Communication Theories

Athira K M
• Hypodermic Needle Theory, also known as Magic
Bullet Theory (hypodermic syringe model or
transmission-belt model) was promulgated by Harold
Lasswell in 1920s.

• It was written in the book “Propaganda Technique” in

the World War.
• Media dependency theory, a systematic approach to
the study of the effects of mass media on audiences
and of the interactions between media, audiences,
and social systems.

• It was introduced in outline by the American

communications researchers Sandra Ball-Rokeach
and Melvin DeFleur in 1976.
• Dependency theory conceives of dependency as a relationship in which
the fulfillment of one party‟s needs and goals is reliant on the
resources of another party.

• A main focus of the theory is the relationship between media and

audiences.

• In industrialized and information-based societies, individuals tend to

develop a dependency on the media to satisfy a variety of their needs,
which can range from a need for information on a political candidate‟s
policy positions (to help make a voting decision) to a need for
relaxation and entertainment.
In general, the extent of the media‟s influence is related to the degree of
dependence of individuals and social systems on the media.

Two of the basic propositions put forward by Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur are:

(1) the greater the number of social functions performed for an audience by a
medium (e.g., informing the electorate, providing entertainment), the
greater the audience‟s dependency on that medium, and

(2) the greater the instability of a society (e.g., in situations of social change and
conflict), the greater the audience‟s dependency on the media and,
therefore, the greater the potential effects of the media on the audience.
• There are potentially three types of effects that result from an audience‟s
dependency on the media: cognitive, affective, and behavioral.

• Cognitive effects are changes in an audience‟s attitudes, beliefs, and

values, including changes brought about by the media in its role in
political “agenda setting.”

• Affective effects include, for example, the development of feelings of

fear and anxiety about living in certain neighbourhoods as a result of
overexposure to news reports about violent events in such areas.
• An example of a behavioral effect is “deactivation,” which occurs when
individual members of an audience refrain from taking certain actions
that they would have taken had they not been exposed to certain
messages from the media.

• Not voting in political elections may be such an effect

• Since its inception, media dependency theory has generated many cross-
disciplinary studies. It has also served well as a theoretical basis for
research in the domain of political-campaign communication, in which
the relationship between the mass media, the electorate, and political
candidates is a central focus.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE THEORY
A theory of mass communication that proposes that
individuals respond differently to the mass media according to
their psychological needs, and that individuals consume the
mass media to satisfy those needs. The need may be for
information (e.g. providing statistics about players and teams),
integrative (offering a sense of belonging to a group of
similarly interested people), affective (e.g. by providing
excitement), or escapist (helping to release pent-up
emotions). Compare social categories theory.
• Individual differences theory or Attitude change Theory of mass
communication proposes that individuals respond differently to the
mass media according to their psychological needs, and that
individuals consume the mass media to satisfy those needs.

• The theory gives importance to the individual audiences and states

that an individual‟s values, needs, beliefs and attitudes play a major
role in how they react and use media.

• The individual difference theory is an important theory based on

psychological approach to understand mass media effects.
According to this theory, different personality variables result in
different reactions to the same stimuli.
• In other words, the psychological makeup of a person is very much responsible for
how he or she will consume media.

• Therefore, different people will react differently to same information or message.

• In other words, reaction of media message or content will differ according to

motivation of audience members, their predisposition to accept or reject a given
message, their prior believes, values, bias, intelligence level, moods etc.

• A category for communication research generally known as attitude change research

has focused on the phenomenon that different individuals may receive the same
message but act on it quite differently.

• This research is grouped under the heading of selectivity.

• The studies of American researcher Carl Hovland in particular concluded that
people are very selective in how they use media; in the topics they expose
themselves to, in how they interpret information, and in how they retain
information obtained through the media.

• Thus, the theory points out that people are selective about their use of media. The
most important aspects of selectivity are the theories of selective exposure,
selective perception and selective retention. Selective exposure and selective
perception act as barriers between message and effect, thus limiting the direct
impact of mass communication on people.
Selective Exposure theory

• Selective Exposure means that people expose themselves and access only
those communications which are in accordance with their established
beliefs and convictions.

• They tend to avoid those messages which are against their point of view.
People seek out not only topics of interest to them but more importantly
viewpoints with which they expect to agree. Thus, they use to the media
to reinforce existing biases.

• On occasions when people seek out opposing points of view, they often
do so for the purpose of hearing the arguments so that they can refute it
later messages according to their psychological predisposition.
Selective Perception theory

• Selective perception observes that people often interpret facts to suit

their existing biases.

• Once the individuals have selectively exposed themselves to the messages

in accordance with their preference, they tend „read into‟ the message
whatever suits their needs. This process is called selective perception.

• Selective perception implies that the audience members tend to

misinterpret media
• The famous “Mr Biggot experiments” are classic examples which show
that prejudiced people misinterpreted the meanings of anti-prejudice
propaganda in such a way that it reinforced their existing biases.

• People hear what they want to hear and what they expect to hear.

• Thus the same information may carry different meaning for different
people, particularly people with differing political, religious, cultural,
ethnic, national or other substantial differences
Selective Retention Theory

• Selective retention notes that people remember messages that support their
opinion longer than they remember opposing messages, which often
unconsciously are forgotten and set aside.

• As with selective exposure and selective perception, selective retention is

likely to reinforce existing beliefs and attitudes. Such tendencies make it less
likely that the media can play a solo role in changing attitudes and behavior.

• Melvin L.De Fleur and Sandra Ball Rokeach have concluded, “from the vast
available content, individual members of the audience selectively attend to,
interpret and retain messages, particularly if they are related to their interest,
consistent with their attitude, congruent with beliefs and supportive of their
values”.
• To sum up, Individual Differences Theory of mass communication proposes
that individuals respond differently to the mass media according to their
psychological needs, and that individuals consume the mass media to satisfy
those needs.

• The need may be for information (e.g. providing statistics about players and
teams), integrative (offering a sense of belonging to a group of similarly
interested people), affective (e.g. by providing excitement), or escapist
(helping to release pent-up emotions).
Social responsibility theory (found more in Europe and countries
under European influence) is a modified version of free press theory
placing greater emphasis upon the accountability of the media
(especially broadcasting) to society. Media are free but they should
accept obligations to serve the public good.

The means of ensuring compliance with these obligations can either be

through professional self-regulation or public intervention (or both).
Media must take care of social responsibility and if they do not, government
or other organisation will do.

Private ownership in media may give better public service unless government
Has to take over to assure the public to provide better media service.

Everyone to say something or express their opinion about their media