Unit 7: World War I and Russian Revolution
7.1. The Road to World War I
As European countries formed alliances and increased the sizes of their armed forces, they set
the stage for a global war. All they needed was a good reason to mobilize troops. Another crisis
in the Balkans in the summer of 1914 led directly to the conflict. When a Serbian terrorist
assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife, the powder keg exploded.
Causes of the War
Nineteenth-century liberals believed that if European states were organized along national
lines, these states would work together and create a peaceful Europe. They were wrong. The
system of nation-states that emerged in Europe in the last half of the nineteenth century led
not to cooperation but to competition.
Nationalism and Alliances
Rivalries over colonies and trade grew during an age of frenzied nationalism and imperialist
expansion. At the same time, Europe’s great powers had been divided into two loose alliances.
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed the Triple Alliance in 1882. France, Great Britain,
and Russia created the Triple Entente in 1907.
In the early years of the twentieth century, a series of crises tested these alliances. Especially
troublesome were the crises in the Balkans between 1908 and 1913. These events left
European states angry at each other and eager for revenge. Self-interest and success guided
each state. They were willing to use war to preserve their power. Nationalism in the nineteenth
century had yet another serious result. Not all ethnic groups had become nations. Slavic
minorities in the Balkans and the Hapsburg Empire, for example, still dreamed of their own
national states. The Irish in the British Empire and the Poles in the Russian Empire had similar
dreams.
Internal Dissent
National desires were not the only source of internal strife at the beginning of the 1900s.
Socialist labor movements also had grown more powerful. The Socialists were increasingly
inclined to use strikes, even violent ones, to achieve their goals. Some conservative leaders,
alarmed at the increase in labor strife and class division, feared that European nations were on
the verge of revolution. This desire to suppress internal disorder may have encouraged various
leaders to take the plunge into war in 1914.
Militarism
The growth of mass armies after 1900 heightened the existing tensions in Europe. These large
armies made it obvious that if war did come, it would be highly destructive. Most Western
countries had established conscription, a military draft, as a regular practice before 1914. (The
United States and Britain were exceptions.) European armies doubled in size between 1890 and
1914.
Militarism—the aggressive preparation for war—was growing. As armies grew, so too did the
influence of military leaders. They drew up vast and complex plans for quickly mobilizing
millions of soldiers and enormous quantities of supplies in the event of war. Fearing that any
changes would cause chaos in the armed forces, military leaders insisted that their plans could
not be altered. This left European political leaders with little leeway. In 1914 they had to make
decisions for military instead of political reasons.
Imperialism
European powers were engaged in intense competition for overseas colonies, resources, and
markets. This competition led to diplomatic tensions and increased the likelihood of conflict as
nations sought to expand their empires.
The Outbreak of War – Phases of the war
Militarism, nationalism, and the desire to stifle internal dissent may all have played a role in the
starting of World War I. However, it was the decisions that European leaders made in response
to a crisis in the Balkans that led directly to the conflict
Assassination in Sarajevo
By 1914, Serbia, supported by Russia, was determined to create a large, independent Slavic
state in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary, which had its own Slavic minorities to contend with, was
equally determined to prevent that from happening. On June 28, 1914, Archduke Francis
Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of AustriaHungary, and his wife Sophia visited the city of
Sarajevo in Bosnia. A group of conspirators waited there in the streets.
In that group was Gavrilo Princip, a 19- year-old Bosnian Serb. Princip was a member of the
Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist organization that wanted Bosnia to be free of Austria-Hungary
and to become part of a large Serbian kingdom. An assassination attempt earlier that morning
by one of the conspirators had failed. Later that day, however, Princip succeeded in fatally
shooting both the archduke and his wife.
Austria-Hungary Responds
In the aftermath of Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination, Austria-Hungary, indifferent to
Serbia's potential involvement, was determined to retaliate and secured the support of its
German allies. Despite uncertainties, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.
Recognizing the possibility of Russian intervention on Serbia's behalf, Austria-Hungary's leaders
sought the backing of Germany. Emperor William II of Germany offered a "blank check,"
pledging full support in the event of a conflict with Russia.
Russia Mobilizes
Russia, committed to supporting Serbia, initially opted for partial mobilization against
Austria-Hungary on July 28. However, logistical challenges led Czar Nicholas II to order full
mobilization on July 29. This move was a critical turning point, as Germany, viewing full
mobilization as an act of war, issued an ultimatum to Russia. When Russia failed to comply
within 12 hours, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1.
The Conflict Broadens
The conflict rapidly escalated as Germany, following the Schlieffen Plan, declared war on France
on August 3. The Schlieffen Plan, formulated by General Alfred von Schlieffen, envisioned a
two-front war against France and Russia, exploiting their pre-existing military alliance.
According to the plan, Germany would engage in a holding action against Russia while the
majority of its forces launched a swift invasion of France, passing through Belgium.
This violation of Belgian neutrality prompted Germany to issue an ultimatum to Belgium. On
August 4, as Belgium resisted, Great Britain, allied with France and Russia, declared war on
Germany for violating Belgian neutrality. The specter of a global conflict had fully materialized,
with all major European powers engaged in hostilities. This intricate web of alliances and
military strategies set the stage for the commencement of World War I, a conflict that would
profoundly shape the course of the 20th century.
7.2. World War I
The war that many thought would be over in a few weeks lasted far longer, resulting in many
casualties for both sides. The war widened, and the United States entered the fray in 1917. As
World War I escalated, governments took control of their economies, rationing food and
supplies and calling on civilians to work and make sacrifices for the war effort.
In the period spanning 1914 to 1915 during World War I, the prevailing optimism and illusions
about the nature of war were shattered. Prior to the conflict, political leaders believed war to
be impractical due to its associated risks, while others thought diplomacy could easily prevent
it. However, the outbreak of war in August 1914 saw the swift demise of these ideas, replaced
by new illusions fueled by government propaganda that stirred national hatreds. The urgency
of European governments' pleas for defense against aggressors resonated with citizens,
fostering a widespread belief in the justness of their respective nations' causes.
Amidst the initial fervor, a set of illusions emerged, with almost everyone expecting the war to
be short-lived, mirroring the brevity of previous European conflicts since 1815. Soldiers and
citizens alike anticipated a return home by Christmas. However, the reality on the Western
Front shattered these expectations. The German military gamble, known as the Schlieffen Plan,
aimed for a swift encircling movement through Belgium into northern France. The plan faltered
at the First Battle of the Marne (September 6–10, 1914), resulting in a stalemate marked by
trench warfare that persisted for four years. On the Eastern Front, the war exhibited more
mobility. The Russian army suffered defeats at Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes, diminishing
their threat to Germany. Austria-Hungary faced setbacks initially but received German
assistance, ultimately overcoming Russian and Serbian resistance.
The Great Slaughter
By 1915, Italy joined the Allies, betraying its Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary.
The Central Powers, comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later Bulgaria, achieved
successes in the East, enabling German forces to shift back to the Western Front. The trenches
on the Western Front, initially dug for protection in 1914, evolved into elaborate defensive
systems by 1916, characterized by barbed wire, concrete machine-gun nests, and artillery
support. Troops lived in precarious conditions within these trenches, separated by
no-man's-land.
Tactics of Trench Warfare
Trench warfare baffled military leaders who had been trained to fight wars of movement and
maneuver. At times, the high command on either side would order an offensive that would
begin with an artillery barrage to flatten the enemy’s barbed wire and leave the enemy in a
state of shock. After “softening up” the enemy in this fashion, a mass of soldiers would climb
out of their trenches with fixed bayonets and hope to work their way toward the enemy
trenches.
The attacks rarely worked because men advancing unprotected across open fields could be
fired at by the enemy’s machine guns. In 1916 and 1917, millions of young men died in the
search for the elusive breakthrough. In just ten months at Verdun, France, 700,000 men lost
their lives over a few miles of land in 1916. World War I had turned into a war of attrition, a
war based on wearing the other side down by constant attacks and heavy losses.
War in the Air
By the end of 1915, airplanes had appeared on the battlefront for the first time in history.
Planes were first used to spot the enemy’s position. Soon, planes also began to attack
ground targets, especially enemy communications. Fights for control of the air occurred and
increased over time. At first, pilots fired at each other with handheld pistols. Later, machine
guns were mounted on the noses of planes, which made the skies considerably more
dangerous.
The Germans also used their giant airships—the zeppelins—to bomb London and eastern
England. This caused little damage but frightened many people. Germany’s enemies,
however, soon found that zeppelins, which were filled with hydrogen gas, quickly became
raging infernos when hit by antiaircraft guns.
A World War
Because of the stalemate on the Western Front, both sides sought to gain new allies. Each side
hoped new allies would provide a winning advantage, as well as a new source of money and
war goods.
Widening of the War
The expansion of World War I, marked by the involvement of additional nations, significantly
altered the dynamics of the conflict. Bulgaria aligned itself with the Central
Powers—comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire—prompting the
Allied Powers (Russia, Great Britain, and France) to declare war on the Ottoman Empire. In
April 1915, the Allies endeavored to establish a Balkan front by landing forces at Gallipoli,
southwest of Constantinople. Unfortunately, the Gallipoli campaign proved disastrous for the
Allies, compelling them to withdraw. Italy's entry into the war on the side of the Allies resulted
in a new front against Austria-Hungary, as France and Great Britain promised Italy territorial
gains at the expense of Austria.
As the war progressed into 1917, its global nature became increasingly apparent. A British
officer known as Lawrence of Arabia, stationed in the Middle East, played a pivotal role in
urging Arab princes to revolt against their Ottoman rulers. British forces, mobilizing troops from
India, Australia, and New Zealand, achieved success in destroying the Ottoman Empire in the
Middle East by 1918. Concurrently, the Allies capitalized on Germany's preoccupations in
Europe and naval weaknesses to seize German colonies across the world. Japan, a British ally,
took control of several German-held islands in the Pacific, while Australia seized German New
Guinea.
Entry of the United States
The entry of the United States into the war in 1917 represented a crucial turning point. Initially
attempting to maintain neutrality, the United States became increasingly entangled due to the
naval war between Germany and Great Britain. The British blockade of Germany, met with
German retaliation through unrestricted submarine warfare, escalated tensions. The sinking of
the British ship Lusitania in 1915, causing over 100 American deaths, triggered strong protests
from the United States. While Germany temporarily suspended unrestricted submarine
warfare, it resumed the practice in 1917, mistakenly believing it could force Britain into
submission. This move led to the United States officially joining the war in April 1917.
Although substantial numbers of U.S. troops did not arrive in Europe until 1918, their entry had
profound implications. The psychological boost to the Allied Powers was significant, and the
United States became a crucial source of both monetary support and war materials. The
collective impact of these developments contributed to the shaping of the war's trajectory in
its later stages.
The Impact of Total War
As World War I dragged on, it became a total war involving a complete mobilization of
resources and people. It affected the lives of all citizens in the warring countries, however
remote they might be from the battlefields. Masses of men had to be organized, and supplies
were manufactured and purchased for years of combat. (Germany alone had 5.5 million men in
uniform in 1916.) This led to an increase in government powers and the manipulation of public
opinion to keep the war effort going. The home front was rapidly becoming a cause for as much
effort as the war front.
Increased Government Powers
Most people had expected the war to be short. Little thought had been given to long-term
wartime needs. Governments had to respond quickly, however, when the new war machines
failed to achieve their goals. Many more men and supplies were needed to continue the war
effort. To meet these needs, governments expanded their powers. Countries drafted tens of
millions of young men, hoping for that elusive breakthrough to victory.
Wartime governments throughout Europe also expanded their power over their economies.
Free-market capitalistic systems were temporarily put aside. Governments set up price, wage,
and rent controls. They also rationed food supplies and materials; regulated imports and
exports; and took over transportation systems and industries. In effect, in order to mobilize all
the resources of their nations for the war effort, European nations set up planned
economies—systems directed by government agencies.
Under conditions of total war mobilization, the differences between soldiers at war and
civilians at home were narrowed. In the view of political leaders, all citizens were part of a
national army dedicated to victory. Woodrow Wilson, president of the United States, said that
the men and women “who remain to till the soil and man the factories are no less a part of the
army than the men beneath the battle flags.”
Manipulation of Public Opinion
As the war continued and casualties grew worse, the patriotic enthusiasm that had marked the
early stages of World War I waned. By 1916, there were signs that civilian morale was
beginning to crack. War governments, however, fought back against growing opposition to the
war. Authoritarian regimes, such as those of Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, relied on
force to subdue their populations. Under the pressures of the war, however, even democratic
states expanded their police powers to stop internal dissent. The British Parliament, for
example, passed the Defence of the Realm Act (DORA). It allowed the government to arrest
protesters as traitors. Newspapers were censored, and sometimes publication was suspended.
Wartime governments made active use of propaganda to increase enthusiasm for the war. At
the beginning, public officials needed to do little to achieve this goal. The British and French,
for example, exaggerated German atrocities in Belgium and found that their citizens were only
too willing to believe these accounts. As the war progressed and morale sagged, governments
were forced to devise new techniques for motivating the people. In one British recruiting
poster, for example, a small daughter asked her father, “Daddy, what did YOU do in the Great
War?” while her younger brother played with toy soldiers.
Total War and Women
World War I created new roles for women. Because so many men left to fight at the front,
women were asked to take over jobs that had not been available to them before. Women were
employed in jobs that had once been considered beyond their capacity. These jobs included
civilian occupations such as chimney sweeps, truck drivers, farm laborers, and factory workers
in heavy industry. For example, 38 percent of the workers in the Krupp Armaments works in
Germany in 1918 were women. Also, between 1914 and 1918 in Britain, the number of women
working in public transport rose 14 times, doubled in commerce, and rose by nearly a third in
industry. The place of women in the workforce was far from secure, however. Both men and
women seemed to expect that many of the new jobs for women were only temporary.
At the end of the war, governments would quickly remove women from the jobs they had
encouraged them to take earlier. The work benefits for women from World War I were
short-lived as men returned to the job market. By 1919, there would be 650,000 unemployed
women in Great Britain. Wages for the women who were still employed would be lowered.
Nevertheless, in some countries the role women played in wartime economies had a positive
impact on the women’s movement for social and political emancipation.
The most obvious gain was the right to vote, which was given to women in Germany, Austria,
and the United States immediately after the war. British women over 30 gained the vote,
together with the right to stand for Parliament, in 1918. Many upper- and middle-class women
had also gained new freedoms. In ever-increasing numbers, young women from these groups
took jobs, had their own apartments, and showed their new independence.
7.4. End of World War I
Governments, troops, and civilians were weary as World War I continued through 1917. Shortly
after the United States entered the war, Germany made its final military gamble on the
Western Front and lost. The war finally ended on November 11, 1918. The peace treaties were
particularly harsh on Germany. New nations were formed, and a League of Nations was created
to resolve future international disputes.
The Last Year of the War – A New German Offensive
The end of World War I was marked by a series of events that unfolded in 1918. The year began
with setbacks for the Allies, but the entry of the United States into the war provided crucial
support. Germany, facing a weakened Eastern Front after Russia's withdrawal, launched a final
offensive on the Western Front in a bid to break the stalemate. However, the German advance
was halted at the Second Battle of the Marne in July 1918, and subsequent battles marked a
turning point.
The arrival of a million American troops boosted the Allied forces, and by September 1918,
General Ludendorff admitted defeat. The collapse of the German government followed, with
mutinies in Kiel leading to the abdication of Emperor William II. A democratic republic was
proclaimed, and on November 11, 1918, an armistice was signed, officially ending the fighting.
Revolutionary Forces
However, the aftermath in Germany saw the rise of revolutionary forces, with radical socialists
forming the German Communist Party. Attempts at communist revolution in Berlin and Munich
were crushed by the Social Democrats and regular army troops. Austria-Hungary also
disintegrated, leading to the emergence of independent republics and states.
In January 1919, representatives from 27 Allied nations convened in Paris to settle the
aftermath of the war. The reasons for fighting had evolved from territorial gains to more
idealistic goals by the war's end. The peace treaties were particularly harsh on Germany, and
the League of Nations was established to address future international disputes. The
disintegration of empires and the reshaping of nations in the aftermath of World War I set the
stage for geopolitical tensions in the following decades.
Wilson’s Proposals
Woodrow Wilson, the U.S. president, presented idealistic proposals known as the "Fourteen
Points" to Congress as the basis for a just and lasting peace after World War I. These included
open peace agreements, reduced armaments, and the principle of self-determination. Wilson
envisioned a world order based on democracy and international cooperation.
The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles
The Paris Peace Conference in 1919 aimed to determine the peace settlement. Complications
arose due to conflicting national interests, especially from Great Britain and France, and secret
treaties made before the war. The Big Three—Wilson, Clemenceau, and Lloyd
George—quarreled over the League of Nations, territorial arrangements, and security
guarantees. Compromises were made, leading to the acceptance of the League of Nations in
January 1919.
The Treaty of Versailles, the most significant peace settlement, included harsh terms for
Germany, such as the War Guilt Clause, reparations, military restrictions, and territorial losses.
The treaty redrew the map of Eastern Europe, leading to the dissolution of empires and the
creation of new nation-states. The principle of self-determination faced challenges, resulting in
compromises that left ethnic minorities within nations, contributing to future conflicts.
The Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary were also dismantled, and the mandate system was
established, where nations governed territories on behalf of the League of Nations. World War
I shattered the liberal, rational society of late 19th- and early 20th-century Europe, leading to
unprecedented destruction and loss of life. The war increased government control, limited
freedoms, and gave rise to strong central authority. Hopes for a return to normalcy were
dashed as revolutions, new states, and unresolved issues created further insecurity.
