Vedic Cultures
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC approx. )
Later Vedic Period
• Introduction
• The period extending from C. 1000 BC to 600 BC has been called as the Later
Vedic Period
• During this period great changes occurred in the Aryan mode of life.
• Sources of information:
• The three later Vedas, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda
• Also texts like the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and the two Epics
Mahabharata and Ramayana served as the main source of information.
• Besides the above literary sources, archaeological remains also helped us in
reconstructing this period.
Introduction
• The scene of major activity shifted towards the East- the Ganga-Yamuna Doab
which roughly corresponds to the present Western Uttar Pradesh.
• Their old Aryan home in Punjab seem to have been forgotten, as references to it in
the later Vedic texts are very rare.
• Initially land was cleared by means of fire, but burning may have been
supplemented by the use of the iron axe, as this metal is referred to, in literature as
shyama-ayas (dark or black metal).
• Excavations at Atranjikhera (UP) indicates the use of iron in Western Uttar
Pradesh as early as 1000BC.
• In addition to this, several sherds of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) have been
discovered at Atranjikhera and its adjoining areas.
• This pottery type has been associated with the later Vedic Aryans.
Political Conditions
• From the later Vedic sources and sites excavated so far, it is found that the Aryans
migrant were no longer nomads but had set up settlements permanently.
• They had evolved the idea of territorial notions.
• Kingship was no longer tribal and its territorial character came to be established.
• Attempts were made by powerful rulers to build extensive empires.
• The frequent references to Asvamedha (horse sacrifices),
• Rajasuya (royal coronation)
• and Vajapeya (drink of strength)
• in religious texts testify that the king was raised from a simple Raja to a Samrat.
• Small tribal states, thus, gave way to a large and powerful states.
Political conditions contd.
• Territorial monarchy derived strength from taxation which started from this period.
• Settled life and stable agriculture led to the production of surplus
• This could be collected by the king in the form of taxes called bhag, sulk and bali.
• In the Shatapatta Brahmana, the king is described as Vishamatta (devourer of people), as he lived
on the taxes collected from the people which presents a contrast to the earlier period.
• On account of an assured income, the king could appoint many officers.
• Thus, the 12 Ratnins (jewel bearers) were high functionaries who were appointed to help the king
in his administration.
• Besides them, the Purohita, the Senani and the Gramani continued to be prominent officers of the
king.
• The increased in royal power considerably led to the gradual weakening of the Sabha and the
Samiti.
Social Conditions
• During this period the society came to be divided into four varnas known as Brahmanas,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Shudras.
• The Brahmanas enjoyed the highest status where they explained the Vedic texts, performed
complex sacrifices and imparted education to the children.
• The Kshatriyas formed the ruling class and it was their duty to maintain peace and order and
hence were looked upon as protectors of the people.
• The Vaisyas consisted of traders, agriculturists etc., and were the tax-paying class as they were to
give charity to the Brahmins, taxes to the Kshatriyas and salary to the Shudras.
• The Shudras constituted the lowest strata of the society and were meant to serve the three higher
three varnas. They did not enjoy any right to receive education nor could they hear or learn the
Vedas.
• With the emergence of the caste system, certain social norms developed where marriage between
the same gotra (clan) was not permitted.
Social Conditions contd.
• The position of women during this period declined considerably.
• The birth of a son was more welcomed and daughters were considered as a source of misery.
• The origin of sati may be traced to this period and women were not allowed to take part in politics
nor to attend meetings of the tribal assembly which they enjoyed during the Rigvedic Period.
• The food habits of the people underwent changes during this period.
• In addition to wheat and barley, vrihi (rice) is mentioned for the first time.
• Meat was taken only on ceremonial occasions and honey was commonly used.
• Later Vedic texts provides clear information about their dresses which consisted of three garments-
• nivi (under garment), vasa (lower garment) and adhivasa (over garment).
Social conditions contd..
• Another notable feature of the social organization during this period was the
prevalence of the four Ashrams, where the life of an individual was divided into
four Ashramas.
• The first was the Brahmacharya Ashrama which lasted up to 25 years, where a
student spent his life with his teacher receiving education.
• The second was the Grihastha Ashrama which lasted from 26 to 50 years where
the person married to procure sons.
• The third was the Vanaprastha Ashrama which lasted from 51 to 75 years where a
person leave his family, moved to the forests and engaged himself in meditation.
• The final stage was the Sanyasa Ashrama which extended beyond 76 years where
he lived in the forests and performed five sacrifices daily to acquire control over
senses like love and hatred.
Economic conditions
• Agriculture continued to be the main occupation of the people during this period.
• However, the art of agriculture had made progress since the Rigvedic period, where large and
heavy ploughs began to be used.
• Cattle breeding also received impetus during this period, people not only left sufficient meadows
but also provided sheds and protection to them.
• Cow was regarded as sacred and valuable and its slaughtering was punishable.
• Trade and commerce also continued to flourish and internal trade was carried on both by land
and water routes.
• During this period a new class of money-lenders came into existence and the reference to ganas or
corporation and the Sreshtnins or eldermen suggests that merchants were probably organized into
guilds.
• Besides, there is reference to a large number of occupations such as those of washermen,
charioteers, makers of baskets, ropes etc.
• By this period, the Aryans also had more extensive knowledge of different kinds of metals such as
gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead, tin and iron.
Religious conditions
• During this period, religion had become complex
• The adoption of various sacrificial rites greatly undermined the importance of several gods of the
Rigvedic period.
• Though gods such as Varuna, Indra and Surya were still worshipped they lost their importance
• Instead new gods like Shiva, Rudra, Vishnu and Brahma began to be worshipped.
• Greater importance began to be given to rituals and sacrifices.
• These sacrifices could not be performed by the common people
• Therefore this enhanced the importance of the priestly class.
• Sacrifices became more complex and costly
• The Brahmins became the chief beneficiaries of sacrifices and consequently gained in power
Religious conditions
• Thus, the first reaction to Brahmanical dominance and the extremely ritualistic religion can be seen
in the Upanishads, which reflects a wider spirit of enquiry.
• The Upanishadic thought centers around the idea of atma (soul) and did not give importance to
yajna (sacrifice).
• In the Upanishads we find the clear exposition of belief in the passage of human soul from life to
life.
• Souls were believed as being born to happiness or sorrow according to their conduct in the
previous life
• From this evolved the theory of karma (action), which preached that the deeds of one life affected
the next.
• This doctrine sought to provide an explanation of human suffering and later on became
fundamental to most Indian thought.
Religious conditions
• During this period, asceticism also became fairly widespread where ascetics lived as solitary
hermits away from society and practiced meditation and tapas (self-torture) to achieve moksha
(salvation).
• Asceticism thus challenged the supremacy of the Vedic sacrifices and especially towards the
brahmanas.
• Conclusion: Therefore, from the above discussion, we can conclude that the material life and
culture of the Later Vedic Aryans had registered considerable advance and the pastoral and semi-
nomadic form of living faded to the background.
• Though people continued to be largely dependent on agriculture, they supplemented their income
by practicing several other arts and crafts.
