HISTORY: XII, King, Farmers and Towns (Early States and

Economics) Chapter – 2

Very Short Answer – Type Questions

Q.1. What is the meaning of the words ‘Janapada’ and ‘Mahajanapadas’?
Ans. ‘Janapada’ means the land were Jana , (a people, clean or tribe) sets its foot
or settles. The bigger Janapadas were called ‘Mahajanapadas’. Ex:-
Magadha, Avanti, Kuru etc.

Q.2. What was the Sangama Literature and in which language it was written?
Ans. The literature collectively produced by the Tamilian poets is commonly known
as the Sangam Literature. It was written in the Tamil language.

Q.3. Give any two causes of the rise of the Magadhan Empire.
Ans. (i) It was because of great rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadma
Nanda and later on the Mauryas that Magadha became all powerful.
(ii) The fertility of Magadha also accounts for its rise.

Q.4. Who was Megasthenese? What do you know about him?

Ans. Megasthenese was a Greek historian who lived in the court of Chandragupta
Maurya from 320 B.C. to 298 B.C. He wrote the famous book ‘Indika’ which
gives a detailed account of Mauryan administration and Indian society.

Q.5. How do the coins helps us about the Gupta period?

Ans. Many coins of gold and silver of Samudra Gupta, Chandragupta Vikramaditya
and their successors have been found, which give us a lot of information.
(i) They throw a good deal of light on the names and titles of the Gupta rulers.
(ii) They also helps us in forming an idea of the art and economic condition of
the people during the Gupta period
(iii)These coins facilitated long distance transactions from which kings also
benefited.

Q.6. The Cholas had trade relations with which foreign countries?
Ans. Under the Cholas, India had trade relations with South Asian countries like
Malaya, Indonesia, Indo – China, Sri Lanka, Andaman – Nicobar, China and in
the West, the Cholas had trade relations with Persia and Arabia, etc.

Q.7. How were mothers important under Satavahana rulers? Give an example
to support your answer.
Ans. The Satavahanas, who ruled over the Andhra Pradesh, were matrilineal who
followed the line of the mother. They were named after their mothers.
Such names of the rulers as Gautamiputra and Vashishtiputra suggest that the
Satavahana rulers were named after their mothers.

Q.8. Mention any two ways in which the inscriptions of land grants help us to
understand rural society in ancient times.
Ans. (i) Inscriptions especially those dealing with and grants, help us a lot in
understanding the relationship between the state and the cultivators.
(ii) From such inscriptions we find that some rulers awarded these land grants
to different sections of the rural society, especially to the Brahmanas, to
extend agricultural activities in new areas. It was a very clever strategy
adopted by certain wise rulers.

Q.9. Give two reasons why the 6th century BCE is often regarded as a major
turning point in early Indian history.
Ans. (i) In the 6th century BCE, we see the emergence of early states, kingdoms
and empires in the Indian sub - continent.
(ii) Much progress was made in the fields of agricultural production.
(iii) New towns appeared almost throughout the sub – continent.

Q.10. How were the Shakas, who came from Central Asia, regarded by the
Brahmanas. Name their best known ruler and one of the his
contributions.
Ans. (i) The Shakas who came from Central Asia were regarded as barbarians,
outsiders, and even Mlechchas.
(ii) Their best known ruler was Rudradaman I, who repaired the Sudarshana
lake from his own pocket when his ministers refused to finance this project.

Q.11. From C . sixth – century CE onwards, finds of gold coins taper off.
Justify the statement.
Ans. (1) Some historians suggest that with the collapse of the Western Roman
Empire long – distance trade declined, and this affected the prosperity of the
states, communities and regions that has benefited from it.
(2) Others argue that new towns and networks of trade started emerging
around this time. They also point out that though finds of coins of that time are
fewer, coins continue to be mentioned in inscriptions and texts.

Short Answer – Type & Long Questions

Q.12. How are coins important for the study of Indian History?
Ans. Importance of cons for the study of Indian History.
(1)The important guides to the history of ancient Indian are the coins. They
have proved to be very useful to solving many great chronological puzzles.
(2)Not only the names of the rulers and the dynasties to which they belonged
are known but sometimes they reveal other information received form
literature.
(3)They corroborate and sometimes modify the information received from
literature. These coins are our only source of information with regarded to
the Bactrian and Indo – Greek rulers.
(4)The inscriptions on these coined both in Greek and Kharoshti clearly
indicate that these rulers must have ruled over northern India.
(5)Similarly, these coins throw remarkable light on the personal
accomplishment of certain rulers (e.g. Samudragupta) and also on the
 religious views of others (e.g., Kanishka). Samudragupta;’s coins having
the vehicle of Vishnu inscribed on them, clearly indicate that he was a
devotee of that deity; others with Vina attest his love for music.
(6)These coins are of various metals - gold, silver, copper or alloy (mixture of
two or more metals.) They metal used and its purity undoubtedly reflect the
economic condition of the country at that time.
(7)Their discovery at different places helps us fixing the extent of various
kingdoms in ancient India.

Q.13. Explain how Kharoshthi was deciphered?

Ans. (1) Many inscriptions found in north – west were found in a script which the
scholars called Kharoshthi. But it was a problem to decipher this script.
However, the finds of coins of Indo – Greek kings, who ruled over the area in
second – first centuries BCE came to the help of the scholars.
(2) These coins have the names of these kings both in the Greek and
Kharoshthi scripts. This thing greatly helped the European scholars who could
read the Greek language.
(3) Thus by comparing letter one by one they were able to decipher the
Kharoshthi script as well. (4) Much of the credit for deciphering the
Kharoshthi (as well as the Brahmi script) goes to James Prinsep who was an
officer in the mint fo the East India Company in the 1830s.
Q.14. Enumerate the factors that led to the growth of Magadha Empire in
the Pre – Mauryan Period.
Or
How do the modern historians explain the development of Magadha, the
most powerful Mahajanapada? Explain.
Or
What were the different explanations offered by the early writers and
historians for the growth of Magadha power? Explain.
Ans. The modern historians and writers give many explanations from the growth of
Magadha as the most powerful Mahajanapadas. According to them, the
Magadhan kingdom owned its rise and growth to the contemporary political,
social, economic, military and geographical conditions.
(1)Ambitious Rulers. To fulfil their ambitions, the Magadha rulers adopted al
kinds of methods that could help them in extending their empire. King
Bimbisara made his border safe by seeking matrimonial relations with the
neighbouring kingdom. Ajatasatru annexed by force the territories of
Vaishali and Kosala. Mahapadma Nanda annexed Kalinga. All diplomatic
norms were employed to achieve the rise of the Magadhan Empire.
(2)Natural Resources. Magadha had vast iron – ore resources which made it
possible for the rulers to make weapons and tools for industries and
agriculture etc. This natural bounty helped greatly in the growth of the
Magadhan Empire.
(3)Strategic Situation of its Capital Cities- Rajgriha, the earliest capital of
Magadha was surrounded by five hills. Pataliputra, the new capital was
situated on the confluence of the Ganga, the Gandak and the Sone. Both
 the capitals were impregnable. The strategic situation of these capital cities
was also an important factor in the growth of Magadha.
(4)Military Power. Magadha had a well – organized army which was
composed of elephants, horses and chariots. The elephants were used to
trample upon the enemy cavalry which resulted in confusion. Elephants
were also used to storm the fortresses. A strategic use of horses and
chariots had its own advantages.
(5)Fertile Area. As the Magadhan territory was quite fertile, there was no
shortage of food. This agriculture prosperity played a vital role in keeping
the kingdom’s economy in good shape. It brought prosperity to the whole
kingdom.
(6)Growth in Trade. The loss in war was usually made up by charging toll and
octroi duties. There was sufficient facility for transit and communication.
The roads were safe. There being no fear of being plundered or robbed, the
trade grew rapidly.
(7)Social Uplift. To start with, the orthodox among the Brahmans boycotted
the Magadha kingdom. They refused to accept it as a part of their body
and of the marriages, the kingdom of Magadha got a great impetus to grow
and expand. Besides, the Magadha rulers aqchieved great glory and
established supremacy over other kingdoms.
(8)A symbol of Power. When Alexander invaded India. Magadha had
become so powerful that the Greeks could not dare to advance further. This
undoubtedly added to the prestige of the Magadhan kingdom.

Q.15. Discuss the evidence of craft production in early Historic cities. In what
ways is this different from the evidence from the Harappan cities?
Ans. The cities that came into existence in the country during the sixth century B.C.
to the 6th century A.D. are known as early Historic cities. Such cities include
Varanasi, Champanagri, Rajgriha, Kushinagar, Pawa, Kaushambi,Pataliputra,
Indraprastha, Ujjayini, etc.
In these early cities, crafts production was of high quality. Excavations in these
cities showed the following progress in the field of craft production:
(i) People made bowls and dishes of very find type of pottery with a glassy
finish. This pottery were known as the Northern Black Polished Ware.
(ii) Craftsman made beautiful ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines
from gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass and shell, etc.
(iii) Discovery of iron had resulted in the making of a number of instruments.
(iv) Carpentry was progressed too. Now carts, ploughs and other household
articles were made from wood.
(v) Religious teachers, businessmen, washermen, weavers, carpenters,
potters, blacksmiths and other traders also lived in towns.
(vi) Different craftsmen had their own organizations that were known as
shrenis or guilds.
Differences in Evidences from the Harappen Cities:-
(i) The clay utensils that were excavated from Harappen cities were not
polished while fine pottery bowls and dishes of early Historic cities were
beautifully polished.
 (ii) No trace of instruments, arms and other things made of iron have been
found in Harappen cities but in early cities, such things were widely
used.

Q.16. Describe the salient feature of Mahajanapadas.

Ans. There were sixteen Mahajanapadas before the arrival of the Mauryan period,
as mentioned in the Buddhist texts. Some were monarchies while others were
republics. The sixteen Mahajanapadas as mentioned in the Buddhist texts as
follows – Magadha, Kashi, Koshala,, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru,
Panchala, Matsya, Sursena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja.
Salient features of Mahajanapadas:
(i) While most Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some known as Ganas
or Sanghas, were oligarchies, where power was Buddha belongs to such
Ganas.
(ii) In some instances, as the case of the Vajji Sangha, the rajas probably
controlled resources such as and collectively. Although, their histories
are often difficult to reconstruct jdue to the lack of sources. Some of
these states lasted for nearly a thousand years.
(iii) Each Mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
Maintaining these fortified cities as well as providing for regular armies
and bureaucracies required huge resources.
(iv) Rulers were generally Kshatriyas who acted according to the norms laid
down by the Dharmashastra. They were advised to collect taxes and
tribute form cultivators, traders an artisans.
(v) Raids on neghbours states were recognized as a legitimate means of
acquiring wealth. Gradually, some states acquired standing armies and
maintained irregular bureaucracies. Others continued to depend on
militia, recruited generally from the peasantry.

Q.17. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?

Ans. Historians had limited sources to reconstruct the lives of ordinary people of the
Harappan civilization. They reconstruct the lives or ordinary Harappan people
by using historical sources such as material remains (ruins of houses,
buildings, pottery, tools implements, etc.). But after that especially from 600
B.C. to 600 A.D. a lot of other material, in addition to archaeological material is
also available in the shape of literature especially the Buuddhist texts, the so
called Sangam literature. Inscriptions too help the historians to reconstruct the
lives of the ordinary people.
(i) The Vedic Literature. The Vedic literature is very Besides the four
Vedas - The Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the
Atharvaveda, it also includes Brahmanical texts – Aranyakas,
Upanishadas, Pranas, the Mahabharata and the Ramanyana. These
Vedic texts throw a flood of light on the social, religious, political and
economic life of the ordinary people of ancient India.
(ii) The Buddhist and Jain Literature. The Tripitakas and Jatakas of the
Buddhist and Angas of the Jains also throw very valuable light on some
very obscure periods of the Indian history. Though purely religious, they
 do contain here and there some very useful references to the
contemporary society and the political and economic conditions of those
days.
(iii) The Sangam Literature. The Sangam Literature has great significance
of it own especially for the reconstruction of the South Indian History.
This literature throws a good deal of light on the trade relations of the
Tamilians with the Greeks – and the Romans. It also gives a detailed
account of certain rulers, especially those of the Chola and Pandya
rulers. This literature also throws a god deal of light on the social,
religious and economic life of the people of South India.
(iv) Records of Land Donation. Historians have also collected valuable
information from the records of land donations given by kings to the
ordinary people and especially to the Brahmans. From these records, a
lot of information regarding gift made to the officers by the land owners
and tax revenues given by ordinary people are collected.
(v) Accounts of Foreign Travellers. Many foreign travellers who visited
India from time to time have given detailed account of the lives of the
ordinary people. Some of the famous foreign travellers who left valuable
accounts are – Megasthenese, Fahien, Heiun Tsang.
(vi) Inscriptions. Many inscriptions have been found engraved on rocks,
pillars, copper plates, stone tablets and caves, etc. They provide us a
first rate information about ancient Indian monarchs and the important
events of their reigns. The inscriptions also throw a flood of light on the
ieves of the ordinary people. In one such inscriptions concerning the
Gupta period, we find Prabhavati Gupta period, we find Prabhavati
Guptas, the daughter of Chandragupta II, giving and in donation to
ordinary people and instructing the state officials not to take any tax from
them. From such inscriptions, historians have collected very valuable
information’s.
(vii) Archaeological Evidences. From these evidences (such as houses,
pots, ornaments tools, seals, etc.) historians have reconstructed every
valuable information about the lives of the ordinary people.

Q.18 List some of the problems faced by epigraphists:-

Ans. Problems faced by epigraphists. Though historians have got important
information from inscriptions, the epigraphists have faced a number of
problems in collecting such historical material. Some of the problems faced by
epigraphists are as follows.
(i) Epigraphists sometimes do not know the script or language used by the
people of earlier historical periods. Sometimes, they have to take the
help of the experts who know the scripts and the language.
(ii) Sometimes, they find incomplete sentences on the inscriptions. They
sometimes add these to make the meaning of sentences clear. This has
to be done carefully, to ensure that intended meaning of the author is not
changed.
 (iii) Epigraphists have to take the stress of translation of some technical
words or terms used in inscriptions. Their translation may not convey the
correct sense or meaning.
(iv) Inscriptions have been mostly suffered from the ravages of time as a
result of which sometimes many lines have been damaged or completely
vanished. So nothing useful can be gathered from them.
(v) Sometimes, the different scholars widely differed on certain words or
what mentioned in the inscriptions.
(vi) Lastly, the inscriptions do not always contain the complete truth. They
project the ideal of the subscriber and no that of the common people
who are generally ignored in the inscriptions.

Q.19. What are the main historical sources of the Mauryan Empire?
Or
Describe the sources used to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan
Empire.
Or
Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of
the Mauryan Empire. Explain.
Ans. Main Historical Sources of the Mauryan Empire. The following are some of
the chief source of information regarding the Mauryan dynasty.
1. Megasthenese’s Account. Megasthenese was a Greek historian who lived
as a representative of Seleukus Nicator in the court of Chandragupt Maurya
for abut five years from 302 B.C. to 298 B.C. He wrote a book name
‘INDIKA’ in which he gave a detailed description of Mauryan administration
and Indian society.
2. Kautilya’s Arthashastra. The Arthashtra by Kautilya, the chief adviser and
minister of Chandragupt Maurya, is another important source which throws
a good deal of light on the Mauryan period. From Arthashastra, we get a lot
of information about the Mauryan king, his ministers, his Central and
Provincial Administration and also economic condition of the people.
3. Mudra Rakshasa. The political drama written by Visakhadutta in the fifth
century A.D. in the Gupta period is another important work on the Mauryan
period. It described in detail as to how Chandragupta Maurya got the help
of Kautilya and overthrew the Nanda dynasty. Side by side, we get a
glimpse of the social, economic and religious life of the people in those
days. This work is not written in the Mauryan period, yet its author did his
best to base has drama on the information that was then available in the
fifth century A.D. which is not available now.
4. Jain and Buddhist Texts. From the Jain traditions, we come to know as to
how Chandgragupta Maurya, towards the end of his reign, embraced
Jainism and abdicated his throne. Similarly, the Buddhists traditions provide
us with valuable information about Ashoka and the steps taken by him for
the spread of this faith.
5. The Puranas. Sometimes the Puranas, which contain ancient Hindu
traditions, come to our help. The historians have extracted valuable
 information from the Puranas regarding the Mauryas, their predecessors
Nandas and their successors, the Andhras.
6. Works of Art. From the different works of art of the Mauryan period, just
as the stupas, viharas, pillars and caves, we can form an idea of the
Mauryan art, architecture, sculpture, art of polishing, art of engineering and
art of ornamentation, etc.
7. Inscriptions. Last but not the least, inscriptions found on pillars, rocks and
caves form an important sources of information about the Mauryan dynasty
especially the region of Ashoka. From these inscriptions, we come to know
as good deal abut Ashoka’s dharma, administration, character and other
things. Not only this, they also help us a lot in forming an idea about the
standard of education in those days and the common language that was
used in the Mauryan period.

Q.20. How do the inscription help us in the study of the mauryan period?
Ans. Inscriptions.
(1)The inscriptions of Ashoka are a very significant source of information
about his reign. The inscriptions are engraved on rocks, caves and pillars.
From these inscriptions, we come to know a good deal abut Ashoka’s
‘Dhamma’.
(2)We also become acquainted with the progress in the field of arts that was
made under the Mauryas.
(3)We know much from these inscriptions about the administration of Ashoka
and his benevolent activities.
(4)These inscriptions tell us in detail that Ashoka got wells dug and shady
trees planted for benefit of human beings and animals. As a matter of fact,
Ashoka remained every ready to mitigate the suffering of his people.

Q.21. Write a note on Ashoka’s Dhamma (or Dharma).

Or
Describe the main features of Ashoka’s Dhamma or Dharma.
Ans. Ashoka’s Dhamma or Dharma. Much of the information about Ashoka,
especially about his concept of Dhamma is derived from his inscriptions which
are found scattered in different parts of the country. They are inscribed on
pillars, rocks, caves, walls, etc. From these inscriptions we come to know that
Ashoka’s personal religion or Dharma was quite different from what he
preached. His personal Dharma or religions was Buddhism as he had himself
mentioned in religion was Buddhism as he had himself mentioned in religion
but Dhamma (or Dharma) that he put forward was not the code of the Budha
but the essence of all religious beliefs. His Dhamma was the embodiment of
all that is good in al faiths.
Chief Features of Ashoka’s Dhamma. Ashoka believed that a good Dharma
or Dhamma must follow the following principles:
(1)Respect of Elders. Ashoka says in his Edicts, “Obeyance must be
rendered to father and mother likewise to the elders. In the same way
pupils must show respect to their teachers”.
 (2)Proper Treatment of the Younger. Just as the younger should show
respect to their elders so the elder show love to their younger and treat
them politely and with kindness.
(3)Non – Violence or Ahimsa. One should not be kind only to his fellow men
but also to birds and animals and not cause them any injury.
(4)Religious Tolerance. Ashoka himself writers. “ There should not be
honour to one’s own sect or condemnation to another….. on the contrary,
other sects shall be honoured on this and that occasion. By doing so, one
promotes one’s own sect and benefits another sect”.
(5)Truthfulness. One should endeavour to speak the truth in all
circumstances, whether in or happiness. The gem of truthfulness is of
greater worth than the show of useless rituals.
(6)Charity. One should practise charity to the poor, education to the illiterate
and true knowledge of religion to the ignorant so as to bring them to light
from darkness.
(7)Righteous Ceremonies. True ceremonies do not include the practices like
witchcraft casting spells, fasting on religious occasions. They, on the
contrary, include respect to elder following the path of righteousness and
speaking the truth.
(8)Pure Living. One should live a life of purity and protect himself against sin,
as sin in the of all vices like anger, cruelty, pride and jealousy.
In this way, we see that Ashoka’s Dhamma was based on the holy principal of
righteous living.
Q.22. What is the importance of the Guptas in the Indian History?
Ans. Importance of the Guptas in the Indian History. The rise of the Guptas has
its own significance in the Indian History:
(1)First of all, it struck a below to the foreign ruyle of the Sakas and the
Kushanas and established a national empire.
(2)Secondly, the Guptas were great conquerors who founded a strong empire
and after several centuries brought about political unity in India.
(3)Thirdly, the Gupta rulers were great lovers and patrons of art and literature
and under their patronage, the Indian literature and culture prospered so
well that their period came to be known as the ‘Golden Period’ of the Indian
History.
(4)With the rise of the Gupta Empire, the foreign elements in Indian art and
literature faded away
Q.23. What is historical importance of the Allahabad Pillar inscription?
Ans. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
(1)The greatest source of information about Samudragupta is the inscription
on the Ashoka Pillar in Allahabad Fort. This inscription was composed and
written by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta.
(2)As a matter of fact, before this inscription was discovered it was difficult to
find exact information about the reign of Samudragupta.
(3)This inscription is written in Sanskrit and is spread over 33 lines but forms
only ne and the same sentence. It does not refer to any date in it.
(4)From it, we know about Samundragupta’s conquests – that he defeated
nine kings in the North and know about Samundragupta’s conquests – that
 he defeated nine kings in the North and eleven in the South. Harisena was
the curt poet of Samudragupta and a prominent office as well and so in his
inscription whatever is given is exactly correct. According to a historian,
“Upon this single record rests the name and fame of the real founder of the
Gupta Empire.”

Q.24. Discuss the notions of Kingship that developed in the post – Mauryan
period.
Ans. During the post – Mauryan period ( 1853 B.C. to 600 A.D), the notions of
kingship changed and developed in many ways. The rulers of different royal
families tried to enhances their status.
Firstly, the began to identify themselves with a variety of deities.
Secondly, they did so much for the welfare of their subjects that they
themselves began to install their status in temples and began to worship them
like gods and goddesses.
Thirdly, some of the rules divided their empire among the different chiefs or
‘Samantas’ who not only paid them various taxes but also offered them
homage and praised them in high words.
Fourthly, some rulers gave gift of land to the Brahmanas who showered all
types of praises on their rules.
Fifthly, some rulers brought peace and prosperity to their subjects who began
to regard their rulers as godlike.
Sixthly, some rulers issued gold and silver coins in such numbers that people
themselves began to sing in praise of their rulers.
Seventhly, some rulers like the Gupta rulers got prepared ‘Prashastis’ by their
court poets who compared their patrons to Gods like Kubera, Varuna. Indra
etc.
Elightly, again there were rules, like the Kushana rulers , who got prepared
and installed their huge statues in different part of thee country. Such states
instilled awe and respect for the rulers.
Few dynasties like the Kushanas, the Gupts, the Satavahanas, the Choles and
some of their great rulers can be cited as examples who contributed to the
development of the notion of kingship.
(i) Some rulers such as the Satavahanas tried to co – relate their social
origins with the old traditional ruling dynasty of ancient India claiming
their higher social status. It means that many rulers claimed high status
identifying themselves with a variety of deities.
(ii) The notions of kingship that the Kushana rulers wished to project are
perhaps best evidenced in their coins and sculpture. Colossal status of
Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near
Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). Similar status have been found in a shrine in
Afghanistan as well. Some historians feel this indicates that the
Kushanas considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also
adopted the title devaputra, or ‘Son of god’, possibly inspired by Chinese
rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.
(iii) By the fourth century, there is evidence of large states, including the
Gupta empire. Many of these depended on Samantas, men who
 maintained themselves through local resources including control over
land. They offered homage and provided military support to rulers. They
not only offered homage to their masters but also showered all types of
praises on them.
(iv) Again, about the Gupta rules, we have prashastis, composed in praise of
kings in particular, and patrons in general, by poets. The Prayaga
Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription) composed in
Sanskrit by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, arguably the
most powerful of the Gupta rulers (c. fourth century CE), is a case in
point. Here the poet compares Samudragupta with gods like Kubera,
Varuna and Indra.
(v) The Chola rulers did so much for the all round development of their
subjects that they themselves installed the status of their rulers and
worshipped them like deities.

Q.25. To what extent were agriculture practices transformed in the period

under consideration?
Ans. Transformation in Agricultural Practices from C. 600 BC to 600 A.D. Land
revenue was the main source of income of the rulers. So much attention was
paid to land reforms and to increase the agricultural production. Various
attempts were made time and against in this direction. Some of them were the
following:
(i) New strategies for increasing agricultural production were adopted. One
such strategy was the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile
alluvial river valleys such as those of Ganga and Kaveri from c. sixth
century BC. The irontipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil
in areas which had high rainfall.
(ii) In some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically
increased by the introduction of transplantation, although, this meant
back – breaking work for the producer.
(iii) While the iron ploughshare led to a growth in agricultural productivity, its
use was restricted to certain parts of the sub – continent – cultivators in
areas which were semi – arid, such as parts of Punjab and Rajasthan
did not adopt it till the twentieth the sub – continent , practiced how
agriculture, which was much better suited to the terrain.
(iv) Another important strategy adopted to increase agricultural production
was the use of irrigation, through wells and tank, and less commonly
canals. Communities as well as individuals organized the construction of
irrigation works. The later, usually powerful men including kings,
generally recorded such activities (constructions of wells, tanks and
canals etc.) in inscriptions.
(v) From the early centuries of the CE (Common ERA) we find grants of
land being made. The records that have survived are generally about
grants to religious institutions (such as temples) or to Brahmanas. There
were regional variations in sizes of land donated ranging from small plots
to vast stretches of uncultivated land – and the right given to donels (the
receipts of the grant). Some historians feel that land grants were part of
 a strategy adopted by ruling lineages to extend agriculture to new areas.
Other historians suggest that and grants were indicative of weakening
political power; as kings were losing control over their Samantas they
tried to wish alies by making grants of land. However, there and grants
provide some insight into the relationship between cultivators and the
state.
(vi) Differences in rural society have been observed by the scholars in this
period ( c. 600 BC – 600 A.D.) While different technologies and ways
generally let to an increase in production, the benefits agriculture small
peasants as well as large landholders. The large landholders as well as
the village headman, emerged as powerful figures , and generally
exercised control over other cultivators. The Sangam texts also mention
different categories of people living in villages – large landowners or
vellaler, ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or admai. It is likely that these
difference were based on differential access to land, labour and some of
the new technologies.