthing buried sites and objects, which
contribute to the study of history. Archeological finds rarely stand alone, with
narrative sources complementing its discoveries. Archeology's methodologies and
approaches are independent from the field of history. "Historical archaeology" is a
specific branch of archeology which often contrasts its conclusions against those of
contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and
interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, US, has sought to understand the
contradiction between textual documents idealizing "liberty" and the material record,
demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made
apparent by the study of the total historical environment.

There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including

chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not
mutually exclusive, and significant intersections are present. It is possible for
historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general,
though the trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists
this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often
been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but may be studied out of simple
intellectual curiosity.[31]

Prehistory
Further information: Protohistory
Human history is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens around the
world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By
"prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where
no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. By
studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be
recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study
of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain
civilizations, such as those of sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America.
Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on
the Western world.[32] In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote:

The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when
people cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both in
their past and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition; and
tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future.
Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations. [33]
This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples,
such as Indigenous Australians and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral
records maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their
contact with European civilization.

Historiography
Main article: Historiography
 The title page to La Historia d'Italia
Historiography has a number of related meanings.[34] Firstly, it can refer to how
history has been produced: the story of the development of methodology and
practices (for example, the move from short-term biographical narrative toward long-
term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific
body of historical writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s"
means "Works of medieval history written during the 1960s").[34] Thirdly, it may refer
to why history is produced: the philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of
descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the
analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations, world view, use of
evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. Historians debate whether
history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing
narratives.[35][36]

Methods
Further information: Historical method

A
depiction of the ancient Library of
Alexandria

Historical method basics

The following questions are used by

historians in modern work.
 1. When was the source,
written or unwritten,
produced (date)?
2. Where was it produced
(localization)?
3. By whom was it
produced
(authorship)?
4. From what pre-
existing material was
it produced (analysis)?
5. In what original form
was it produced
(integrity)?
6. What is the evidential
value of its contents
(credibility)?
The first four are known as historical
criticism; the fifth, textual criticism;
and, together, external criticism. The
sixth and final inquiry about a source
is called internal criticism.

Europeans have written and published extensively to pull together a "universal

history" in the early modern period. This written corpus and discourse in Europe
includes ethnographic encounters, comparative philosophy, as well as
archaeological discovery.[37]

Herodotus, from the 5th century BC,[38] has been acclaimed as the "father of history".
However, his contemporary Thucydides is credited with having first approached
history with a well-developed historical method in the History of the Peloponnesian
War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as the product of the choices
and actions of humans, and looked at cause and effect, rather than the result of
divine intervention (though Herodotus was not wholly committed to this idea himself).
[38]
In his historical method, Thucydides emphasized chronology, a nominally neutral
point of view, and that the human world was the result of human actions. Greek
historians viewed history as cyclical, with events regularly recurring.[39]

There was sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China. The
groundwork for professional historiography in East Asia was established by court
historian Sima Qian (145–90 BC), author of the Records of the Grand
Historian (Shiji) and posthumously known as the Father of Chinese
historiography. Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at
the beginning of the medieval period. Through the Medieval
and Renaissance periods, history was often studied through a sacred or religious
perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study.
[31]
In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early
sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of 7 mistakes he thought historians committed. In
this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The
originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age
must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles
according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and to feel the
need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of
the past. Ibn Khaldun criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of
historical data". He introduced a scientific method to the study of history, and
referred to it as his "new science".[40] His method laid the groundwork for the
observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in
history,[41] and so is sometimes considered to be the "father of historiography"[42] [43] or
the "father of the philosophy of history".[44]

In the West, historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and
18th centuries, especially in France and Germany. In 1851, Herbert
Spencer summarized these methods:"From the successive strata of our historical
deposits, they [historians] diligently gather all the highly colored fragments, pounce
upon everything that is curious and sparkling and chuckle like children over their
glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of wisdom that ramify amidst this
worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous volumes of rubbish are greedily
accumulated, while those masses of rich ore, that should have been dug out, and
from which golden truths might have been smelted, are left untaught and
unsought."[45] By the "rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history.
Meanwhile, Henry Thomas Buckle expressed a dream of history becoming one day
a science: "In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and capricious
have been explained and have been shown to be in accordance with certain fixed
and universal laws. This has been done because men of ability and, above all, men
of patient, untiring thought have studied events with the view of discovering their
regularity, and if human events were subject to a similar treatment, we have every
right to expect similar results.[46] Contrary to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century
historian with greatest influence on methods became Leopold von Ranke in
Germany. He limited history to "what really happened" and by this directed the field
further away from science. For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully,
examined objectively and put together with critical rigor. But these procedures "are
merely the prerequisites and preliminaries of science. The heart of science is
searching out order and regularity in the data being examined and in formulating
generalizations or laws about them."[47]

As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it, no, history is
not a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the manner in which he practices
his craft, it cannot be considered a science, we must take him at his word. If he is not
doing science, then, whatever else he is doing, he is not doing science. The
traditional Historian is thus no scientist and history, as conventionally practiced, is
not a science.[48]
In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives,
which often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective and complex
analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend of historical methodology in
the 20th century was to treat history more as a social science rather than art, which
traditionally had been the case. Leading advocates of history as a social science
were a diverse collection of scholars which included Fernand Braudel and E. H. Carr.
Many are noted for their multidisciplinary approach e.g. Braudel combined history
with geography. Nevertheless, these multidisciplinary approaches failed to produce a
theory of history. So far only one theory of history came from a professional
historian.[49] Whatever other theories of history exist, they were written by experts
from other fields (for example, Marxian theory of history). The field of digital
history has begun to address ways of using computer technology, to pose new
questions to historical data and generate digital scholarship.

In opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such as Hugh

Trevor-Roper argued the key to historians' work was the power of the imagination,
and hence contended that history should be understood as art. French
historians associated with the Annales school introduced quantitative history, using
raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the
establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectual historians
such as Herbert Butterfield have argued for the significance of ideas in history.
American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked
ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups. A genre of social history to emerge post-
WWII was Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday Life). Scholars such as Ian
Kershaw examined what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century
Germany, especially in Nazi Germany.

Marxist historians sought to validate Karl Marx's theories by analyzing history from a
Marxist perspective. In response to the Marxist interpretation of history, historians
such as François Furet have offered anti-Marxist interpretations of
history. Feminist historians argued for the importance of studying the experience of
women. Postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for the study of
history on the basis all history is based on the personal interpretation of
sources. Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History defended the worth
of history.

Today, most historians begin their research in the archives, on either a physical or
digital platform. They often propose an argument and use research to support
it. John H. Arnold proposed that history is an argument, which creates the possibility
of creating change.[5] Digital information companies, such as Google, have sparked
controversy over the role of internet censorship in information access.[50]

Marxian theory
Main article: Historical materialism
The Marxist theory of historical materialism theorises that society is fundamentally
determined by the material conditions at any given time – in other words, the
relationships which people have with each other in order to fulfill basic needs such
as feeding, clothing and housing themselves and their families.
[51]
Overall, Marx and Engels claimed to have identified five successive stages of the
development of these material conditions in Western Europe.[52] Marxist
historiography was once orthodoxy in the Soviet Union, but since the communism's
collapse there, its influence has significantly reduced.[53]

Potential shortcomings in the production of history

Many historians believe that the production of history is embedded with bias because
events and known facts in history can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Constantin
Fasolt suggested that history is linked to politics by the practice of silence itself. [54] He
said: "A second common view of the link between history and politics rests on the
elementary observation that historians are often influenced by politics."[54] According
to Michel-Rolph Trouillot, the historical process is rooted in the archives, therefore
silences, or parts of history that are forgotten, may be an intentional part of a
narrative strategy that dictates how areas of history are remembered.[26] Historical
omissions can occur in many ways and can have a profound effect on historical
records. Information can also purposely be excluded or left out accidentally.
Historians have coined multiple terms that describe the act of omitting historical
information, including: "silencing",[26] "selective memory",[55] and erasures.[56] Gerda
Lerner, a twentieth century historian who focused much of her work on historical
omissions involving women and their accomplishments, explained the negative
impact that these omissions had on minority groups.[55]

Environmental historian William Cronon proposed three ways to combat bias and
ensure authentic and accurate narratives: narratives must not contradict known fact,
they must make ecological sense (specifically for environmental history), and
published work must be reviewed by scholarly community and other historians to
ensure accountability.[56]

Areas of study
Particular studies and fields

These are approaches to history; not

listed are histories of other fields, such
as history of science, history of
mathematics, and history of
philosophy.

 Ancient history: the study

of history from the
beginning of human
history until the Early
Middle Ages.
 Atlantic history: the study
of the history of people
living on or near the
Atlantic Ocean.
 Art history: the study of
changes in and the social
context of art.
 Comparative history: the
historical analysis of social
and cultural entities not
confined to national
boundaries.
 Contemporary history: the
 study of recent historical
events.
 Counterfactual history: the
study of historical events
as they might have
happened in different
causal circumstances.
 Cultural history: the study
of culture in the past.
 Digital history: the use of
computing technologies to
do massive searches in
published sources.
 Economic history: the use
of economic models fitted
to the past.
 Intellectual history: the
study of ideas in the
context of the cultures that
produced them and their
development over time.
 Maritime history: the
study of maritime
transport and all connected
subjects.
 Material history: the study
of objects and the stories
they can tell.
 Modern history: the study
of modern times, the era
after the Middle Ages.
 Military history: the study
of warfare, historical wars,
and Naval history, which
is sometimes considered to
be a sub-branch of military
history.
 Oral history: the collection
and study of historical
information by utilizing
spoken interviews with
people who have lived past
events.
 Palaeography: the study of
ancient texts.
 People's history: historical
work from the perspective
of common people.
 Political history: the study
 of politics in the past.
 Psychohistory: the study
of the psychological
motivations for historical
events.
 Pseudohistory: studies
about the past that fall
outside the domain of
mainstream history
(sometimes equivalent
to pseudoscience).
 Social history: the study of
the process of social
change throughout history.
 Women's history: the
history of female human
beings. Gender history is
related and covers the
perspective of gender.
 World history: the study of
history from a global
perspective, with special
attention to non-Western
societies.
Periods
Main article: Periodization
Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular
blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow
"organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians.[57] The
names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the
beginning and end of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used
periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used. Most
periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about
the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect
the way they are viewed and studied.[58]

Prehistoric periodization
The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archeologists, who have entirely
different sets of tools and theories. In archeology, the usual method for periodization
of the distant prehistoric past is to rely on changes in material culture and
technology, such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, with subdivisions that
are also based on different styles of material remains. Here prehistory is divided into
a series of "chapters" so that periods in history could unfold not only in a relative
chronology but also narrative chronology.[59] This narrative content could be in the
form of functional-economic interpretation. There are periodizations, however, that
do not have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology, and that are
thus devoid of any specific meaning.
Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon
dating and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts,
these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases
neighboring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which
may be used. Periodization, however, is not viewed as a perfect framework, with one
account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently start and stop
(combinedly) at periodization boundaries" and that different trajectories of change
need to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural
phenomena.[60]

Geographical locations
Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for
example, continents, countries, and cities. Understanding why historic events took
place is important. To do this, historians often turn to the methods and theory from
the discipline of geography.[61] According to Jules Michelet in his book Histoire de
France (1833), "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem
to be walking on air".[62] Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a
place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the
ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of
Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River,
which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help
farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did
not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the
civilization. There is also the case of climate, which historians like Ellsworth
Huntington and Ellen Churchill Semple cited as a crucial influence on the course of
history. Huntington and Semple further argued that climate has an impact on racial
temperament.[63]

Regions

Allegory of the recognition of the Empire of

Brazil and its independence. The painting depicts British diplomat Sir Charles
Stuart presenting his letter of credence to Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, who is flanked
by his wife Maria Leopoldina, their daughter Maria da Glória (later Queen Maria II of
Portugal), and other dignitaries. At right, a winged figure, representing History,
carving the "great event" on a stone tablet.[64]

 History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern human beings
on the continent, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of
diverse and politically developing states.
 History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South
America, including the Caribbean and Central America.
  History of North America is the study of the past passed down
from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's
Northern and Western Hemispheres.
 History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where
7,000-year-old remains have been found.
 History of Central America is the study of the past passed down
from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's
Western Hemisphere.
 History of South America is the study of the past passed down
from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's
Southern and Western Hemispheres.
 History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral
coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia,
and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian Steppe of Central
Asia and Eastern Europe.
 History of Europe describes the passage of time from humans
inhabiting the European continent to the present day.
 History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several
distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and
the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian
Steppe.
 History of East Asia is the study of the past passed
down from generation to generation in East Asia.
 History of India is the study of the past passed down
from generation to generation in the sub-Himalayan
region.
 History of the Middle East begins with the earliest
civilizations in the region now known as the Middle
East that were established around 3000 BC, in
Mesopotamia (Iraq).
 History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as
interaction between regional players and foreign
powers.
 History of Oceania is the collective history of Australia, New Zealand, and
the Pacific Islands.
 History of Australia starts with the documentation of the
Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's
north coast.
 History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it
was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a
distinct Māori culture centered on kinship links and land.
 History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in
the Pacific Ocean.
 History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast
continent known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the
globe.
Political
Main articles: Political history and Political history in the United States
Political history covers the type of government, the branches of government, leaders,
legislation, political activism, political parties, and voting.

Military
Main article: Military history
Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of
combat.[65] The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with
soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader
impact of warfare on society and culture.[66]

Religious
Main article: History of religion
The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious
historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe.
Leading journals include Church History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History
of Religions. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions,
to theology and liturgy.[67] This subject studies religions from all regions and areas of
the world where humans have lived.[68]

Social
Main article: Social history
Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes
history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life. [69] In
its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars,
and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to
1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with
social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell
from 40% to 30%.[70] In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the
5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history
while political history came next with 1425 (25%).[71] The "old" social history before
the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included
political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside
the elite system. Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual
history and the history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the
bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social
history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible."[72] While the
field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also
been defended as "history with the people put back in".[73]

Subfields
The chief subfields of social history include:

 Black history
 Demographic history
 Ethnic history
 Gender history
 History of childhood
  History of education
 History of the family
 Labor history
 LGBT history
 Rural history
 Urban history
 American urban history
 Women's history
Cultural
Main article: Cultural history
Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s.
It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language,
popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It
examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and
arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a
major topic. Cultural history includes the study of art in society as well is the study of
images and human visual production (iconography).[74]

Diplomatic
Main article: Diplomatic history
Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding
diplomacy and the causes of wars.[75] More recently it looks at the causes of peace
and human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-
term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This
type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between
states or across state boundaries over time. Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that
after the First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the
flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most
sophisticated of historical studies".[76] She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed,
allowing social history to replace it.

Economic
Main articles: Economic history and Business history
Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in
recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics
departments and away from traditional history departments.[77] Business history deals
with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government
regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also includes biographies of
individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic
history. Business history is most often taught in business schools.[78]

Environmental
Main article: Environmental history
Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history
of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities
upon it.[79] It is an offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by
Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in the 1960s.

World
Main article: World history (field)
See also: Human history and Universal history (genre)
World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World
history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in
the United States,[80] Japan[81] and other countries after the 1980s with the realization
that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.

It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J.

Toynbee, among others.

The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter
since 1990.[82] The H-World discussion list[83] serves as a network of communication
among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars,
announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.

People's
Main article: People's history
A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical
events from the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of
the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or
groups not included in the past in other types of writing about history are the primary
focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor,
the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on
the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the History
Workshop movement in Britain in the 1960s.[84]

Intellectual
Main article: Intellectual history
Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the
focus on the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the
study of ideas as disembodied objects with a career of their own.[85][86]

Gender
Main articles: Gender history and LGBT history
Gender history is a subfield of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past
from the perspective of gender. The outgrowth of gender history from women's
history stemmed from many non-feminist historians dismissing the importance of
women in history. According to Joan W. Scott, "Gender is a constitutive element of
social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender
is a primary way of signifying relations of power",[87] meaning that gender historians
study the social effects of perceived differences between the sexes and how all
genders use allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite being a
relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study
of history. Gender history traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of
all aspects of gender such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history
extends to include people who identify outside of that binary. LGBT history deals with
the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of ancient civilizations,
and involves the history of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) peoples
and cultures around the world.[88]

Public
Main article: Public history
Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with
some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of
specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the
areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship,
and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the United States and
Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized
since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums,
historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television
companies, and all levels of government.[89]

Historians
For a more comprehensive list, see List of historians.

Benedetto Croce Ban Zhao, courtesy

name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.
Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present
information about past events. They discover this information through archeological
evidence, written primary sources, verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival
material. In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical
period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in
which they specialized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not historians in
the true sense, are also frequently included.
Judgement
See also: Ash heap of history
Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide
the "judgement of history".[90] The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are
separate to those of legal judgements, that need to be formulated quickly after the
events and be final.[91] A related issue to that of the judgement of history is that
of collective memory.

Pseudohistory
Main article: Pseudohistory
Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but
which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines
their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works
which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical
evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs,
are often rejected as pseudohistory.

Teaching
Scholarship vs teaching
A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century
regarding the place of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge,
scholarship was downplayed. Professor Charles Harding Firth, Oxford's Regius
Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited to produce superficial
journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes than the professors, fought back
in defense of their system saying that it successfully produced Britain's outstanding
statesmen, administrators, prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable
as training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World
War. It forced aspiring young scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as
Manchester University, where Thomas Frederick Tout was professionalizing the
History undergraduate programme by introducing the study of original sources and
requiring the writing of a thesis.[92][93]

In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing

universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on
undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to
increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty.
Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts
to do most of the classroom teaching.[94]

Nationalism
From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of
history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States
after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach
courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with
Europe. In the U.S. after 1980, attention increasingly moved toward teaching world
history or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare
students for life in a globalized economy.[95]

At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs
more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both
perspectives.

The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as
disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and other
journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de
documentation pédagogique (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher
training, said pupils children should learn about historians' approaches as well as
facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the
Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic
documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense
happiness of discovery". Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization
of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored.
Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to
leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity.[96]

Bias in school teaching

History books in a bookstore

In several countries history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism,
and give students the official narrative about national enemies.[97]

In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and
are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in
Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the
entire Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other countries have
complained.[98] Another example includes Turkey, where there is no mention of
the Armenian Genocide in Turkish textbooks as a result of the denial of the
genocide.[99]

It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist

historiography.[100][101]

In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in
content from state to state.[102] An example of content that is represented different in
different regions of the country is the history of the Southern states,
where slavery and the American Civil War are treated as controversial
topics. McGraw-Hill Education for example, was criticized for describing Africans
brought to American plantations as "workers" instead of slaves in a textbook. [103]
Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks,
sometimes with success.[104][105]

In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is

characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and
deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international
organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards
human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually
downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of
citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and
Europeanness."[106]

See also

 History portal

 Glossary of history
 Outline of history
References
1. ^ Joseph, Brian; Janda, Richard, eds. (2008) [2004]. The Handbook of
Historical Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing. p. 163. ISBN 978-1405127479.
2. ^ "History Definition". Archived from the original on 2 February 2014.
Retrieved 21 January 2014.
3. ^ "What is History & Why Study It?". Archived from the original on 1 February
2014. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
4. ^ "Prehistory Definition & Meaning". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 6
December 2022.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Arnold, John H. (2000). History: A Very Short Introduction.
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019285352X.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Professor Richard J. Evans (2001). "The Two Faces of E.H.
Carr". History in Focus, Issue 2: What is History?. University of
London. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 10
November 2008.
7. ^ Professor Alun Munslow (2001). "What History Is". History in Focus, Issue
2: What is History?. University of London. Archived from the original on 9
August 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2008.
8. ^ Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History (4th ed.). Pearson Education
Limited. p. 52. ISBN 978-1405823517.
9. ^ Stearns, Peter N.; Seixas, Peter Carr; Wineburg, Samuel
S. (2000). Knowing, teaching, and learning history : national and
international perspectives. Internet Archive. New York University Press.
p. 6. ISBN 978-0814781418.
10.^ Nash l, Gary B. (2000). "The "Convergence" Paradigm in Studying Early
American History in Schools". In Peter N. Stearns; Peters Seixas; Sam
Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and
International Perspectives. New York & London: New York University Press.
pp. 102–115. ISBN 0814781411.
11.^ Seixas, Peter (2000). "Schweigen! die Kinder!". In Peter N. Stearns; Peters
Seixas; Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and Learning History,
 National and International Perspectives. New York & London: New York
University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0814781418.
12.^ Lowenthal, David (2000). "Dilemmas and Delights of Learning History". In
Peter N. Stearns; Peters Seixas; Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching
and Learning History, National and International Perspectives. New York &
London: New York University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0814781418.
13.^ Halsall, Paul. "Ancient History Sourcebook: 11th Brittanica:
Herodotus". Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Fordham
University. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 3
December 2020.
14.^ Vives, Juan Luis; Watson, Foster (1913). Vives, on education : a
translation of the De tradendis disciplinis of Juan Luis Vives. Robarts –
University of Toronto. Cambridge : The University Press.
15.^ Juan Luis Vives (1551). Ioannis Ludouici Viuis Valentini, De disciplinis libri
20. in tres tomos distincti, quorum ordinem versa pagella iudicabit. Cum
indice copiosissimo (in Latin). National Central Library of Rome. apud
Ioannem Frellonium.
16.^ Majoros, Sotirios (2019). All About Me: The Individual.
FriesenPress. ISBN 978-1525558016. Archived from the original on 30 July
2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
17.^ Tschannen, Rafiq (19 May 2013). "Ibn Khaldun: One of the Founding
Fathers of Modern Historiography". The Muslim Times. Retrieved 18
June 2024.
18.^ Thomas, Kelly (2018). "The History of Others: Foreign Peoples in Early
Chinese Historiography". Institute for Advanced Study. Retrieved 18
June 2024.
19.^ ἱστορία
20.^ Jump up to:a b Ferrater-Mora, José. Diccionario de Filosofia. Barcelona:
Editorial Ariel, 1994.
21.^ Jump up to:a b c "history, n". OED Online. Oxford University Press, December
2014. 9 March 2015.
22.^ Cf. "history, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2014. 9
March 2015.
23.^ Whitney, W.D. The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the
English language Archived 2 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine. New
York: The Century Co, 1889.
24.^ W.D. Whitney, (1889). The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of
the English language Archived 2 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine. p.
2842 Archived 20 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
25.^ WordNet Search – 3.0 Archived 17 September 2005 at the Wayback
Machine, "History".
26.^ Jump up to:a b c Trouillot, Michel-Rolph (1995). "The Three Faces of Sans
Souci: The Glories and the Silences in the Haitian Revolution". Silencing the
Past: Power and the Production of History. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 31–
69. ASIN B00N6PB6DG.
27.^ Gordon, Scott; Irving, James Gordon (1991). The History and Philosophy of
Social Science. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 0415056829.
28.^ Ritter, H. (1986). Dictionary of concepts in history. Reference sources for
the social sciences and humanities, no. 3. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press. p. 416.
29.^ Appelrouth, Scott; Edles, Laura Desfor (2010). Sociological Theory in the
Contemporary Era: Text and Readings. Pine Forge Press. ISBN 978-
 1412987615. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 20
July 2022.
30.^ Lemon, Michael C. (1995). The Discipline of History and the History of
Thought. Routledge. p. 201. ISBN 0415123461.
31.^ Jump up to:a b Graham, Gordon (1997). "Chapter 1". The Shape of the
Past. University of Oxford.
32.^ Jack Goody (2007) The Theft of History Archived 15 September 2015 at
the Wayback Machine (from Google Books)
33.^ Carr, Edward H. (1961). What is History?. Penguin Books.
p. 108. ISBN 0140206523.
34.^ Jump up to:a b "What is Historiography? –
Culturahistorica.org". Archived from the original on 27 January 2021.
Retrieved 20 January 2021.
35.^ Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, medieval, and modern (University
of Chicago Press, 2007).
36.^ Georg G. Iggers, Historiography in the twentieth century: From scientific
objectivity to the postmodern challenge (2005).
37.^ Samuel Moyn; Andrew Sartori (2013). Global Intellectual History. Columbia
University Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 9780231160483.
38.^ Jump up to:a b Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C.; Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient
Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings
Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 9780881338348.
39.^ Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C.; Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient Civilizations:
The Near East and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings Publishing.
p. 6. ISBN 9780881338348.
40.^ Ibn Khaldun; Rosenthal, Franz; Dawood, N.J. (1967). The Muqaddimah: An
Introduction to History. Princeton University Press. p. x. ISBN 0691017549.
41.^ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South
Journal, vol1
42.^ Ahmed, Salahuddin (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co.
Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
43.^ Enan, Muhammed Abdullah (2007). Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works. The
Other Press. p. v. ISBN 9789839541533.
44.^ S.W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A
Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
45.^ Cited in Robert Carneiro, The Muse of History and the Science of Culture,
New York: Kluwer Publishers, 2000, p 160.
46.^ Cited in Muse of History, pp. 158–159.
47.^ Muse of History, p 147.
48.^ Muse of History, p 150.
49.^ Max Ostrovski, The Hyperbole of the World Order, Lanham: Rowman &
Littlefield, 2006.
50.^ King, Michelle T. (2016). "Working With/In the Archives". Research
Methods for History (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
51.^ See, in particular, Marx and Engels, The German Ideology Archived 22
October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
52.^ Marx makes no claim to have produced a master key to history. Historical
materialism is not "an historico-philosophic theory of the marche generale
imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in
which it finds itself" (Marx, Karl: Letter to editor of the Russian
paper Otetchestvennye Zapiskym, 1877). His ideas, he explains, are based
on a concrete study of the actual conditions that pertained in Europe.
53.^ Mikhail M. Krom, "From the Center to the Margin: the Fate of Marxism in
Contemporary Russian Historiography", Storia della Storiografia (2012) Issue
62, pp. 121–130
54.^ Jump up to:a b Fasolt, Constantin (2004). The Limits of History. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. pp. xiii–xxi. ISBN 0226239101.
55.^ Jump up to:a b Lerner, Gerda (1997). Why History Matters: Life and
Thought. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 199–
211. ISBN 0195046447.
56.^ Jump up to:a b Cronon, William (1992). "A Place for Stories: Nature, History,
and Narrative". The Journal of American History. 78 (4): 1347–
1376. doi:10.2307/2079346. JSTOR 2079346.
57.^ Marwick, Arthur (1970). The Nature of History. The Macmillan Press LTD.
p. 169.
58.^ Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. Pearson Education Limited.
pp. 168–169.
59.^ Lucas, Gavin (2005). The Archaeology of Time. Oxon: Routledge.
p. 50. ISBN 0415311977.
60.^ Arnoldussen, Stijn (2007). A Living Landscape: Bronze Age Settlement
Sites in the Dutch River Area (c. 2000–800 BC). Leiden: Sidestone Press.
p. 468. ISBN 978-9088900105.
61.^ Bryce, James (1902). "The Importance of Geography in Education". The
Geographical Journal. 23 (3): 29–
32. doi:10.2307/1775737. JSTOR 1775737.
62.^ Darby, Henry Clifford (2002). The Relations of History and Geography:
Studies in England, France and the United States. Exeter: University of
Exeter Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0859896993.
63.^ Rao, B.V. (2007). World history from early times to AD 2000. New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 5. ISBN 978-8120731882.
64.^ Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz (1998). As barbas do imperador : D. Pedro II, um
monarca nos trópicos . São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. p. 181. ISBN 85-
7164-837-9.
65.^ Howard, Michael; Bond, Brian; Stagg, J. C. A.; Chandler, David; Best,
Geoffrey; Terrine, John (1988). "What is Military History ... ?". In Juliet
Gardiner (ed.). What is History Today ... ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 4–
17. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2. ISBN 978-0333422267. S2CID 1565
92827. Archived from the original on 9 June 2018. Retrieved 20
January 2021.
66.^ Pavkovic, Michael; Morillo, Stephen (2006). What is Military History?.
Oxford: Polity Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0745633909.
67.^ Cochrane, Eric (1975). "What Is Catholic Historiography?". Catholic
Historical Review. 61 (2): 169–190. JSTOR 25019673.
68.^ For example, see Gajano, Sofia Boesch; Caliò, Tommaso (1998). "Italian
Religious Historiography in the 1990s". Journal of Modern Italian
Studies. 3 (3): 293–306. doi:10.1080/13545719808454982.
69.^ Peter Stearns, ed. Encyclopedia of Social History (1994)
70.^ Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and
cultural history grew from 14% to 16%. Based on full-time professors in U.S.
history departments. Haber, Stephen H.; Kennedy, David M.; Krasner,
Stephen D. (1997). "Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and
International Relations". International Security. 22 (1). p.
42. doi:10.1162/isec.22.1.34. JSTOR 2539326. S2CID 57570041.
71.^ "Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 – listed by research
interest". Archived from the original on 30 May 2006.
72.^ G.M. Trevelyan (1973). "Introduction". English Social History: A Survey of
Six Centuries from Chaucer to Queen Victoria. Book Club Associates.
p. i. ISBN 978-0582484887.
73.^ Mary Fulbrook (2005). "Introduction: The people's paradox". The People's
State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker. London: Yale University
Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0300144246.
74. ^
 Gervereau, Laurent, ed. (2006). Dictionnaire mondial des
images [World Dictionary of Images]. Paris: Nouveau monde
éd. ISBN 978-2847361858. (With 275 specialists from all continents,
all specialities, all periods from prehistory to nowadays).
 Gervereau, Laurent (2008). Images: Une histoire mondiale (in
French). Paris: Nouveau monde éd. ISBN 9782847363623.
75.^ Watt, D. C.; Adams, Simon; Bullen, Roger; Brauer, Kinley; Iriye, Akira
(1988). "What is Diplomatic History ... ?". In Juliet Gardiner (ed.). What is
History Today ... ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 131–142. doi:10.1007/978-
1-349-19161-1_12. ISBN 978-0333422267. Archived from the original on 28
January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
76.^ Muriel E Chamberlain, Pax Britannica'? British Foreign Policy 1789–
1914 (1988) p. 1
77.^ Robert Whaples, "Is Economic History a Neglected Field of Study?",
Historically Speaking (April 2010) v. 11#2 pp. 17–20, with responses pp. 20–
27
78.^ Franco Amatori, and Geoffrey Jones, eds. Business History Around the
World (2003) online edition Archived 19 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine
79.^ J.D. Hughes, What is Environmental History (2006) excerpt and text
search Archived 22 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
80.^ Ainslie Embree and Carol Gluck, eds., Asia in Western and World History:
A Guide for Teaching (M.E. Sharpe, 1997)
81.^ Shigeru Akita, "World History and the Emergence of Global History in
Japan", Chinese Studies in History, Spring 2010, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 84–96
82.^ "Journal of World History". The History Cooperative. Archived from the
original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2011.
83.^ "H-World". H-Net. Archived from the original on 10 March 2011.
Retrieved 7 February 2011.
84.^ Wade Matthews (2013). The New Left, National Identity, and the Break-up
of Britain. Brill. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-9004253070. Archived from the
original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
85.^ Grafton, Anthony (2006). "The History of Ideas: Precept and Practice,
1950–2000 and beyond" (PDF). Journal of the History of Ideas. 67 (1): 1–
32. doi:10.1353/jhi.2006.0006. S2CID 143746040. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
86.^ Horowitz, Maryanne Cline, ed. (2004). New Dictionary of the History of
Ideas. Vol. 6.
87.^ Wallach Scott, Joan (1988). "Gender: A Useful Category of
Analysis". Gender and the Politics of History. New York: Columbia University
Press. pp. 28–50. ISBN 0231188013.
88.^ Morris, Bonnie J. "History of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender
Social Movements". American Psychological Association. Archived from the
original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
89.^ Glassberg, David (1996). "Public History and the Study of Memory". The
Public Historian. 18 (2): 7–23. doi:10.2307/3377910. JSTOR 3377910.
 90.^ Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate
About Difference and Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law in F.C.
DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz (eds.) Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art,
Politics, Law and Education pp. 413–415 Archived 12 September 2015 at
the Wayback Machine
91.^ Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate
About Difference and Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law in F.C.
DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz (eds.) Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art,
Politics, Law and Education p. 415 Archived 12 September 2015 at
the Wayback Machine
92.^ Ivan Roots, "Firth, Sir Charles Harding (1857–1936)", Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004) Online; accessed 10 Nov
2014 Archived 30 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
93.^ Reba Soffer, "Nation, duty, character and confidence: history at Oxford,
1850–1914." Historical Journal (1987) 30#01 pp. 77–104.
94.^ Frank Donoghue, The Last Professors: The Corporate University and the
Fate of the Humanities (2008)
95.^ Jacqueline Swansinger, "Preparing Student Teachers for a World History
Curriculum in New York", History Teacher, (November 2009), 43#1 pp. 87–
96
96.^ Abby Waldman, " The Politics of History Teaching in England and France
during the 1980s", History Workshop Journal Issue 68, Autumn 2009 pp.
199–221 online
97.^ Jason Nicholls, ed. School History Textbooks across Cultures: International
Debates and Perspectives (2006)
98.^ Claudia Schneider, "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East
Asian Perspective", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science, May 2008, Vol. 617, pp. 107–122
99.^ Guillory, John (2015). The Common Core and the Evasion of
Curriculum (vol 130 ed.). PMLA. pp. 666–672.
100. ^ "Problems of Teaching Contemporary Russian History", Russian
Studies in History, Winter 2004, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 61–62
101. ^ Wedgwood Benn, David (2008). "Blackwell-
Synergy.com". International Affairs. 84 (2): 365–370. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
2346.2008.00708.x.
102. ^ Goldstein, Dana (12 January 2020). "Two States. Eight Textbooks.
Two American Stories". The New York Times. Archived from the original on
5 May 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
103. ^ Fernandez, Manny; Hauser, Christine (5 October 2015). "Texas
Mother Teaches Textbook Company a Lesson on Accuracy". The New York
Times. Archived from the original on 15 July 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
104. ^ "Teaching History in Schools: the Politics of Textbooks in
India", History Workshop Journal, April 2009, Issue 67, pp. 99–110
105. ^ Tatyana Volodina, "Teaching History in Russia After the Collapse of
the USSR", History Teacher, February 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 179–188
106. ^ Simone Lässig and Karl Heinrich Pohl, "History Textbooks and
Historical Scholarship in Germany", History Workshop Journal Issue 67,
Spring 2009 pp. 128–129 online at project MUSE

Further reading
 Norton, Mary Beth; Gerardi, Pamela, eds. (1995). The American Historical
Association's Guide to Historical Literature (3rd ed.). Oxford U.P; Annotated
 guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields
and topics.
 Benjamin, Jules R. (2009). A Student's Guide to History.
 Carr, E.H. (2001). What is History?. With a new introduction by Richard J.
Evans. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0333977017.
 Cronon, William (2013). "Storytelling". American Historical Review. 118 (1): 1–
19. doi:10.1093/ahr/118.1.1. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016.
Retrieved 24 July 2016; Discussion of the impact of the end of the Cold War
upon scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on
history study and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in history writing
and teaching.
 Evans, Richard J. (2000). In Defence of History. W.W. Norton &
Company. ISBN 0393319598.
 Furay, Conal; Salevouris, Michael J. (2010). The Methods and Skills of History:
A Practical Guide.
 Kelleher, William (2008). Writing History: A Guide for Students; excerpt and text
search.
 Lingelbach, Gabriele (2011). "The Institutionalization and Professionalization of
History in Europe and the United States". The Oxford History of Historical
Writing. Vol. 4: 1800–1945. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-
0199533091. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2
July 2015.
 Presnell, Jenny L. (2006). The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to
Research for History Students; excerpt and text search.
 Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. Pearson
Longman. ISBN 1405823518.
 Woolf, D.R. (1998). A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing. Vol. 2. Garland
Reference Library of the Humanities; excerpt and text search.
 Williams, H.S., ed. (1907). The Historians' History of the World. Vol. Book
1. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015; This
is Book 1 of 25 Volumes.
 Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz (1998). As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca
nos trópicos (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 85-7164-
837-9.

External links
 Official website of BestHistorySites
 Official website of BBC History
 Internet History Sourcebooks Project See also Internet History
Sourcebooks Project (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted
historical texts for educational use)
show
Links to related articles
History at Wikipedia's sister projects:
 Definitions from Wiktionary
 Media from Commons
 News from Wikinews
 Quotations from Wikiquote
 Texts from Wikisource
  Textbooks from Wikibooks
 Resources from Wikiversity
 Data from Wikidata
show
Authority control databases
Categories:
 History
 Humanities
 Main topic articles
 This page was last edited on 18 June 2024, at 18:19 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may
apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered
trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 Privacy policy

 About Wikipedia

 Disclaimers

 Contact Wikipedia

 Code of Conduct

 Developers

 Statistics

 Cookie statement

 Mobile view