NOUNS

Nouns are a basic part of speech in a language. Nouns are persons, places, things, ideas, or concepts. Nouns may
function as the subject of a sentence, as the object of a verb, or as the object of prepositions.

There are four types of nouns:

1. Common nouns are words for general people, places, or things.
book, remote control, window, cafeteria, teller, teacher, street, car, police officer

2. Proper nouns are names of specific people, places, or things. They always begin with a capital letter.
Veronica, Prof. Lenore Sinclair, Chile, Seoul, Disneyland, the New York Times, Boardwalk Empire, Jennifer Lopez, the
Braden’s [notice that when the is used with a proper noun, it is usually in the lower case (not capitalized)]

3. Collective nouns are singular words that refer to groups of people or animals. They are either common or proper.
team, family, committee, congress, herd (of cows), the Rodriguez family, the New York Yankees

4. Abstract nouns are words for ideas or concepts. We know they exist, but we can’t use our senses (touch,
hearing, sight, taste, smell) to find them.
love, hate, honesty, faith, freedom, patience, joy, responsibility, fidelity, dislike, loyalty

Count Nouns
Count (or countable) nouns are simple to count. They may be singular or plural. For singular count nouns, use a, an,
the, or one. For plural count nouns, use a number, the article the, or no article. You may also use quantity words (a
lot, a little, some, many). Never use a or an with a plural noun.

Singular Plural
a cat cats
an orange two oranges
one soldier 15 soldiers
the recipe the recipes

Non-Count Nouns
Non-count nouns are things that we generally do not count. Non-count nouns are always singular. Do not use an
article with count nouns. You may use quantity words (a lot, a little, and especially some). Certain categories of nouns
are usually non-count.

Abstract ideas and feelings

advice beauty faith freedom happiness hate honesty
information intelligence joy love luck news vocabulary work
School
subjects
biology criminal justice economics English gymnastics mathematics
physics psychology Spanish statistics wellness writing

Terms composed of tiny parts

coffee flour jewelry hair money pepper
rice salt sand sugar tea

Collective nouns referring to things

clothing food furniture garbage homework jewelry snow
mail (note: email is a count noun) money music rain traffic

Several food items

brea butte chees chocolate fish fruit meat
d r e
pasta soup water

Minerals
copper gold iron silver steel
tin

Liquids and gases

air beer milk oil oxygen
pollution soup water wind

Measure words:
To talk about quantities with non-count nouns, use a/an/the + measure word + of + non-count noun.

a glass of milk an ounce of gold a bag of flour

a pound of coffee four gallons of water two pounds of sugar

Measure words include: bottle, bowl, box, bunch, can, container, cup, glass, jar, loaf, piece, pound, slice, tablespoon,
teaspoon.
 ARTICLES

When you first learn vocabulary words in English, you how complicated articles can be. However, while the forms
might be pleasantly surprised to know how simple articles of the articles are easy, the use of articles in English is
are. There are only three. “A” and “an” are indefinite very complex. It is one aspect that must be memorized.
articles, and “the” is the only definite article. Because Fortunately (or unfortunately), there are many rules to
there is no gender in nouns in English (no masculine, follow. You must become familiar with the rules. Articles
feminine, or neutral forms), it is not difficult to choose an are part of almost every sentence in the language. The
article. If you have studied German, Italian, French, or charts below show the rules for how and when—and when
Spanish, you probably remember not—to use articles.

A. Using “the”

Use “the”... Examples

with specific, definite nouns Look at the rainbow!

Note: This includes nouns that both The movie was boring, don’t you think?
the speaker and listener know about or The class starts at 8:00 am sharp.
can see.

with nouns that are modified with a

restrictive/defining adjective clause The book that I read last week was great.
Note: This type of clause doesn’t The woman with the black hat asked him for the time.
contain commas and usually begins The teacher that we had last semester retired on Tuesday.
with that.

when there is only one of the noun

*Note: “The” can be used even when The moon is full tonight.
there is more than one of a building type She is going to stop by the mall* after class.
in the city if it’s clear which building Can you tell me how to get to the bank*?
you are referring to.

with nouns that are mentioned a I want a new car. The car doesn’t have to be expensive, though.
second time They bought a TV yesterday. The TV has a huge screen.

with the names of oceans, seas, The Amazon is longer than the Mississippi.
mountain ranges, deserts, and rivers The Pacific is the largest ocean.
We go to the Alps every year to go skiing.

Ken plays the piano.

with musical instruments The flute is a wind instrument.
A. Using “the” cont.

Use “the”... Examples

with certain time expressions in the morning

Note: There is no article in “at night.” in the evening
in the afternoon

The radio was invented in 1920.

with inventions Marconi invented the telegraph.
The iPad was invented in 2009.
The electric light bulb was invented by Edison.

I fell in love the first time I saw her.

with ordinal numbers and ranking The next time you see John, tell him I miss him.
words That was the second book he bought for the course.

The San Diego Zoo is great.

with the names of museums, gardens, The Metropolitan Museum is on museum mile in New York.
and zoos The Botanical Gardens has hundreds of kinds of flowers.

The poor live on the west side.

with abstract adjectives This program is for the elderly.
(to form nouns describing people) The young should help the old.

The Ice Age lasted many years.

with historical periods of time There were two terrible wars in the twentieth century.
Dante lived in the Middle Ages.

The police are coming right now.

with police, fire department, and Barbara is in the army.
branches of the military The navy and the air force are attacking the port.

The French drink a great deal of wine.

with country adjectives to describe The Spanish love soccer.
people The Chinese invented pasta.

A rock hit him in the ear.

with eye, ear, nose, and face, when hit Hank punched Jeb in the face.
by a foreign object The ball hit Lester in the nose.
The door hit Luisa in the eye.
Using “the” cont.

Use “the”... Examples

with the second noun in a sentence that There is a painting on the wall.
begins with there + be There are books on the shelves.

DO NOT use “the”... Examples

There is a cat in the closet.

with the first noun in a sentence that There is an apple on the desk.
begins with there + be There are people in the mosque.

Using “a” or “an”

Use “a” or “an”... Examples

when a singular noun is indefinite They bought a car.

(not already known or mentioned) Vancouver is a beautiful city.
use “a” before a consonant sound I had an orange for breakfast.
use “an” before a vowel sound Ms. Han is an energetic woman.

in some words beginning with “u”

or “h” That is an ugly car. (ugly begins with a vowel sound)
Note: It is the sound, not the letter, Mina is in a union. (union begins with /y/, a consonant sound)
that determines “a” or “an.” There is a hair on the plate. (hair begins with /h/, a consonant sound)
use “a” when “u” sounds like /y/ Ken is an honest person. (the “h” at the beginning of honest is silent)
use “an” when the “h” is silent

Hal got an A on the exam.

Lee got a B on the exam.
with numbers or letters You must put an L in that word. (“L” begins with a vowel sound, /el/)
Maria earned an 8 out of 10.
The figure skater received a 7.
New begins with an N. (“N” begins with a vowel sound, /en/)
B. Using “a” or “an” cont.

Use “a” or “an”... Examples

My father was driving 55 kilometers an hour.

to mean “each” or “per” Victoria makes $120 a day.
The hotel costs $200 a night.
The minimum wage is $7.25 an hour.

with the first noun in a sentence There is a car in the driveway.

that begins with there + be There was a woman looking for you.
There is an iPhone on the table.

with “little” or “few” Maya has a few close friends.

(with a positive meaning) She wants to have a little fun.

a glass of milk
a cup of tea
with count nouns to quantify non- a can of soda
count nouns a teaspoon of sugar
a pound of coffee
a bottle of wine

DO NOT use “a” or “an”... Examples

with the second noun in a sentence There is a book on the shelf.

that begins with there + be There are many pillows on the bed.

with “little” or “few” Han has very few friends.

(with a negative meaning) Dr. Co has little free time.

with plural nouns He has cousins in Australia.

She has friends in China.
I love books.

with non-count nouns My father drinks coffee in the morning.

We need air to breathe.
Love will keep them together.
C. When no articles are used

Use no articles... Examples

Mona loves to drink tea.

with indefinite, non-count nouns Bill puts sugar in his coffee.
I have to put flour, butter, and water in the cake.

with a general, abstract noun Love is a powerful emotion.

*Note: Use “the” when Jealousy is the cause of problems.
the abstract noun is definite. The wisdom* of that woman is amazing.

She lives on 27th street.

with the names of roads, King Boulevard is a mile away.
boulevards, streets, avenues, and The White House is on Pennsylvania Avenue.
lanes Dr. Dolce lives on Kingsbridge Lane.

Cats will not come when you call them.

when generalizing in the plural People are generally honest.
Taxicabs are usually yellow.
Tigers are ferocious animals.

with the name of colleges and She studies at Rider College.

universities Nan lives at Miami University.
*Note: When the name of the Walter goes to Burlington Community College.
school includes the word “of,” use Vic’s daughter goes to the University of Pennsylvania*.
“the.”

with the names of cities, countries, There are many oil wells in Texas.
and states Japan is located in Asia.
*Note: When the name of the She lives in the United States of America*.
country includes the word “of,” use Last year I visited the Republic of South Korea*.
“the.” The Kingdom of Morocco* is hot and sunny.

go home
go downtown
with the verb “go” go to church
in certain expressions go to bed
go to jail
go to college / university / school
C. When no articles are used cont.

Use no articles... Examples

We took a boat ride on Lake Como.

with individual lakes, islands, and Bermuda is a beautiful island.
mountain peaks Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world.

Islam is the second largest religion in the world.

with languages and religions Hinduism is the leading religion in India.
Spanish is the number one language in South America.
Many writers around the world use English.

Please do number 1, Erika.

with letters and numbers in a list “B” and “C” are correct.
Step 6 in the recipe tells you to broil the fish for 10 minutes.

with the names of diseases Cancer is a terrible disease.

*Note: Use “the” with “flu,” “chicken She has diabetes.
pox,” “mumps,” and “measles.” Many children get the flu* every year.

with nouns that are modified with a Horror movies, which I don’t enjoy, are usually rated “R.”
non-restrictive/non-defining Pizza, which isn’t exactly healthy
adjective clause for you, is popular in most countries.
Note: This type of clause is Time-management apps, which are
surrounded by commas and usually often free, help people stay organized.
begins with which.

D. When it depends
Some companies and buildings use “the,” but some don’t. Unfortunately, there is no easy rule for this. It depends on
who chose the name.

Use “the” or no article... Examples

The employees at the New York Times work hard.

with the names of companies I love the coffee at Starbucks.

Have you eaten at that new restaurant called the Kingfisher?

with the names of restaurants They love the food at Gordon Ramsey Steak in Las Vegas.
D. When it depends cont.

Use “the” or no article... Examples

The ballet at the Ford Center for the Performing Arts was amazing.
with the names of theaters We went to a concert at Carnegie Hall.

The Los Angeles International Airport is very big and confusing.

with the names of airports We landed at Hong Kong International Airport at 5:00 pm.

She works at the Scarborough Hospital in Toronto

with the names of hospitals Massachusetts General Hospital has
an excellent cardiology department.

The Golden Gate Bridge is visible from many locations in San Francisco.
with the names of bridges Which is more famous, London Bridge or Tower Bridge?

We’re staying at the Ritz Carlton Hotel in Fort Lauderdale.

with the names of hotels Hotel Bel-Air is close to the main tourist attractions in Los Angeles.

E. When two forms are correct

When referring to seasons in general, use “the” or no article. If referring to a particular season, use “the.”

Use “the” or no arcticle... Examples

We go snowboarding in winter.
when referring to seasons in general We go snowboarding in the winter.
In summertime, everything is green and growing.
In the summertime, everything is green and growing.

Use “the”... Examples

Did you have a job in the summer? (= last summer)

when referring to a particular In the spring of 2012, they moved to New York.
season
 ADJECTIVES

Descriptive, Comparative, Superlative, and Equative Forms

Adjectives have four forms. The descriptive form is used to describe one noun or pronoun. Remember that adjectives are
placed either immediately before the noun or after a form of the verb to be
The excited travelers visited a beautiful park.
The suntanned lifeguard protected the young swimmers.
The Australian woman was tall and slender.
It is dangerous to climb a mountain in the winter.

The comparative form is used to compare two nouns or pronouns. For one-syllable adjectives and for two- syllable
adjectives that end in y, add–er. (Change the y to i and add er: [happy – happier]). For one-syllable adjectives that end
in consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC), double the consonant and add er [big – bigger]. For adjectives that end in e, just
add an r to form the comparative [fine – finer]. For longer adjectives (two syllables or more), use more + adjective.The
adjectives are followed by than in the comparative form.
Leyla is shorter than her sister. Claudio is
happier than his manager. Jack’s car is
bigger than mine.
Helene is more optimistic than Nancy.

The superlative form of the adjective is used to compare at least three nouns or pronouns. For short adjectives, add the +
est. For longer adjectives (more than two syllables), use the + most + adjective. The adjectives are usually followed by the
pronoun in.
Ruta is the youngest engineer in the firm. Ronnie is
the strongest player in the league.
Giovanna is the most intelligent student in the class.
That pizza is the tastiest in town. [tasty: change the y to i and add est]

The equative form and the non-equative form are used to express equality or inequality. Use as + adjective + as
or not as + adjective + as to create this form.
Martin is as fast as Juan.
Jean-Claude is as thin as his father. Reba
is not as tall as Angela.
Abu Dabi is not as crowded as Seoul.
Irregular Forms

Forms of good
descriptive: good comparative: better superlative: the best
equative: as good as non-equative: not as good as
Daniel is a good swimmer. Olga is a better dancer than Leila.

Sheila is the best singer in the choir. He is as good as his brother in soccer.

The Nile Restaurant is not as good as The Four Seasons.

Forms of bad
descriptive: bad comparative: worse superlative: the worst
equative: as bad as non-equative: not as bad as

The weather last weekend was bad.

The new quarterback is worse than the old one.
That is the worst book I have ever read.
The New York Rangers are as bad as the New Jersey Devils.
These cookies are not as bad as that cake.

Forms of many [used with count nouns]

descriptive: many comparative: more than superlative: the most
equative: as many as non-equative: not as many as

There are many beaches on the Riviera.

Istanbul has more mosques than Bagdad.

Seattle has the most coffee shops in America.

New York has as many pizza places as Naples.

There are not as many chairs in Room 316 as in Room 321.
Forms of much [used with non-count nouns]

descriptive: much comparative: more than superlative: the most

equative: as much as non-equative: not as much as

Henry drinks much tea.

Barbara drinks more coffee than Bruce. Little Billy
drinks the most milk in the family. Yelma uses as
much sugar as Marta.
I don’t use as much salt as I used to.

Forms of few [used with count nouns]

descriptive: few comparative: fewer than superlative: the fewest

equative: as few as non-equative: not as few as

There are few people in that restaurant.

Xavier has fewer friends than Tanya.

Houston has the fewest Chinese restaurants of any southern city.
There are as few parks in Pompeii as in Herculanum.
There are not as few holes in the street as there used to be.

Forms of little [used with non-count nouns]

descriptive: little comparative: less than superlative: the least

equative: as little as non-equative: not as little as

John drinks little beer.

Ashley eats less than her brother Seth.
Terrance drinks the least coffee in the office.
She uses as little sugar as she can.
Bob does not eat as little as he did five years ago.
 PREPOSITIONS
You are probably not surprised to learn that prepositions are considered by many professors to be the most difficult
part of speech to use. Why? Because they are always abstract. You can’t see, feel, taste, smell, or hear prepositions.
That is because they express relationships between or among things, but they do not express or describe things
themselves.

The following is a list of common prepositions, some notes on their use, and examples.

Preposition Notes Examples

I read a book about the war.

About Meanings: on (the subject of), and
around (a place) The speech was about causes of cancer. You can
now move freely about the cabin.

I placed the painting above the table. The

Above Meaning: on top of blue sky was above us all afternoon.

The theater is across the street from the bank.

Across Meaning: on the other side Columbus traveled across the ocean in 1492.

After the game, the players went to dinner.

After Meaning: later in time
After lunch, I studied in the library.
The students were very tired after the exam.
Mr. Jones ran against Ms. Adams for Treasurer.
Meanings: opposed to, and in contact The umbrella is leaning against the wall.
Against with

We strolled along the bank of the river. There

Along Meaning: on the side of are many hotels along the Danube.

Among Meaning: in the midst of There is a cat sitting among the flowers.
He was found among the dead after the battle.
Meanings: in a circle, and turning a The teacher walked around the room. Ken
Around
corner lives around the block.

The game starts at 9:00.

At Meanings: to state time, and to state a
place Maya studies at the University of Nebraska. Leslie
works at Apple Computers.

Before breakfast, I took a walk.

Before Meaning: earlier in time I would like to finish before noon. The
movie ended before 10:00.

I hid the bag behind the couch. Nestor

Behind Meaning: in back of
was standing right behind me.

Below Meaning: under or underneath The bag is below the desk.

The temperature is 11 degrees below zero.

The dog was sleeping beneath the table.

Beneath Meaning: under, and lower in status
Do you think that working for that company is
beneath you?
 Preposition Notes Examples

I stood beside Mr. Johnson. The

Beside Meaning: next to chair is beside the table.

Besides Meaning: in addition to Besides John, Jane and Alicia are going.

Meaning: in the middle of (two things or The blue car is between the red and the white ones.
Between people) I was sitting between Toshiko and Nabuko.

Meanings: more than, and farther than Ines became rich beyond her wildest dreams. Xavier
Beyond looked beyond the blue horizon.

Patrick lives by the sea.

Meanings: near, ownership, and how
By something was done That book was written by Harlan Cobin. I
sent the letter by mail.
Despite Meaning: contrast Despite the rain, we still had a picnic.

Push the switch down.

Down Meaning: opposite of “up”
The cat went down the stairs.

There was a terrible storm during the night.

During Meaning: something is in progress
During the movie, Carl at two bags of popcorn.

Meanings: to show the intended recipient, This gift is for Helga.

For and purpose I’m taking this course for my degree.

Meanings: to show the origin, and to This package is from my brother. This
From show the start time or place shop is open from 9:00 to 5:00.

In Meaning: inside The check is in my pocket.

Into Meaning: put inside I put the change into my wallet.

Like Meaning: similarity Vicki looks just like her mother.

Near Meaning: close to Paul lives near his school.

The wines of France are excellent. Diana’s

Of Meaning: possession and materials shirt is made of silk.

Turn off the light.

Off Meaning: opposite of “on”
Iris fell off her bicycle.
 Preposition Notes Examples

On Meanings: on top of, and about The bag is on the table.

I read a book on the election of 2008.

Meanings: to go outside, and Kris went out at six o’clock.

Out
opposite of “in” Victor jumped out the window and ran away.

Over Meaning: above The airplane is flying over the house.

Since Meaning: a start time Wes has worked for Target since 1999.

Meaning: to go from one side to the other

Through I walked through the park.

Throughout his life, he was always kind and gentle.

Throughout Meaning: for the term of

Till Meaning: short form of “until” I will love you till the end of time.

Ashley is going to Colombia next fall. Lon

To Meaning: direction
gave a ring to his girlfriend.

Toward(s) Meaning: in the direction of The truck was coming directly toward(s) us.

Under Meaning: below The cat hid under the couch.

Until Meaning: up to the time Ziggy will work until 2018.

Walter will stay in China until July.

Up Meaning: above Kristin lives high up on the hill.

Mark looked up and saw a large bird.

Upon Meaning: when (poetic use) Once upon a time, there was a noble queen.

I had dinner with Arnold yesterday. Are

With Meaning: together
you with me or against me?

Within Meaning: inside Hal kept all his emotions within himself.
Within these walls are many treasures.

People cannot live without water. I

Without Meaning: lacking
cannot live without you.
Prepositional Phrases
One of the most common constructions in the English language is the prepositional phrase. You can find prepositional
phrases in almost every sentence. Sometimes there are even two or three prepositional phrases used in the same
sentence.

The basic prepositional phrase has three words: preposition, article, noun. This is the most common construction.
Other words, such as adjectives, may be added. The article is not used in some phrases, and the noun
may be replaced by a pronoun. Analyze the following examples:

In the closet (preposition, article,

noun) Over the chair (preposition,
article, noun) To the woman
(preposition, article, noun) From the
mall (preposition, article, noun)

To India (preposition,
noun) Near Syria (preposition,
noun) After lunch
(preposition, noun)

Towards me (preposition,
pronoun) With them
(preposition,
pronoun)

Phrasal Verbs
Many verbs are followed by prepositions. These prepositions often change the meaning of the verb. Analyze the
differences among the following phrasal verbs:

John threw away his old notebook. (meaning: to get rid of)
Harold threw up after he drank too much beer. (meaning: to vomit)

Patricia looked up the word in the dictionary. (meaning: to

check) George looked into becoming a nurse. (meaning: to
research) David looked up to his boss. (meaning: to admire)
Sally looks out for her little brother. (meaning: to take care of)

Cindy wanted to try on the new dress. (meaning: to put on for the first time)
Sam is going to try out the new high speed internet service for one month. (meaning: to try for the first time)
 CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that join parts of the sentence. They may join two similar parts of speech, such as two adjectives,
two verbs, or two nouns. Conjunctions may also connect two clauses. Coordinating conjunctions unite two independent
clauses and subordinating conjunctions join one dependent clause and one independent clause.

Coordinating Conjunctions:

and but or

yet for nor

so

To recall the seven coordinating conjunctions, remember the word FANBOYS [For And Nor But Or Yet So].
Notes:
 Do not begin a sentence with the coordinating conjunctions and, but, so, or yet.
 For is poetic. It means because. For is rarely used as a conjunction in modern English.
 Nor, used by itself, usually begins a sentence. It is usually followed by do or does and then the
subject. [e.g., I don’t like opera. Nor do I like chamber music.]
 As a conjunction, yet means but. It is used more often in writing than in speaking.
 Use a comma before the conjunction when 2 independent clauses are joined. You don’t need to use a comma
if those clauses are short or if they have the same subject.

Subordinating Conjunctions:
These words are often called subordinators. They are used at the beginning of a dependent clause in a complex sentence.
Note that the order of the clauses doesn’t matter, but there is a comma when the dependent clause is first in the sentence
(Subordinating conjunction S V , S V) and no comma when the independent clause is first (S V Subordinating conjunc-
tion S V).

after if though

although if only till

as in order that unless

as if now that until

as long as once when

as though rather than whenever

because since where

before so that whereas

even if than wherever

even though that while

Correlative Conjunctions:

Some conjunctions are used in pairs. They use parallel structure, which means that the same grammatical forms appear
on each side of the conjunction.

both ... and neither ... nor not only ... but also

either ... or not ... but whether ... or

as ... as

Examples of correlative conjunctions:

 Whether you earn an A or get a lower grade, do your best. [Each conjunction is followed by a verb]

 Both John and Bill are excellent tennis players. [Each conjunction is followed by a noun]

 Neither the professor nor the students understood the problem. [Each conjunction is followed by a noun]

 I not only lost the game but also hurt my ankle. [Each conjunction is followed by a verb]

 Professor Jenkins is not only patient, but also stimulating. [Each conjunction is followed by an adjective]

 Hector did not lose money at the casino but he did not win any either. [Each conjunction is followed by a verb]

 Barbara is as tall as Mary. [Two nouns are compared]