A Study in the History of the Biblical Text

THE
LORD
GAVE THE
WORD
A Study in the History of the Biblical Text

Malcolm H. Watts

Trinitarian Bible Society

William Tyndale House, 29 Deer Park Road
London SW19 3NN, England

i
 Product Code: A111
ISBN 978 1 86228 011 3

© Trinitarian Bible Society 1998

William Tyndale House, 29 Deer Park Road, London SW19 3NN, England
Registered Charity Number: 233082 (England) SC038379 (Scotland)
Copyright is held by the Incorporated Trinitarian Bible Society Trust
on behalf of the Trinitarian Bible Society
 Contents
The Old Testament 1
The first language 1
Writing materials 2
Revelation 2
Twin doctrine 3
Written 4
The Originals 4
The Temple 4
Significance of the Ark 5
One Book 6
Copies 6
The work of scribes 7
Loss of the originals 7
The Great Synagogue 8
The Famous Massoretes 9
The Massoretic Text 10
Old Testament Summary 11

The New Testament 12

Christian truth written down 13
The Divine Originals 13
Accurate Copying 14
Textual Variants 15
Reproducing the authentic
New Testament Text 16
The Surviving Greek manuscripts 17
1. Papyri 17
2. Uncials 18
3. Minuscules 19
4. Lectionaries 19
Classification 20
A. Byzantine Text-type 21
B. The Alexandrian Text-type 24
Critics attack the Byzantine Text 25
The Authorised Version 27
Endnotes 28
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text

THE
LORD
GAVE THE
WORD
A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
Malcolm H. Watts

T he Bible is the eternal Word of

God. It has been given by God to
man that it might be the absolute,
supreme, authoritative, infallible, and un-
changeable standard for faith and practice.
from the old Hebrew spoken by Abra-
ham in Ur of the Chaldees (Genesis
14:13) and a number of scholars be-
lieve that this old Hebrew predated
Abraham and that it was the “one
In this article we shall trace the history language” and “one speech” of pre-
of the Bible from its origin in divine self- Babel times (Genesis 11:1). In other
revelation, through its embodiment in words, they believe it was the original
written form by supernatural inspiration, language of man.
to its accurate transmission to this present
age by providential preservation. It is our
firm belief that, although the storms of
THE FIRST LANGUAGE
criticism continue to rage against God’s Supporting evidence for this view
Word, the humble believer’s confidence in is quite substantial. First of all, in He-
it is justifiable and substantiated. This brew the names of animals express
sacred volume is – and always will be – the very accurately their nature and
Book of God. characteristics – more so, indeed, than
in any other ancient language. This
would tie in with the fact that Adam,
The Old Testament soon after his creation, gave names to
the animals by observing the peculiar
The greater part of the Old Testament qualities and characteristics of each
was written in Hebrew, sometimes species (Genesis 2:19-20). Second,
called “the language of Canaan” proper names, like Adam, Eve, and
(Isaiah 19:18) or “the Jews’ language” Cain, have significant meanings in
(Isaiah 36:11). It probably developed Hebrew, some of which are actually
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 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
assigned to them in the Old Testa- We know that papyrus was used in
ment Scriptures (Genesis 2:23; 3:20; Egypt long ago, certainly in the time
4:1). Third, the names of various of Moses, and it is therefore likely that
ancient nations appear to be of He- the first documents of the Old Testa-
brew origin, being derived from the ment were written on this material.
sons and grandsons of Shem, Ham If not, they would have been written
and Japheth: as, for example, the on animal skins which were being
Assyrians from Ashur; the Elamites used around 2000 BC. Skins came
from Elam; and the Aramaeans from to be preferred because they lasted
Aram. longer and proved not to be so brittle:
hence, they preserved the text more
An argument can therefore be perfectly.
made for some form of Hebrew hav-
ing been the first language spoken
and heard in this world; but be that
R EVELATION
as it may, it is an indisputable fact that We know that God is the greatest
practically the whole of the Old Testa- of beings. Scripture says, “Canst thou
ment is written in Hebrew. The only by searching find out God? canst thou
exceptions are in Aramaic (a close, cog- find out the Almighty unto perfec-
nate language to Hebrew) which did, tion?” (Job 11:7). And the answer
in fact, supersede Hebrew at the time assumed is, of course, No. We cannot
of the captivity. These exceptions are with all our ingenuity discover the
two parts of the book of Ezra (4:8-6:18; infinite God. He is far, far above our
7:12-26), accounted for by Aramaic human comprehension. Does this
being the official language of the mean, then, that we have no hope of
Persian Empire; a verse in Jeremiah knowing Him? Thankfully, it does
(10:11), where there is a quotation of not mean that. Although we can-
an Aramaic proverb; and quite a large not – even with intense investigation
section of the book of Daniel (2:4 to – discover God, He is able to make
7:28), where Aramaic is used, probably Himself known to us. As the source
because the entire section deals with of all truth, He can teach us about His
the nations of the world. own wonderful Being; and therefore,
as the Psalmist says, “In thy light shall
W RITING MATERIALS we see light” (Psalm 36:9). This brings
us, quite naturally, to the doctrine of
Now on what were the ancient revelation.
Scriptures written? Originally, the
Old Testament Scriptures appear to A concise, but accurate, definition
have been written on papyrus. This of revelation comes from the pen of Dr.
was made from reeds which grew on James Bannerman. He wrote: “Revela-
the banks of the Nile River. The reeds tion, as a divine act, is the presentation
were cut into strips and placed line of objective truth to a man in a super-
upon line at right angles: then, they natural manner by God. Revelation,
were beaten, pressed, and polished as the effect of that act, is the objective
to form a kind of primitive paper. truth so presented”.1

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 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
Now revelation is of two kinds. special revelation came to chosen men
First of all, there is general revelation. through visions, dreams, and burdens.
This comes partly from outside us, As God Himself once said, “If there
from the world round about us. In be a prophet among you, I the LORD
the works of creation and providence, will make myself known unto him in
God shows something of His divin- a vision, and will speak unto him in a
ity and perfection. “For the invisible dream” (Numbers 12:6). “Burdens”
things of him from the creation of the were heavy messages laid upon the
world are clearly seen, being under- mind and heart. Hence, we read:
stood by the things that are made, “The burden of the word of the LORD
even His eternal power and Godhead” to Israel by Malachi” (Malachi 1:1).
(Romans 1:20; cf. Psalm 19:1; Acts Special revelation meets the deepest
14:27). Looking at the various parts of needs of men’s hearts. It answers
this visible universe, we are compelled the question which is as old as man’s
to think, with reverential awe, of the soul – “How should man be just with
divine Architect and Maker. Further God?” (Job 9:2).
general revelation comes from inside
us. Made in the image of God, we have Through general and special rev-
some natural sense of God, immortal- elation (which climaxed, of course, in
ity, and the difference between right the Incarnation), God has graciously
and wrong. We are, as Paul says, a given to us a divine self-disclosure and
law unto ourselves because “the work made known the way of His salvation.
of the law” is written in our “hearts”,
our “conscience also bearing witness”
(Romans 2:14,15).
TWIN DOCTRINE
There is a twin doctrine which we
Such revelation is said to be gen- now need to consider: inspiration,
eral: not only because it is generally which Professor Louis Gaussen once
made throughout the world, but also defined as “that inexplicable power
because it deals only with general which the Divine Spirit put forth of
things. It says nothing about specif- old on the authors of holy Scripture,
ics, like reconciliation with God, the in order to their guidance even in the
forgiveness of sins, or the way to employment of the words they used,
heaven. and to preserve them alike from all
error and from all omission”.2
However, in His wonderful mercy,
God has been pleased to grant special Inspiration, then, is the process
revelation. This, too, is both external by which God exerts a supernatural
and internal. External special revelation influence upon certain men, enabling
came through “theophanies” as God ac- them accurately and infallibly to
tually appeared to men and also through record whatever has been revealed.
“voices”, as God spoke to them. “The “Holy men of God”, we read, “spake
LORD appeared unto Abram, and said, as they were moved by the Holy
Unto thy seed will I give this land…” Ghost” (2 Peter 1:21). The result of
(Genesis 12:7; cf. 3:8-19). Internal the process is the written Word of

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 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
God, “the scripture of truth” (Daniel it in [or, by] the side of the ark of the
10:21). The apostle’s classic statement covenant of the LORD your God, that
immediately comes to mind: “All scrip- it may be there for a witness against
ture is given by inspiration of God” thee” (cf. Joshua 1:8; 1 Kings 2:3;
(2 Timothy 3:16). Nehemiah 8:1).

Inspired Scripture is God’s book After Moses came Joshua, the au-
of revelation. As a result of revelation thor of the book which bears his name;
and inspiration, we are able to hold and towards the end of his life, accord-
the Bible in our hands and know that ing to Joshua 24:26, he did exactly as
we have in our possession the written Moses had once done. Having made
Word of God. an addition to Moses’ scroll, he had
that scroll replaced in the sanctuary.
W RITTEN “And Joshua wrote these words in the
book of the law of God, and took a
The first recorded example of great stone, and set it up there under
such writing is found in Exodus 17:14 an oak, that was by the sanctuary of
where, soon after the war with the the LORD”.
Amalekites, the Lord said to Moses:
“Write this for a memorial in a book…” It was not long before there was a
Again, in Exodus 24:4, we read how further addition, this time by Samuel,
“Moses wrote all the words of the who “told the people the manner of
LORD”. And yet again, in Exodus 34:27, the kingdom, and wrote it in a book,
the Lord said to him, “Write thou these and laid it up before the LORD” (i.e., in
words…” And so we could proceed. God’s presence, in the holiest apart-
There are many other passages show- ment and by the ark of the covenant;
ing that Moses wrote more, much 1 Samuel 10:25).
more, even the whole of the Penta-
teuch, i.e., the first five books of the
Bible (e.g., Deuteronomy 31:9,24-26;
T
HE EMPLE T
Numbers 33:1,2). When the tabernacle was changed
for the temple, these precious originals
T HE O RIGINALS appear to have been transferred to
the more permanent building. There
Once written, the inspired origi- may be a reference to them in 2 Kings
nals, or “autographs” (as they are 22:8, where Hilkiah, the high priest, is
called), were most carefully preserved. recorded as saying, “I have found the
Moses’ scroll, for example, was com- book of the law in the house of the
mitted to the priests who deposited LORD”. Some scholars have suggested
it near the sacred ark. We read in that this “book of the law” was Moses’
Deuteronomy 31:25,26 that “Moses original copy, hidden by the priests
commanded the Levites, which bare during the wicked reigns of Manasseh
the ark of the covenant of the LORD, and Amon and only now discovered
saying, Take this book of the law [the and brought to the king’s attention.3
book which he had written] and put In 2 Chronicles 34:14, it is called “a

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 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
book of the law of the LORD given by precepts. Every soul of man must bow
Moses”. A more literal translation to it. “For he established a testimony
would be “the book of the law of the in Jacob, and appointed a law in Israel,
LORD by the hand of Moses”. which he commanded our fathers, that
they should make them known to their
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ARK children…” (Psalm 78:5).

Dr. W. H. Green points out that Furthermore, since these Scrip-

keeping these documents in this tures were placed near the ark, in
holy place was “in accordance with the heart of the tabernacle or temple,
the usage of the principal nations of they were separated from all common
antiquity”. He alludes to the fact that books. They were manifestly declared
“the Romans, Greeks, Phoenicians, to be holy. Certainly, God’s written
Babylonians, and Egyptians had their Word is pure and sublime. It is truth,
sacred writings, which were jealously without any mixture of error. “The
preserved in their temples, and en- words of the LORD are pure words:
trusted to the care of officials specially
as silver tried in a furnace of earth,
designated for the purpose”.4 purified seven times” (Psalm 12:6).
The inspired writings should always
There were, however, more impor- be revered as “the holy scriptures”
tant reasons why the scrolls were laid (2 Timothy 3:15).
up in this place:
The ark, of course, had its mercy-
The ark was enshrined in the di- seat whereon sacrificial blood was
vine sanctuary; and writings placed sprinkled (Exodus 25:21); and the
at the side of the ark were therefore books were placed nearby, intimating
peculiarly associated with God. He is perhaps that they explained the doc-
indeed the author of the Scriptures. trine of atonement and set forth the
What He has said and what the Scrip- only way of approach to God. “Thus it is
tures say are one and the same thing written, and thus it behoved Christ to
(Romans 9:17; Galatians 3:2). Here, suffer, and to rise from the dead the
then, is God’s written Word and, as a third day: and that repentance and
whole, these inspired books may be remission of sins should be preached
called “the oracles of God” (Romans in his name…” (Luke 24:46,47).
3:2; cf. Acts 7:38).
One final thought: the scrolls
Pious Israelites understood the would have been under the wings
ark to be the throne of God (Exodus of the Cherubim (Exodus 25:18-20),
25:22; Psalm 80:1). The fact that an indication of their being divinely
these writings were placed by the safeguarded and preserved. Although
ark suggested that they were divinely often denied today, the doctrine of
authoritative. Scripture possesses the preservation of Scripture is to be
tremendous authority. It demands believed and boldly declared. “The
of men unhesitating faith in its teach- Old Testament in Hebrew…and the
ings and unfaltering obedience to its New Testament in Greek…being

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 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
immediately inspired by God, and then that God laid down the rule for
by His singular care and providence copying: the copy must be “according
kept pure in all ages, are therefore to the first writing” (Deuteronomy
authentical” (The Westminster Con- 10:4). And we have solid grounds for
fession of Faith, Chap. 1; Sect. 8). Our believing that this rule was strictly
Lord Himself said: “Till heaven and enforced. When Jeremiah’s written
earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall message was destroyed by King Je-
in no wise pass from the law, till all hoiakim, God told the prophet to
be fulfilled” (Matthew 5:18; cf. Psalm make another copy but, in doing
119:152; Isaiah 40:8). so, he stipulated that it had to be an
exact copy. “Take thee again another
ONE BOOK roll”, he said, “and write in it all the
former words that were in the first
God continued to inspire men until roll” (Jeremiah 36:28). Accordingly,
there was a wonderful collection of Baruch (Jeremiah’s scribe) rewrote,
books (1 Chronicles 29:29; 2 Chroni- under the prophet’s dictation, all the
cles 9:29, 12:15; Isaiah 30:8; Jeremiah words which had been written on the
36:1,2). The earliest of Moses’ writ- former scroll (36:32 – the second scroll
ings would be dated about 1450 BC, was therefore an accurate copy of the
while Malachi’s writing would have first, even though on this occasion
been finished somewhere around Baruch added further material from
450 BC. So it was for approximately Jeremiah’s inspired ministry).
1,000 years that God graciously com-
municated with men and, by the So copies were made, not only of
supernatural influence of His Spirit, the Ten Commandments but also of
caused His communications to be other parts of Scripture. A copy of
written down, free of all error in both the book of Deuteronomy, or perhaps
fact and doctrine. These writings were even the whole Pentateuch, was to be
then wonderfully preserved. It only in the hands of every king of Israel.
remains for us to observe here that, “He shall write him a copy of this law
from the beginning, this collection in a book out of that which is before the
was regarded as essentially one book, priests the Levites: and it shall be with
called “the book of the LORD” (Isaiah him and he shall read therein all the
34:16). days of his life” (Deuteronomy 17:18;
cf. 2 Chronicles 23:11). The originals,
COPIES of course, were in the charge of “the
priests the Levites”; and when it says,
The first time copying is mentioned “he shall write him a copy”, it probably
is with respect to the Ten Command- does not mean that he himself should
ments, originally written of course do this but that he should arrange for
on tablets of stone by the finger of someone to do it for him (cf. 1 Samuel
God. Those first tablets having been 1:3; 13:9; 1 Kings 8:62; John 19:19,
broken, the Lord commanded Moses where certain men are said to do what,
to chisel out new tablets and the Lord in the event, was almost certainly done
wrote on them the same words. It was by others).

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 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
In order to function properly, themselves into “families” or “guilds”,
judges would have needed access to combining their efforts to ensure the
the various laws of Moses (2 Chroni- best possible results (1 Chronicles
cles 19:10), as would the priests, 2:55). Their expertise in this field, to-
especially those sent with certain gether with their profound reverence
Levites to teach in the cities of Judah for Holy Scripture, meant the produc-
(2 Chronicles 17:7-9). In the latter case, tion of really excellent copies. In fact,
it is specifically said that “they taught only the scrolls which proceeded from
in Judah, and had the book of the law this class of scribes were relied upon.
of the LORD with them” (v 9). We are
not to suppose that only officials pos- It is worthy of note just here that,
sessed copies of the Scriptures. There in the purpose and providence of God,
is evidence to suggest that believers the Jews took greater care of their sa-
generally had access to biblical books cred writings than any other people in
(Psalm 1:4, Psalm 119). the ancient world.

Such accuracy was achieved that

THE WORK OF SCRIBES the scribes’ copies could be cited as
Originals, as we have already the very Word of God and therefore
observed, are called “autographs”. divinely authoritative. In 1 Kings
Copies are known as “apographs”. 2:3, David commands Solomon, his
It is clear that great care was taken son: “Keep the charge of the LORD thy
in copying the Scriptures. At first, God, to walk in his ways, to keep his
the priests were responsible for this statutes, and his commandments, and
(Deuteronomy 17:18) but later scribes his judgments, and his testimonies, as
(Hebrew: sopherim, from saphar, it is written in the law of Moses”. Now
to write) assumed this role, as the King Solomon would only have had
language of Jeremiah, the prophet, access to a copy, such as is mentioned
indicates: “How do ye say,…the law in Deuteronomy 17:18,19; but observe
of the LORD is with us? Lo, certainly how this copy is described as what is
in vain made he it; the pen of scribes “written in the law of Moses”. Such
is in vain” (Jeremiah 8:8). Those painstaking care had taken over the
designated as scribes originally had copying that the resultant manuscript
many and various responsibilities. retained the authority of the original.
However, as time went on, they It was the Word of God and it could
tended to concentrate on the work of be cited as such.
transcription: and hence a man like
Ezra came to be called “a scribe of the
words of the commandments of the
L
OSS OF THE ORIGINALS
LORD, and of his statutes to Israel” Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians
(Ezra 7:11). in 586 BC. The city suffered dreadful
damage and the great temple built by
Understandably, the demand for Solomon was completely destroyed
copies of the Scriptures became very (2 Chronicles 36:17-19). Although not
great. The scribes therefore formed mentioned in the history, it is almost

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 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
certain that the original writings per- was – consisted of 120 members and
ished along with the city. However, all came to include the prophets Haggai,
was not lost. By that time numerous Zechariah and Malachi. The “Men
copies had been made and some of of the Great Synagogue” collected
these were taken into the land of cap- together all copies of Holy Scripture
tivity; for we find Daniel quoting from which they could find. These, they
what must have been a copy of Moses’ subjected to detailed examination
Law (Daniel 9:11) and also making and comparison. Many minor errors,
mention of Jeremiah’s prophecy, a inadvertently made, were now cor-
copy of which must also have been in rected. These errors were such as the
his possession (9:2). omission of a letter, a word, or perhaps
even a line. That they had crept into
In 537 BC, the Jews began to return some manuscripts is not at all surpris-
from their captivity and we know ing when we remember that there are
that Ezra re-established worship at least eight pairs of Hebrew letters
in Jerusalem “as it is written in the which are similar, even to the point of
book of Moses” (Ezra 6:18). This sug- being nearly identical. The most con-
gests that they still had copies of the scientious of scribes was not beyond
Scriptures and that they were able to making a small mistake. Eventu-
consult them when arranging worship ally, however, the copies underwent
for the second temple. According to correction and if any were found
Nehemiah 8:1, the people actually particularly faulty, they were buried
requested Ezra to bring “the book of in a “genizah”, a holy place near to a
the law of Moses, which the L ORD Jewish synagogue. As a result of the
had commanded to Israel”. This was Great Synagogue’s work, the Second
not the original – only a copy – yet it Temple appears to have been supplied
is significantly described as “the law with a text very similar to the later,
of Moses”. We conclude from such received Hebrew text.5
Scriptures that God had wonderfully
preserved His Word. By the time our Lord came on
the scene, many reliable copies were
available. The Lord Jesus constantly
THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE appealed to the sacred Scriptures. He
The history of the Old Testament read from them in the synagogues
ends rather abruptly with the return (Luke 4:16); He quoted from them in
from captivity; but, according to the His public ministry (Matthew 19:3-
later books, Ezra appears to have as- 5; 21:16,42); and He exhorted His
sumed presidency of a body of learned hearers to read them for themselves
and wise men (Nehemiah 8:4,7,13; cf. (John 5:39). There can be no doubt
Ezra 7:6,11,22). Jewish tradition in- that He regarded the extant copies as
forms us that, after the Jews returned, the very Word of God. Although He
Ezra called into being the Great Syna- corrected Pharisaical interpretations
gogue with a view to re-organizing and glosses, never once did He call into
the religious life of the nation. This question the integrity of the Hebrew text.
council – for that is what it really He was able to say, “It is written”

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 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
(Matthew 4:4,7,10) and, again, “the to you…the holy things of David, the
scripture cannot be broken” (John sure things”).
10:35). The same applies, of course,
to the Apostles (Acts 1:16, 4:25, 28:25; Furthermore, the purpose behind
Hebrews 1:1,6,7; etc.). quoting the Septuagint Version is
often to bring out more clearly the
It might be argued that this proves intended meaning of the original (See:
too much, insofar as the Septuagint Romans 10:18, where the rendering
(LXX: the Greek translation of the “sound” is preferred to the Hebrew
Old Testament made by Alexandrian “line”, a somewhat obscure expression,
Jews around 250 BC) is also constantly although as a “string” of a musical
quoted in the New Testament, without instrument, it clearly means much the
ever once being called into question. same thing).
On the same premise, therefore, could
this not be said to indicate endorse- “We do not find”, comments
ment of the Septuagint as an inspired Dr. Roger Nicole, “any example of
and accurate text? No, there is a seri- a New Testament deduction or ap-
ous flaw in such reasoning. The fact is plication logically inferred from the
that there are a number of places in the Septuagint and which cannot be
New Testament where the Septuagint maintained on the basis of the Hebrew
version appears to have been delib- text”. He concludes: “The use of the
erately rejected (e.g., Matthew 2:15, LXX in quoting does not indicate
where the LXX reads: “Out of Egypt that the New Testament writers have
I called his children”; Romans 10:15, thought of this version as inspired in
where the LXX reads, “I am present itself… Yet their willingness to make
as a season of beauty upon the moun- use of the LXX, in spite of its occasional
tains, as the feet of one preaching glad defects, teaches the important lesson
tidings of peace, as one preaching that the basic message God purposed
good news”. See also: Romans 11:4; to deliver can be conveyed even
1 Peter 4:8). through a translation, and that appeal
can be made to a version insofar as it
While some New Testament agrees with the original”.6
quotations show preference for the
Septuagint rendering, the variation To return to our earlier point: the
in these cases will be found to be very endorsement given by our Lord and
slight, and not at all in sense (e.g., His apostles to the first-century He-
Matthew 15:8,9 - Hebrew: ”...their brew text shows that text to have been
heart they have removed far from me, both accurate and reliable.
and their fearing of me has become a
precept of men, a thing taught”; Acts
13:34 - Hebrew: “I will give you the
T F
HE AMOUS M ASSORETES
sure mercies of David”, but the New As we have seen, God raised up
Testament Greek text actually quotes scribes, or sopherim, to produce a
the Septuagint here, as in the margin of remarkably pure text. It fell to others
our Authorised Version: ”[I will give] to continue their work and take the

9
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
necessary steps for the text’s preser- times; Beth, 38,218 times; Gimel, 29,537
vation. These were the Massoretes, times; and so on.
a name derived from the Hebrew
word “Massorah” which means Copyists had to follow the Tal-
“tradition”. They were families of mud’s strict rules, which included
Jewish scholars and textual critics the following: only the skins of clean
who eventually opened academies, animals were to be used; each skin
one at Tiberius (on the coast of the must contain the same number of
sea of Galilee) and another in Babylon columns; there were to be no less than
(in the East). No-one knows exactly forty-eight and no more than sixty
when the Massoretes first appeared. lines; black ink was to be prepared
Some believe they can be traced back according to a particular recipe; no
to the first century AD. Others date word or letter was to be written from
their beginnings later, somewhere memory; if so much as a letter was
around 500 AD. Whichever is correct, omitted, or wrongly inserted, or even
the Massoretes’ achievement is what if one letter touched another, the sheet
really matters. had to be destroyed; three mistakes on
a page meant the whole manuscript
Jerusalem had been destroyed in was condemned; and revision of the
AD 70. As a result, the Jews were scat- copy had to take place within 30 days,
tered throughout the various countries for otherwise it had to be rejected.
of the Roman Empire. The Massoretes A manuscript surviving this process
knew that these dispersed Jews and could hardly be anything but amaz-
their succeeding generations would ingly accurate.
require copies of the Holy Scriptures
and they believed that certain things
could be done to ensure the preserva-
A MASSORETIC TEXT
tion of the pure Hebrew text. With The Massoretes’ purpose was to
this in mind, they collected vital preserve the Old Testament from
information about the text and laid every kind of alteration; and it was to
down detailed rules for the proper secure that objective that they made
copying of it. their collection of detailed notes (the
Massorah). The Jews called their
They introduced vowel-points finished work “The Fence of the
(Hebrew has no vowels), fixed accents Law”. As a result of their labours,
(to ensure correct pronunciation), ex- we possess today a standard and
plained the meaning of words (where traditional text.
ambiguity existed), supplied marginal
readings (to remove obscurity), and The text from which our Authorised
marked intended pauses (which often Version was translated is called the Ben
affect the meaning). So meticulous Chayyim Text (after Jacob ben Chayy-
were they in their studies that they im, under whose editorship it was
even counted the verses, words, and printed in 1524-5) and it is similar to
letters of the Old Testament, noting the Text of Ben Asher (who lived in the
for example, that Aleph occurs 42,377 tenth century at Tiberius, in Palestine,

10
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
and who, along with members of his of the scribes and Massoretes secured
family, established an accurate edition and preserved a pure text. They were
of the Masssoretic Text). This is a faith- great scholars, skilled in the divine law
ful and dependable text. and revered as interpreters of the Holy
Scriptures.
Through God’s special providence,
we are able confidently to say that in Fifth, there was the oversight of
the Hebrew Massoretic text we have a prophets. Throughout the Old Tes-
text which is very close to the Hebrew tament period, prophets exercised a
Original. unique ministry and they were well
able to superintend the copying work.
O T
LD ESTAMENT Any error in transcription would have
SUMMARY been quickly detected by them.

Summing up, then, what were the Sixth, the Jews constantly repeated
means God used to ensure the preser- their Scriptures, as Deuteronomy 6:7
vation of His Word? clearly shows: “Thou shalt teach them
diligently unto thy children, and shalt
The first was the Jew’s profound talk of them when thou sittest in thine
reverence for the Holy Scriptures. A house, and when thou walkest by the
Jew would literally tremble before way, and when thou liest down, and
the written Word. According to Philo when thou risest up”. These repeti-
and Josephus, they would suffer any tions created such familiarity with the
torments, and even death itself, rather text that if so much as a word had
than change anything in the Holy been altered, it would have been im-
Scriptures. God used this reverence mediately noticed and, without doubt,
for the text to prevent it from being strong and even vehement protest
falsified and corrupted. would have been made.

Second, there were the solemn Seventh, Christ and His apostles
commands of the Scriptures, such as confirmed the Scriptures as they were
Deuteronomy 4:2: “Ye shall not add received in their times. The standard
unto the word which I command you, text used by them is the very same
neither shall ye diminish ought from as we use today. Their unhesitating
it”. These commands, issued with citation of it as God’s Word is an in-
divine authority, instilled genuine fear disputable seal of its authenticity and
into men’s hearts. reliability.

Third, these scrolls were laid up in These and other considerations

the Holy of Holies. There being no lead us to believe that God has won-
more sacred spot on earth, it placed derfully preserved the Old Testament
them beyond the reach of interfering text. When the Old Testament is read,
hands. according to the Massoretic text, we
can believe that we are reading and
Fourth, the sheer professionalism hearing the Word of God. Interesting

11
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
as they may be, it is not for us to accept 12:36; John 10:35). He also promised
peculiar renderings from the Dead Sea that, after His return to heaven, He
Scrolls, from the Latin version, or from would send the Spirit of God to com-
any other source. municate further truth to His chosen
servants and enable them to record
God has preserved His Word. This it. This would provide the Christian
is not to be understood as meaning Church with an infallible guide. “The
that, throughout history, God has Comforter”, He said, “which is the Holy
performed repeated miracles, nor that Ghost, whom the Father will send in
He has “inspired” the various rabbis my name, he shall teach you all things,
and scribes who worked on the text. and bring all things to your remem-
We concede that the autographs have brance, whatsoever I have said unto
long since perished and that some you” (John 14:26; cf. 16:12,13).
errors have crept into the copies now
available to us. Hence there is need At first, there was only oral
for textual criticism. The doctrine of teaching. It soon became apparent,
“providential preservation” requires however, that Christian truth needed
careful definition. What exactly do to be committed to writing. For one
we mean by it? Here, I would quote thing, the apostles (the witnesses of
the words of Professor John H. Skilton: our Lord in the days of His flesh)
“God who gave the Scriptures, who were beginning to travel to distant
works all things after the counsel of lands and before long they would all
his will, has exercised a remarkable be removed by death (2 Timothy 4:6;
care over his Word, has preserved it 2 Peter 1:14); for another, the ever
in all ages in a state of essential purity, increasing number of new converts
and has enabled it to accomplish the and churches were in need of regular,
purpose for which he gave it”.7 detailed, and comprehensive instruc-
tion (Luke 1:3,4; Acts 1:1); and for yet
The Hebrew text, then, was origi- another, spurious and heretical writ-
nally given by Moses and the prophets; ings, even then in circulation, were
it was faithfully copied by the scribes, causing serious doctrinal confusion
standardized by Ezra along with the (2 Thessalonians 2:1,2; 3:17).
Men of the Great Synagogue, en-
dorsed by our Lord and His apostles, The Holy Spirit, anticipating all
and edited with meticulous care by this, exerted His supernatural influ-
the Massoretes. Orthodoxy requires ence on certain chosen men so that
that we boldly affirm our faith in thethey wrote down what was infallible
Old Testament as translated from the and inerrant. Thus, at the end of his
Hebrew Massoretic text. Gospel, John describes himself as
“the disciple which testifieth of these
The New Testament things, and wrote these things”, and
adds, “we know that his testimony is
The Lord Jesus Christ ascribed in- true” (John 21:24,25; cf. 1 Corinthians
spired authority to the Old Testament 14:37; Galatians 1:20; Philippians 3:1;
Scriptures (Matthew 5:18; 15:3; Mark 1 John 1:4; etc.).

12
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text

CHRISTIAN (1 Corinthians 14:37), these texts were

TRUTH WRITTEN DOWN first read by those to whom they were
sent, whether individuals or churches,
Thus the New Testament Scriptures and then they were circulated so that
came into being. At first, they were as many as possible could benefit from
written in Greek which was the com- the apostles’ teachings (1 Thessalonians
mon language of the Roman Empire 5:27; Revelation 1:3; Colossians 4:16;
at the time when Christianity began. 2 Peter 3:15,16). Sadly, these originals
The writing was committed to spe- (or “autographs”) could not have sur-
cially prepared materials: “papyrus” vived long, partly because they tended
(a paper-like substance, made from the to become brittle and constant use soon
pith of the papyrus plant) and, later on, caused them to disintegrate, and partly
“parchment” (animal skin, called “vel- because they were exposed to hazards
lum” when particularly fine in quality). of both accident and persecution.
In outward form, the documents would
have looked like scrolls (if papyrus) and There may possibly be a refer-
books (if parchment or vellum). The ence to the originals in a treatise
technical name for the latter is codices dated about 200 AD. Tertullian, one
(the singular of which is codex). of the Early Church Fathers, was re-
sponsible for a treatise entitled “The
As for the pens used, they would Prescription against Heretics” and,
have been reed or quill-pens (made in the thirty-sixth chapter, he wrote:
from stalks or feathers) and the ink “Come now, you who would indulge
would almost certainly have been a better curiosity,…run over the ap-
black and carbon-based (prepared ostolic churches…in which their own
with soot and mixed with gum). Later, authentic writings are read… Achaia
in about the fifth century, a red metal- is very near you, (in which) you find
lic ink (prepared from gall-apples) was Corinth. Since you are not far from
used, but this appears only to have Macedonia, you have Philippi; (and
been used for emphasis. there too) you have the Thessalonians.
Since you are able to cross to Asia, you
There are, of course, references get Ephesus. Since, moreover, you are
in the New Testament to “writing”, close upon Italy, you have Rome, from
“paper (papyrus) and ink”, and also which there comes even into our own
to “books” and “parchments” (i.e. hands the very authority (of apostles
parchments of prepared skins). See: themselves)”.8
2 Timothy 4:13; 2 Corinthians 3:3;
2 John 12; and 3 John 13. An interesting Although denied by some scholars,
question now arises: What happened it is affirmed by others that the refer-
to these original documents? ence here is to the Greek originals.
Tertullian, it is said, is urging his
readers to visit those places where the
T HE D IVINE O RIGINALS
originals are being kept and thus to see
Immediately recognized by the early for themselves the divine and sacred
Christians as divinely authoritative writings of the New Testament.9

13
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
ACCURATE COPYING lippians, he quotes extensively from
the Gospels and the Epistles and then
Be that as it may, the apostles’ own expresses his confidence that the Phi-
manuscripts would almost certainly lippians themselves are “well versed in
not have lasted much beyond the year the Sacred Scriptures”.10 By this time,
200 AD. Yet our Lord had intimated copies had certainly been made and
that the Christian Scriptures would be the evidence suggests that they were
preserved. “Heaven and earth shall widely circulated.
pass away”, He said, “but my words
shall not pass away” (Matthew 24:35; The first copies may have been
cf. 28:20; Mark 8:38; 1 Peter 1:23-25). made by the apostles themselves.
Their preservation was ensured, of Paul, in his Roman prison, requested
course, by faithful and conscientious that he be brought “books, but espe-
copying. cially the parchments” (2 Timothy
4:13). J.P. Lilley suggests that “the
Even in apostolic times, copies of ‘parchments’ may have been copies or
New Testament books were in the portions of the Scriptures or even of his
possession both of individuals and of own letters to the Churches”.11 It is also
churches. Peter, at any rate, was famil- supposed – and with some probability
iar with Paul’s epistle to the Christians – that John prepared seven copies of
living in Asia Minor (Galatians, Ephe- his “Revelation” and sent one to each
sians, or Colossians) and, indeed, he of the seven churches of Asia Minor
intimates quite clearly that he was (Revelation 1:4-6; 2:1,8,18, etc).12
acquainted with “all [Paul’s] epistles”
(2 Peter 3:15,16). The Colossian church If the apostles themselves were not
was told that Paul’s letter to them was always responsible for copying, then
not to be regarded in any sense as it is likely that the work was often
their peculiar property, but it – almost done by their secretaries. We know
certainly a copy – was to be “read also for certain that such were sometimes
in the church of the Laodiceans”. employed to write books or letters
The Colossians were further told, (Romans 16:22; 1 Peter 5:12). Why
“ye likewise read the epistle” – again, should they not be seconded to the
probably a copy – “from Laodicea” work of copying?
(probably Ephesians; Colossians 4:16).
Before long, there were collections “Scribes”, originally equivalent to
of these books. Christian churches “secretaries” (Ezra 4:8; Esther 3:12; Jer-
needed whole sets for reading in emiah 8:8), had been promised to the
public worship. Christian Church. “Behold,” said our
Lord, “I send unto you prophets, and
This is indirectly confirmed by wise men, and scribes…”(Matthew
the writings of the Apostolic Fathers 23:34; cf. 13:52). We may suppose that
in the second century. For brevity’s such were among Paul’s assistants.
sake, reference can be made to only Indeed, the apostle makes reference
one of them: Polycarp, a disciple of to “Zenas the lawyer and Apollos”
the apostle John. Writing to the Phi- (Titus 3:13).

14
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
The copyists transcribed these that the authentic text of the New
documents with scrupulous care. Testament was transmitted to future
How can we be sure about this? First generations.
of all, these New Testament books
were invested with the same sanctity
as were the Old Testament Scriptures
TEXTUAL VARIANTS
(I Timothy 5:18 which cites Luke Notwithstanding all this, errors
10:7, along with Deuteronomy 25:4, did appear in some copies and, as
as “scripture”; and 2 Peter 3:16 which more copies were made, there began
places Paul’s epistles in the same to appear a number of variant read-
category as “the other scriptures”). ings. These are usually classified as
Second, nearly all the early copyists (1) unintentional changes, and (2) inten-
would have been hired or converted tional changes. The unintentional kind
Jewish scribes whose reverence for include misspelt words, confusion of
God’s written Word compelled them letters, changes in the word-order, the
to study perfect accuracy in transcrip- use of synonyms or verbal equivalents,
tion (Jeremiah 36:28; cf. Deuteronomy and the omission or repetition of let-
10:4). Third, the writings themselves, ters, words, lines, and even sections.
claiming to be the inspired and By far the largest number of variants
authoritative Word of God, issued are due to slips like these on the part
most severe prohibitions against any of the scribes.
kind of tampering with the holy text
(1 Corinthians 2:13; 2 Corinthians 2:17; There are, however, intentional
Revelation 22:18,19). Fourth, knowing changes, by which we mean deliber-
that the apostles were still alive and ate tampering with the sacred text,
active, the early copyists would have usually in the interests of a particular
been all the more careful to produce theology or doctrine. Dionysius, a
manuscripts of first-class quality. Fifth, minister at Corinth, in a letter dated
and finally, if at first the task of making about AD 168-170, deplores the fact
copies was committed to the apostles’ that his own letters have been altered,
fellow-workers who were known as and then adds: “It is not marvellous,
“evangelists” (and according to Euse- therefore, if some have set themselves
bius it was their responsibility to “give to tamper with the Dominical Scrip-
[new converts] the book of the divine tures”.14 An unknown author (thought
Gospels”),13 it should be remembered by some to be Hippolytus, but by oth-
that these men received the miracu- ers, Gaius) writes somewhere around
lous gifts of the Holy Spirit and were AD 230: “They (the heretics) laid hands
therefore peculiarly equipped to fearlessly on the divine Scriptures, say-
preserve the inspired text (2 Timothy ing that they had corrected them”.15
1:6, 4:5). Who were the heretics who dared to
do such a thing?
Furthermore, there is a divine fac-
tor which must not be overlooked. Some are practically unknown, as
In His superintending and gracious Asclepiades, Theodotus, Hermophi-
providence, God evidently ensured lus, and Apollonides, but others were

15
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
well-known as, for example, some of copy would probably contain a num-
the early Gnostics (who taught salva- ber of mistakes. If, on the other hand,
tion through a secret knowledge): he was known to be an apostolic assis-
Basilides, Valentinus, and of course tant or professional scribe, a very high
Marcion, who accepted as canon only degree of accuracy could be expected.
his mutilated editions of Luke’s Gospel
and ten of the Pauline epistles. “Mar- „2. The nature of the manuscript from
cion expressly and openly used the which the copy was made. In earliest
knife, not the pen, since he made such times this may have been the inspired
an excision of the Scriptures as suited original, but later it would certainly
his own subject-matter ”.16 have been itself a copy. Now many
copies were what we call “private”
copies: that is, such as were intended
REPRODUCING for personal and devotional use.
THE AUTHENTIC Some, however, were “official” cop-
NEW TESTAMENT TEXT ies from which Christian ministers
read and preached in the services
Orthodox teachers were fully of public worship. The latter would
aware of these wicked alterations, always prove far more reliable than
exposing them both in their teach- the former. Copies made from these
ings and in their writings. As a result, would share much of their reliability.
manuscripts considered faulty were
not generally used for copying pur- „
3. The number of copyings which
poses. Only those which faithfully had already taken place. A copy of the
preserved the original became the original or one of the earliest copies of
standard documents from which mul- the original would be far more likely
tiplied copies were made. to provide a sound text than a copy
with a long and rather complicated
Do we have any evidence, how- line of descent. Hence, the oldest
ever, for believing that this is indeed copy was not always reckoned the
what happened? best, for it may have been copied from
another of the same period, whereas
Early Christian leaders certainly a later copy may have been copied
claimed ability to evaluate the vari- from a much earlier one, close to the
ous manuscripts and decide which original.
were the best and most accurate. For
example, Irenaeus in his great work „
4. The place where the copy was
“Against Heresies” refers to “the most found. Churches themselves became
approved and ancient copies”.17 The the custodians of the pure Word of
kind of criteria used to ascertain a God (as was the case formerly with
faithful text would be such as the local synagogues); and if the copied
following: document had been preserved in a
church, one could be reasonably cer-
„1. The identity of the copyist. If he tain that it was a recognized, true and
was an ordinary Christian man, his proper transcript.

16
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text

5. The general quality of the copy. copies”. Every attempt was made to
„
Some copies are manifestly faulty. utilize their underlying text, with the
They are badly written and full of mis- result that the overwhelming majority
takes of the most palpable character. of early Greek manuscripts were in es-
Whoever produced them was either sential agreement. We may therefore
ignorant or careless – or, of course, believe that the text of the majority
both. These would neither be regard- represented the Original with impressive
ed nor used as trustworthy witnesses accuracy.
to the authentic New Testament text.
The carefully written copies, however, THE SURVIVING GREEK
would inspire confidence and, as a MANUSCRIPTS
result, they would be painstakingly
transcribed. According to one recent list, the
total number of manuscripts of the
„ 6. The agreement with other existing whole or a part of the New Testament
copies. It would be a mistake to as- is 5,488.18 They are placed in the usual
sume that a scribe had only one text categories:
before him. In the first two centuries
there was a rapid multiplication of ˆ 1. Papyri.
copies, so it was possible by comparing
copies to detect odd readings and, in According to the 1989 statistics,
the same way, to ascertain what the there are 96 of these catalogued.
inspired writers actually wrote. The Nearly all are fragmentary, although
early Christians were in a far better originally they would have appeared
position to do this than we are. After in codex or book form. They have
all, they had access to manuscripts mainly been discovered in Egypt
which have long since perished. where the climate and sand have
helped to preserve them. When re-
„ 7. The close proximity to a well- ferring to these fragments, scholars
known Christian centre. A copy made use the letter ‘P’ followed by a serial
at a distance from where apostles number: P1, P2, P3 and so on.
and their immediate successors had
regularly ministered would be the P52 (the so-called Rylands frag-
most likely to have suffered some ment) is reckoned the oldest. It
serious changes or alterations; but a measures only 2 1/2 by 3 1/2 inches and
copy made in an area of early church contains a few verses from the Gospel
activity would very probably be the of John (18:31-33, 37-38). It is dated
representative of a pure textual tradi- approximately 125 AD.
tion.
Among the most important are
Orthodox teachers of the first and P45, P46, and P47. Known as the
second centuries may not always have Chester Beatty Biblical papyri (after
had access to the best manuscripts but Sir Chester Beatty who acquired
they appear to have known how to them in 1930-1), these contain por-
identify “the approved and ancient tions from the Gospels, the Pauline
17
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
Epistles and the book of Revelation. Greek and Latin texts (the left page in
Another important collection is the the former, the right in the latter) and
Bodmer Library collection (acquired it contains most of the Gospels and
by M. Martin Bodmer from 1956 on- the Book of Acts, together with a few
wards). This includes P66, pages and verses from 3 John.
fragments from a codex of John’s Gos-
pel, written around 200 AD; and P72, The most famous of the uncials
a third century copy – and therefore are Codex Sinaiticus, Aleph-01 (Aleph
possibly the earliest we have – of the being the first letter of the Hebrew
Epistles of Peter and Jude. alphabet), and Codex Vaticanus, B-03.

ˆ2. Uncials. Codex Sinaiticus, dated in the

mid- or late-fourth century, contains
There are 299 known uncials. Writ- only a part of the Old Testament but
ten from the beginning of the fourth the whole of the Greek New Testa-
century on parchment or vellum and ment. It is the only complete uncial
in codex or book form, they are all in manuscript of the New Testament
the uncial script: that is, they are all extant. This Egyptian codex was
written in capital letters with no punc- written on vellum, with four columns
tuation. The earlier ones are actually of forty-eight lines on each page, but
designated by capital letters along there are clear indications in the text
with serial numbers beginning with itself that it has several times been cor-
a zero (e.g., A-02). Later ones simply rected. In the year 1844 Constantine
have the numbers (e.g., 046). Tischendorf discovered some of its
leaves in a waste-paper basket in the
Among those in the British Muse- library of St. Catherine’s monastery
um is Codex Alexandrinus, A-02. This on Mount Sinai. He had to wait until
was copied in Egypt in the first half of 1859, however, before he had sight of
the fifth century and, when complete, the whole New Testament. After ob-
it contained the whole Greek Bible taining permission, he transferred it to
along with one or two apocryphal Cairo where he produced a copy of it;
works. It now contains practically and in 1862, through the generosity of
the whole of the Old Testament and Alexander II, the Russian Emperor, he
most of the New (omitting Matthew published an edition of the manuscript
1:1-25:6; John 6:50-8:52; 2 Corinthians with an Introduction and Critical
4:13-12:7). The Patriarch of Alexandria Notes.
presented this manuscript to Charles I
in 1627. Codex Vaticanus may also be dated
about the middle of the fourth century
Another codex which dates from and, like Aleph, it is written on fine
the fifth century is Codex Bezae, D-05. vellum but with three columns to the
In 1581, Theodore Beza, successor to page, each consisting of forty-two
John Calvin, presented this manu- lines. Once a complete Greek Bible, it
script to Cambridge University where has long since lost portions of the Old
it still remains. This codex has both Testament and several large sections of

18
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
the New Testament. Missing from this purposes of identification, they are
uncial are the Pastoral Epistles, Phile- designated by ordinary numbers (1,2,3
mon, the conclusion of Hebrews (9:14 and so on).
to the end), and the whole of the book
of Revelation. Various correctors have The minuscules, then, were written
been at work on the manuscript and, from the ninth century onwards; but
in the tenth century, someone traced their later date does not necessarily
over much of the original, fearing, it mean that they are less credible wit-
seems, that its letters might otherwise nesses to the originals. Ninth century
fade away. Peculiarities in spelling manuscripts may have been copied
suggest an Alexandrian origin but from others of the third century. As
no-one knows how it came into the Professor Warfield once observed, “It
Library of the Vatican in Rome. The is not the mere number of years that
Library was founded in 1448 by Pope is behind any ms. that measures its
Nicolas V and this manuscript is listed distance from the autograph, but the
in the earliest catalogue, issued in 1475. number of copyings”.19
Samuel Tregelles tried to consult it
in 1845 but he was greatly hindered These minuscules include the fol-
by its clerical custodians. In 1866, lowing:
Tischendorf was given permission to
study it for forty-two hours and, from MS 1: a codex of the twelfth century,
his study and notes, an edition of this containing the whole of the New
manuscript – Codex B – was produced Testament, apart from the book of
in 1867. This was followed by an edi- Revelation. MS 4: a twelfth century
tion issued by the Papal authorities copy of the four Gospels. MS 12: an
and prepared by Vercellone and Cozza eleventh century copy of the Gos-
in 1868; and, then, in 1889-90, a photo- pels. MS 21: from the tenth century
graphic facsimile was made available but also containing the Gospels. MS
to scholars. 43: an eleventh century work in two
volumes, the first containing the Gos-
ˆ3. Minuscules. pels and the second, the Acts and the
Epistles. MS 330: eleventh century,
There are 2,812 of these. They are containing the Gospels, Acts, and Epis-
called minuscules because they are tles. MS 565: a very fine ninth century
written not with capitals but with copy of the Gospels, written in gold
small letters (called minuscules or cur- letters on purple vellum.
sives). This style of writing had been
used for centuries in private docu- ˆ4. Lectionaries.
ments but it was not until the ninth
century that it was used for literary Totalling 2,281, these are texts
purposes. With the demand for New from as early as the sixth century,
Testament books ever increasing, this containing the Gospels and Epistles
script had the advantages of taking (Evangeliaria and Apostoli) appointed
less time to write and of occupying to be read in the early Christian
less space on the parchment. For churches. Most of them use uncial

19
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
letters but some are minuscules; and, text. He believed that this was the
once again, designation is by numbers text of Mark’s Gospel which Origen
but this time prefixed with an ‘l’ or quoted after 231 AD, the year in which
with the abbreviation ‘Lect’ (e.g., l59 he came to Caesarea. Modern textual
or Lect. 1280). critics, however, doubt whether this
can really be called a distinct text-type.
These are important manuscripts, They tend rather to think of it as a
not only because some of them are mere mixture.
early, but also because they were
used for reading in the public ser- As for the Western text-type, iden-
vices of the Church. The greatest care tified by B.F. Westcott and F.J.A. Hort,
would have been taken over these church and thought to originate in Western
copies to preserve their original purity; Europe, there would appear to be
and the testimony of a lectionary would some evidence for its existence. It is
be, in effect, the testimony of all the represented by Codex Bezae (fifth
churches. Now, the surviving lection- century), Codex Claromontanus
aries which have been examined are (sixth century), and the Old Latin and
found to agree to an amazing extent. Curetonian Syriac translations (third
The only reasonable explanation, and fifth centuries respectively). It
surely, is that there was a recognized is also quoted by some of the early
lectionary text. Church Fathers, such as Irenaeus,
Tertullian, and Cyprian. However,
this text-type is often radically dif-
C LASSIFICATION
ferent from all others. It is marred
A great number of Greek manu- by a number of omissions, not only
scripts is therefore available to us, of verses but also of whole passages.
written from as early as the second Its prevailing tendency, however,
century. Scholars who have studied is to make additions, either by way
them maintain that, while there are of paraphrase or by the insertion
variants, certain manuscripts have of additional details. In the Gos-
a great many readings in common pels (especially in the latter part of
which suggests that there are groups Luke’s Gospel) it is shorter, while in
or families. The major text-types are as the Acts it is a great deal longer (ap-
follows: (i) the Byzantine (sometimes proximately 10% longer). Sir Frederic
called the Traditional, Majority, or Kenyon described it as “a type of text
Antiochian text); (ii) the Alexandrian characterised by very free departures
(or what some have called Neutral from the true tradition”. Paucity of
Text); (iii) the Western; and (iv) the manuscript support, along with a
Caesarean. multitude of distinctive readings,
renders this text-type at best ques-
For the purposes of this article, the tionable, at worst wholly unreliable.
last two text-types do not require de-
tailed comment. It was B.H. Streeter, This really leaves us with two major
in The Four Gospels (1924), who first groups of texts: the Byzantine and the
claimed to have found the Caesarean Alexandrian.

20
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text

A. The Byzantine Text-type practically all the later ones. It is esti-

‹
mated that approximately 95% of the
This text receives its name from the Uncial manuscripts have a Byzantine
fact that it was early associated with type of text. Even more can be claimed
the imperial capital of Constantino- for the Minuscules, since nearly all of
ple, formerly called Byzantium, and these are Byzantine in their readings.
also from the fact that it became the
standard text of the Christian Church The Lectionaries thus far examined
throughout the Byzantine period, also give support to the Byzantine text-
312-1453 AD (and actually long after type.
that). Prior to its enthronement in the
Eastern capital, however, this form of †
1. Supported by the early Versions
text had been preserved in Antioch,
capital of the Roman province of Syria.These were the early translations
of the New Testament Scriptures,
Christian teachers connected with the
church there clearly used it. These prepared to help spread the Christian
include Basil of Caesarea, Gregory Faith among the peoples of the world.
of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzus (the Among the earliest known to us are
Cappadocian Fathers), Theodoret of the Syriac (or Aramaic) and Latin
Cyrus, and Chrysostom of Constan- Versions which go back to the mid-
tinople (who moved from Antioch to second century. The Peshitta, “Queen
become bishop of Constantinople in of Versions”, is one of the early Syriac
398 AD). translations and it certainly contains
Byzantine readings. This is also true
The Byzantine text-type has of the Gothic version of the fourth
overwhelming support from the Greek century, said to be translated by Ufilas,
manuscripts. bishop of Antioch.

In the early papyri there is an †

2. Confirmed by the early Fathers
impressive number of distinctively
Byzantine readings. P45 and P46 of Critics who deny the primacy of
the Chester Beatty Papyri contain such the Byzantine text, preferring to view
readings, as does P66 of the Bodmer Li- it as a fourth century revision, often
brary collection. Professor H. A. Sturz refer to the fact no Early Church Fa-
was able to list 150 Byzantine readings ther before Chrysostom (347-407 AD)
with early papyri support.20 This plainly appears even to refer to it, let alone
shows that, contrary to the views of quote from it. Now this is simply
earlier textual critics, the Byzantine not true. Painstaking scholarly re-
readings can be traced as far back as search has shown that Justin Martyr
the second century. (100-165 AD), Irenaeus (130-200 AD),
Clement of Alexandria (150-215 AD),
Among the Uncials, this text is Tertullian (160-220 AD), Hippolytus
found in the fifth century Codices (170-236 AD), and even Origen (185-
Alexandrinus (A-02; Byzantine in the 254 AD) quote repeatedly from the
Gospels), and Ephraemi (C-01), and in Byzantine text. Edward Miller, after

21
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
classifying the citations in the Greek Library very ancient codices, both of
and Latin Fathers who died before the Old and New Testament; which
400 AD, found that their quotations have aided us very much in this un-
supported the Byzantine text 2,630 dertaking”. The resultant Greek text
times (and other texts only 1,753 appears to be have been of the Byz-
times). Furthermore, subjecting thirty antine type (and there is no evidence
important passages to examination, that Ximenes ever followed the Codex
he found 530 testimonies to the Byz- Vaticanus [B]).
antine text (and only 170 in favour of
its opponents). This was his conclu- In 1516, when Desiderius Eras-
sion: “The original predominance of mus, the foremost scholar in Europe,
the Traditional Text is shewn in the list published the first edition of the
of the earliest Fathers. Their record Greek New Testament, he based it
proves that in their writings, and so in on representative Byzantine manu-
the Church generally, corruption had scripts. Erasmus issued four further
made itself felt in the earliest times, editions of his work, in 1519, 1522,
but that the pure waters generally 1527, and 1535. Others soon followed
prevailed… The tradition is also car- in his footsteps: most notably, Robert
ried on through the majority of the Estienne (Latinized as Stephanus),
Fathers who succeeded them. There the French editor and printer, whose
is no break or interval: the witness is published text in 1546 was practically
continuous”.21 identical with that of Erasmus. There
were three subsequent editions in
The plain fact of the matter is that 1549, 1550, and 1551. Still further
by the fourth century the Byzantine editions were edited and published
text was emerging as the authorita- by Theodore Beza between 1565 and
tive text of the New Testament and for 1604. Then, in 1624, Bonaventure and
the next twelve hundred years (and Abraham Elzevir issued their edition.
more) it held undisputed sway over The Preface to the Elzevirs’ second
the whole of Christendom. edition, published in 1633, contains
the words: “Therefore you have a text
now received by all, in which we give
†3. The Printed no alteration or corruption”. From
Greek New Testament
this came the now familiar name “The
The Greek New Testament was Received Text”.
first printed in 1514, although not
published in a separate edition until The Byzantine text was the underly-
1522. This was the work of Francisco ing text of all the great English Protestant
Ximenes, Cardinal Primate of Spain, Bibles, including those associated
and it formed part of his six-volume with the names of William Tyndale
Complutensian Polyglot. In his (1525), Miles Coverdale (1535), John
Dedication to Pope Leo X, Ximenes Rogers (1537), and Richard Taverner
wrote: “For Greek copies indeed we (1539), as well as those known as The
are indebted to your Holiness, who Great Bible (1539), The Geneva Bible
sent us most kindly from the Apostolic (1560), The Bishops’ Bible (1568), and,

22
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
of course, the Authorized Version common language. This meant, of
(1611); and the Reina in Spanish, the course, that Greek scholars in Constan-
Karoli in Hungarian, the Luther in tinople were peculiarly fitted to recognize
German, the Olivetan in French, the and reproduce the authentic text.
Statenvertaling in Dutch, the Almei-
da in Portuguese and the Diodati in „
3. During the fourth century when
Italian. this text became supreme, the Church was
blessed with exceptional scholars such as
Summing up here, the arguments Methodius (AD 260-312), Athanasius
in favour of the Byzantine text are as (296-373), Hilary of Poitiers (315-67),
follows: Cyril of Jerusalem (315-386), and Greg-
ory of Nazianzen (330-394). These
„1. This text-type is associated with the men – and others like them – were
city of Antioch in Syria. After Stephen’s involved in formularizing orthodox
death, Christians from Jerusalem doctrine and ratifying the canon of the
fled to this city and began to preach New Testament. They also devoted
the Gospel to the Greeks there (Acts themselves to the study of the text; and
11:19,20). A strong church came into they had an advantage over later crit-
being, largely through the ministries ics on account of their access to many
of Barnabas and Paul (11:22-26), and early and invaluable manuscripts
from this church the apostle started on which long since have perished. The
each of his missionary journeys (Acts emergence of a predominant text from
13:1-3, 15:35,36, 18:22,23). Other apos- this period is highly significant. It was
tles visited the place, including the obviously considered the genuine,
apostle Peter (Galatians 2:11,12). It was uncorrupted, and authorised text.
not long before Antioch became the
mother city of Gentile churches and, „
4. The Jews were appointed the
after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD, it guardians of the divine revelations
became the true undisputed centre of imparted to them and, in fulfilment of
Christianity. A text proceeding from the trust reposed in them, they care-
Antioch would be the text approved fully preserved the Old Testament text
by the apostles and the early Christian uncorrupted and entire (the Hebrew
Church. Massoretic text). As the apostle Paul
has observed, “unto them were com-
„
2. As has already been observed, mitted the oracles of God” (Romans
this text received its name from Con- 3:2). Now it is reasonable to suppose
stantinople (Byzantium), the capital that the New Testament Scriptures were
of the Eastern Empire, because it soon committed to professing Christians, or to
became established there as the stand- the professing Christian Church. The
ard Greek text. Constantinople was question which naturally arises is:
the centre both of the Greek-speaking Which text-type, generally speaking,
world and of the Greek-speaking has been recognized and propagated
Church, for whereas in the West, by the Church from earliest times?
Greek had given way to Latin, in the The answer is: the text-type known as
East, it had remained the official and Byzantine.

23
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
„ 5. The fact is that approximately 90% texts of the Old and New Testaments. His
of the Greek manuscripts represent the method with the Old Testament was
Byzantine text-type. Although these to preserve the text, in a practically
manuscripts are not as early as some unaltered form, through many genera-
critics would have liked, they are so tions. The result – as Christ and His
numerous that we must assume that apostles clearly taught – was a Book in
there were literally hundreds of older which every letter and part of a letter
parent-documents, many of which was sacred (Matthew 5:18; cf. John
belonged to earliest Christian times. 10:35). When this ancient revelation
Somehow this fact has to be explained; was supplemented, God proceeded in
and it is not at all satisfactory to persist the same way: He infallibly recorded
in arguing – against mounting evi- His latest Word, placed it in the posses-
dence – that the Byzantine text does sion of His Church, and then ensured
not appear in history until the fourth that it was passed on through succeeding
century. This text is early. It became centuries, even to this present time. “The
widespread because it faithfully rep- word of the Lord…liveth and abideth
resented the original. for ever ” (1 Peter 1:25).

6. Providential care has always been ‹

„ B. The Alexandrian Text-type
exercised towards God’s Truth, because
believers have needed that Truth in an ac- This is a very small group of
curate and correct form (Matthew 24:35; manuscripts. Peculiarities of spelling
1 Peter 1:23,25). Hence, the Word show that they are to be associated
given by inspiration has been the with Alexandria in Egypt; and, not
same as that subsequently published surprisingly, readings from this type
(Psalm 68:11). It is inconceivable that of text are to be found among the
God would give a totally corrupt and early Egyptian papyri (e.g., P46, P47).
mutilated text to His people and then Its chief representatives, however, are
allow that text to be used by them Codex Sinaiticus (or Codex Aleph) and
for over eighteen centuries. Yet that Codex Vaticanus (or Codex B).
is exactly what some modern textual
critics would have us believe! “Let it Support for this text-type comes
be remembered”, writes Dr. Owen, from the Alexandrian Fathers, most
“that the vulgar copy we use (The notably from Origen (AD 185-254) and
Received Text) was the public posses- Cyril (376-444).
sion of many generations…; let that,
then, pass for the standard, which is Several things should be observed
confessedly its right and due, and we here:
shall, God assisting, quickly see how
little reason there is to pretend such „
1. This text-type originated from
varieties of readings as we are now Alexandria, in Egypt. Scripture gives
surprised withal”.22 no indication that there was ever an
apostolic presence in those parts, but
„7. It is reasonable to suppose that church history reveals that many no-
God acted similarly with respect to the torious heretics lived and taught there
24
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text
including such Gnostics as Basilides, these two uncials are in remarkably
Isidore, and Valentinus. Anything fine condition. Since most accurate
proceeding from this place must be manuscripts of this age perished
regarded with some suspicion. through reason of use, it may be sup-
posed that these were rejected as flawed
„ 2. There is clear evidence of revi- and therefore were not used by the early
sion by its rearrangement of words. church.
B.H. Streeter suggested that the
editor was an Egyptian bishop called „ 7. Supporting this conclusion is the
Hesychius.23 This means that although fact that very few copies indeed were made
great claims are made for it, this text- from them. As stated by Dr. Gordon
type cannot be regarded as singularly Clark, “If a score or two manuscripts
“pure”. have a single ancestor, it implies that
a score or two copyists believed that
„ 3. The two great representatives of ancestor to be faithful to the auto-
this text-type, Codices Aleph (Sinaiti- graphs. But if a manuscript has not a
cus) and B (Vaticanus) are exceedingly numerous progeny, as is the case with
poor in quality. When examined by B’s ancestor, one may suspect that the
Dr. F.H.A. Scrivener, Codex Aleph was early scribes doubted its value. Possi-
declared to be “roughly written” and bly the early orthodox Christians knew
“full of gross transcriptural blunders” that B was corrupt.”25
such as “leaving out whole lines of
the original”. Codex B, although “less C RITICS ATTACK THE
faulty”, was found to be “liable to err ”
committing “errors of the most palpa-
B YZANTINE EXT T
ble character ”. 24
In the nineteeneth century, two
Cambridge scholars, B.F. Westcott and
„ 4. These principal manuscripts show F.J.A. Hort, elaborated a radical new
their corruptions by disagreeing with theory about the early transmission of
themselves in literally thousands of places the New Testament text. They argued
(3,000 times in the Gospels alone). that the best text was actually the
Alexandrian (which they called the
„ 5. The text attested by Aleph “Neutral Text”) represented by Aleph
(Sinaiticus) and B (Vaticanus) is at and B. Since those two manuscripts
variance with the overwhelming majority were slightly earlier than others, they
of the Greek manuscripts. Not only is claimed that their common ancestor
it confined to a very small family of was close to the inspired original.
manuscripts, but it has been estimated While absolute purity was not ascribed
that there are somewhere in the region to this text, Westcott and Hort were
of 6,000 differences between the Alex- prepared to say, “It is our belief (1) the
andrian and Byzantine texts. readings of Aleph B should be accepted
as the true readings until strong inter-
„ 6. It is true that there is severe loss nal evidence is found to the contrary,
of text in B (Vaticanus), but considering and (2) that no readings of Aleph B can
their age (mid- or late-fourth century), safely be rejected absolutely, though it

25
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
is sometimes right to place them only shortening the Byzantine text. What
on an alternative footing, especially then of the so-called “Lucianic Recen-
where they receive no support from sion”? There is no evidence that it
Versions or Fathers”.26 ever took place.

The Byzantine text (called the “Syr- Westcott and Hort set about the
ian Text”) contained, as they thought, task of preparing a revised Greek
“conflate readings”, i.e., combinations text. It so happens that they were
of earlier readings; and they believed also members of the committee,
they originated in a two-stage revi- appointed by the Convocation of
sion produced at or near Antioch in Canterbury in 1880, to prepare a
the fourth century. Admitting this to revised edition of the English Bible.
be only “supposition”, they advanced Although their Greek text was not yet
the view that “the growing diversity published, a proof copy was made
and confusion of Greek texts led to an available to the revisers; and when
authoritative revision at Antioch” and in 1881 the New Testament of the
later “to a second authoritative revi- Revised Version appeared, it was im-
sion”. The whole process, according to mediately apparent that Westcott and
them, was completed by 350 AD; and Hort’s Greek text had not only greatly
they even put forward the suggestion influenced the committee but that it
that Lucian of Antioch (martyred in had also been generally followed in
312) may have been involved in the the Revised Version of the English
earlier revision. New Testament.

The theory is seriously flawed. This Westcott/Hort Text was the

Although critics and versions still refer forerunner of what is known today as
to “the oldest and best manuscripts”, the Nestle/Aland (United Bible Socie-
the phrase is altogether misleading ties) Text, which has usurped the place
because, in this particular debate, the of the Byzantine or Traditional Text and
“oldest” are in fact the “worst”. As for subsequently formed the basis for prac-
“conflate readings” in the Byzantine tically all modern versions. The New
text, convincing evidence in support International Version, for example,
of them has never been produced while claiming in its preface to follow
(even after twenty-eight years of an ‘eclectic’ Greek text (i.e., one com-
study Westcott and Hort could pro- piled from a variety of manuscripts),
duce only eight examples). Anyway, proceeds at once to inform the reader
long readings do not prove a later that “where existing manuscripts dif-
interference with the text. Professor fer, the translators made their choice
Sturz has shown that some of these of readings according to the accepted
readings are supported by the earli- principles of New Testament textual
est papyri (the longer readings of criticism”. Adoption of fundamen-
John 10:19 and 10:31, for example, are tally flawed ‘principles’ has meant
supported by P66).27 This leads to the that the resultant text is very similar
conclusion that the fault lies with the to the one produced in 1881 by West-
Alexandrian text. It stands accused of cott and Hort.

26
 A Study in the History of the Biblical Text

THE AUTHORISED with meticulous care. As a result,

they produced a most faithful and
VERSION accurate translation, still unrivalled
in its majestic style, simplicity, and
During the Reformation and Pu- power. Indeed, such is this version’s
ritan periods, a number of Protestant intrinsic worth that it has been called
versions appeared, all based on the “the most excellent book in our lan-
same authentic texts and translated guage”.
according to the same valid principles.
Modern versions come and they
In 1611, the Authorised Version go, for which we are thankful. This
was published and it was destined version maintains its reputation, even
to supersede all its rivals. Like against keen competitors like The New
the earlier English versions – and King James Version.
versions of the same era in other
languages – this used the providen- The Authorised Version, proven
tially preserved Hebrew Massoretic through the centuries and greatly
Text and Greek Received Text (from the loved by the Lord’s people, is a truly
Byzantine family). The translators, noble production and it remains the
justly famed for their godliness and best English translation of God’s infal-
scholarship, carried out their work lible and inerrant Word.

Malcolm Watts, a Vice-President of the Trinitarian

Bible Society, was born in 1946 in Barnstaple, North
Devon, England. Brought up in a Christian home,
he was called by grace in his teenage years and,
subsequently, called into the ministry. He trained
at London Bible College between 1967-70, and since
1971 has been the minister of Emmanuel Church,
Salisbury. He and Gillian were wed in 1976, and
they have two daughters, Lydia and Naomi.

27
 T H E LORD GAVE THE WORD
those letters and not the book of Revelation were to
Endnotes be sent to the churches, for that verse (Revelation 1:11)
says that John is to write in the book what he sees, that
is to say the visions which follow, and send it to the
1
James Bannerman, Inspiration: the Infallible Truth and churches” (p. 310).
Divine Authority of the Holy Scriptures (Edinburgh: T &
T Clark, 1865), p. 158. 13
The Ecclesiastical History and Martyrs of Palestine,
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, book 3, chap. 37. (Lon-
2
Louis Gaussen, Divine Inspiration of the Bible (Grand don: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
Rapids: Kregel Publications, 1971. Published in Edin- 1928).
burgh in 1842 under the title, Theopneustia: The Bible,
its Divine Origin and Entire Inspiration, Deduced from 14
Ibid., book 4, chap. 23.
Internal Evidence and the Testimonies of Nature, History,
and Science), p. 34. 15
Ibid., book 5, chap. 28.
3
This was the view of the older commentators, Pisca- 16
Tertullian, chap. 38, 3:262.
tor, Poole, Clarke, Gill, and others. More recently, it
has been maintained by Dr. Greg L. Bahnsen in “The The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Irenaeus, Irenaeus against
17

Inerrancy of the Autographa”, a chapter included in Heresies, book 5, chap. 30, sect. 1, 1:558.
the symposium entitled Inerrancy, edited by Dr. Nor-
man L. Geisler (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing 18
Kurt and Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament:
House, 1980), p. 167. an Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and
Practice of Modern Textual Criticism, 2nd ed, 1989. Cited
4
William Henry Green, General Introduction to the Old by Bruce M. Metzger in The Text of the New Testament: Its
Testament: The Canon (London: John Murray, 1899), Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration, third, enlarged
p. 11. edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 262.
5
Further information on the state of the text at this peri- 19
Benjamin B. Warfield, An Introduction to the Textual
od may be found in John H. Skilton, “The Transmission Criticism of the New Testament (London: Hodder and
of the Scriptures”, in The Infallible Word, a Symposium Stoughton, 1886), pp. 110, 111.
by the Members of the Faculty of Westminster Theological
Seminary, third revised printing (Philadelphia: Presby- Harry A. Sturz, The Byzantine Text-Type and New Testa-
20

terian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1967) pp. ment Textual Criticism (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson
153ff. See also Thomas Hartwell Horne, An Introduction Publishers, 1984), pp. 61ff, 145ff.
to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures,
seventh edition, (London: T. Cadell, 1834), 2:34. 21
Edward Miller in “The Antiquity of the Traditional
Text”, in John William Burgon, The Traditional Text of the
6
Roger Nicole, “New Testament Use of the Old Testa- Holy Gospels Vindicated and Established (London: George
ment”, in Revelation and the Bible, Carl F.H. Henry, ed. Bell and Sons, 1896), p. 121.
(London: The Tyndale Press, 1959), pp. 142-43. See
also the comments by Walter C. Kaiser Jnr, The Uses of 22
John Owen, “Of the Integrity and Purity of the
the Old Testament in the New (Chicago: Moody Press, Hebrew and Greek Text of the Scripture”, in The Works
1985), pp. 4ff. of John Owen (London: The Banner of Truth Trust,
1968), 16:366.
7
Skilton, p. 143.
23
B.H. Streeter, The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins,
8
The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Tertullian, On Prescription revised from the 1924 edition (London: Macmillan &
against Heretics, chap. 36 (Grand Rapids: William Ee- Co. Ltd, 1956), pp. 112ff, 121ff.
rdmans Publishing Company, 1979), 3:260.
24
F.H.A. Scrivener, Six Lectures on the Text of the New
9
Dr A. Cleveland Coxe, who edited Tertullian’s works Testament and the Ancient Manuscripts (Cambridge:
for the original Edinburgh edition, concedes in a Deighton, Bell, and Co., 1875), pp. 41, 43.
footnote that the “much disputed phrase (‘their own
authentic writings’) may refer to the autographs or the 25
Gordon H. Clark, Logical Criticisms of Textual Criticism
Greek originals”. However, he thinks that “probably” (Jefferson, MD: The Trinity Foundation, 1986), p. 15.
the reference is to “full unmutilated copies”. Edward
Miller (who edited several of Dean Burgon’s works), 26
B.F. Westcott and F.J.A. Hort, Introduction to the New
appears to have believed that Tertullian was alluding Testament in the Original Greek (Massachusetts: Hen-
to the original manuscripts. He wrote: “Tertullian, drickson Publishers, 1988. Originally published by
in arguing with heretics, bids them consult the auto- Harper and Brothers, New York, 1882), p. 225.
graphs of the Apostles at Corinth, or Thessalonica, or
Ephesus, or Rome, where they are preserved and read 27
Sturz, p. 84.
in public” (A Guide to the Textual Criticism of the New
Testament [London: George Bell and Sons, 1886], p. 72).
10
The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Polycarp, The Epistle of
Polycarp to the Philippians, chap. 12, 1:35.
11
J.P. Lilley, The Pastoral Epistles (Edinburgh: T & T
Clark, 1901), p. 216.
12
Caspar Rene Gregory, Canon and Text of the New
Testament (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1907), p. 309. Dr
Gregory comments: “No one will imagine…that only

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