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Justinian I
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Justinian I (/dʒʌˈstɪniən/ just-IN-ee-ən; Latin: Iustinianus,

Justinian I
Classical Latin: [juːstiːniˈaːnʊs]; Greek: Ἰουστινιανός,
translit. Ioustinianós, Medieval Greek: [i.ustini.aˈnos]; 482 – 14
November 565),[b] also known as Justinian the Great,[c]
was the Eastern Roman emperor from 527 to 565.

His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly

realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire".[5]
This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the
territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire.[6] His
general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in
North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius, Narses, and other
generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring
Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more
than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. The praetorian
prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian Peninsula,
Detail of a contemporary portrait
establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re- mosaic of Justinian dressed in a royal
established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, purple chlamys and jeweled stemma
increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna,
AD 547
solidi.[7] During his reign, Justinian also subdued the Tzani,
Byzantine emperor
a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never
been under Roman rule before.[8] He engaged the Sasanian Reign 1 April 527 – 14
Empire in the east during Kavad I's reign, and later again November 565
during Khosrow I's reign; this second conflict was partially Coronation 1 April 527
initiated due to his ambitions in the west. Predecessor Justin I
Successor Justin II
A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform
rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is Co-emperor Justin I (until 1 August
still the basis of civil law in many modern states.[9] His reign 527)
also marked a blossoming of Eastern Roman (Byzantine)
Born Petrus Sabbatius
culture, and his building program yielded works such as the
482
Hagia Sophia.
Tauresium, Dardania,
Eastern Roman
Life Empire[1]
Justinian was born in Tauresium,[10] Dardania,[11] probably Died 14 November 565
in 482.[12] A native speaker of Latin (possibly the last Roman (aged 83)
emperor to be one),[13] he came from a peasant family Constantinople,
thought to have been of either of Illyro-Roman[14][15][16] or Eastern Roman
Thraco-Roman[17][18][19] origin. The name Iustinianus, Empire
which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Burial Church of the Holy
Justin. During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far Apostles
from his birthplace.[20][21][22] His mother was Vigilantia, the
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sister of Justin. Justin, who was commander of one of the Spouse Theodora (m. 525; d.
imperial guard units (the Excubitors) before he became 548)
emperor,[23] adopted Justinian, brought him to Names
Constantinople, and ensured the boy's education.[23] As a
Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus
result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence,
theology, and Roman history.[23] Justinian served as a Regnal name
candidatus, one of 40 men selected from the scholae Imperator Caesar Flavius Petrus
palatinae to serve as the emperor's personal bodyguard.[2] Sabbatius Iustinianus Augustus[a]
The chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Dynasty Justinian dynasty
Justinian, describes his appearance as short, fair-skinned,
Father Sabbatius (biological)
curly-haired, round-faced, and handsome. Another
Justin I (adoptive)
contemporary historian, Procopius, compares Justinian's
appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, Mother Vigilantia
although this is probably slander.[24] Religion Chalcedonian
Christianity
When Emperor Anastasius
died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor with
significant help from Justinian.[23] Justinian showed a lot of
ambition, and several sources claim that he was functioning as
virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor,[2]
although there is no conclusive evidence of this.[25] As Justin
became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de
facto ruler.[23] Following the general Vitalian's assassination in
The ancient town of Tauresium,
520 (orchestrated by Justinian and Justin), Justinian was
the birthplace of Justinian I,
located in today's North
appointed consul and commander of the army of the east.[23][26]
Macedonia. Parts of the town Justinian remained Justin's close confidant, and in 525 was
had been destroyed during granted the titles of nobilissimus and caesar (heir-
Justinian's life. apparent).[27][2] He was crowned co-emperor on 1 April
527,[28][d] and became sole ruler after Justin's death on 1 August
527.[28]

As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the

emperor who never sleeps" for his work habits. Nevertheless, he
seems to have been amiable and easy to approach.[30] Around
525, he married his mistress, Theodora, in Constantinople. She
was by profession an actress and some twenty years his junior. In
earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her
class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law lifting
restrictions on marriages with ex-actresses.[31][32] Though the
marriage caused a scandal, Theodora would become very
influential in the politics of the Empire. Other talented
Mosaic of Theodora, Justinian's individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser; Peter the
wife Patrician, the diplomat and long-time head of the palace
bureaucracy; Justinian's finance ministers John the Cappadocian
and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more
efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented
generals, Belisarius and Narses.

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Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the
Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied entrepreneurs was discovered
as late as 562.[33] Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered. Theodora
died in 548[34] at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty
years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively
participated in debates on Christian doctrine,[35] became even more devoted to religion during the
later years of his life. He died on 14 November 565,[36] childless. He was succeeded by Justin II,
who was the son of his sister Vigilantia and married to Sophia, the niece of Theodora. Justinian's
body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles until it was
desecrated and robbed during the pillage of the city in 1204 by the Latin States of the Fourth
Crusade.[37]

Reign

Legislative activities
Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete
revision of all Roman law,[39] something that had not previously been attempted. The total of
Justinian's legislation is known today as the Corpus juris civilis. It consists of the Codex
Justinianeus, the Digesta or Pandectae, the Institutiones, and the Novellae.

Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed the quaestor Tribonian to oversee this task. The first
draft of the Codex Justinianeus, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century
onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the
Digesta (or Pandectae), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the Institutiones, a
textbook explaining the principles of law. The Novellae, a collection of new laws issued during
Justinian's reign, supplements the Corpus. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the Novellae
appeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire.[40]

The Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law) and, for
historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire.
As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the leges (laws) and the other rules
were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults (senatusconsulta), imperial decrees,
case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations (responsa prudentium). Tribonian's code
ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the
Basilika of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinianic code was
introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of 554),[41] from
where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much
Continental European law code, which was eventually spread by European empires to the
Americas and beyond in the Age of Discovery. It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it
appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia.[42] It remains influential to this day.

He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being forced into
prostitution. Rapists were treated severely. Further, by his policies: women charged with major
crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if a woman was widowed, her
dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving
her consent twice.[43]

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Family legislation also revealed a greater concern for the interests

of children. This was particularly so with respect to children born
out of wedlock. The law under Justinian also reveals a striking
interest in child neglect issues. Justinian protected the rights of
children whose parents remarried and produced more offspring,
or who simply separated and abandoned their offspring, forcing
them to beg.[44]

Justinian discontinued the regular appointment of Consuls in

541.[45]

In Constantinople, under Justinian, hospitals were built and free

medical care provided to the many poor residents of the city. In
addition, public baths were free for all residents and 20 state
bakeries provided free bread to those who needed it. According to The Carmagnola, an imperial
one study, “The empire’s social welfare programs ensured that no porphyry head in Venice thought
one went hungry.”[46] to represent Justinian[38]

Nika riots
Justinian's habit of choosing efficient but unpopular advisers
nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. In January 532,
partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople,
normally rivals, united against Justinian in a revolt that has
become known as the Nika riots. They forced him to dismiss
Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to
overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senator
Hypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius.
While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered
fleeing the capital by sea, but eventually decided to stay,
apparently on the prompting of his wife Theodora, who refused to
leave. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of
the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus. Procopius relates
that 30,000[47] unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. A 6th-century head of an
On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own emperor at the Getty Villa,
judgment,[48] Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed.[49] thought to represent Justinian

The destruction that took place during the revolt provided

Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably
the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia.

Military activities
One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land
around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th
century.[50] As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the

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Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. Although he never

personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his
successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them
commemorated in art.[51] The re-conquests were in large part
carried out by his general Belisarius.[e]

War with the Sassanid Empire, 527–532

From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the
Sassanid Empire.[52] In 530 the Persian forces suffered a
double defeat at Dara and Satala, but the next year saw the
defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum.[53]
Justinian then tried to make alliance with the Axumites of
Ethiopia and the Himyarites of Yemen against the Persians, but
this failed.[54] When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September The Barberini Ivory, thought to
portray either Justinian or
531), Justinian concluded an "Eternal Peace" (which cost him
Anastasius I
11,000 pounds of gold)[53] with his successor Khosrau I (532).
Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his
attention to the West, where Germanic kingdoms had been established
in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire.

Conquest of North Africa, 533–534

The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the
Vandals in North Africa. King Hilderic, who had maintained good
relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had
been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530 AD. Imprisoned, the
deposed king appealed to Justinian. Justinian protested Gelimer's
actions, demanding that Gelimer return the kingdom to Hilderic.
Gelimer replied, in effect, that Justinian had no authority to make
these demands. Angered at this response, Justinian quickly concluded
his ongoing war with the Sassanian Empire and prepared an
expedition against the Vandals in 533.[55]

In 533, Belisarius sailed to Africa with a fleet of 92 dromons, escorting

500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a
number of barbarian troops. They landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras
Kaboudia) in modern Tunisia. They defeated the Vandals, who were Reconstruction of the
caught completely off guard, at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Column of Justinian, after
Cornelius Gurlitt, 1912. The
Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took Carthage. King Gelimer fled
column was erected in the
to Mount Pappua in Numidia, but surrendered the next spring. He Augustaeum in
was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph. Constantinople in 543 in
Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the stronghold Septem honour of his military
Fratres near Mons Calpe (later named Gibraltar) were recovered in the victories.
same campaign.[56]

In this war, the contemporary Procopius remarks that Africa was so entirely depopulated that a
person might travel several days without meeting a human being, and he adds, "it is no
exaggeration to say, that in the course of the war 5,000,000 perished by the sword, and famine,
and pestilence."[57]
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An African prefecture, centered in Carthage, was

established in April 534,[58] but it would teeter on the
brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst
warfare with the Moors and military mutinies. The
area was not completely pacified until 548,[59] but
remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of
prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire
A golden medallion celebrating the reconquest about 100,000 pounds of gold.[60]
of Africa, AD 534

War in Italy, first phase, 535–540

As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an
opportunity for intervention. The young king Athalaric had
died on 2 October 534, and a usurper, Theodahad, had
imprisoned queen Amalasuintha, Theodoric's daughter and
mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena,
where he had her assassinated in 535. Thereupon Belisarius,
with 7,500 men,[61] invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Justinian's conquests
Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536.
By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic
army, who had elected Vitigis as their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from
February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city.

Justinian sent another general, Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius
hampered the progress of the campaign. Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by
the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalled Narses in 539. By then the military situation had turned in
favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna. There he
was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of
Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the Po River in
Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and
reclaimed it for the Empire.[62] Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to
Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuntha with him.

War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562

Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians. Following a revolt
against the Empire in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic
ambassadors, King Khosrau I broke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring
of 540.[63] He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave
the city),[64] besieged Daras, and then went on to attack the Byzantine base in the small but
strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea as requested by its
discontented king Gubazes, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced
Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year.[64]

Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople
in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours
of his disloyalty reaching the court.[65] The outbreak of the plague coupled with a rebellion in
Persia brought Khosrow I's offensives to a halt. Exploiting this, Justinian ordered all the forces in
the East to invade Persian Armenia, but the 30,000-strong Byzantine force was defeated by a small
force at Anglon.[66] The next year, Khosrau unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa. Both
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parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed

upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After
that, the Lazic War in the North continued for several years:
the Lazic king switched to the Byzantine side, and in 549
Justinian sent Dagisthaeus to recapture Petra, but he faced
heavy resistance and the siege was relieved by Sasanian
reinforcements. Justinian replaced him with Bessas, who was
under a cloud after the loss of Rome in 546, but he managed to
capture and dismantle Petra in 551. The war continued for
several years until a second truce in 557, followed by a Fifty
Map of the Byzantine–Sasanian Years' Peace in 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to
frontier in 565. In 541, the small but abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or
strategic region of Lazica on the 500 pounds of gold (30,000 solidi) to be paid by the
eastern shore of the Black Sea Romans.[67]
became the new battlefield of the
Roman–Persian Wars.
War in Italy, second phase, 541–554
While military efforts were
directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the
worse. Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric (both
murdered in 541) and especially Totila, the Ostrogoths made
quick gains. After a victory at Faenza in 542, they reconquered
the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the
entire Italian Peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in
544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies. Making no
headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius
succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet of 200 ships.[68] During
this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times,
first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December Spanish Visigothic gold Tremissis in
546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again the name of emperor Justinian I, 7th
by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plundered Sicily and century. The Christian cross on the
breast defines the Visigothic
attacked Greek coastlines.
attribution. British Museum.

Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000

men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern
Visigothic Hispania) under the command of Narses.[69] The army reached Ravenna in June 552
and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the
Apennines, where Totila was slain. After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year,
the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale Frankish invasion was
defeated at Casilinum, and Italy was secured for the Empire, though it would take Narses several
years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with
an army of 16,000 men.[70] The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of
gold.[60] Procopius estimated 15,000,000 Goths died.[71]

Other campaigns
In addition to the other conquests, the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania, when
the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against King Agila I. In 552, Justinian
dispatched a force of 2,000 men; according to the historian Jordanes, this army was led by the
octogenarian Liberius.[72] The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern
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coast and founded the new province of Spania before being

checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now
become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine
expansion.

During Justinian's reign, the Balkans suffered from several

incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of
Emperor Justinian reconquered
the Danube. Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination
many former territories of the
of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559 a
Western Roman Empire, including
particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs Italia, Dalmatia, Africa, and southern
under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they Hispania.
were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius.[73]

Results
Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized, with
only noteworthy sustainable conquests in Africa. In the West, the brilliant early military successes
of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster
for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes
thought.[74] The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon Italian population were deeply
resented.

The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southern Hispania significantly
enlarged the area of Byzantine influence and eliminated all naval threats to the empire, which in
555 reached its territorial zenith. Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinian's death, the
empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving the
Lombards as a regional threat. The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat
to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa.

Events of the later years of his reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian
incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the
need to attribute the Emperor's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old
age.[75] In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources
while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe.[76]

Religious activities
Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire
threatened by diverging religious currents,
especially Monophysitism, which had many
adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and
Egypt. Monophysite doctrine, which maintains
that Jesus Christ had one divine nature rather
than a synthesis of divine and human nature,
had been condemned as a heresy by the Council
of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies
towards Monophysitism of Zeno and
Anastasius I had been a source of tension in the A mosaic showing Justinian with the bishop of
relationship with the bishops of Rome.[78] Ravenna (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiers[77]

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Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the
Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects
by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that
proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them.[78]

Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine,
especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism, but he died before being able to issue any legislation.
The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant
source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the
course of his reign, Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small
number of theological treatises.[79]

Religious policy
As in his secular administration, despotism appeared also in
the Emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything,
both in religion and in law. At the very beginning of his reign,
he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in
the Trinity and the Incarnation, and to threaten all heretics
with the appropriate penalties,[80] whereas he subsequently
declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy
of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law.[81]
He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole Our Lady of Saidnaya Monastery, in
symbol of the Church [82] and accorded legal force to the canons present-day Syria, is traditionally
of the four ecumenical councils. [83] The bishops in attendance held to have been founded by
Justinian.
at the Council of Constantinople (536) recognized that nothing
could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and
command,[84] while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the
ban of the Church with temporal proscription.[85] Justinian protected the purity of the church by
suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church and clergy,
and to protect and extend monasticism. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from
private citizens and the right to receive solemnia, or annual gifts, from the Imperial treasury or
from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates.

Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was a
"nursing father" of the Church. Both the Codex and the Novellae contain many enactments
regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and
rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of
divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia (which
cost 20,000 pounds of gold),[86] the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The
new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics,
became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople.[87]

Religious relations with Rome

From the middle of the 5th century onward, increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of
the East in ecclesiastical matters. Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly
after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Acacian schism. Previous Emperors had
tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized the Council of Chalcedon,
which had condemned Monophysitism, which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by
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tolerating the appointment

Saint Justinian the Great
of Monophysites to church
offices. The Popes reacted
by severing ties with the
Patriarch of
Constantinople who
supported these policies.
Emperors Justin I (and
Mosaic from Our Lady of Saidnaya
later Justinian himself)
Monastery depicting the Virgin Mary
holding the Child Christ on her lap.
rescinded these policies
On her right side stands Justinian. and reestablished the
On her left side stands Theodora. union between
After the Muslim conquest of the Constantinople and
Levant, the gold background was Rome. [88] After this,
replaced with a plain white one and Justinian also felt entitled
the Greek text was modified into
to settle disputes in papal
Arabic.
elections, as he did when Illustration of an angel showing
he favored Vigilius and had Justinian a model of Hagia Sophia
his rival Silverius deported. in a vision, by Herbert Cole (1912)

This new-found unity between East and West did not, Emperor
however, solve the ongoing disputes in the east. Justinian's Venerated in
Eastern
policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites and
Orthodoxy
Miaphysites (who were mistaken to be adherers of
Monophysitism) to accept the Chalcedonian creed by Lutheranism
persecuting their bishops and monks – thereby embittering Major shrine Church of the Holy
their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces – and Apostles,
attempts at a compromise that would win over the Constantinople
Monophysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith. modern day Istanbul,
Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, Turkey
who favoured the Miaphysites unreservedly. In the Feast 14 November
condemnation of the Three Chapters, three theologians that
Attributes Imperial Vestment
had opposed Monophysitism before and after the
Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over
the opposition. At the Fifth Ecumenical Council,
most of the Eastern church yielded to the
Emperor's demands, and Pope Vigilius, who was
forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at
a chapel, finally also gave his assent. However, the
condemnation was received unfavourably in the
west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism,
and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the
Monophysites remained unsatisfied – all the more
bitter for him because during his last years he took Hagia Sophia mosaic depicting the Virgin Mary
an even greater interest in theological matters. holding the Child Christ on her lap. On her right
side stands Justinian, offering a model of the Hagia
Sophia. On her left, Constantine I presents a model
Authoritarian rule of Constantinople.

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Justinian's religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire
presupposed unity of faith, and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be the
orthodoxy (Chalcedonian). Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution, which
imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II and which would now vigorously
continue. The Codex contained two statutes[89] that decreed the total destruction of paganism,
even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John
Malalas, Theophanes, and John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high
position.

The original Academy of Plato had been destroyed by the Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC. Several
centuries later, in 410 AD, a Neoplatonic Academy was established that had no institutional
continuity with Plato's Academy, and which served as a center for Neoplatonism and mysticism. It
persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I. Other schools in Constantinople,
Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire, continued.[90]

In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus was reported to have converted 70,000 pagans, which was
probably an exaggerated number.[91] Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli,[92] the
Huns dwelling near the Don,[93] the Abasgi,[94] and the Tzanni in Caucasia.[95]

The worship of Amun at the oasis of Awjila in the Libyan desert was abolished,[96] and so were the
remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cataract of the Nile.[97] The
Presbyter Julian[98] and the Bishop Longinus[99] conducted a mission among the Nabataeans, and
Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by dispatching a bishop from Egypt.[100]

The civil rights of Jews were restricted[101] and their religious privileges threatened.[102] Justinian
also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue[103] and encouraged the Jews to use the
Greek Septuagint in their synagogues in Constantinople.[104]

The Emperor faced significant opposition from the Samaritans, who resisted conversion to
Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection. He persecuted them with rigorous edicts, but
could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his
reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered persecution,
experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment.[105] At Constantinople, on one occasion,
not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some
by burning, others by drowning.[106]

Architecture, learning, art and literature

Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears
witness to his activities in this area.[107] Under Justinian's
reign, the San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous
mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed
under the sponsorship of Julius Argentarius.[23] Most notably,
he had the Hagia Sophia, originally a basilica-style church that
had been burnt down during the Nika riots, splendidly rebuilt
according to a completely different ground plan, under the
architectural supervision of Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius Consular diptych displaying
of Tralles. On 26 December 537, according to Pseudo-Codinus, Justinian's full name
Justinian stated at the completion of this edifice: "Solomon, I (Constantinople 521)
have outdone thee" (in reference to the first Jewish temple).
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The church had a second inauguration on 24 December 562, after several reworks made by Isidore
the Younger. This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the
centre of eastern Christianity for centuries.[108]

Another prominent church in the capital, the Church of the

Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end
of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt.[109] The Church of
Saints Sergius and Bacchus, later renamed Little Hagia Sophia,
was also built between 532 and 536 by the imperial couple.[110]
Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone:
excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople
have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from
Justinian's reign, and a column topped by a bronze statue of The present Basilica of Saint Sofia,
Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was Sofia, Bulgaria, is believed to be the
erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543.[111] fifth structure to be constructed on
Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the the site and was built during the
Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy might have reign of Emperor Justinian I.
enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means
of strengthening his dynasty's prestige.[112]

Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the
construction of fortifications and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction
of underground cisterns (see Basilica Cistern). To prevent floods from damaging the strategically
important border town Dara, an advanced arch dam was built. During his reign the large Sangarius
Bridge was built in Bithynia, securing a major military supply route to the east. Furthermore,
Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth
called Justiniana Prima, which was intended to replace Thessalonica as the political and religious
centre of Illyricum.

In Justinian's reign, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy
historians, including Procopius and Agathias, and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus
the Melodist flourished. On the other hand, centres of learning such as the Neoplatonic Academy
in Athens and the famous Law School of Berytus[113] lost their importance during his reign.

Economy and administration

As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the Empire's economic health rested primarily on
agriculture. In addition, long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin
was exchanged for Roman wheat.[114] Within the Empire, convoys sailing from Alexandria
provided Constantinople with wheat and grains. Justinian made the traffic more efficient by
building a large granary on the island of Tenedos for storage and further transport to
Constantinople.[115] Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was
suffering badly from the wars with the Persians.

One important luxury product was silk, which was imported and then processed in the Empire. In
order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial
factories in 541.[116] In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly
relations with the Abyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian

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silk to the Empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to

compete with the Persian merchants in India.[117] Then, in the
early 550s, two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk
worms from Central Asia back to Constantinople,[118] and silk
became an indigenous product.

Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia,

Cyprus, Egypt and Nubia.[119]

At the start of Justinian I's

reign he had inherited a
surplus 28,800,000 solidi
Gold coin of Justinian I (527–565)
(400,000 pounds of gold) excavated in India probably in the
in the imperial treasury south, an example of Indo-Roman
from Anastasius I and trade during the period
[60]
Justin I. Under
Justinian's rule, measures
Scene from daily life on a mosaic were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make
from the Great Palace of tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was
Constantinople, early 6th century given to both the leaders of the prefectures and of the
provinces, while power was taken away from the vicariates of
the dioceses, of which a number were abolished. The overall
trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure.[120] According to Brown
(1971), the increased professionalization of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional
structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek
towns.[121] It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual
revenue of 5,000,000 solidi in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was
increased to 6,000,000 solidi in AD 550.[60]

Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East thrived, although Antioch was
struck by two earthquakes (526, 528) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians (540). Justinian
had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale.[122]

Despite all these measures, the Empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th
century. The first one was the plague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decimating the
Empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages.[123] The lack of
manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies
after the early 540s.[124] The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid
a heavy burden on the Empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the
government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military
importance.[125]

Natural disasters
During the 530s, it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire. There
were noxious fumes in the air and the Sun, while still providing daylight, refused to give much
heat. The extreme weather events of 535–536 led to a famine such as had not been recorded
before, affecting both Europe and the Middle East.[126] These events may have been caused by an
atmospheric dust veil resulting from a large volcanic eruption.[127][128]

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The historian Procopius recorded in 536 in his work on the

Vandalic War "during this year a most dread portent took
place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness … and
it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it
shed were not clear".[129][130]

The causes of these disasters are not precisely known, but

volcanoes at the Rabaul caldera, Lake Ilopango, Krakatoa, or,
according to a recent finding, in Iceland are suspected.[126]

Seven years later in 542, a devastating outbreak of Bubonic

Plague, known as the Plague of Justinian and second only to
Black Death of the 14th century, killed tens of millions.
Justinian and members of his court, physically unaffected by
the previous 535–536 famine, were afflicted, with Justinian
An older Justinian; mosaic in
himself contracting and surviving the pestilence. The impact of
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo,
this outbreak of plague has recently been disputed, since Ravenna (possibly a modified
evidence for tens of millions dying is uncertain.[131][132] portrait of Theodoric)

In July 551, the eastern Mediterranean was rocked by the 551

Beirut earthquake, which triggered a tsunami. The combined fatalities of both events likely
exceeded 30,000, with tremors felt from Antioch to Alexandria.[133]

Cultural depictions
In the Paradiso section of the Divine Comedy, Canto (chapter)
VI, by Dante Alighieri, Justinian I is prominently featured as a
spirit residing on the sphere of Mercury. The latter holds in
Heaven the souls of those whose acts were righteous, yet meant
to achieve fame and honor. Justinian's legacy is elaborated on,
and he is portrayed as a defender of the Christian faith and the
restorer of Rome to the Empire. Justinian confesses that he
was partially motivated by fame rather than duty to God, which
tainted the justice of his rule in spite of his proud
accomplishments. In his introduction, "Cesare fui e son
Iustinïano" ("Caesar I was, and am Justinian"[134]), his mortal
Justinian was one of the first Roman
title is contrasted with his immortal soul, to emphasize that
Emperors to be depicted holding the
"glory in life is ephemeral, while contributing to God's glory is cross-surmounted orb on the
eternal", according to Dorothy L. Sayers.[135] Dante also uses obverse of a coin.
Justinian to criticize the factious politics of his 14th-century
Italy, divided between Ghibellines and Guelphs, in contrast to
the unified Italy of the Roman Empire.

Justinian is a major character in the 1938 novel Count Belisarius, by Robert Graves. He is depicted
as a jealous and conniving Emperor obsessed with creating and maintaining his own historical
legacy.[136]

Justinian appears as a character in the 1939 time-travel novel Lest Darkness Fall, by L. Sprague de
Camp.[137]

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The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian

was a novel written by Pierson Dixon in 1958 about the court of
Justinian.

Justinian is a chief protagonist of Belisarius in "Empire in

Apocalypse" by Robert Bruton (Legend Books 2023). The
emperor's jealousy and envy of Belisarius eventually prompt
him to undermine his best general. Emperor Justinian in Council (1886),
by Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant,
Justinian occasionally appears in the comic strip Prince prior to restoration in 2020.
Valiant, usually as a nemesis of the title character.

Justinian is played by Innokenty Smoktunovsky in the 1985 Soviet film Primary Russia.

Justinian's Crown is a historical artifact claimed by the Byzantine Empire in the popular 2020
computer strategy game Crusader Kings 3, by Paradox Development Studio.[138]

Historical sources
Procopius provides the primary source for the history of Justinian's reign, but his opinion is
tainted by a feeling of betrayal when Justinian became more pragmatic and less idealistic
(Justinian and the Later Roman Empire by John W. Barker). He became very bitter towards
Justinian and his empress, Theodora.[f] In various Eastern Orthodox Churches, including the
Orthodox Church in America, Justinian and his empress Theodora are commemorated on the
anniversary of his death, 14 November. Some denominations translate the Julian calendar date to
27 November on the Gregorian calendar. The Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri
Synod and the Lutheran Church–Canada also remember Justinian on 14 November.

See also
Byzantine Empire
portal

Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, rebuilt by Justinian

International Roman Law Moot Court

Notes
a. The sole source for Justinian's full name are consular diptychs of the year 521, which refer to
him as Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus.[2] The name Flavius became a courtesy title by
the late 4th century and was no longer used as a personal name.[3] Justinian's full titulature, as
attested in his Institutes, was Imperator Caesar Flavius Iustinianus Alamannicus Gothicus
Francicus Germanicus Anticus Alanicus Vandalicus Africanus pius felix inclitus victor ac
triumphator semper Augustus (Emperor Caesar Flavius Justinian, victor over the Alamanni,
Goths, Franks, Germans, Antes, Alans, Vandals, Africans; pious, fortunate, renowned,
victorious and triumphant, ever augustus)[4]
b. Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, Classical Latin: [ˈfɫaː.wi.ʊs ˈpɛ.trʊs sabˈba.ti.ʊs
juːs.tiː.niˈaː.nʊs]; Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ἰουστινιανός, translit. Flábios Pétros
Sabbátios Ioustinianós, Byzantine Greek: [ˈfla.vi.os ˈpe.tros savˈva.ti.os i.us.ti.ni.aˈnos]
c. Latin: Justinianus Magnus, Classical Latin: [i̯ uːs.tiː.niˈaː.nʊs ˈmaŋ.nʊs]; Greek: Ἰουστινιανός ὁ
Μέγας, translit. Ioustinianós ho Mégas, Byzantine Greek: [i.us.ti.ni.aˈnos o ˈme.ɣas]

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d. Constantine VII's De Ceremoniiss dates Justinian's coronation to 4 April,[29] probably a

confusion between α (1) and δ (4).
e. Justinian himself took the field only once, during a campaign against the Huns in 559, when he
was already an old man. This enterprise was largely symbolic and although no battle was
fought, the emperor held a triumphal entry in the capital afterwards. (See Browning, R.
Justinian and Theodora. London 1971, 193.)
f. While he glorified Justinian's achievements in his panegyric and his Wars, Procopius also
wrote a hostile account, Anekdota (the so-called Secret History), in which Justinian is depicted
as a cruel, venal, and incompetent ruler.The Syriac chronicle of John of Ephesus, which
survives partially, was used as a source for later chronicles, contributing many additional
details of value. Other sources include the writings of John Malalas, Agathias, John the Lydian,
Menander Protector, the Paschal Chronicle, Evagrius Scholasticus, Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor,
Jordanes, the chronicles of Marcellinus Comes and Victor of Tunnuna. Justinian is widely
regarded as a saint by Orthodox Christians, and is also commemorated by some Lutheran
churches on 14 November.

References
1. J. B. Bury (2008) [1889] History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=wDIJNvWb48YC&pg=PA7) II. Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 1605204056, p. 7.
2. PLRE.
3. Cameron, Alan (1988). "Flavius: a Nicety of Protocol" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41540754).
Latomus. 47 (1): 26–33. JSTOR 41540754 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41540754).
4. Abdy, John Thomas (1876). The Institutes of Justinian (https://books.google.com/books?id=NR
_-NWnIm4cC&pg=PR21). Cambridge University Press. p. 21.
5. J. F. Haldon, Byzantium in the seventh century (Cambridge, 2003), 17–19.
6. On the western Roman Empire, see now H. Börm, Westrom (Stuttgart 2013).
7. "History 303: Finances under Justinian" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080309095541/http://w
ww.tulane.edu/~august/H303/handouts/Finances.htm). Tulane.edu. Archived from the original
(http://www.tulane.edu/~august/H303/handouts/Finances.htm) on 9 March 2008. Retrieved
14 November 2012.
8. Evans, J. A. S., The Age of Justinian: the circumstances of imperial power. pp. 93–94
9. John Henry Merryman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to
the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America, 3rd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
2007), pp. 9–11 (https://books.google.com/books?id=6OJf9CbgKTkC&pg=PA9).
10. near Skopje, North Macedonia
11. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2008, ISBN 1593394926, p.
1007. (https://books.google.com/books?id=ea-bAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1007)
12. Joannes Zonaras (c. 1140) Epitome XIV, 5 (https://archive.org/details/ioanniszonaraea00pindg
oog/page/n180/mode/2up?view=theater). He was crowned at the age of 45.
13. The Inheritance of Rome, Chris Wickham, Penguin Books Ltd. 2009, ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0
(p. 90). Justinian referred to Latin as his native tongue in several of his laws. See Moorhead
(1994), p. 18.
14. Michael Maas (2005). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=9AvjaThtrKYC&q=Justinian++latin-speaking+Illyrians&pg=PA74). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-1139826877.
15. Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A history of the Byzantine state and society. Stanford University
Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. Retrieved 12 October 2010.
16. Barker, John W. (1966). Justinian and the later Roman Empire (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=LiJljEXvwAoC&q=%22Though+he+shared+an+Illyrian%22&pg=PA75). University of
Wisconsin Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-299-03944-8. Retrieved 28 November 2011.

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17. Robert Browning (2003). Justinian and Theodora. Gorgias Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-
1593330538.
18. Shifting Genres in Late Antiquity, Hugh Elton, Geoffrey Greatrex, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.,
2015, ISBN 1472443500, p. 259. (https://books.google.com/books?id=aR2dBQAAQBAJ&dq=J
ustinian+Thracian+origin&pg=PA259)
19. Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire,
András Mócsy, Routledge, 2014, ISBN 1317754255, p. 350. (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=LP9RAwAAQBAJ&dq=Justinian+Thracian+stock&pg=PA350)
20. Sima M. Cirkovic (2004). The Serbs (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki1icLbr_QQC&q=Ju
stiniana+Prima+Leskovac&pg=PA5). Wiley. ISBN 978-0631204718.
21. Justiniana Prima Site of an early Byzantine city located 30 km south-west of Leskovci in
Kosovo (https://books.google.com/books?um=1&q=Justiniana+Prima+Site+of+an+early+Byza
ntine+city+located+30+km+south-west+of+Leskovac+in+Serbia&btnG=Search+Books).
Grove's Dictionaries. 2006.
22. Byzantine Constantinople: Monuments, Topography and Everyday Life (https://books.google.c
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ISBN 978-9004116252.
23. Robert Browning. "Justinian I" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume VII (1986).
24. Cambridge Ancient History p. 65
25. Moorhead (1994), pp. 21–22, with a reference to Procopius, Secret History 8.3.
26. This post seems to have been titular; there is no evidence that Justinian had any military
experience. See A.D. Lee, "The Empire at War", in Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge
Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 113–133 (pp. 113–114).
27. Victor of Tunnuna (c. 570), Chronica s.a. 525 (https://www.dmgh.de/mgh_auct_ant_11/#page/1
96/mode/1up).
28. Marcellinus Comes 527 (https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus2.html); Chronicon
Paschale 527; Theophanes Confessor AM 6019.
29. Constantine VII (c. 956), De Ceremoniis (https://books.google.com/books?id=9VQ6AQAAMAA
J&pg=PA433), I 95.
30. See Procopius, Secret history, ch. 13.
31. M. Meier, Justinian, p. 57.
32. P. N. Ure, Justinian and his age, p. 200.
33. "DIR Justinian" (http://www.roman-emperors.org/justinia.htm). Roman Emperors. 25 July 1998.
Retrieved 14 November 2012.
34. Robert Browning, Justinian and Theodora (1987), 129; James Allan Evans, The Empress
Theodora: Partner of Justinian (2002), 104
35. Theological treatises authored by Justinian can be found in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 86.
36. Chronicon Paschale 566; John of Ephesus III 5.13. (https://www.ccel.org/ccel/pearse/morefath
ers/files/ephesus_6_book5.htm); Theophanes Confessor AM 6058; John Malalas 18.1 (https://
en.calameo.com/read/000675905f2f4bf509d49).
37. Crowley, Roger (2011). City of Fortune, How Venice Won and Lost a Naval Empire. London:
Faber & Faber Ltd. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-571-24595-6.
38. Yuri Marano (2012). "Discussion: Porphyry head of emperor ('Justinian'). From Constantinople
(now in Venice). Early sixth century" (http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.p
hp?id=826). Last Statues of Antiquity (LSA Database), University of Oxford.
39. "S. P. Scott: The Civil Law" (http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps.htm). Constitution.org. 19 June
2002. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
40. Johnston, David (1999). Roman Law in Context. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press. p. 24. ISBN 0521639611.

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41. Kunkel, W. (translated by J. M. Kelly) An introduction to Roman legal and constitutional history.
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966; 168
42. Darrell P. Hammer (1957). "Russia and the Roman Law". American Slavic and East European
Review. 16 (1). JSTOR: 1–13. doi:10.2307/3001333 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3001333).
JSTOR 3001333 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3001333).
43. Garland (1999), pp. 16–17
44. Sarris, P. (2017). Emperor Justinian. In J. Witte, Jr & G. Hauk (Eds.), Christianity and Family
Law: An Introduction (Law and Christianity, pp. 85-99). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. doi:10.1017/9781108233255.008
45. Vasiliev (1952), p. I 192.
46. Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Istanbul By Robert Bator, 2000, P.15
47. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 200
48. Diehl, Charles. Theodora, Empress of Byzantium ((c) 1972 by Frederick Ungar Publishing, Inc.,
transl. by S.R. Rosenbaum from the original French Theodora, Imperatice de Byzance), 89.
49. Vasiliev (1958), p. 157.
50. For an account of Justinian's wars, see Moorhead (1994), pp. 22–24, 63–98, and 101–109.
51. See A. D. Lee, "The Empire at War", in Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the
Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 113–33 (pp. 113–114). For Justinian's own views, see
the texts of Codex Iustinianus 1.27.1 and Novellae 8.10.2 and 30.11.2.
52. See Geoffrey Greatrex, "Byzantium and the East in the Sixth Century" in Michael Maas (ed.).
Age of Justinian (2005), pp. 477–509.
53. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, p. 195.
54. Smith, Sidney (1954). "Events in Arabia in the 6th Century A.D.". Bulletin of the School of
Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 16 (3): 425–468.
doi:10.1017/S0041977X00086791 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00086791).
JSTOR 608617 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/608617). S2CID 163004552 (https://api.semantics
cholar.org/CorpusID:163004552).
55. Procopius, De Bellus III.9.5. Translated by H.B. Dewing, Procopius (Cambridge: Loeb Classical
Library, 1979), vol. 2 p. 85
56. Moorhead (1994), p. 68.
57. Mavor, William Fordyce (1802). Universal History, Ancient and Modern: From the Earliest
Records of Time, to the General Peace of 1801 (https://books.google.com/books?id=uaCgjEA
mUfEC&pg=RA1-PA81). R. Phillips. p. 81.
58. Moorhead (1994), p. 70.
59. Procopius. "II.XXVIII". De Bello Vandalico.
60. "Early Medieval and Byzantine Civilization: Constantine to Crusades" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20080309095541/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/H303/handouts/Finances.htm). Tulane.
Archived from the original (http://www.tulane.edu/~august/H303/handouts/Finances.htm) on 9
March 2008.
61. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 215
62. Moorhead (1994), pp. 84–86.
63. See for this section Moorhead (1994), pp. 89 ff., Greatrex (2005), p. 488 ff., and especially H.
Börm, "Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum", in Chiron 36, 2006, pp. 299 ff.
64. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 229
65. Procopius mentions this event both in the Wars and in the Secret History, but gives two entirely
different explanations for it. The evidence is briefly discussed in Moorhead (1994), pp. 97–98.
66. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 235
67. Moorhead ((1994), p. 164) gives the lower, Greatrex ((2005), p. 489) the higher figure.

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68. D’Amato, Raffaele (23 February 2017). Imperial Roman Warships 193–565 AD (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=9aRWDgAAQBAJ). Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-4728-
1827-0.
69. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 251
70. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 233
71. Mavor, William Fordyce (1 March 1802). "Universal history, ancient and modern" (https://books.
google.com/books?id=g1YBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA82) – via Google Books.
72. Getica, 303
73. Evans, James Allan (2011). The Power Game in Byzantium : Antonina and the Empress
Theodora (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/843198707). London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
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74. See Lee (2005), pp. 125 ff.
75. W. Pohl, "Justinian and the Barbarian Kingdoms", in Maas (2005), pp. 448–476; 472
76. See Haldon (2003), pp. 17–19.
77. Adams History of Western Art pp. 158–159
78. Meyendorff 1989, pp. 207–250.
79. Treatises written by Justinian can be found in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 86.
80. Cod., I., i. 5.
81. MPG, lxxxvi. 1, p. 993.
82. Cod., I., i. 7.
83. Novellae, cxxxi.
84. Mansi, Concilia, viii. 970B.
85. Novellae, xlii.
86. P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, 283
87. "WWU Münster > Religion & Politics > Religion and politics at the Golden Horn?" (https://www.
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88. cf. Novellae, cxxxi.
89. Cod., I., xi. 9 and 10.
90. Lindberg, David C. "The Beginnings of Western Science", p. 70
91. François Nau, in Revue de l'orient chretien, ii., 1897, 482.
92. Procopius, Bellum Gothicum, ii. 14; Evagrius, Hist. eccl., iv. 20
93. Procopius, iv. 4; Evagrius, iv. 23.
94. Procopius, iv. 3; Evagrius, iv. 22.
95. Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 15.
96. Procopius, De Aedificiis, vi. 2.
97. Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 19.
98. DCB, iii. 482
99. John of Ephesus, Hist. eccl., iv. 5 sqq.
100. Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 20; Malalas, ed. Niebuhr, Bonn, 1831, pp. 433 sqq.
101. Cod., I., v. 12
102. Procopius, Historia Arcana, 28;
103. Nov., cxlvi., 8 February 553
104. Michael Maas (2005), The Cambridge companion to the Age of Justinian (https://books.google.
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106. F. Nau, in Revue de l'orient, ii., 1897, p. 481.

107. See Procopius, Buildings.
108. Barker, John W. (1966). Justinian and the Later Roman Empire (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=LiJljEXvwAoC&pg=PA183). University of Wisconsin Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780299039448.
109. Vasiliev (1952), p. 189
110. Bardill, Jonathan (2017). "The Date, Dedication, and Design of Sts. Sergius and Bacchus in
Constantinople" (https://muse.jhu.edu/article/670875). Journal of Late Antiquity. 10 (1): 62–
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111. Brian Croke, "Justinian's Constantinople", in Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion
to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 60–86 (p. 66)
112. See Croke (2005), pp. 364 ff., and Moorhead (1994).
113. Following a terrible earthquake in 551, the school at Berytus was transferred to Sidon and had
no further significance after that date. (Vasiliev (1952), p. 147)
114. John F. Haldon, "Economy and Administration", in Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge
Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 28–59 (p. 35)
115. John Moorhead, Justinian (London/New York 1994), p. 57
116. Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity (London 1971), pp. 157–158
117. Vasiliev (1952), p. 167
118. See Moorhead (1994), p. 167; Procopius, Wars, 8.17.1–8
119. "Justinian's Gold Mines – Mining Technology | TechnoMine" (https://web.archive.org/web/2009
0302061813/http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/3707/justinian-gold.roman-mines.egypt-g
old/justinian%E2%80%99s.gold.mines.aspx). Technology.infomine.com. 3 December 2008.
Archived from the original (http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/3707/justinian-gold.roman-
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120. Haldon (2005), p. 50
121. Brown (1971), p. 157
122. Kenneth G. Holum, "The Classical City in the Sixth Century", in Michael Maas (ed.), Age of
Justinian (2005), pp. 99–100
123. Moorhead (1994), pp. 100–101
124. John L. Teall, "The Barbarians in Justinian's Armies", in Speculum, vol. 40, No. 2, 1965, 294–
322. The total strength of the Byzantine army under Justinian is estimated at 150,000 men (J.
Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 259).
125. Brown (1971), p. 158; Moorhead (1994), p. 101
126. Gibbons, Ann (15 November 2018). "Why 536 was 'the worst year to be alive' ". Science.
doi:10.1126/science.aaw0632 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaw0632).
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127. Larsen, L. B.; Vinther, B. M.; Briffa, K. R.; Melvin, T. M.; Clausen, H. B.; Jones, P. D.; Siggaard-
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the A.D. 536 dust veil" (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2007GL032450). Geophys. Res. Lett. 35
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128. Than, Ker (3 January 2009). "Slam dunks from space led to hazy shade of winter". New
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129. Procopius; Dewing, Henry Bronson, trans. (1916). Procopius (https://books.google.com/books?
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Justinianic Plague". Past & Present. 244 (1): 3–50. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtz009 (https://doi.org/10.
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This article incorporates text from the Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge.

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The Anecdota or Secret History (https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL290/1935/volume.x
ml). Edited by H. B. Dewing. 7 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press and
London, Hutchinson, 1914–40. Greek text and English translation.
Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia (https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book//loo
kupid?key=olbp79885). Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth. 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner,
1962–64. Greek text.
The Secret History, translated by G.A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966.
A readable and accessible English translation of the Anecdota.
John Malalas, Chronicle (https://en.calameo.com/books/000675905f2f4bf509d49), translated
by Elizabeth Jeffreys, Michael Jeffreys & Roger Scott, 1986. Byzantina Australiensia 4
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Evagrius Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History, translated by Edward Walford (1846), reprinted

2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6.

Bibliography
Barker, John W. (1966). Justinian and the Later Roman Empire (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=LiJljEXvwAoC). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0299039448.
Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Bury, J. B. (1958). History of the later Roman Empire. Vol. 2. New York (reprint).
Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ) The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood,
NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3.
Cameron, Averil; et al., eds. (2000). "Justinian Era". The Cambridge Ancient History. 14
(Second ed.). Cambridge.
Cumberland Jacobsen, Torsten (2009). The Gothic War. Westholme.
Dixon, Pierson (1958). The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian.
Evans, James Allan (2005). The Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32582-3.
Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204.
London: Routledge.
Maas, Michael, ed. (2005). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge.
Martindale, J.R., ed. (1980). "Fl. Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus 7" (https://archive.org/details/plre
-ii/page/645/mode/1up). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Vol. II. pp. 645–648.
Meier, Mischa (2003). Das andere Zeitalter Justinians. Kontingenz Erfahrung und
Kontingenzbewältigung im 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr (in German). Gottingen.
Meier, Mischa (2004). Justinian. Herrschaft, Reich, und Religion (in German). Munich.
Moorhead, John (1994). Justinian. London.
Rosen, William (2007). Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire, and the Birth of Europe (https://archiv
e.org/details/justiniansfleapl00rose). Viking Adult. ISBN 978-0-670-03855-8.
Rubin, Berthold (1960). Das Zeitalter Iustinians. Berlin. – German standard work; partially
obsolete, but still useful.
Sarris, Peter (2006). Economy and society in the age of Justinian. Cambridge.
Ure, PN (1951). Justinian and his Age. Penguin, Harmondsworth.
Vasiliev, A. A. (1952). History of the Byzantine Empire (Second ed.). Madison.
Sidney Dean; Duncan B. Campbell; Ian Hughes; Ross Cowan; Raffaele D'Amato; Christopher
Lillington-Martin, eds. (June–July 2010). "Justinian's fireman: Belisarius and the Byzantine
empire". Ancient Warfare. IV (3).
Turlej, Stanisław (2016). Justiniana Prima: An Underestimated Aspect of Justinian's Church
Policy (https://books.google.com/books?id=C2yYDQAAQBAJ). Krakow: Jagiellonian University
Press. ISBN 978-8323395560.

External links
Kettenhofen, Erich (2009). "Justinian I". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XV, Fasc. 3 (http://www.ira
nicaonline.org/articles/justinian-i-flavius-petrus-sabbatius-justinianus#article-tags-overlay).
pp. 257–262.
St Justinian the Emperor (http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=103
301) Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion (14 November)

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3/27/24, 2:18 PM Justinian I - Wikipedia

The Anekdota ("Secret history") of Procopius in English translation. (http://www.fordham.edu/h

alsall/basis/procop-anec.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131011231759/http://w
ww.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/procop-anec.html) 11 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
Lewis E 244 Infortiatum at OPenn (http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_244.
html)
The Buildings of Procopius in English translation. (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Ro
man/Texts/Procopius/Buildings/home.html)
The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev (https://web.archive.
org/web/20120831060912/http://web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/)
Lecture series covering 12 Byzantine Rulers, including Justinian (http://www.anders.com/lectur
es/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160718092
221/http://anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/) 18 July 2016 at the
Wayback Machine – by Lars Brownworth
De Imperatoribus Romanis. An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors (http://www.roman-e
mperors.org/justinia.htm)
Reconstruction of column of Justinian in Constantinople (http://www.byzantium1200.com/justini
a.html)
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes (http://www.documentacathol
icaomnia.eu/30_20_0482-0565-_Flavius_Justinianus_Imperator.html)
Preface to the Digest of Emperor Justinian (https://web.archive.org/web/20100619002804/htt
p://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/Roman%20Law/PrefacesDigest.htm)
Annotated Justinian Code (University of Wyoming website) (https://web.archive.org/web/20120
311111356/http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/blume%26justinian/)
Mosaic of Justinian in Hagia Sophia (http://www.pallasweb.com/deesis/constantine-justinian-ha
gia-sophia.html)

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