Oceania

Oceania (UK: /ˌoʊsiˈɑːniə, ˌoʊʃi-, -ˈeɪn-/ OH-s(h)ee-AH-nee-ə, -⁠AY-,

[5]
Oceania
US: /ˌoʊʃiˈæniə, -ˈɑːn-/ OH-shee-A(H)N-ee-ə) is a geographical region
including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.[6][7]
Outside of the English-speaking world, Oceania is generally considered
a continent, while Australia is regarded as an island or a continental
landmass contained inside of the larger continent of
Oceania.[8][9][10][11] Spanning the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, at
the centre of the water hemisphere, Oceania is estimated to have a
land area of about 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) and a
population of around 44.4 million as of 2022. When compared to the
continents (which it is often compared to, not including Australia),
Oceania is the smallest in land area and the second-least populated An orthographic projection of Oceania
after Antarctica. Area 9,000,000 km2
(3,500,000 sq mi) (7th)
Oceania has a diverse mix of economies from the highly developed and
Population 44,491,724 (2021,
globally competitive financial markets of Australia, French Polynesia,
6th)[1][2]
Hawaii, New Caledonia, and New Zealand, which rank high in quality
of life and Human Development Index,[12][13] to the much less Population 4.94/km2 (12.8/sq mi)
developed economies of Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, density
and Western New Guinea,[14] while also including medium-sized GDP $1.630 trillion (2018, 6th)
economies of Pacific islands such as Fiji, Palau, and Tonga.[15] The (nominal)
largest and most populous country in Oceania is Australia, and the GDP per $62,316 (2023, 1st)
largest city is Sydney.[16] Puncak Jaya in Highland Papua, Indonesia, is capita
the highest peak in Oceania at 4,884 m (16,024 ft).[17]
Religions 82.2% Christianity
The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to 42.7% Protestantism
the east arrived more than 60,000 years ago.[18] Oceania was first 24.7% Catholicism
explored by Europeans from the 16th century onward. Portuguese 14.8% Other Christian
explorers, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Tanimbar Islands, 16.5% No religion
some of the Caroline Islands and west New Guinea. Spanish and Dutch 1.3% Other[3]
explorers followed, then British and French. On his first voyage in the
Demonym Oceanian
18th century, James Cook, who later arrived at the highly developed
Hawaiian Islands, went to Tahiti and followed the east coast of Countries UN members [show]
Australia for the first time.[19] (15)
Australia
The arrival of European settlers in subsequent centuries resulted in a Fiji
significant alteration in the social and political landscape of Oceania.
Indonesia
The Pacific theatre saw major action during the First World War with
the Japanese occupying many German territories. During the Second Kiribati
World War, Allied powers the United States, Philippines (a U.S. Marshall Islands
Commonwealth at the time) and Australia fought against Axis power Micronesia
Japan across various locations in Oceania. Nauru

The rock art of Aboriginal Australians is the longest continuously New Zealand
practiced artistic tradition in the world.[20] Most Oceanian countries Palau
are multi-party representative parliamentary democracies, with Papua New Guinea
Samoa
tourism being a large source of income for the Pacific island Solomon Islands
nations.[21] Tonga
Tuvalu
Definitions and extent Vanuatu
Associated (2) [show]

Characteristics Cook Islands

Niue
Definitions of Oceania vary.[22][23][7] The broadest definition of Oceania
encompasses the many islands between mainland Asia and the Dependencies External (21) [show]
Americas.[6][24][25] The island nation of Australia is the only piece of Australia (5)
land in the area which is large enough to typically be considered a
continent.[26][27] The culture of the people who lived on these islands Ashmore and
was often distinct from that of Asia and pre-Columbian America, hence Cartier Islands
a lack of association with either.[28] Before Europeans arrived in the Christmas Island
area, the sea shielded Australia and south central Pacific islands from Cocos (Keeling)
cultural influences that spread through large continental landmasses Islands
and adjacent islands.[28][29] The islands of the Malay Archipelago, Coral Sea Islands
north of Australia, mainly lie on the continental shelf of Asia, and their
Norfolk Island
inhabitants had more exposure to mainland Asian culture as a result
of this closer proximity.[28] The island of Taiwan similarly lies on the France (3)
continental shelf of Asia, with their inhabitants historically having had
French Polynesia
exchange with mainland Asia.[30]
New Caledonia
The geographer Conrad Malte-Brun coined the French expression Wallis and
Terres océaniques (Oceanic lands) c. 1804,[31] then in 1814 another Futuna
French cartographer, Adrien-Hubert Brué, coined from this expression New Zealand (1)
the shorter "Océanie" putting it on a map, "Océanie, ou cinquième partie
du monde, comprenant l'archipel d'Asie, l'Australasie et la Polynésie (ou Tokelau
le continent de la Nouvelle Hollande et les îles du Grand Océan)".[32] United Kingdom (1)
Océanie derives from the Latin word oceanus, and this from the Greek
word ὠκεανός (ōkeanós), "ocean". The term Oceania is used because, Pitcairn Islands
unlike the other continental groupings, it is the ocean that links the United States (11)
parts of the region together.[33] John Eperjesi's 2005 book The
Imperialist Imaginary: Visions of Asia and the Pacific in American American Samoa
Culture says that it has "been used by Western cartographers since the Baker Island
mid-19th century to give order to the complexities of the Pacific
Guam
area."[34] The Handbook of Religion (2014) states that it was "introduced
Howland Island
by westerners" and in the 19th century helped describe "a
sociopolitical reality of the islands of the southwest Pacific and Jarvis Island
Australia."[35] Johnston Atoll
Kingman Reef
In the 19th century, many geographers divided up Oceania into mostly
Midway Atoll
racially based subdivisions; Australasia, Malesia (encompassing the
Malay Archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The 2011 Northern Mariana
book Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific, by Richard W. Casteel and Islands
Jean-Claude Passeron, states that, "for the purpose of anthropology, Palmyra Atoll
Oceania has long been a continent like Africa, Asia and America."[36] Wake Island
Scottish geographer John Bartholomew wrote in 1873 that, "the New
World consists of North America, and the peninsula of South America Internal (11) [show]
attached to it. These divisions [are] generally themselves spoken as
Chile (1)
continents, and to them has been added another, embracing the large
island of Australia and numerous others in the [Pacific] Ocean, under Easter Island
the name of Oceania. There are thus six great divisions of the earth —
Ecuador (1)
Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America and Oceania."[37] Galapagos
American author Samuel Griswold Goodrich wrote in his 1854 book Islands[4]
History of All Nations that, "geographers have agreed to consider the Indonesia (7)
island world of the Pacific Ocean as a third continent, under the name
Oceania." In this book, the other two continents were categorized as Maluku (Aru
being the New World (consisting of the Americas) and the Old World Islands)
(consisting of Afro-Eurasia).[38] One study from 1884 describes Oceania Central Papua
as a continent, stating that "South of the continent of Asia is found a Highland Papua
large island nearly as large as the continent of Europe. This, with a Papua
great number of small islands in the neighbourhood, is regarded as
South Papua
forming a fourth continent known as Oceania."[39] Other studies from
the early twentieth Century also described Oceania as a Southwest Papua
continent.[40][41] In his 1879 book Australasia, British naturalist Alfred West Papua
Russel Wallace commented that, "Oceania is the word often used by Japan (1)
continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are
now entering upon" and that "Australia forms its central and most Ogasawara
important feature."[42] He did not explicitly label Oceania a continent United States (1)
in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of
the world.[42] The Oxford Handbook of World History (2011) describes Hawaii
the areas encompassed in Oceania as being "afterthoughts in world
Languages Official (30) [show]
history texts, lumped together and included at the end of global
Bislama
surveys as areas largely marginal to the main events of world
history".[43] Carolinian
Chamorro
In most non-English-speaking countries Oceania is treated as a Chinese
continent in the sense that it is "one of the parts of the world", and
Cook Islands Māori
Australia is only seen as an island nation. While in other non-English-
English
speaking countries Australia and Eurasia are thought of as continents,
while Asia, Europe, and Oceania are regarded as "parts of the Fiji Hindi
world".[44][45] Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the Fijian
theory of plate tectonics, Antarctica, Australia, and Greenland were French
sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually
Gilbertese
taught as one of the world's continents in the English-speaking
Hawaiʻian
countries.[46][47][48] In his 1961 book The United States and the
Southwest Pacific, American author Clinton Hartley Grattan Hiri Motu
commented that, "the use of the word Oceania to cover Australia, New Indonesian
Zealand, and the [Pacific] islands now has a slightly old-fashioned Japanese
flavor."[49] Australia is a founding member of the Pacific Islands Forum Māori
in 1971, and at times has been interpreted as the largest Pacific
Marshallese
island.[50][51] For example, Tony deBrum, Foreign Minister for the
Nauruan
Marshall Islands, stated in 2014, "not only [is Australia] our big brother
down south, Australia is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum and New Zealand Sign
Australia is a Pacific island, a big island, but a Pacific island."[50] Some Language
geographers group the Australian tectonic plate with others in the Niuean
Pacific to form a geological continent.[52] National Geographic states Norfuk
that the term Oceania "establishes the Pacific Ocean as the defining Palauan
characteristic of the continent."[53] Others have labelled it as the "liquid
Pitkern
continent".[54][55][56] The Pacific Ocean itself has been labelled as a
"continent of islands", and contains approximately 25,000, which is Rapa Nui

more than all the other major oceans combined.[57][58] In a 1991 article Rotuman
for the Submerged Resources Center, American archeologist Toni L. Samoan
Carrell wrote, "the immensity of and great distances within the Pacific Spanish
Basin often make it difficult to conceptualize the basin as a single earth Tok Pisin
feature." He adds that most islands in the Pacific are "close enough Tokelauan
together to be easily clustered into archipelagos or groups. The notable Tongan
exceptions, those islands more than 400 statute miles from any other, Tuvaluan
are: Clipperton Island, Easter Island, Johnston Atoll, Marcus Island,
Norfolk Island, Parece Vela, and Salas and Gómez Island."[59] In his Time zones UTC+9 (Papua, Palau) to
UTC–6 (Easter Island)
2013 book Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A
Comprehensive Guide, American herpetologist George R. Zug wrote, (west to east)
"what is and is not part of the Pacific—particularly the western Pacific Largest cities 10 largest cities [show]
—is variously delimited", adding that "a majority viewpoint accepts the in Oceania
landmasses of Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Guinea, and eastern
Australia, which face the open waters of the Pacific, as its western 1. Sydney

edge." Islands in Indonesia's North Maluku and North Sulawesi regions 2. Melbourne
are considered to border the open Pacific Ocean, with the rest of the 3. Brisbane
Indonesian islands being located in marginal seas of the Pacific, or the 4. Perth
Indian Ocean. Oceania's subregions of Australasia, Melanesia, 5. Auckland
Micronesia, and Polynesia cover two major plates; the Australian Plate
6. Adelaide
(also known as the Indo-Australian Plate) and the Pacific Plate, in
addition to two minor plates; the Nazca Plate and the Philippine Sea 7. Honolulu
Plate.[60][61] The Australian Plate includes Australia, Fiji, New 8. Gold Coast–
Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, and parts of New Tweed Heads
Zealand.[60][61] The Pacific Plate covers the Solomon Islands and parts 9. Christchurch
of New Zealand, as well as Micronesia (excluding the westernmost 10. Newcastle–
islands near the Philippine Sea Plate) and Polynesia (excluding Easter Maitland
Island).[60][61] The Nazca Plate, which includes Easter Island,
UN M49 code 009 – Oceania
neighbours the South American Plate, and is still considered to be a
001 – World
separate tectonic plate, despite only containing a handful of
islands.[60][61]

The new terms Near Oceania and

Remote Oceania were proposed in
1973 by anthropologists Roger
Green and Andrew Pawley. By
their definition, Near Oceania
consists of New Guinea, the
Bismarck Archipelago and the
Mercator Planisphere by A.-H.
Solomon Islands, with the Oceania with its sovereign states and
Brué (1816), showing Océanie, the
Grand Océan and Polynésie exception of the Santa Cruz dependent territories within the subregions
[62] Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and
including all the islands of the Islands. They are designed to
Pacific Ocean dispel the outdated categories of Polynesia

Melanesia, Micronesia, and

Polynesia; Near Oceania cuts right
across the old category of Melanesia, which has shown to be not a pertinent
category in respect to the geography, archeology, culture, language and
human history of the region. The old categories have been in use since they
were proposed in 1832 by French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville. Many
scholars now replace those categories with Green's terms since the early
1990s, but the old categories are still used in science, popular culture and
general usage.[63]
1852 map by Jean-Denis Barbié
du Bocage. Includes regions of
Boundaries Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia
and Malesia
Islands at the geographic extremes of Oceania are generally
considered to be the Bonin Islands, a politically integral part of Japan;
Hawaii, a state of the United States; Clipperton Island, a possession of
France; the Juan Fernández Islands, belonging to Chile; and
Macquarie Island, belonging to Australia.[64][65][66][67][68][69][70]

United Nations interpretation

The United Nations (UN) has used its own geopolitical definition of
Oceania since its foundation in 1947, which utilizes four of the five Map displaying parts of Near Oceania and
subregions from the 19th century; Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Remote Oceania with a focus on Efate
and Polynesia. This definition consists of discrete political entities,
and so excludes the Bonin Islands, Hawaii, Clipperton Island and
the Juan Fernández Islands, along with Easter Island — which was
annexed by Chile in 1888.[71] It is used in statistical reports, by the
International Olympic Committee, and by many atlases.[72] The UN
categorizes Oceania, and by extension the Pacific area, as one of
the major continental divisions of the world, along with Africa,
Asia, Europe and the Americas. Their definition includes American
Samoa, Australia and their external territories, the Cook Islands,
Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Fiji, Guam,
Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Oceania and its four subregions
Zealand, Niue, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New
Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tokelau,
Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands (Baker Island,
Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Wake Island).[71] The original UN definition of
Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still
colonies at that point.[73] Hawaii had not yet become a U.S. state in 1947, and as such was part of the original
UN definition of Oceania. The island states of Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Singapore and Taiwan, all
located within the bounds of the Pacific or associated marginal seas, are excluded from the UN definition. The
states of Hong Kong and Malaysia, located in both mainland Asia and marginal seas of the Pacific, are also
excluded, as is the nation of Brunei, which shares the island of Borneo with Indonesia and Malaysia. Further
excluded are East Timor and Indonesian New Guinea/Western New Guinea, areas which are biogeographically
or geologically associated with the Australian landmass.[74][75] The CIA World Factbook also categorizes
Oceania as one of the major continental divisions of the world, but the name "Australia and Oceania" is used.
Their definition does not include all of Australia's external territories, but is otherwise the same as the UN's
definition, and is also used for statistical purposes.[76] In a 2008 article for the India Quarterly journal titled
Oceania and Security: A Perspective from New Zealand, author Peter Cozens stated, "the region of Oceania is
characterised by vast distances across the sea between continental land masses [...] It is difficult to be precise
about the term Oceania and its exact delimitation", adding that "the principal regional political grouping is
contained within the Pacific Island Forum (PIF) – the 16 states making up the Forum are: Australia, Cook
Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau,
Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu – in general terms this is the area
referred to as Oceania by the United Nations and similar agencies."[77] The Pacific Islands Forum expanded
during the early 2010s, and areas that were already included in the UN definition of Oceania, such as French
Polynesia, gained membership.[78]

Early interpretations
French writer Gustave d'Eichthal remarked in 1844 that, "the boundaries of Oceania are in reality those of the
great ocean itself."[79] Conrad Malte-Brun in 1824 defined Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the
islands of Polynesia (which then included all the Pacific islands) and the Malay Archipelago.[80][81] American
lexicographer Joseph Emerson Worcester wrote in 1840 that Oceania is "a term applied to a vast number of
islands which are widely dispersed in the Pacific Ocean [...] they are considered as forming a fifth grand
division of the world." He also viewed Oceania as
covering Australia, New Zealand, the Malay
Archipelago and the islands of Melanesia,
Micronesia, and Polynesia.[82] In 1887, the Royal
Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland referred
to Australia as the area's westernmost land,[83] while
in 1870, British Reverend Alexander Mackay
identified the Bonin Islands as its northernmost
point, and Macquarie Island as its southernmost
point.[84] The Bonin Islands (adjacent to Micronesia)
at that time were a possession of Britain; Macquarie
Island, to the south of Tasmania, is a subantarctic A German map of Oceania from 1884, showing the region to
encompass Australia and all islands between Asia and Latin
island in the Pacific. It was politically associated
America
with Australia and Tasmania by 1870.[85]

Alfred Russel Wallace believed in 1879 that Oceania

extended to the Aleutian Islands, which are among the northernmost islands of the Pacific.[42] The islands,
now politically associated with Alaska, have historically had inhabitants that were related to Indigenous
Americans, in addition to having non-tropical biogeography similar to that of Alaska and Siberia.[86][87]
Wallace insisted while the surface area of this wide definition was greater than that of Asia and Europe
combined, the land area was only a little greater than that of Europe.[42] American geographer Sophia S.
Cornell claimed that the Aleutian Islands were not part of Oceania in 1857.[88] She stated that Oceania was
divided up into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Zealand and the Melanesian islands),
Malesia (which included all present-day countries within the Malay Archipelago, not the modern country of
Malaysia) and Polynesia (which included both the Polynesian and Micronesian islands in her definition).[88]
Aside from mainland Australia, areas that she identified as of high importance were Borneo, Hawaii,
Indonesia's Java and Sumatra, New Guinea, New Zealand, the Philippines, French Polynesia's Society Islands,
Tasmania, and Tonga.[88]

American geographer Jesse Olney's 1845 book A Practical System of Modern Geography stated that it
"comprises the numerous isles of the Pacific, lying south east of Asia." Olney divided up Oceania into three
groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Guinea and New Zealand), Malesia and Polynesia (which
included the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia in his definition).[89] Publication
Missionary Review of the World claimed in 1895 that Oceania was divided up into five groups; Australasia,
Malesia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. It did not consider Hawaii to be part of Polynesia, due to its
geographic isolation, commenting that Oceania also included, "isolated groups and islands, such as the
Hawaiian and Galápagos."[90] In his 1876 book The Earth and Its Inhabitants: Oceanica, French geographer
Élisée Reclus labelled Australia's flora as "one of the most characteristic on the globe", adding that "the
Hawaiian archipelago also constitutes a separate vegetation zone; of all tropical insular groups it possesses the
relatively largest number of endemic plants. In the Galápagos group also more than half of the species are of
local origin."[91] Rand McNally & Company, an American publisher of maps and atlases, claimed in 1892 that,
"Oceania comprises the large island of Australia and the innumerable islands of the Pacific Ocean" and also
that the islands of the Malay Archipelago "should be grouped in with Asia."[92] British linguist Robert Needham
Cust argued in 1887 that the Malay Archipelago should be excluded since it had participated in Asian
civilization.[93] Cust considered Oceania's four subregions to be Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and
Polynesia.[93] New Zealand was categorized by him as being in Polynesia; and the only country in his
definition of Australasia was Australia.[93] His definition of Polynesia included both Easter Island and Hawaii,
which had not yet been annexed by either Chile or the United States.[93]

The Journal of the Royal Statistical Society stated in 1892 that Australia was a large island within Oceania
rather than a small continent. It additionally commented, "it is certainly not necessary to consider the
Hawaiian Islands and Australia as being in the same part of the world, it is however permissible to unite in
one group all the islands which are scattered over the great ocean. It should be remarked that if we take the
Malay Archipelago away from Oceania, as do generally the German geographers, the insular world contained
in the great ocean is cut in two, and the least populated of the five parts of the world is diminished in order to
increase the number of inhabitants of the most densely populated continent."[94] Regarding Australia and the
Pacific, Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia observed in 1885 that, "the whole region has
sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia—generally, however, in modern times, to the
exclusion of the islands in the [Malay] archipelago, to which certain writers have given the name of
Malesia."[95] It added there was controversy over the exact limits of Oceania, saying that, "scarcely any two
geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject".[95] British physician and ethnologist James Cowles
Prichard claimed in 1847 that the Aleutian Islands and the Kuril Islands form "the northern boundary of this
fifth region of the world, and with the coasts of Asia and America completing its literal termination." However,
he wrote that these islands "are not usually reckoned as belonging to it, because they are known to be
inhabited by races of people who came immediately from the adjacent continents and are unconnected with
those tribes of the human race who peopled the remote islands of this great ocean." He added that Hawaii was
the most northerly area to be inhabited by races associated with Oceania.[96]

The 1926 book Modern World History, 1776-1926: A Survey of the Origins and Development of Contemporary
Civilization, by Alexander Clarence Flick, considered Oceania to include all islands in the Pacific, and
associated the term with the Malay Archipelago, the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, the
Aleutian Islands, Japan's Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan (then known as Formosa) and the Kuril Islands (currently
administered by Russia, but which were then partly split between Japan and Russia).[97] He further included
in his definition Sakhalin, an island which is geologically part of the Japanese archipelago, but that has been
administered by Russia since World War II. It is located within a marginal sea of the Pacific (the Sea of
Okhotsk), unlike the rest of the Japanese archipelago and the neighbouring Kuril Islands, which border the
open Pacific Ocean. Hong Kong, partly located in another marginal sea of the Pacific (the South China Sea) was
also included in his definition. Australia and New Zealand were grouped together by Flick as Australasia, and
categorized as being in the same area of the world as the islands of Oceania. Flick estimated this definition of
Oceania had a population of 70,000,000, and commented that, "brown and yellow races constitute the vast
majority" and that the minority of whites were mainly "owners and rulers".[97] He added, "through trade
relations, the work of missionaries and teachers, and political control, western civilization is slowly
penetrating these out of the way places either directly, or indirectly through Europeanized powers like
Japan."[97] Hutton Webster's 1919 book Medieval and Modern History also considered Oceania to encompass all
islands in the Pacific, stating that, "the term Oceania, or Oceanica, in its widest sense applies to all the Pacific
Islands." Webster broke Oceania up into two subdivisions; the continental group, which included Australia, the
Japanese archipelago, the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan, and the oceanic group, which included New Zealand
and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.[98] In his 1846 book A Universal Pronouncing
Gazetteer, author Thomas Baldwin wrote that Oceania includes Australia and Pacific islands which "are
considered, from their proximity, not to belong to the continents of Asia or America." He defined Oceania as
including the Malay Archipelago, but not Japan or Taiwan, and noted that "its limits are somewhat
indefinite."[99]

Charles Marion Tyler's 1885 book The Island World of the Pacific Ocean considered Oceania to ethnographically
encompass Australia, New Zealand, the Malay Archipelago, and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and
Polynesia. However, Tyler included other Pacific islands in his book as well, such as the Aleutian Islands, the
Bonin Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands,
Taiwan, California's Channel Islands and Farallon Islands, Canada's Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte
Islands (now known as Haida Gwaii), Chile's Chiloé Island, Ecuador's Galápagos Islands, Mexico's Guadalupe
Island, Revillagigedo Islands, San Benito Islands and Tres Marías Islands, and Peru's Chincha Islands.[100]
Islands in marginal seas of the Pacific were also covered in the book, including Alaska's Pribilof Islands
(located to the north of the Aleutian chain in the subarctic Bering Sea) and China's Hainan (located in the
South China Sea). Tyler additionally profiled the Anson archipelago, which during the 19th century was a
designation for a widely scattered group of purported islands in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean between
Japan and Hawaii. The Anson archipelago included phantom islands such as Ganges Island and Los Jardines
which were proven to not exist, as well as real islands such as Marcus Island and Wake Island.[101][102] Tyler
described Australia as "the leviathan of the island groups of the world", and stated that the Juan Fernández
Islands "will always retain a marked prominence in island histories, being at one time the home of that
celebrated castaway Alexander Selkirk, whose life and adventures have been made so intensely interesting to
youthful minds, and older ones too, for that matter, by Defoe in his wonderful book Robinson Crusoe."[100] In
his 1857 book A Treatise on Physical Geography, Francis B. Fogg commented that "the Pacific and its
dependencies may be said to contain that portion of the globe termed Oceanica or 'the Maritime World', which
is divided into Australasia, Malesia and Polynesia." Fogg defined Polynesia as covering the combined islands of
Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, as well as the Ryukyu Islands. He added that, "besides the proceeding,
the Pacific contains many other islands, of which the most important are Hainan and Formosa, on the coast of
China, the Japan isles, the Kuriles, the Aleutian Islands (stretching from the New World to the Old), Vancouver
Island, the Galápagos, Juan Fernández and Chiloé."[103] Scottish academic John Merry Ross in 1879 considered
Polynesia to cover the entire South and Central Pacific area, not just islands ethnographically within Polynesia.
He wrote in The Globe Encyclopedia of Universal Information that, "literally interpreted, the name would
include all the groups from Sumatra to the Galápagos, together with Australia."[104] Ross further wrote, "and to
this vast region the term Oceania has been applied. It is more usual at the present time, however, to exclude
the [Malay] archipelago."[104]

Historical and contemporary interpretations

In a 1972 article for the Music Educators Journal titled Musics of Oceania, author Raymond F. Kennedy wrote,
"many meanings have been given to the word Oceania. The most inclusive–but not always the most useful–
embraces about 25,000 land areas between Asia and the Americas. A more popular and practical definition
excludes Indonesia, East Malaysia (Borneo), the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan and other islands closely related to
the Asian mainland, as well as the Aleutians and the small island groups situated near the Americas. Thus,
Oceania most commonly refers to the land areas of the South and Central Pacific."[105] Kennedy defined
Oceania as including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.[105] The U.S. Government Publishing
Office's Area Handbook for Oceania from 1971 states that Australia and New Zealand are the principal large
sovereignties of the area. It further states, "In its broadest definition Oceania embraces all islands and island
groups of the Pacific Ocean that lie between Asia and the two American continents. In popular usage,
however, the designation has a more restricted application. The islands of the North Pacific, such as the
Aleutians and the Kuriles, usually are excluded. In addition, the series of sovereign island nations fringing
Asia (Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, East Malaysia, the Republic of Indonesia) are not ordinarily considered to
be part of the area."[106] In 1948, American military journal Armed Forces Talk broke the islands of the Pacific
up into five major subdivisions; Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and the non-tropical Islands. The
Indonesia subdivision consisted of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, while the non-tropical islands were
categorized as being North Pacific islands such as Alaska's Kodiak archipelago, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, the
Kuril Islands and Sakhalin. Japan's Bonin and Ryukyu Islands are also considered to be subtropical islands,
with the main Japanese archipelago being non-tropical.[107] The journal associated the term Oceania with the
Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian subdivisions, but not with the Indonesian or non-tropical
subdivisions.[108] The Pacific Islands Handbook (1945), by Robert William Robson, stated that, "Pacific Islands
generally are regarded as Pacific islands lying within the tropics. There are a considerable number of Pacific
Islands outside the tropics. Most of them have little economic or political importance." He noted the political
significance of the Aleutian Islands, which were invaded by the Japanese military in World War II, and
categorized New Zealand's Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Campbell Islands, Chatham
Island and Kermadec Islands as being non-tropical islands of the South Pacific, along with Australia's Lord
Howe Island and Norfolk Island. The Kermadec Islands, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island are also
considered to be subtropical islands. Other non-tropical areas below the equator, such as Chiloé Island,
Macquarie Island, Tasmania, and the southern portions of mainland Australia and New Zealand, were not
included in this category.[109]

According to the 1998 book Encyclopedia of Earth and Physical Sciences, Oceania refers to Australasia,
Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and more than 10,000 islands scattered across the Pacific Ocean. It notes
that, "the term [has] also come under scrutiny by many geographers. Some experts insist that Oceania
encompasses even the cold Aleutian Islands and the islands of Japan. Disagreement also exists over whether
or not Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan should be included in Oceania."[110] The Japanese Archipelago,
the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan and other islands near China are often deemed as a geological extension of
Asia, since they do not have oceanic geology, instead being detached fragments of the Eurasian continent that
were once physiologically connected.[111][112][113] Certain Japanese islands off the main archipelago are not
geologically associated with Asia.[114][115] The book The World and Its Peoples: Australia, New Zealand, Oceania
(1966) asserts that, "Japan, Taiwan, the Aleutian Islands, Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia [and] the
Pacific archipelagos bordering upon the Far East Asian mainland are excluded from Oceania", and that "all the
islands lying between Australia and the Americas, including Australia, are part of Oceania."[116] Furthermore,
the book adds that Hawaii is still within Oceania, despite being politically integrated into the U.S., and that the
Pacific Ocean "gives unity to the whole" since "all these varied lands emerge from or border upon the
Pacific."[116]

The 1876 book The Countries of the World: Volume 4, by British scientist and explorer Robert Brown, labelled
the Malay Archipelago as Northwestern Oceania, but Brown still noted that these islands belonged more to the
Asian continent. They are now often referred to as Maritime Southeast Asia, with Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines and Singapore being founding members of the ASEAN regional organization for Southeast Asia in
1967 (Brunei and East Timor did not exist as independent nations at that point).[70][117] Brown also categorized
Japan and Taiwan as being in the same part of the world as the islands of Oceania, and excluded them from
The Countries of the World: Volume 5, which covered mainland Asia and Hong Kong.[70] However, Brown did
not explicitly associate Japan or Taiwan with the term Oceania.[70] He divided Oceania into two subregions;
Eastern Oceania, which included the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, and Southwestern
Oceania, which included Australia and New Zealand.[70] The Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands
and the Revillagigedo Islands were identified as the easternmost areas of Oceania in the book. Brown wrote,
"they lie nearest the American continent of all oceanic islands, and though rarely associated with Polynesia,
and never appearing to have been inhabited by any aboriginal races, are, in many ways, remarkable and
interesting."[70] Brown went on to add, "the small islands lying off the continent, like the Queen Charlotte's in
the North Pacific, the Farallones off California, and the Chinchas off Peru are — to all intents and purposes,
only detached bits of the adjoining shores. But in the case of the Galápagos, at least, this is different."[70] He
also claimed that they are "often cited as illustrating the peculiar relation of such islands to continents. Mr.
Darwin has, for instance, adducted them as an illustration of the fact that such islands are inhabited by plants
and animals closely allied to those of the nearest mainland, without actually being the same."[70] The Juan
Fernández Islands and the neighbouring Desventuradas Islands are today seen as the easternmost extension
of the Indo-West Pacific biogeographic region. The islands lie on the Nazca Plate with Easter Island and the
Galápagos Islands, and have a significant south central Pacific component to their marine fauna.[118][119][64]
According to scientific journal PLOS One, the Humboldt Current helps create a biogeographic barrier between
the marine fauna of these islands and South America.[118] Chile's government have occasionally considered
them to be within Oceania along with Easter Island.[120] Chile's government also categorize Easter Island, the
Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being part of a region titled Insular Chile. They
further include in this region Salas y Gómez, a small uninhabited island to the east of Easter Island. PLOS One
describe Insular Chile as having "cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific."[118]

In her 1997 book Australia and Oceania, Australian historian Kate Darian-Smith defined the area as covering
Australia, New Zealand and the islands of the Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. She excluded Hawaii from
her definition, but not Easter Island.[121] The International Union for Conservation of Nature stated in a 1986
report that they include Easter Island in their definition of Oceania "on the basis of its Polynesian and
biogeographic affinities even though it is politically apart", further noting that other oceanic islands
administered by Latin American countries had been included in definitions of Oceania.[122] In 1987, The
Journal of Australasian Cave Research described Oceania as being "the region from Irian Jaya (Western New
Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galápagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the
east."[123] In a 1980 report on venereal diseases in the South Pacific, the British Journal of Venereal Diseases
categorized the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as
being in an eastern region of the South Pacific, along with areas such as Pitcairn Islands and French Polynesia,
but noted that the Galápagos Islands were not a member of the South Pacific Commission, like other islands in
the South Pacific.[124] The South Pacific Commission is a developmental organization formed in 1947 and is
currently known as the Pacific Community; its members include Australia and other Pacific Islands Forum
members. In a 1947 article on the formation of the South Pacific Commission for the Pacific Affairs journal,
author Roy E. James stated the organization's scope
encompassed all non-self governing islands below the
equator to the east of Papua New Guinea (which itself was
included in the scope and then known as Dutch New Guinea).
Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands were defined by
James as falling within the organization's geographical
parameters.[125] The 2007 book Asia in the Pacific Islands:
Replacing the West, by New Zealand Pacific scholar Ron
Crocombe, defined the term "Pacific Islands" as being islands
in the South Pacific Commission, and stated that such a
definition "does not include Galápagos and other [oceanic]
islands off the Pacific coast of the Americas; these were A map of member states for the Pacific Islands
uninhabited when Europeans arrived, then integrated with a Forum, the member states are depicted in blue. The
PIF is a governing organization for the Pacific, and all
South American country and have almost no contact with
of its members are seen as being politically within
other Pacific Islands." He adds, "Easter Island still participates Oceania. Territories ethnographically associated with
in some Pacific Island affairs because its people are Oceania, but not politically associated with Oceania,
Polynesian."[23] such as Easter Island, Hawaii, and Western New
Guinea, have considered gaining representation in
Thomas Sebeok's two volume 1971 book Linguistics in the PIF. The Pacific island nations of Indonesia,
Oceania defines Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Juan Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and
Fernández Islands, Costa Rica's Cocos Island and Colombia's Taiwan are dialogue partners, but none have full
Malpelo Island (all oceanic)[126] as making up a Spanish membership. East Timor, located in marginal seas of
the Pacific and Indian Oceans, also have observer
language segment of Oceania.[127] Cocos Island and Malpelo
status.
Island are the only landmasses located on the Cocos Plate,
which is to the north of the Nazca Plate. The book observed
that a native Polynesian language was still understood on
Easter Island, unlike with the other islands, which were
uninhabited when discovered by Europeans and mostly being
used as prisons for convicts.[127] Additionally, the book
includes Taiwan and the entire Malay Archipelago as part of
Oceania.[128] While not oceanic in nature, Taiwan and Malay
Archipelago countries like Indonesia and the Philippines
share Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins with Melanesia,
Micronesia and Polynesia, hence their inclusion in the
book.[129][128] Hainan, which neighbours Taiwan, also has An exclusive economic zone map of the Pacific
Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins, although it was not which includes areas not politically associated with
included in the book. [130] The book defined Oceania's major Oceania, that may be considered geographically or
subregions as being Australia, Indonesia (which included all geologically within Oceania

areas associated with the Malay Archipelago), Melanesia,

Micronesia, and Polynesia. In 2010, Australian historian
Bronwen Douglas claimed in The Journal of Pacific History that "a strong case could be made for extending
Oceania to at least Taiwan, the homeland of the Austronesian language family whose speakers colonized
significant parts of the region about 6,000 years ago."[131] For political reasons, Taiwan was a member of the
Oceania Football Confederation during the 1970s and 1980s, rather than the Asian Football
Confederation.[132][133]

Ian Todd's 1974 book Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama also defines oceanic Latin American islands as making
up a Spanish language segment of Oceania, and included the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the
Galápagos Islands, Guadalupe Island, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and Salas y Gómez.
Cocos Island and Malpelo Island were not explicitly referenced in the book, despite being areas which would
fall within this range. All other islands associated with Latin American countries were excluded, as they are
continental in nature, unlike Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands (both situated on the Pacific
Plate) and the oceanic islands situated on the Cocos Plate and Nazca Plate. Todd defined the oceanic Bonin
Islands as making up a Japanese language segment of Oceania, and excluded the main Japanese
archipelago.[68] Todd further included the Aleutian Islands in his definition of Oceania. The island chain
borders both the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and is geologically a partially submerged volcanic
extension of the Aleutian Range on the Alaskan mainland, that stretches for another 1,600
kilometres.[134][135][136] He did not include the volcanic Kuril Islands and Ryukyu Islands, which similarly
border both the Eurasian Plate and the Pacific Plate,[137][138] nor did he include the neighbouring Kodiak
archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean, which is firmly situated on the North American Plate.[139] The
Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies stated in 1996 that Oceania was defined as Australia and an ensemble
of various Pacific Islands, "particularly those in the central and south Pacific [but] never those in the extreme
north, for example the Aleutian chain."[140] In the Pacific Ocean Handbook (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears
claimed, "it is customary to exclude the Aleutians of the North Pacific, the American coastal islands and the
Netherlands East Indies", and that he included Australia and New Zealand in Oceania for "scientific reasons;
Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither
Commonwealth realm has close ties with Asia."[141] In his 2002 book Oceania: An Introduction to the Cultures
and Identities of Pacific Islanders, Andrew Strathern excluded Okinawa and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands
from his definition of Oceania, but noted that the islands and their indigenous inhabitants "show many
parallels with Pacific island societies."[142]

In his 1994 book Familia Gekkonidae (Reptilia, Sauria). Part 1: Australia and Oceania, German herpetologist
Klaus Henle referred to the area as the Pacific region, and defined it as covering Australia, New Zealand, and
the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Henle included the Indonesian half of New Guinea, but
excluded the rest of Indonesia and the Malay Archipelago, as well as all Japanese islands and oceanic Latin
American islands (with the exception of Easter Island).[143] In the 2006 book Extinction and Biogeography of
Tropical Pacific Birds, American paleontologist David Steadman wrote, "no place on earth is as perplexing as
the 25,000 islands that make Oceania." Steadman viewed Oceania as encompassing Melanesia, Micronesia and
Polynesia (including Easter Island and Hawaii). He excluded from his definition the larger islands of New
Guinea and New Zealand, and argued that Cocos Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and
other oceanic islands nearing the Americas were not part of Oceania, due to their biogeographical affinities
with that area and lack of prehistoric indigenous populations.[60] In his 2018 book Regionalism in South Pacific,
Chinese author Yu Changsen wrote that some "stress a narrow vision of the Pacific as those Pacific Islands
excluding Australia and even sometimes New Zealand", adding that the term Oceania "promotes a broader
concept that has room for Australia and New Zealand."[144]

American marine geologist Anthony A. P. Koppers wrote in the 2009 book Encyclopedia of Islands that, "as a
whole, the islands of the Pacific Region are referred to as Oceania, the tenth continent on earth. Inherent to
their remoteness and because of the wide variety of island types, the Pacific Islands have developed unique
social, biological and geological characteristics." Koppers considered Oceania to encompass the entire 25,000
islands of the Pacific Ocean. In this book, he included the Aleutian Islands, the Galápagos Islands, the Japanese
archipelago, the Kuril Islands and continental islands off the coast of the Americas such as the Channel
Islands, the Farallon Islands and Vancouver Island;[145] all of these islands lie in or close to the Pacific Ring of
Fire, as is the case with New Guinea and New Zealand, which were also included. In the 2013 book The
Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, Paul Bullen critiqued the definition of
Oceania in Encyclopedia of Islands, and wrote that since Koppers included areas such as Vancouver Island, it is
"not clear what the referents of 'Pacific Region', 'Oceania' or 'Pacific Islands' are." Bullen added that, "Asia,
Europe and the Maritime Continent are not literal geographic continents. The 'Asia–Pacific region' would
comprise two quasi-continents. 'The Pacific' would not refer to the Pacific Ocean and everything in it e.g., the
Philippines."[146] The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names (2017), by John Everett-Heath, states that
Oceania is "a collective name for more than 10,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean" and that "it is generally
accepted that Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the islands north of Japan (the Kurils and
Aleutians) are excluded."[147] In his 1993 book A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands, New Guinea-
born Fijian scholar Epeli Hauʻofa wrote that, "Pacific Ocean islands from Japan, through the Philippines and
Indonesia, which are adjacent to the Asian mainland, do not have oceanic cultures, and are therefore not part
of Oceania."[28]
The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania (2018) defined Oceania as only covering Austronesian-speaking
islands in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, with this definition including New Guinea and New Zealand.
Other Austronesian areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines were not included, due to their closer cultural
proximity to mainland Asia. Australia was also not included, as it was settled several thousands of years
before the arrival of Austronesian-speaking peoples in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The book stated,
"this definition of Oceania might seem too restrictive: Why not include Australia, for example, or even too
broad, for what does Highland New Guinea have to do with Hawai'i?", further noting that, "a few other islands
in the Pacific such as those of Japan or the Channel Islands off the southern California coast are not typically
considered Oceania as the indigenous populations of these places do not share a common ancestry with
Oceanic groups, except for a time far before humans sailed Pacific waters."[148] It has been theorized that the
indigenous Jōmon people of the Japanese archipelago are related to Austronesians, along with the indigenous
inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands. Some also theorize that Indigenous Australians are related to the Ainu
people, who are the original inhabitants of Japan's Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands and the southern part of
Sakhalin.[149][150] In their 2019 book Women and Violence: Global Lives in Focus, Kathleen Nadeau and Sangita
Rayamajhi wrote that, "the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and most of Indonesia are not usually considered to
be part of the region of Oceania as it is understood today. These regions are usually considered to be part of
Maritime Southeast Asia. Although these regions, as well as the large East Asian islands of Taiwan, Hainan and
the Japanese archipelago, have varying degrees of cultural connections."[151]

In Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide (2013), George R. Zug claimed that "a
standard definition of Oceania includes Australia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia,
and New Zealand and the oceanic islands of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia." He went on to write that
his preferred definition of Oceania emphasis islands with oceanic geology, stating that oceanic islands are,
"islands with no past connections to a continental landmass" and that, "these boundaries encompass the
Hawaiian and Bonin Islands in the north and Easter Island in the south, and the Palau Islands in the west to
the Galápagos Islands in the east."[126] Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and New Caledonia (which is
geologically associated with New Zealand) were all excluded, as these areas are descendants of the ancient
Pangaea supercontinent, along with landmasses such as the Americas and Afro-Eurasia. Volcanic islands
which are geologically associated with continental landmasses, such as the Aleutian Islands, Japan's Izu
Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands and most of the Solomon Islands, were also excluded from his
definition. Unlike the United Nations, the World Factbook defines the still-uninhabited Clipperton Island as
being a discrete political entity, and they categorize it as part of North America, presumably due to its relative
proximity (situated 1,200 kilometres off Mexico on the Pacific Plate). Clipperton is not politically associated
with the Americas, as is the case with other oceanic islands nearing the Americas, having had almost no
interaction with the continent throughout its history.[152][153] From the early 20th century to 2007, the island
was administratively part of French Polynesia, which itself was known as French Oceania up until
1957.[154][155] In terms of marine fauna, Clipperton shares similarities with areas of the Pacific which are
much farther removed from the Americas.[156][157] Scottish author Robert Hope Moncrieff considered
Clipperton to be the easternmost point of Oceania in 1907, while Ian Todd also included it in his definition of
Oceania in Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama.[158]

Other uninhabited Pacific Ocean landmasses have been explicitly associated with Oceania,[159] including the
highly remote Baker Island and Wake Island (now administered by the U.S. military).[71] This is due to their
location in the centre of the Pacific, their biogeography and their oceanic geology. Less isolated oceanic islands
that were once uninhabited, such as the Bonin Islands, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands,
have since been sparsely populated by citizens of their political administrators.[68][127] Archaeological
evidence suggests that Micronesians may have lived on the Bonin Islands c. 2,000 years ago, but they were
uninhabited at the time of European discovery in the 16th century.[160]

Boundaries between subregions

Depending on the definition, New Zealand could be part of Polynesia, or part of Australasia with Australia.[161]
New Zealand was originally settled by the Polynesian Māori, and has long maintained a political influence
over the subregion.[162][163] Through immigration and high Māori birth rates, New Zealand has attained the
largest population of Polynesians in the world,[164] while Australia has the third largest Polynesian population
(consisting entirely of immigrants). Modern-day Indigenous Australians are loosely related to
Melanesians,[165][166] and Australia maintains political influence over Melanesia,[163] which is mostly located
on the same tectonic plate.[60][61] Despite this, Australia is rarely seen as a part of the subregion.[167][168] As
with Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia's New Caledonia has a significant non-indigenous European
population, numbering around 71,000.[169] Conversely, New Caledonia has still had a similar history to the rest
of Melanesia, and their French-speaking Europeans make up only 27% of the total population.[169][170] As such,
it is not also culturally considered a part of the predominantly English-speaking Australasia.[171] Some cultural
and political definitions of Australasia include most or all of Melanesia, due to its geographical proximity to
Australia and New Zealand, but these are rare.[172] Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia are
more commonly grouped together as part of the Australasian biogeographical realm.[173] The UN's name for
the Australasia subregion is "Australia and New Zealand"; their definition includes New Zealand, but places
Papua New Guinea in Melanesia.[71] Papua New Guinea is geographically the closest country to Australia, and
is often geologically associated with Australia as it was once physiologically connected.[71] The UN's definition
of this subregion also includes Australia's Indian Ocean external territories of Christmas Island and Cocos
(Keeling) Islands.[71] These tropical islands are situated within the bounds of the Australian Plate and have
been geographically associated with Southeast Asia, due to their proximity to western
Indonesia.[174][175][176][177][178] Both were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans during the 17th
century. Approximately half of the population on these islands are European Australian mainlanders (with
smaller numbers being European New Zealanders), while the other half are immigrants from China or the
nearby Malay Archipelago.[179][180] The UN further define the subregion as including Australia's Indian Ocean
external territory Heard Island and McDonald Islands. These islands lie on the Antarctic Plate and are also
thought of as being in Antarctica or no region at all, due to their extreme geographical isolation.[181][71] The
World Factbook define Heard Island and McDonald Islands as part of Antarctica, while placing Christmas
Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands as the westernmost extent of Oceania.[182][183]

Norfolk Island, an external territory of Australia, was inhabited in prehistoric times by either Melanesians or
Polynesians, and is geographically adjacent to the islands of Melanesia. The current inhabitants are mostly
European Australians, and the UN categorize it as being in the Australasia subregion.[71] The 1982 edition of
the South Pacific Handbook, by David Stanley, groups Australia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Hawaiʻi
together under an "Anglonesia" category. This is in spite of the geographical distance separating these areas
from Hawaiʻi, which technically lies in the North Pacific.[184] The 1985 edition of the South Pacific Handbook
also groups the Galápagos Islands as being in Polynesia, while noting that they are not culturally a part of the
subregion.[185] The islands are typically grouped with others in the southeastern Pacific that were never
inhabited by Polynesians.[186][187]

The Bonin Islands are in the same biogeographical realm as the geographically adjacent Micronesia, and are
often grouped in with the subregion because of this.[188][187]

History

Colonisation of Oceania

Australia
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands who
migrated from Africa to Asia c. 70,000 years ago[189] and arrived in Australia c. 50,000 years ago.[190] They are
believed to be among the earliest human migrations out of Africa.[191] Although they likely migrated to
Australia through Southeast Asia they are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Polynesian
population.[192] There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north
and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent
trade and intermarriage.[193]
They reached Tasmania c. 40,000 years ago by migrating across a land
bridge from the mainland that existed during the last ice age.[194] It is
believed that the first early human migration to Australia was achieved
when this landmass formed part of the Sahul continent, connected to
the island of New Guinea via a land bridge.[195] The Torres Strait
Islanders are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the
northernmost tip of Queensland near Papua New Guinea.[196] The
earliest definite human remains found in Australia are that of Mungo A 19th-century engraving of an
Man, which have been dated at c. 40,000 years old.[197] Aboriginal Australian encampment

Melanesia
The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-
day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from Southeast Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far
east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands archipelago, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands
farther to the east.[198]

Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the
Austronesian people, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact
with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars
theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and
culture among the peoples.[199]

Micronesia
Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are
competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. There are
numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the
islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result,
much evidence is based on linguistic analysis.[200]

The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the

island of Saipan, dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before. The ancestors of the
Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain- Stone money transport to Yap
based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and Island in Micronesia (1880)
religious culture centred on Yap and Pohnpei.[201] The prehistories of many
Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.[202]

The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands and
discovered it at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from Southeast
Asia. They became known as the Chamorros. Their language was named after
them. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including
Chronological dispersal of
Latte stone. The Refaluwasch or Carolinian people came to the Marianas in
Austronesian people across the
the 1800s from the Caroline Islands. Micronesian colonists gradually settled Pacific (per Bellwood in
the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BCE, with inter-island Chambers, 2008)
navigation made possible using traditional stick charts.[203]

Polynesia
The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset
of the sea-migrating Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in
the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between c. 3000 and 1000 BCE, speakers of Austronesian
languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia,[204][205][206] as tribes whose natives were
thought to have arrived through South China c. 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into
Melanesia.
 In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion
which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It
is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE,[207] "Lapita Peoples", so-named after
their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of north-west
Melanesia.[208][209]

Easter Islanders claimed that a chief Hotu Matuꞌa[210] discovered the island in
one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family.[211] They are
Moai at Ahu Tongariki on Rapa believed to have been Polynesian. Around 1200, Tahitian explorers
Nui (Easter Island) discovered and began settling the area. This date range is based on
glottochronological calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from
charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance
[212]
activities. Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very
early material suggests that the island was discovered and settled as recently as 1200.[213]

European exploration
Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards.
Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Maluku Islands
(by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão in 1512), Timor, the Aru Islands
(Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline
Islands (by Gomes de Sequeira in 1525), and west Papua New Guinea (by
Jorge de Menezes in 1526). In 1519, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand
Magellan sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed
through the strait that bears his name and on 28 November 1520 entered the
ocean which he named "Pacific". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan 1852 map of Oceania by J. G.
and his captains Duarte Barbosa and João Serrão, then sailed north and Barbié du Bocage. Includes
regions of Polynesia, Micronesia,
caught the trade winds which carried them across the Pacific to the
Melanesia, and Malesia.
Philippines where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by Juan
Sebastián Elcano returned west across the Indian Ocean and the other went
north in the hope of finding the westerlies and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced
to return to the East Indies. The Magellan-Elcano expedition achieved the first circumnavigation of the world
and reached the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, and other islands of Oceania.

From 1527 to 1595 a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the
arrival in Marshall Islands and Palau in the North Pacific, as well as Tuvalu, the Marquesas Islands, the
Solomon Islands archipelago, the Cook Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific.[214]

In the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the
Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, sailed to Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the
Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. Willem Janszoon,
made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in Cape York Peninsula.[215] Abel
Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's
Land (now Tasmania), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji.[216] He was the first known European explorer to reach
these islands.[217]

On 23 April 1770, British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of Aboriginal
Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point.[218] On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the
mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first
contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to
have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia.[219]

European settlement and colonisation

In 1789, the mutiny on the Bounty against William Bligh led to several of the
mutineers escaping the Royal Navy and settling on Pitcairn Islands, which
later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in
1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming
part of the British Empire. The Gilbert Islands (now known as Kiribati) and
the Ellice Islands (now known as Tuvalu) came under Britain's sphere of
influence in the late 19th century.[220][221] New Guinea from 1884 to 1919.
The Netherlands controlled the
French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in western half of New Guinea,
1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata Germany the north-eastern part,
and Britain the south-eastern
were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work
part.
undisturbed. The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843.[222] On 24
September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier
Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June
1854.[223]

The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by
Krusenstern, after English explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en
route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet). In 1905 the British government transferred
some administrative responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area
"Territory of Papua"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The Marshall Islands
were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. The
United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and
with Hawaiʻi becoming a U.S. territory in 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa
led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899.[224]

In 1860, all islands in the Pacific became the majority of Christianity.

Modern history
One of the first land offensives in Oceania was the Occupation of German
Samoa in August 1914 by New Zealand forces. The campaign to take Samoa
ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the
German colony. Australian forces attacked German New Guinea in September
1914. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans
and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender.[225]

The attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese Imperial General

Headquarters,[226][227] was a surprise military strike conducted by the New Zealand troops land on Vella
Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Lavella, in Solomon Islands
Hawaii, on the morning of 7 December 1941. The attack led to the United
States' entry into World War II. The Japanese subsequently invaded New
Guinea, Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the Battle of the Coral
Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign before they were finally defeated in 1945. Some of the most prominent
Oceanic battlegrounds were the Battle of Bita Paka, the Solomon Islands campaign, the Air raids on Darwin,
the Kokada Track, and the Borneo campaign.[228][229] The United States fought the Battle of Guam from 21 July
to 10 August 1944, to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation.[230]

Australia and New Zealand became dominions in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in
1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was
changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French
Polynesia). Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in
recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognised the
constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall
Islands. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the Pacific Islands Forum in 2000.[225]

Geography
Under a four subregion model, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the
west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast,
Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the
south. Excluded under most definitions of Oceania are the Pacific landmasses of
Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Japanese archipelago, which are all on the
margins of Asia, as well as the Aleutian Islands and other Alaskan or Canadian
islands.[116][147] In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl 28 degrees north to
the Bonin Islands in the Northern Hemisphere, and 55 degrees south to Macquarie
Island in the Southern Hemisphere.[231]

Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral
reefs and uplifted coral platforms. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many
Aoraki / Mount Cook,
contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaiʻi, and Solomon located on the South
Islands.[232] Island of New Zealand

Oceania is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms, which constitute the

major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are Near
Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for
tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania which is more recently settled.
Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of
them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – Kangaroo Island and Ashmore
and Cartier Islands, for instance, are situated in the Southern Ocean and
Indian Ocean, respectively, and Tasmania's west coast faces the Southern
Ocean.[233] The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that
have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the Puncak Jaya / Carstensz Pyramid,
most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with highest summit in Oceania
chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted
coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands.
Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French
Polynesia.[234][235]

Regions
Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the
International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the
northwest, the Caroline Islands in the centre, the Marshall
Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the
southeast.[236][237]

Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's

second largest island after Greenland and by far the largest of
the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from
north to south are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon A map of Oceania from the CIA World Factbook
Islands, the Santa Cruz Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and New
Caledonia.[238]
Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses Tuvalu,
Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga, and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral
Islands in the centre, and the Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotus, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the
east.[239]

Australasia comprises Australia, New Zealand, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India
most of Australasia lies on the Indo-Australian Plate with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked
by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south.[240][241]

Geology
The Pacific Plate, which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic tectonic
plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At 103 million square kilometres
(40,000,000 sq mi), it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an
interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands.[242] It is almost entirely
oceanic crust.[243] The oldest member disappearing by way of the plate
tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago).[244]

Australia became part of the Indo-Australian plate 45 to 40 million years ago

and this is in the process of separating again with the Australian Plate being
relevant to Oceania.[245] It is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on
Earth[246] and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological
The Pacific Plate comprises most forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic
of Oceania, excluding Australasia plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of
and the western portion of
Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, has
Melanesia.
occasional middle-sized earthquakes, and currently has no active volcanism
(but some volcanoes in southeast Australia erupted within the last 10,000
years).[247]

The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity, earthquakes, and geothermal areas because of its
position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand
was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, Madagascar, India,
Antarctica and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern
Australia and Western Antarctica.[248]

The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the late
Cretaceous time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica,
although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The Tasman Sea, and
part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the Australian Plate (40 Ma), and a new plate
boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate.

Most islands in the Pacific are high islands (volcanic islands), such as, Easter Island, American Samoa and Fiji,
among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore.[249] The Northwestern Hawaiian
Islands were formed c. 7 to 30 million years ago, as shield volcanoes over the same volcanic hotspot that
formed the Emperor Seamounts to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south.[250] Hawaii's tallest
mountain Mauna Kea is 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above mean sea level.[251]

Flora
The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical rainforests
in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre.[252]
Desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land.[253] The
coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the
dividing range are large areas of grassland.[254] The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-
rainforested Cape York Peninsula.[255][256][257][258][259]
Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire
which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in
species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia),
Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus – gum trees), and Fabaceae (Acacia – wattle). The flora
of Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia is tropical dry forest,
with tropical vegetation that includes palm trees, Premna protrusa, Psydrax
odorata, Gyrocarpus americanus, and Derris trifoliata.[260]

New Zealand's landscape ranges from the fjord-like sounds of the southwest
New Zealand countryside
to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the
Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the
South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain
that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is
Aoraki / Mount Cook, at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft). Earthquakes are common,
though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year.[261] There is a wide
variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New
Zealand.[262]

In Hawaii, one endemic plant, Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central
because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct.[263] The two species Australia
of Brighamia – B. rockii and B. insignis – are represented in the wild by
around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists
rappel down 910-metre (3,000 ft) cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.[264]

Fauna
The aptly named Pacific kingfisher is found in the Pacific Islands,[266] as is the Red-
vented bulbul,[267] Polynesian starling,[268] Brown goshawk,[269] Pacific Swallow[270]
and the Cardinal myzomela, among others.[271] Birds breeding on Pitcairn include
the fairy tern, common noddy, and red-tailed tropicbird. The Pitcairn reed warbler,
endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the endangered species list in 2008.[272]

Native to Hawaii is the Hawaiian crow, which has been extinct in the wild since
2002.[273] The brown tree snake is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia,
Papua New Guinea, Guam and Solomon Islands.[274] Native to Australia, New
Guinea and proximate islands are birds of paradise, honeyeaters, Australasian
treecreeper, Australasian robin, kingfishers, butcherbirds, and bowerbirds.[275][276]

A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental The Pacific robin inhabits
mammals, and dominance of the marsupials – a group of mammals that raise their the islands of the south
young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums, and dasyuromorphs. The western Pacific.[265]
passerines of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include wrens,
the magpie group, thornbills, corvids, pardalotes, lyrebirds.[277] Predominant bird
species in the country include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons
and the laughing kookaburra.[278] The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of
Australia,[279] and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country.[280] The goanna is
a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland.[281]

The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of endemic species. As an
island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the
1770s he noted that the bird song was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the
kākāpō which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek-breeding parrot, but also many species that are
similar to neighbouring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand
are the kiwi, kea, takahē, Kākāpō, mohua, tūī, and the bellbird.[282] The tuatara is a notable reptile endemic to
New Zealand.[283]

Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Wallacea, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean collectively possess 42% of
the world's parrot species, including half of all Critically Endangered parrots, many of which are endemic to
the region.[284]

Climate
The Pacific Islands are ruled by a tropical rainforest and tropical savanna
climate. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather conditions.[285] In the tropical western
Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season during the summer months
contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the
Asian landmass.[286] November is the only month in which all the tropical
cyclone basins are active.[287]

To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is

mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a
temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east August 2011 winter's snowfall in
Dunedin, Otago
coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the
country have a tropical climate.[288] Snow falls frequently on the highlands
near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and
in the Australian Capital Territory.[289]

Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a maritime climate (Köppen climate
classification: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the West
Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and subtropical in Northland.[290][291] Snow falls
in New Zealand's South Island and at higher altitudes in the North Island. It is extremely rare at sea level in
the North Island.[292]

Hawaii, although being in the tropics, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its
geography. The island of Hawaii for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as
10,430 km2 (4,028 sq mi) according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate and polar. The
Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April).[293] A few
islands in the northwest, such as Guam, are susceptible to typhoons in the wet season.[294]

The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960), where
the temperature reached 50.7 °C (123.3 °F).[295] The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was −25.6 °C
(−14.1 °F), at Ranfurly in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of −21.6 °C (−6.9 °F) recorded in 1995
in nearby Ophir.[296] Pohnpei of the Senyavin Islands in Micronesia is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and
one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 mm (300 in) each year in
certain mountainous locations.[297] The Big Bog on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average
10,271 mm (404.4 in) each year.[298]

Köppen climate classification of selected regions in Oceania

 Australia Hawaii New Zealand

Papua New Guinea Australasia and adjacent islands

Demographics
The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and
territories in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United
Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos
have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations,
depending on the source and purpose of each description.
 Name of region, Population
Area Population ISO
Arms Flag followed by density Capital
(km2) (2021)[1][2] 3166-1
countries[299] (per km2)

Australasia[300]

Ashmore and Cartier

199 0 0
Islands (Australia)

Australia 7,686,850 25,921,089 3.1 Canberra AU

Christmas Island
135 1,692 12.5 Flying Fish Cove CX
(Australia)

Cocos (Keeling) Islands

14 593 42.4 West Island CC
(Australia)

Coral Sea Islands

10 4 0.4
(Australia)

New Zealand[301] 268,680 5,129,727 17.3 Wellington NZ

Norfolk Island (Australia) 35 2,302 65.8 Kingston NF

Australasia (total) 7,955,923 29,645,874 3.7

Melanesia[302]

Fiji 18,270 924,610 49.2 Suva FJ

New Caledonia (France) 19,060 287,800 14.3 Nouméa NC

Central Papua
61,073 1,431,000 23 Nabire
(Indonesia)

Highland Papua
51,213 1,430,500 28 Wamena
(Indonesia)

Papua
82,681 1,035,000 13 Jayapura
(Indonesia)[303][304]

South Papua (Indonesia) 117,849 522,200 4.4 Merauke

Southwest Papua
39,123 621,904 16 Sorong
(Indonesia)

West Papua
60,275 561,403 9 Manokwari
(Indonesia)[305][306]

Papua New Guinea[307] 462,840 9,949,437 17.5 Port Moresby PG

Solomon Islands 28,450 707,851 21.1 Honiara SB

Vanuatu 12,200 319,137 22.2 Port Vila VU

Melanesia (total) 1,000,231 14,373,536 14.4

Micronesia

Federated States of
702 113,131 149.5 Palikir FM
Micronesia

Guam (United States) 549 170,534 296.7 Hagåtña GU

Total 8,919,530 50,099,312 5.1

Total minus mainland Australia 1,232,680 24,178,223 16.6

 Name of region, Population
Area Population ISO
Arms Flag followed by density Capital
(km2) (2021)[1][2] 3166-1
countries[299] (per km2)

Kiribati 811 128,874 141.1 South Tarawa KI

Marshall Islands 181 42,050 293.2 Majuro MH

Nauru 21 12,511 540.3 Yaren (de facto) NR

Northern Mariana
477 49,481 115.4 Saipan MP
Islands (United States)

Ogasawara (Japan) 104.35 3,026 26.5 Chichijima

Palau 458 18,024 46.9 Ngerulmud[308] PW

Wake Island (United

2 150 75 Wake Island UM
States)

Micronesia (total) 3,307 526,343 163.5

Polynesia

American Samoa Pago Pago,

199 45,035 279.4 AS
(United States) Fagatogo[309]

Cook Islands 240 17,003 72.4 Avarua CK

Easter Island (Chile) 164 5,761 35.1 Hanga Roa CL

French Polynesia
4,167 304,032 67.2 Papeete PF
(France)

Hawaii (United States) 16,636 1,360,301 81.8 Honolulu US

Johnston Atoll (United

276.6 0 0 Johnston Atoll UM
States)

Midway Atoll (United

2,355 39 6.37 Midway Atoll UM
States)

Niue 260 1,937 6.2 Alofi NU

Pitcairn Islands (United

47 47 1 Adamstown PN
Kingdom)

Samoa 2,944 218,764 66.3 Apia WS

Tokelau (New Zealand) 10 1,849 128.2 Atafu (de facto) TK

Tonga 748 106,017 143.2 Nukuʻalofa TO

Tuvalu 26 11,204 426.8 Funafuti TV

Wallis and Futuna

274 11,627 43.4 Mata-Utu WF
(France)

Polynesia (total) 25,715 2,047,444 79.6

Total 8,919,530 50,099,312 5.1

Total minus mainland Australia 1,232,680 24,178,223 16.6

Largest city for regions

Australasia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Sydney)
 Melanesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Jayapura)
Micronesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Tarawa)
Polynesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Honolulu)

Cities by metropolitan area

Largest population centres of Oceania
[310][311]
June 2023 estimate (SSGA18 boundaries)[312] [313][314]
Rank City name Country Pop. Rank City name Country Pop.
1 Sydney Australia 5,131,326 11 Canberra Australia 435,019
2 Melbourne Australia 5,031,195 12 Jayapura Indonesia 410,852
Papua
Port
3 Brisbane Australia 2,408,223 13 New 402,000
Moresby
Guinea
New
4 Perth Australia 2,043,138 14 Christchurch 384,800
Zealand
Sunshine
New
5 Auckland 1,478,800 15 Coast, Australia 317,404 Brisbane
Sydney Zealand
Queensland
6 Adelaide Australia 1,333,927 16 Wollongong Australia 295,669
United
7 Honolulu 953,207 17 Sorong Indonesia 294,978
States
Gold Coast,
Melbourne 8 Australia 646,983 18 Hobart Australia 224,462
Queensland
Perth
New
9 Wellington 497,200[315] 19 Geelong Australia 196,393
Zealand
Newcastle, Hamilton,
New
10 New South Australia 436,171 20 New 185,300
Zealand
Wales Zealand

Religion
The predominant religion in Oceania is
Christianity (73%).[316][317] A 2011 survey
found that 92% in Melanesia,[316] 93% in
Micronesia[316] and 96% in Polynesia
described themselves as Christians.[316]
Traditional religions are often animist, and
prevalent among traditional tribes is the
Holy's Innocent Anglican Church belief in spirits (masalai in Tok Pisin)
in Amberley, New Zealand representing natural forces.[318] In the 2018 Saione, the church of the King, a
census, 37% of New Zealanders affiliated Free Wesleyan Church in
themselves with Christianity and 48% Kolomotuʻa, Tonga. Especially
British and American missionaries
declared no religion.[319] In the 2016 Census, 52% of the Australian
brought various Protestant
population declared some variety of Christianity and 30% stated "no
denominations to Oceania.
religion".[320]

In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the

population say they belong to "no religion" (which includes atheism, agnosticism, deism, and secular
humanism). In Tonga, everyday life is heavily influenced by Polynesian traditions and especially by the
Christian faith. The Ahmadiyya mosque in Marshall Islands is the only mosque in Micronesia.[321] Another one
in Tuvalu belongs to the same sect. The Baháʼí House of Worship in Tiapapata, Samoa, is one of seven
designations administered in the Baháʼí Faith.

Hinduism is a minority faith in Oceania. Fiji has the highest percentage of Hindus in Oceania at 29.7% [322] In
absolute numbers, Australia has the largest population of Hindus in Oceania constituting 2.7% of the country's
population.[323] In New Zealand, Hindus form 2.65% of the population of.[324] Samoa also has a significant
Hindu population.[325]

Other religions in the region include Islam and Buddhism, which are
prominent minority religions in Australia and New Zealand. Judaism, Sikhism
and Jainism are also present. Sir Isaac Isaacs was the first Australian-born
Governor General of Australia and was the first Jewish vice-regal
representative in the British Empire.[326] Prince Philip Movement is followed
around Yaohnanen village on the southern island of Tanna in
Vanuatu.[327][328]

Languages
Native languages of Oceania fall into three major geographic groups:

The large Austronesian language family, with such languages as Malay

(Indonesian), and Oceanic languages such as Gilbertese, Fijian, Māori, and Sri Siva Subramaniya temple in Fiji
Hawaiʻian
The Aboriginal Australian languages, including the large Pama–Nyungan
family
The Papuan languages of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea
family
Non-indigenous languages include English in Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and many other territories;
French in New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna; Japanese in the Bonin Islands;[68] and Spanish
on Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands.[68][127][329] There are also Creoles formed from the interaction of
Malay or the colonial languages with indigenous languages, such as Tok Pisin, Bislama, Chavacano, various
Malay trade and creole languages, Hawaiian Pidgin, Norfuk, and Pitkern. Contact between Austronesian and
Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin.

Immigrants brought their own languages to the region, such as Mandarin, Tagalog, Hindi, Italian, Arabic,
Portuguese, Polish, German, Spanish, Russian, Korean, Cantonese and Greek, among many others, namely in
Australia and New Zealand,[330] or Fiji Hindi in Fiji.

Immigration
The most multicultural areas in Oceania, which have a high degree of
immigration, are Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. Since 1945, more than
7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a
significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European
countries, making Australia a multicultural country.[331]

Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250
different languages spoken with about 40% of residents speaking a language
other than English at home.[332] Furthermore, 36 percent of the population
Dutch immigrants arriving in
Australia (1954)
reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon,
Vietnam and Iraq, among others.[333][334] Melbourne is also fairly
multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of
Europe,[335] and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney.[336][337][338]

European migration to New Zealand provided a major influx following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in
1840. Subsequent immigration has been chiefly from the British Isles, but also from continental Europe, the
Pacific, The Americas and Asia.[339][340] Auckland is home to over half (51.6 percent) of New Zealand's overseas
born population, including 72 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born population, 64 percent of its Asian-
born population, and 56 percent of its Middle Eastern and African born population.[341]
Hawaii is a majority-minority state.[342] Chinese workers on Western trading
ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American
missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western
ways.[343] As of 2015, a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian
ancestry – especially Filipino, Japanese, Korean and Chinese. Many are
descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in
the mid-to-late 19th century. Almost 13,000 Portuguese immigrants had
arrived by 1899; they also worked on the sugarcane plantations.[344] Puerto
Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar
industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of Many Portuguese immigrants in
Hawaii were Azorean or
sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii.[345]
Madeiran.

Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's Pacific Solution policy transferred asylum
seekers to several Pacific nations, including the Nauru detention centre.
Australia, New Zealand, and other nations took part in the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands
between 2003 and 2017 after a request for aid.[346]

Archaeogenetics
Archaeology, linguistics, and existing genetic studies indicate that Oceania was settled by two major waves of
migration. The first migration of Australo-Melanesians took place c. 40 to 80 thousand years ago, and these
migrants, Papuans, colonised much of Near Oceania. Approximately 3.5 thousand years ago, a second
expansion of Austronesian speakers arrived in Near Oceania, and the descendants of these people spread to
the far corners of the Pacific, colonising Remote Oceania.[347]

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the Austronesian expansion and demonstrate
the homogenising effect of this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous haplogroups
support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania, with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60
thousand years. Santa Cruz, a population located in Remote Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme frequencies
of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin.[347]

Large areas of New Guinea are unexplored by scientists and anthropologists due to extensive forestation and
mountainous terrain. Known indigenous tribes in Papua New Guinea have very little contact with local
authorities aside from the authorities knowing who they are. Many remain preliterate and, at the national or
international level, the names of tribes and information about them is extremely hard to obtain. The
Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44
uncontacted tribal groups.[348]

Economy
The linked map below shows the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of the islands of Oceania and neighbouring
areas, as a guide to the following table (there are few land boundaries that can be drawn on a map of the
Pacific at this scale).
 Izu
Ryukyu Bonin Midway
Islands
VolcanoMinamitori Hawaii
Okinotori shima
shimaNorthern Wake Johnston Socorro
Paracels Marianas
Philippines Guam Marshall Clipperton
Spratlys
Federated StatesIslands Kingman
BNSabah Palau of Micronesia Palmyra
Sarawak Howland
Kiribati
Nauru Jarvis
MalukuPapua Baker
Papua New Phoenix Line
Indonesia Guinea
East Solomon Tuvalu Tokelau
CocosChristmas Timor Islands Samoa
Ashmore WF AS Cook
& Cartier Coral Sea VanuatuFiji Islands French
New TongaNiue Polynesia
Caledonia Pitcairn
Australia Easter
Norfolk Island
Lord Kermadec
HoweThree Kings
New
Zealand Chatham
Solander Bounties
Snares
AucklandsAntipodes
Campbell
Macquarie

Australia
Australia and New Zealand are the only highly developed independent
nations in the region, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest
and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the
world. New Caledonia, Hawaiʻi, and French Polynesia are highly developed
too but are not sovereign states. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that
of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power
parity.[349] New Zealand is also one of the most globalised economies and
depends greatly on international trade.[350][351]
The skyline of Sydney
The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock exchange in
Australia and in the South Pacific.[352] In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest
national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by PPP-adjusted GDP.[353]

Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living,[354] making it
one of the most livable cities.[355] It is classified as an Alpha World City by GaWC.[356][357] Melbourne also
ranked highly in the world's most liveable city list,[358] and is a leading financial centre in the Asia–acific
region.[359][360]

The majority of people living in Australia work in health care, retail and
education sectors.[361] Australia boasts the largest amount of manufacturing
in the region, producing cars, electrical equipment, machinery and clothes.

New Zealand
New Zealand's economy is the 53rd-largest in the world measured by
Auckland's central business
nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and 68th-largest in the world
district at night
measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). A major economic and cultural
powerhouse of the Southern Hemisphere, Auckland is ranked as a Beta+
world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Auckland and Wellington are frequently
ranked among the world's most liveable cities, with Auckland being ranked first in the world according to the
Global Liveability Ranking.[362][363]
New Zealand has a large GDP for its population of 5.2 million, and sources of revenue are spread throughout
the large island nation. The country has one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on
international trade – mainly with Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, Japan, Singapore, South
Korea and the United States. New Zealand's 1983 Closer Economic Relations agreement with Australia means
that the economy aligns closely with that of Australia. In 2005, the World Bank praised New Zealand as the
most business-friendly country in the world.[364][365] The economy diversified and by 2008, tourism had
become the single biggest generator of foreign exchange.[366] The New Zealand dollar is the 10th-most traded
currency in the world.[367]

Pacific Islands
The overwhelming majority of people living in the Pacific islands work in the
service industry which includes tourism, education and financial services.
Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States and
South Korea. The smallest Pacific nations rely on trade with Australia, New
Zealand and the United States for exporting goods and for accessing other
products. Australia and New Zealand's trading arrangements are known as
Closer Economic Relations. Australia and New Zealand, along with other Honolulu viewed from Diamond
countries, are members of Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Head crater
East Asia Summit (EAS), which may become trade blocs in the future
particularly EAS.

The main produce from the Pacific is copra or coconut, but timber, beef, palm oil, cocoa, sugar, and ginger are
also commonly grown across the tropics of the Pacific. Fishing provides a major industry for many of the
smaller nations in the Pacific, although many fishing areas are exploited by other larger countries, namely
Japan. Natural Resources, such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold, are mined in Australia and Solomon Islands.
Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, India, South Korea and the European
Union.

Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island
economies, though it remains a developing country with a large subsistence agriculture sector.[368] Agriculture
accounts for 18% of gross domestic product, although it employed some 70% of the workforce as of 2001.
Sugar exports and the growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar cane
processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Coconuts, ginger, and copra are also significant.

The history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; sandalwood,[369]
whaling,[370] sugarcane, pineapple, the military, tourism and education.[371] Hawaiian exports include food
and clothing. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to
viable markets, such as the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. The state's food exports include coffee,
macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane and honey.[372] As of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on
world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U.S.[373][374]

Tourism
Tourists mostly come from Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States.
Fiji currently attracts almost half a million tourists each year, more than a
quarter of whom come from Australia. This has contributed $1 billion or
more to Fiji's economy since 1995, but the Government of Fiji likely
underestimates these figures due to the invisible economy inside the tourism
industry.

Vanuatu is widely recognised as one of the premier vacation destinations for

Shangri-La's Fijian Resort
scuba divers wishing to explore coral reefs of the South Pacific region.
Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the site of several
reality-TV shows. The ninth season of the reality TV series Survivor was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled Survivor:
Vanuatu – Islands of Fire. Two years later, Australia's Celebrity Survivor was filmed at the same location used
by the U.S. version.[375]

Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian economy.

In the financial year 2014/15, tourism represented 3% of Australia's GDP
contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy.[376] In 2015, there were
7.4 million visitor arrivals.[377] Popular Australian destinations include the
Sydney Harbour (Sydney Opera House, Sydney Harbour Bridge, Royal Botanic
Garden, etc.), Gold Coast (theme parks such as Warner Bros. Movie World,
Dreamworld and Sea World), Walls of Jerusalem National Park and Mount
Field National Park in Tasmania, Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne, the
Dandenong Ranges in Victoria are
Great Barrier Reef in Queensland, The Twelve Apostles in Victoria, Uluru popular among tourists.
(Ayers Rock) and the Australian outback.[378]

Tourism in New Zealand contributes NZ$7.3 billion (or 4%) of the country's GDP in 2013, as well as directly
supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent jobs (nearly 6% of New Zealand's workforce). International tourist
spending accounted for 16% of New Zealand's export earnings (nearly NZ$10 billion). International and
domestic tourism contributes, in total, NZ$24 billion to New Zealand's economy every year. Tourism New
Zealand, the country's official tourism agency, is actively promoting the country as a destination
worldwide.[379] Milford Sound in South Island is acclaimed as New Zealand's most famous tourist
destination.[380]

In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million visitors to the Hawaiian Islands
with expenditures of over $10.6 billion.[381] Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular
throughout the year. In 2011, Hawaiʻi saw increasing arrivals and share of foreign tourists from Canada,
Australia, and China increasing 13%, 24% and 21% respectively from 2010.[382]

Politics

Australia
Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy[383] with Charles III at
its apex as the King of Australia, a role that is distinct from his position as monarch
of the other Commonwealth realms. The King is represented in Australia by the
Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by
convention act on the advice of his ministers.[384][385] There are two major political
groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian
Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its
minor partner, the National Party.[386][387] Within Australian political culture, the
Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-
left.[388] The Australian Defence Force is by far the largest military force in
Oceania.[389]
Charles is Head of the
Commonwealth and King
New Zealand of five Oceanian
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy,[390] countries: Australia, New
although its constitution is not codified.[391] Charles III is the King of New Zealand Zealand, Papua New
Guinea, Solomon Islands
and the head of state.[392] The King is represented by the Governor-General, whom
and Tuvalu.
he appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister.[393] The New Zealand Parliament
holds legislative power and consists of the King and the House of
Representatives.[394] A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the
previous election.[395] New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed
states,[396][397] with high government transparency and among the lowest perceived levels of corruption.[398]

Pacific Islands
In Samoan politics, the Prime Minister of Samoa is the head of
government. The 1960 constitution, which formally came into force with
independence from New Zealand in 1962, builds on the British pattern of
parliamentary democracy, modified to take account of Samoan customs.
The national government (malo) generally controls the legislative
assembly.[399] Politics of Tonga takes place in a framework of a
constitutional monarchy, whereby the King of Tonga is the Head of State.
Government building in the Samoan
capital Apia housing administrative
Fiji has a multiparty system with the Prime Minister of Fiji as head of
ministerial offices
government. The executive power is exercised by the government.
Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of
Fiji. Fiji's Head of State is the President. He is elected by Parliament of Fiji after nomination by the Prime
Minister or the Leader of the Opposition, for a three-year term.

In the politics of Papua New Guinea the Prime Minister is the head of government, and the head of state is the
monarch of the United Kingdom, represented by a Governor-General. In Kiribati, a Parliamentary regime, the
President of Kiribati is the head of state and government, and of a multi-party system.

New Caledonia remains an integral part of the French Republic. Inhabitants of New Caledonia are French
citizens and carry French passports. They take part in the legislative and presidential French elections. New
Caledonia sends two representatives to the French National Assembly and two senators to the French Senate.

Hawaii is dominated by the Democratic Party. As codified in the Hawaiian Constitution, there are three
branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The governor is elected statewide. The lieutenant
governor acts as the Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and
departments from offices in the State Capitol.

Culture

Australia
Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-
Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences.[401][402] The
divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has
resulted in a distinctive Australian culture.[403][404] Since the mid-20th
century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia,
particularly through television and cinema.[405] Other cultural influences
come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale
immigration from non-English-speaking nations.[405][406] The Story of the On 28 June 2007, the Sydney
Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature length film, spurred a boom in Opera House became a UNESCO
Australian cinema during the silent film era.[407][408] The Australian Museum World Heritage Site.[400]
in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest
and largest museums in Oceania.[409][410] The city's New Year's Eve
celebrations are the largest in Oceania.[411]

Australia is also known for its cafe and coffee culture in urban centres.[412] Australia and New Zealand were
responsible for the flat white coffee. Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter-
gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker.[413] The first settlers introduced British
food to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the Sunday
roast.[414][415] Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European
migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture, and the
influence of Asian cultures has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the Chinese-inspired
dim sim and Chiko Roll.[416]

Hawaii
The music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from
native Hawaiian folk music to modern rock and hip hop. Hawaii's musical
contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the
state's small size. Styles such as slack-key guitar are well known worldwide,
while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks.
Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the
introduction of the steel guitar.[417] The Hawaiian religion is polytheistic and
The ʻIolani Palace in Honolulu,
animistic, with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that formerly the residence of the
spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the Hawaiian monarch, was restored
waves, and the sky.[418] and opened to the public as a
museum in 1978.
The cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the
Hawaiian Islands, including the earliest Polynesians and native Hawaiians,
and American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian, and Portuguese origins. Native Hawaiian
musician and Hawaiian sovereignty activist Israel Kamakawiwoʻole, famous for his medley of "Somewhere
Over the Rainbow/What a Wonderful World", was named "The Voice of Hawaii" by NPR in 2010 in its 50 great
voices series.[419]

New Zealand
New Zealand as a culture is a Western culture, which is influenced by the
cultural input of the indigenous Māori and the various waves of multi-ethnic
migration which followed the British colonisation of New Zealand. The Māori
people constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. The country has
been broadened by globalisation and immigration specifically from Oceania,
Europe, and Asia.[421] New Zealand marks two national days of
remembrance, Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day, and also celebrates many
holidays such as the King's Birthday, Labour Day, and Christmas Day, as well The Hobbiton Movie Set, located
as public anniversaries of the founding dates of most regions.[422] The New near Matamata, was used for The
Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many Lord of the Rings film trilogy.[420]
New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United
States.[423] Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-
based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.[424] The country's diverse scenery and
compact size, plus government incentives,[425] have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in
New Zealand, including Avatar, The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong and The
Last Samurai.[426]

The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse
culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia and Asia.[427] New Zealand
yields produce from land and sea – most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually
introduced by the early European settlers.[428] Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb; salmon; koura
(crayfish);[429] whitebait; shellfish including dredge oysters, pāua, mussels, scallops, pipi and tuatua;[430]
kumara (sweet potato); kiwifruit; tamarillo; and pavlova (considered a national dish).[431][427]

Samoa
The fa'a Samoa, or traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan
life and politics. Despite centuries of European influence, Samoa maintains its
historical customs, social and political systems, and language. Cultural
customs such as the Samoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals
at important occasions including the bestowal of matai chiefly titles. Items of
great cultural value include the finely woven 'ie toga.

The Samoan word for dance is siva, which consists of unique gentle
movements of the body in time to music and which tell a story. Samoan male A fale on Manono Island
[432]
dances can be more snappy. The sasa is also a traditional dance where
rows of dancers perform rapid synchronised movements in time to the
rhythm of wooden drums (pate) or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called the fa'ataupati or
the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. As with other Polynesian
cultures (Hawaiian, Tahitian and Māori) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender
specific and culturally significant tattoos.[433]

Arts
The artistic creations of native Oceanians varies greatly throughout the
cultures and regions. The subject matter typically carries themes of fertility
or the supernatural. Petroglyphs, tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone
carving, and textile work are other common art forms.[434] Art of Oceania
properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to
Australia and the Pacific Islands.[435] These early peoples lacked a writing
system, and made works on perishable materials, so few records of them
exist from this time.[436]
Gwion Gwion rock paintings found
in the north-west Kimberley region
Indigenous Australian rock art is the oldest and richest unbroken tradition
of Western Australia
of art in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across
hundreds of thousands of sites.[437][438] These rock paintings served several
functions. Some were used in magic, others to increase animal populations for hunting, while some were
simply for amusement.[439] Sculpture in Oceania first appears on New Guinea as a series of stone figures found
throughout the island, but mostly in mountainous highlands. Establishing a chronological timeframe for these
pieces in most cases is difficult, but one has been dated to c. 1500 BCE.[440]

By 1500 BCE the Lapita culture, descendants of the second wave, would begin to expand and spread into the
more remote islands. At around the same time, art began to appear in New Guinea, including the earliest
examples of sculpture in Oceania. Beginning c. 1100 CE, the people of Easter Island would begin construction
of nearly 900 moai (large stone statues). At c. 1200 CE, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, would
embark on another megalithic construction, building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands and a system of
canals.[441] Hawaiian art includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called kapa in
Hawaiian and tapa elsewhere in the Pacific), and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven
cloth.[442]

Sport
Rugby union is one of the region's most prominent sports,[443] and is the national sport of New Zealand,
Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. The most popular overall sport in Australia is cricket, with their national team having
won the Cricket World Cup a record five times.[444] The most popular sport among Australian women is
netball, while Australian rules football garners the highest spectatorship numbers and television
ratings.[445][446][447][448] Rugby union is the most popular sport among New Zealanders,[449] and they are tied
with South Africa for the most Rugby World Cup titles, having won the tournament three times.[450] Australia's
 team the Wallabies have also managed to win the World Cup twice, despite
Rugby union being less popular among Australians.[451] In Papua New
Guinea, the most popular sport is Rugby league.[452][453] Fiji's sevens team is
one of the most successful in the world, as is New Zealand's.[454]

Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru.[455] It has a large

following in Papua New Guinea, where it is the second most popular sport
after Rugby League.[456][457][458] Additionally, it attracts significant attention
across New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. The highest level of the sport is
Fiji playing Wales at seven-a-side
the Australian Football League (AFL), which was the fourth best attended
rugby
sporting league in the world during the 2010s.[459]

Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania to call association football its national sport. However, it is also the
most popular sport in Kiribati, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu, and has a significant (and growing) popularity in
Australia. In 2006 Australia left the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) for the Asian Football Confederation
(AFC), and their men's team the Socceroos have qualified for every subsequent FIFA World Cup as an Asian
entrant.[460] The sole Micronesian country with membership in the OFC is Kiribati, although they are not
recognised by FIFA like the other OFC members. Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Nauru and
Palau all have no presence, primarily due to lack of infrastructure and logistical difficulties related to
Micronesia's remoteness.[461][462][463] Like Australia, the Micronesian dependent territories of Guam and
Northern Mariana Islands currently compete in the AFC instead of the OFC.[464] The OFC was dominated by
Australia for many years, and became known for one-sided results.[465] These included a 31–0 defeat of
American Samoa by Australia in 2001, which remains the biggest international victory in the history of the
sport.[466] It broke the previous record set two days earlier when Australia defeated Tonga 22–0.[467][468]

Australians view sport as an important part of their cultural identity, and the country performs well on the
international stage, despite having a relatively small population.[469] They have hosted two Summer Olympics:
Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000, and the city of Brisbane is also set to host the 2032 edition.[470] Australia
(and New Zealand) were among the small handful of non-communist countries who decided to participate at
Moscow 1980.[471] Additionally, Australia has hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (Sydney 1938,
Perth 1962, Brisbane 1982, Melbourne 2006, Gold Coast 2018). Meanwhile, New Zealand has hosted the
Commonwealth Games three times: Auckland 1950, Christchurch 1974 and Auckland 1990. The Pacific Games
(formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a much smaller
scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific. It is held every four years and began in
1963. Australia and New Zealand competed in the games for the first time in 2015.[472]

Melbourne hosts the Australian Open every year, considered one of the four major Grand Slam tournaments
in tennis. It was held for the first time in 1905.[473]

See also
Australasia
Oceania portal
Europeans in Oceania
Festival of Pacific Arts
Flags of Oceania
Global Southeast
Insular Chile
List of cities in Oceania
Oceania (journal)
Oceanic cuisine
Indigenous peoples of Oceania
Pacific Islander
Pacific Union
 Pacific Community
United Nations geoscheme for Oceania

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ISBN 978-0-86840-589-6.

External links
Oceania (https://curlie.org/Regional/Oceania) at Curlie
"Australia and Oceania" (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destination/oceania) from National
Geographic (https://web.archive.org/web/20081003132349/http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/)
Oceania (https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/collection/bb1025280p) photographs, recordings, and digital objects
drawn primarily from the Tuzin Archive for Melanesian Anthropology at the UC San Diego Library.

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