Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes

Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

Journey Through History -

New Topic-based Series

Study Notes
Topic 9:
International conflicts and crises in
the 20th century (I) –
the two world wars

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 Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

Background and causes of the war (p.8-12) Pre-war conflicts and immediate cause (p.13-15)
- Economic and colonial competition  The Moroccan Crises (1905-1906 and 1911)
- Armaments race  The Bosnian Crisis (1908)
- Alliance system  The Balkan Wars (1912 and 1913)
WWI

- Extreme nationalism  Immediate cause of the war: the Sarajevo Incident (1914)

Austro-Serbian War (regional conflict) became a world war (1914-1918) (p.17-19)

Problems left behind by WWI

Failure of the Paris Peace Conference (p.22-25)

- Major settlements: Signing the Treaty of Versailles with
Germany, achieving national self-determination, forming a
Economic problems in the inter-war
collective security system period (p.26-28)
- Discontent of Italy and Germany about the settlements - Economic downturn after WWI
- Hidden dangers in national self-determination - The Great Depression (1929-1933)

Affected the attitudes of

Britain, France and the U.S
Paved the way for
WWII

Rise of totalitarianism (p.29-35) Attempts at collective security and their failure (p.40-43)
- Totalitarianism in Italy: Fascism - Setbacks of the League of Nations
- Totalitarianism in Germany: Nazism - Appeasement policy of Britain and France
- Totalitarianism in Japan: Militarism - Isolationism of the United States
- The Soviet Union drawn closer to Germany

Started
Encourage

Aggressions of the totalitarian countries in the 1930s (p.36-38)

- Aggressions in Europe, Asia and Africa, leading to many international crises

Events leading to the war and immediate cause (p.45)

- Further expansion of Germany and Italy (March-April 1939)
- The immediate cause: German invasion of Poland (September 1939)

The Second World War (1939-1945) (p.46-47)

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 Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

A. Introduction to the two world wars

 The first half of the 20th century saw the outbreak of two world wars.
 The Second World War (referred to as WWII) is often regarded as a continuation
of the First World War (referred to as WWI).

1. The First World War (1914-1918)

 In the early 20th century, European nationalism became extreme.

 The powers sought to have greater influence. This caused a number of
international crises.
 The outbreak of the Austro-Serbian War in 1914 marked the start of the First
World War.

2. The Second World War (1939-1945)

 The peace conference after the First World War failed to resolve international
crises. Alongside the problematic post-war economy, totalitarian countries
emerged in Europe and Asia.
 Their invasions sparked another world war in 1939.

The First World War The Second World War

Period 1914-1918 1939-1945

Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan, etc.)
Rival Camps Bulgaria, etc.) and Allied Powers (Britain, and Allied Powers (Britain, France, the
France, Russia, Japan, the United States, etc.) United States, the Soviet Union, China, etc.)

 Failure of the Paris Peace Conference

 Economic and colonial competition
 Economic problems in the inter-war
 Armaments race
period
 Alliance system
Causes  Rise of totalitarianism and aggression
 Extreme nationalism
 Failure of collective security
 Pre-war conflicts
 Immediate cause: German invasion of
 Immediate cause: the Sarajevo Incident
Poland

Main
Europe Europe, Asia and Africa
battlefields

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

B. International relations and reasons for conflicts before the two world wars

Guiding Question
1. The First World War  What were the background and causes
of the First World War?

(a) International situation before the war

 In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Britain, Germany, France, Austria-
Hungary and Russia were called 'European powers'.
- They had strong economic and military power, and dominated world affairs.
 However, relations between the European powers became tense.
- Economic and colonial competition, alliance system, armaments race and
extreme nationalism led to suspicion and hatred.
- The unstable European situation paved the way for a world war.

1. Rise of Germany and its 'world politics'

Germany quickly emerged as a European power after 1871. It adopted an
expansionist foreign policy called 'world politics'. Britain believed that
Germany was a threat and thus their relations deteriorated.

Take back
the territory!!

2. Hostility between France and Germany

France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Germany also
tried to isolate France afterwards. France wanted to take revenge on
Germany, get back its land and end its diplomatic isolation.

3. Ambitions of Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkans

The Balkans After losing its control of Central Europe, Austria-Hungary hoped to expand
in the Balkans in Southeastern Europe. Russia supported the expansion of
Serbia, also a Slavic nation, in the Balkans. AustroRussian relations
worsened.

(b) Background and causes of the war

(i) Economic and colonial competition

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 Overview
 In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the European powers restricted the
import of goods to protect their own industrial development.
 They also competed for overseas colonies to get markets and resources.
 During this period, Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia were almost entirely
partitioned among the powers.

 Effects
 Economic and colonial competition caused conflicts among the European
powers.
 To protect their own interests, they formed alliances and expanded their
armaments. The armaments race among the powers was then intensified.

(ii) Armaments race

 Forms
 In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the European powers competed in
expanding armies and armaments to protect their national security and overseas
interests. The race took the following forms:
- Army race: They introduced conscription to build up large armies.
- Arms race: They developed new and more powerful weapons.
- Naval race: They built powerful battleships. Britain and Germany were the
chief rivals. They competed in building 'dreadnoughts' from 1906.

 Effects
 The armaments race increased tensions and made war more likely.
 The European powers thought they were strong when they had a lot of weapons.
- They would not give way easily when they had quarrels with other countries.
 The armaments race made the Europeans more warlike.
- They believed that war could bring glory to their countries.
- They supported going to war to solve problems.

(iii) Alliance system

 Triple Alliance and Triple Entente

 1882: To isolate France, Germany formed the Triple Alliance with Austria-
Hungary and Italy.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 1907: Russia, Britain and France formed the Triple Entente.

 Europe was divided into two rival camps.

 Effects
 The situation in Europe became tenser.
 The alliances were made in secret.
- This caused suspicion and fear among the powers.
 The powers thought they were supported by their allies.
- They would not give way easily when they had quarrels with other countries.
 As each had allies, a small quarrel between two powers would involve more
powers, leading to a major conflict and even a general war.

The two rival camps in Europe

in 1907

Triple Alliance
Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Italy
Triple Entente
Britain, France, Russia

(iv) Extreme nationalism

 Rise
 Nationalism is the desire of people of the same race and culture to govern
themselves.
 It became extreme in Europe in the early 20th century.
- Europeans supported territorial expansion to gain national glory and the use
of force to solve conflicts.
 Extreme nationalism triggered some threatening national movements in Europe.

 France was determined to take revenge on Germany for its defeat

France: Revenge
in the Franco-Prussian War and to get back Alsace-Lorraine from
against Germany
Germany.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 Pan-Germanism promoted the idea of uniting all Germans in

Germany: Europe to build a 'Greater Germanic Empire'.
Pan-Germanism  Some Pan-Germanists even believed that Germans were the most
superior race and they hoped to conquer the world.
 Russia's Pan-Slavism advocated bringing all Slavs in Europe under
Russia: Pan-Slavism Russian leadership. Therefore, Russia supported Slavic states,
including Serbia, to expand in the Balkans.
Serbia:  Serbia wanted to unite the Serbians in Austria-Hungary and the
Greater Serbia Balkans to form a “Greater Serbia’.
 After the 1860s, Austria-Hungary lost control of Central Europe.
Austria-Hungary:
To regain national glory, it started to expand into the Balkans.
Expanding into the
 Austria-Hungary also severely suppressed Slavic separatist
Balkans
activities to combat Pan-Slavism within the country.

 Effects
 Extreme nationalists supported their countries to adopt a strong foreign policy
and even to wage war to achieve national goals.
 Extreme nationalism intensified the tensions in Europe. It also led to many crises
in Africa and the Balkans. These crises worsened international relations.

(c) Pre-war conflicts and immediate cause

(i) The Moroccan Crises (1905-1906 and 1911)

 The First Moroccan Crisis (1905-1906)

 1905: Kaiser William II visited Morocco to show support for the independence
of Morocco. This hindered France's plan to acquire Morocco.
 France, Britain and Russia later joined together against Germany.
- They diplomatically defeated Germany, which was supported by Austria-
Hungary only.

 The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)

 1911: France sent troops to Morocco to suppress the riots there. Germany sent a
gunboat to the Moroccan port of Agadir.
- Britain and France were prepared to go to war with Germany. Eventually,
Germany gave in.
 1912: Morocco became a French protectorate.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 Effects
 After the first crisis, France, Britain and Russia drew closer.
- They formed the Triple Entente in 1907.
 Germany became more hostile to Britain and France, but valued more the
alliance with Austria-Hungary, its only supporter in the crises.
 The Moroccan Crises further divided Europe into two rival camps and increased
tensions in Europe.

(ii) The Bosnian Crisis (1908)

 1908: Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina in the Balkans.

- Serbia was angry about this because it also wanted to get these two places.
 Serbia asked Russia for help. Germany supported Austria-Hungary.
- Europe was brought very close to war.
 Russia eventually advised Serbia to accept the annexation.
- Hostility intensified between Austria-Hungary and Serbia after the crisis.

(iii) The Balkan Wars (1912 and 1913)

 The First Balkan War (1912)

 1912: Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece formed the Balkan League and
declared war on the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).
- The Ottoman Empire was defeated and lost almost all its territories in the
Balkans.

 The Second Balkan War (1913)

 1913: The Balkan League split up because of territorial disputes.
 Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece. The Second Balkan War started.
- Bulgaria was defeated and lost most of the territories it got from the First
Balkan War.

 Effects
 Serbia's territories were greatly enlarged after the Balkan Wars.
- However, it failed to acquire access to the Adriatic Sea as an independent
Albania, supported by Austria-Hungary, was founded.
 Anti-Austrian sentiment grew stronger in Serbia.
- Austro-Serbia relations further worsened.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

The Balkans in 1912 (left) and in 1913 (right)

(iv) Immediate cause of the war: the Sarajevo Incident (1914)

 On June 28, 1914, Princip, a Bosnian student, assassinated the heir to the
Austrian throne, Archduke Ferdinand, and his wife in Sarajevo, the capital of
Bosnia.
 Princip was associated with an anti-Austrian secret society in Serbia.
- Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of causing the incident.

(d) Outbreak of the war

 After the Sarajevo Incident, Austria-Hungary wanted to crush Serbia once and
for all.
 With the support of Germany, Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to Serbia on
July 23. It also demanded that Serbia reply to the ultimatum within 48 hours.
 The main terms of the ultimatum included:
- Serbia had to stop all anti-Austrian activities;
- Serbia had to dismiss all its anti-Austrian officials;
- Austria-Hungary would send officials to Serbia to ensure that the demands
were carried out.
 Serbia accepted most of the terms upon the advice of Russia. However, it refused
to allow Austrian officials to enter the country.
 When Britain failed in its attempt to mediate, Austria-Hungary declared war on
Serbia on July 28.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 As other countries joined the war successively, the Austro-Serbian War became a
world war.
 Therefore, the Sarajevo Incident is seen as the immediate cause of the First
World War.

Guiding Question
2. The Second World War  What were the background and
causes of the Second World War?

(a) International situation after the First World War

 Post-war problems cast a shadow over the prospect of peace.

- Faced with post-war social and economic problems, Britain and France were
unable and unwilling to intervene in European affairs.
- The governments of Germany and Italy lost support as people were
dissatisfied with the post-war arrangements.
 As post-war problems continued to trouble Europe, coupled with the economic
crisis of the late 1920s, the international situation underwent a drastic change.
 Germany, Italy and Japan all started invasions, intensifying the threat of another
world war.

1. Discontent of Germany and Italy

The defeated Germany signed the harsh Treaty of Versailles. Germans were
very angry about it. The victorious Italians failed to get the lands promised by
the Allied Powers. They accused their government of incompetence.

We were betrayed

2. Japan's rapid expansion

During the First World War, Japan signed a secret treaty with Britain,
France and the United States to ensure that its interests in Asia were
China not threatened. After the war, Japan's rapid expansion into China and
the Pacific region alarmed the Americans.

3. Weakened Britain and France, and isolationist United States When will we be
employed again?
Britain and France suffered serious losses and the process of reconstruction was
slow. Though the United States was a major decision-maker in the post-war peace
conference, it quickly returned to its isolationist policy

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

(b) Failure of the Paris Peace Conference (1919)

(i) Calling of Paris Peace Conference

 In 1919, the victorious countries held the Paris Peace Conference to discuss the
peace settlement.
 Leaders of the United States, Britain and France dominated the conference.
- They were known as the 'Big Three'.

The 'Big Three' Aims

To maintain world peace
Wilson  proposed the Fourteen Points as basis for the peace settlement
(American President)  opposed punishing Germany harshly in order not to deepen the
enmity among the powers
To weaken Germany permanently
Clemenceau  demanded Germany return the French land gained in the Franco-
(French Prime Prussian War
Minister)  demanded harsh punishment on Germany in order to weaken
Germany permanently
To maintain a balance of power
Lloyd George  wanted to maintain a balance of power and did not want to see
(British Prime Germany weakened too much
Minister)  wanted to take over German colonies and maintain Britain's
naval supremacy

 The defeated countries were not invited to the conference or consulted about the
peace terms.
- They signed separate peace treaties between 1919 and 1920 and were
punished.
- Germany was punished most heavily.

(ii) Major settlements

 Signing the Treaty of Versailles (June 1919)

 According to the treaty, Germany had to disarm, pay reparations and cede some
land. It also had to accept the war-guilt clause, bearing full responsibility for
causing the war.

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 Achieving national self-determination

 In accordance with the principle of national self-determination, the defeated
countries ceded territories to peoples of Eastern Europe.
- New independent nation-states such as Hungary and Czechoslovakia were
established.

 Forming a collective security system

 President Wilson's proposal to form an international peacekeeping body was
adopted.
 1920: The League of Nations was set up.
- It aimed to maintain peace through collective security.
- Countries would take collective actions to solve international conflicts.

(iii) Discontent of Italy and Germany

 Italy - failed to get all the lands promised

 Italy did not get all the lands promised by the Allied Powers at the Paris Peace
Conference.
 The Italians felt betrayed by their allies and blamed their government for being
unable to protect national interests. They wanted to have a strong leader to bring
national glory.

 Germany - punished too harshly

 The Germans felt that the Treaty of Versailles was harsh, and it was unfair for
Germany to accept the war-guilt clause.
 They wanted to take revenge and were discontented with their Weimar Republic
government. They longed for a strong leader to overthrow the treaty and rebuild
national glory.

The main terms of the Treaty of Versailles

 The German army was reduced to 100,000; no tanks, submarines or fighter planes were allowed
 The Rhineland would become a demilitarized zone
 Had to give up all its colonies
 Had to cede 13% of its land to neighbouring countries
 Had to pay reparations amounting to 6.6 billion pounds over 42 years
 Had to accept the war-guilt clause
 Germany and Austria were forbidden to be unified

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(iv) Hidden dangers in national self-determination

 Most new Eastern European countries were weak.

- They easily became targets for expansion.
 These countries were founded according to the principle of national self-
determination, but their populations still included other peoples.
- Three million Germans lived in the Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia. This
became an excuse for Germany's expansion.

(c) Economic problems in the inter-war period

(i) Economic downturn after the First World War

 The European countries faced severe economic and social problems after WWI.
- Unemployment rates rose due to economic stagnation and the large number
of demobilized soldiers.
- There was a shortage of resources as production facilities and infrastructure
were damaged. Serious inflation and famine occurred.
 After the war, the European countries did not cooperate to solve the economic
crisis.
- They even restricted foreign trade to protect their own industries.
- Britain, France and Germany could only rely on American loans to stimulate
their economies.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

- The foreign trade of Asian countries like Japan was also adversely affected.
 The economic downturn sowed the seeds of the rise of totalitarianism in some
countries.

(ii) The Great Depression (1929-1933)

 The Wall Street Crash

 1919-1929: The economy of the United States was booming.
- Industrialists borrowed lots of money from banks and invested heavily in the
stock market. People speculated actively. Share prices continued to rise.
 October 1929: A massive sell-off of stocks caused a sharp drop in stock prices.
The stock market crashed.
- Many investors lost all their money.
- About 100,000 companies closed down and unemployment reached 13
million.
- The United States entered a period called the Great Depression.

 Spread of the Great Depression

 The United States was the major creditor and financier of Europe.
 To save its economy, the United States demanded the repayment of loans.
- This hit the European economy very badly.
 The United States protected its domestic production by imposing high tariffs and
quotas on imported goods.
- As the American demand for foreign goods fell greatly, many European and
Japanese factories closed down.
- Unemployment rose sharply.

 Impact of the Great Depression

 The Great Depression weakened the determination and ability of the
international community to maintain peace.
 It also fuelled the rise of totalitarianism.

 Impact on the United States

 The United States focused on rebuilding its economy and became more self-
isolated.
- In the 1930s, it passed several neutrality acts to prevent involvement in
international conflicts.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 Impact on Britain and France

 Britain and France were badly hit.
- Their social and economic problems became more serious.
- They were reluctant to use force to deal with international disputes.
 Aggressors took advantage of this.

 Impact on Germany and Japan

 The Great Depression caused an economic slump in Germany.
- Germans started to support Hitler and his Nazi Party.
 The Great Depression sharply increased the unemployment rate in Japan.
- Japanese militarists proposed territorial expansion to solve economic
problems. Their ideas became popular.

(d) Rise of totalitarianism

(i) What is totalitarianism?

 Totalitarianism: an ideology or a political system.

 In a totalitarian state, the ruler holds total authority over the state and controls all
aspects of public and private life.

(ii) Reasons for the rise of totalitarianism

 After WWI, political and social instability troubled many European countries
and weakened people's faith in democracy.
 The Germans and Italians were discontented with the decisions of the Paris
Peace Conference.
- They longed for a strong government that could revive the country's past
glories. This led to the rise of Fascism and Nazism in the two countries.
 In Japan, as the party government was weak, the militarists were able to control
the government in the 1930s.

(iii) Totalitarianism in Italy: Fascism

 Rise of Fascism
 As Italy failed to get all the lands promised by the Allied Powers, the Italians
criticized their government for its weaknesses.

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 The government failed to solve the postwar economic and social problems.
 The Italians lost confidence in democracy and hoped for a strong leader and
government.
- This provided an opportunity for the rise of Mussolini and his Fascist Party.

 Establishment of the Fascist regime

 1921: Mussolini founded the Fascist Party.
 1922: Mussolini became Prime Minister.
- All political parties were banned except the Fascist Party.
 1928: Mussolini established Fascist dictatorial rule in Italy.

 Features of Fascist rule in Italy:

One-party  All political parties were banned except the Fascist Party.
dictatorship
Absolute  Mussolini demanded that all people should work for the
obedience interests of the country and obey the state absolutely.
Total control and  The state controlled people's daily life, work and education.
oppression  It also set up secret police to monitor the people.
Cult of  The Fascist Party promoted the cult of Mussolini. As the
personality basic government slogan went, "Mussolini is always right."
 Communists believed in the idea of class struggle.
 Mussolini believed that this idea would weaken unity among
Anti-communism
the people and even national strength.
 He suppressed socialist and communist activities in Italy.
Economic self-  Mussolini hoped to reduce Italy's economic reliance on
sufficiency foreign countries in order to protect the country's interests.
 Mussolini greatly expanded Italian military forces and
Military and
armaments.
territorial
 Under his leadership, Italy actively expanded its territories in
expansion
order to revive the glory of ancient Rome.

(iv) Totalitarianism in Germany: Nazism

 Rise of Nazism
 The Weimar Republic, established in 1918, was unpopular from the start as it
signed the Treaty of Versailles.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 During the Great Depression, the unemployed population rose to over six million
in Germany.
- The Germans lost confidence in the democratic government.
 At that time, Hitler promised jobs and the overthrow of the Treaty of Versailles.
- This helped him and his Nazi Party gain mass support.

 Establishment of the Nazi regime

 1932: The Nazi Party became the largest party in the German parliament.
 1933: Hitler became Chancellor.
 1934: Hitler became both Chancellor and President and got absolute power.
- He banned other political parties and established a one-party dictatorship.

 Features of Nazi rule in Germany:

One-party  All political parties were banned except the Nazi Party.
dictatorship
Total control and  The state controlled people's daily life, work and education.
oppression  It also set up secret police to monitor the people.
 Hitler was called 'Führer', meaning leader.
Cult of
 The Nazi Party strictly controlled the media and promoted
personality
the cult of Hitler. He was glorified as a 'heroic' leader.
 The Nazis believed that the Aryan race (ancestors of the
Germans) was superior to all other races and should rule
other races.
Anti-Semitism  They advocated exterminating the Jews in order to preserve
the purity of the Aryan race.
 During the reign of the Nazis, about six million Jews died
under different kinds of Nazi persecution.
 Hitler believed that the communist idea of class struggle
would weaken unity among the people and even national
Anti-communism
strength.
 The Nazis suppressed all communist activities in Germany.
 In order to get living space for its growing population,
Military and
Hitler expanded German military forces and armaments.
territorial
 Germany expanded in Europe step by step, aiming to
expansion
establish a Greater German Empire.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

(v) Totalitarianism in Japan: Militarism

 Rise of militarism
 Militarism: a belief in military power.
- It advocates expansion to protect or strive for national interests.
 Japan had been ruled by the warrior class for a long time.
- Military spirit was deeply rooted.
 After WWI, power struggles and corruption in Japan's party government were
rampant. It also failed to solve the economic crisis brought by the Great
Depression in the 1930s.
- Many Japanese began to support the militarists and territorial expansion to
solve difficulties.

 Establishment of militarist regime

 1931: The Japanese army invaded Manchuria in China and later set up the puppet
state Manzhouguo. This made militarism more popular.
 1932: The party government fell.
- The militarists gained power and established a military dictatorship.

 Features of militarist rule in Japan

 From 1932, the military controlled the cabinet and set up a

Military
military dictatorship step by step.
dictatorship
 All opposition to its rule was silenced by force.
 To unite the Japanese people, the military government
Control over promoted an emperor-centred nationalism.
thoughts and  Military rule brought control over thoughts and ideas.
emperor worship  School textbooks were used to promote war and emperor
worship.
 Japanese communists advocated class struggle and abolition
of the Tenno system.
Anti-communism
 Japanese militarists believed that these ideas would weaken
unity among the people and even destroy national tradition.
Military and  Japan's expansion aimed to get territories for its surplus
territorial population and markets for its industries.
expansion  Japan intensified its expansions in China and Southeast Asia.

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 Since the military government started its full-scale

invasion of China in 1937, it controlled all resources and
State control economic activities in the state.
 The whole nation was mobilized to support the war effort.
 Civilians were also given military training.

(e) Aggressions of the totalitarian countries in the 1930s

 In the inter-war period, totalitarian rule was established in Italy, Germany and
Japan. In the 1930s, they actively expanded in Europe, Asia and Africa, leading
to many international crises.

 Italy’s expansion in Africa

Date Event
October Italy invaded Abyssinia in northeastern
1935 – Africa. Italy annexed Abyssinia in the
May 1936 end.

 Germany's expansion in Europe

Date Event
March German troops entered the
1936 demilitarized Rhineland, violating the
Treaty of Versailles.
March Germany forced Austria to accept a
1938 union with it, violating the Treaty of
Versailles.
September Germany occupied the Sudetenland,
1938 the northwestern part of
Czechoslovakia.

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 Japan's expansion in Asia Date Event

September Shenyang Incident: Japanese troops
18, 1931 invaded the northeast provinces of
China.
January Shanghai Incident: Japanese troops
1932 attacked Shanghai.
Under the mediation of Britain, the
United States and France, China and
Japan signed an armistice.
March Japan set up Manzhouguo, a puppet
1932 state, in Northeastern China.

July 7, Lugouqiao Incident: Japanese troops

1937 invaded Beiping. Full-scale invasion
of China started.

(f) Formation of the Axis Powers

(i) Agreements among the totalitarian states, 1936-1939

 1936: Germany and Japan concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact to defend against
the threat of the communist Soviet Union.
 1937: Italy signed the pact.
 May 1939: Germany and Italy formed a military alliance with the signing of the
Pact of Steel.
- They promised to support each other in a possible war.

(ii) Signing of the Tripartite Pact in 1940

 September 1940: Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact, forming
the military alliance of the 'Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis'.
- In WWII, the Axis Powers fought against the Allied Powers.

(g) Attempts at collective security and their failure

(i) Setbacks of the League of Nations

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 League of Nations and collective security

 At its peak, the League had 58 member countries, but the United States never
joined.
 The League worked to maintain world peace through collective security.
- Its member countries would collectively mediate, impose sanctions or take
military action to stop aggression.

 Failure of the League in the 1930s

 In the 1920s, the League settled many disputes between its members.
 It failed to handle the expansions of the totalitarian countries in the 1930s.
- Japan and Italy intensified their aggressions and withdrew from the League
successively.
 The failure of the League to stop Japan and Italy encouraged Germany to speed
up its expansion. Member countries also lost their faith in collective security.
 When Britain and France adopted an appeasement policy towards the totalitarian
countries, the League existed in name only.

Failures of the League of Nations in the 1930s

Totalitarian Failure of the League

states
Japan  In 1931, Japan invaded northeast China. The League condemned the
Japanese aggression and urged it to withdraw.
 Japan ignored the demand, and left the League in 1933.
Germany  In 1932, the League convened the Geneva Disarmament Conference.
 When Hitler rose to power in 1933, Germany left both the disarmament
conference and the League.
Italy  In 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia. The League condemned the Italian
invasion and imposed economic sanctions, but failed to gain support from
its members.
 In 1936, Italy occupied Abyssinia, and it left the League the next year.

(ii) Appeasement policy of Britain and France

 Reasons for adopting appeasement

 Appeasement: a policy of making concessions to an aggressor state in order to
prevent war.

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 Britain and France wanted to focus on solving internal problems. They were also
not strong enough to make military interventions.
 They adopted an appeasement policy in the 1930s.
- They conceded to the territorial demands of the totalitarian states in exchange
for peace.

 Appeasement towards Japan and Italy

 Britain and France did not take real action to stop Japan's invasion of northeast
China in 1931.
 In the face of Italy's invasion of Abyssinia in 1935, they even agreed secretly to
allow Italy to occupy two-thirds of Abyssinia.
 They also refused to enforce the League's sanctions on Italy.

 Appeasement towards Germany

 1936-1938: Germany sent troops into the Rhineland and annexed Austria.
- Britain and France took no action in response.
 May 1938: Hitler demanded that Czechoslovakia give up the Sudetenland to
Germany.
- To prevent war, Britain and France signed the Munich Agreement with
Germany, allowing Germany to occupy the Sudetenland.

(iii) Isolationism of the United States

 After the Paris Peace Conference, the United States returned to isolationism and
did not join the League of Nations.
 The Great Depression deepened its isolationist stance.
- In 1935, it passed the first Neutrality Act prohibiting the export of arms to
any nations at war. It only condemned the aggressions of Italy and Germany.
 American isolationism encouraged totalitarian aggression.

(iv) The Soviet Union drawn closer to Germany

 The communist Soviet Union, established in 1922, was not trusted by the
Western countries.
 It was not invited to the Munich Conference.
- Stalin, the Soviet leader, doubted that Britain and France planned to play
Germany against the Soviet Union.

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 When the formation of an anti-German alliance between Britain and France

locked in a stalemate, the Soviet Union drew closer to Germany.
 1939: The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was signed. Germany and the Soviet
Union agreed secretly to divide Poland and their spheres of influence in Eastern
Europe.
- The pact removed the main obstacle to German expansion eastward and
further aroused its ambition to invade Poland.

(h) Events and immediate cause leading to the war

(i) Further expansion of Germany and Italy (March-April, 1939)

 March 1939: Germany occupied the whole of Czechoslovakia.

 April: Italy occupied Albania.
 Britain and France then abandoned their appeasement policy.
- They promised to protect the independence of Poland and countries
threatened by aggression, and accelerated armaments programmes.

(ii) The immediate cause: German invasion of Poland (September 1939)

 Since 1938, Germany had demanded that Poland return the land it got from
Germany by the Treaty of Versailles.
- Poland refused and thus Germany prepared to invade Poland.
 Hitler believed that Britain and France would not go to war for Poland.
 Furthermore, the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact encouraged
Germany to take action without fear of Soviet intervention.
 September 1, 1939: Germany attacked Poland.
- Britain and France demanded its withdrawal, but received no response.
- They declared war on Germany. The Second World War began.

3. Summary: Was WWII a continuation of WWI?

Guiding Question
 Did the peace conference after the First World War completely settle the
international disputes and post-war economic problems?
 What threats to peace did the post-war settlements leave behind? How did the post-
war problems weaken the capability of Western countries to maintain peace?

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 The two world wars in the first half of the 20th century were closely related.
 In the early 20th century, the rise of extreme nationalism made the European
powers aggressive.
- Conflicts were frequent and finally provoked the First World War.
 However, the end of the War and post-war peace talks did not completely resolve
the conflicts among the powers.
- Some post-war settlements even sowed the seeds of conflict (e.g. Germans'
and Italians' desire for revenge).
 In the 1920s and 1930s, post-war problems and the Great Depression weakened
the collective security system.
 Totalitarian regimes rose and expanded.
- The other powers refused to stop their aggression as they did not want to be
involved in a world war again.
 The German invasion of Poland finally crossed a red line for Britain and France
and ended the ‘twenty-year truce’.
- The Second World War began.

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Impact of WWI: Birth of the idea of decolonization (p.50-51)

WW WWI

- Principle of national self-determination

- Encouragement from Eastern European peoples
I

Impact of WWII: Decline of the European colonial powers (p.51)

- Colonies gained independence through negotiations or wars
I

Decolonization of Asia (p.51-54) Decolonization of Africa (p.55-57)

- Through suzerain’s assistance: American colony - Total independence of Egypt and decline of British colonial power
Decolonization of Asia and Africa after WWII

(the Philippine) - Independence of Ghana and rise of Pan-Africanism

- Through negotiation: British colonies (Burma,  The establishment of the Organization of African Unity (1963)
India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei) - Year of Africa (1960)
- Through armed struggle: French and Dutch - Major development of decolonization after 1961
colonies (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Indonesia)  Generally peaceful

Rise of the Third World (p.58-62)

- Those countries belonging neither to the First World (more developed capitalist countries led by the United States) nor
the Second World (communist countries led by the Soviet Union)
- Included the less developed countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Many of them were former Western colonies

Bandung Conference (1955) (p.58-60) Non-Aligned Movement (1961)

- 29 Asian and African leaders attended (p.60-62)
- Declared the Ten Principles of the Bandung - Based on the Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference,
Conference the Non-Aligned Movement advocated being unaligned
- Significance with the United States or the Soviet Union
 Consolidated independent position - Supported national self-determination
 Promoted the rise of the Third World - Advocated cooperation to narrow the economic gap
between more developed and less developed countries
- Significance
 Rising influence of the Third World
 Helped maintain world peace

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C. Decolonization of Asia and Africa and Guiding Questions

 How did the two world wars lead to
the rise of the ‘Third World’ in the decolonization?
 How did the independence of Asian and
post-war period African colonies and the rise of the 'Third
World' change the international situation?

1. Decolonization of Asia and Africa after

the Second World War

 After the First World War, newly independent nation-states were established in
Eastern Europe.
- Asian and African colonial nationalists were encouraged.
 As decolonization started after the Second World War, the world entered the era
of modern nation-states.

(a) Background

(i) Impact of WWI: Birth of the idea of decolonization

 Principle of national self-determination

 This principle claims that a group of people with a common language and culture
have the right to form their own state and choose their own government.
 1918: American President Wilson issued the 'Fourteen Points'.
- He proposed the principle of national self-determination to give peoples in
Eastern Europe the chance to develop autonomy and a guarantee of
independence.

 Encouragement from Eastern European peoples

 After the Paris Peace Conference, more than ten new nation-states were formed
in Eastern Europe.
- Their establishment put the principle of national self-determination into
practice.
- This encouraged colonial nationalists in Asia and Africa, and gave birth to
the idea of decolonization.
 However, Western colonial powers refused to accept their independence at that
time.

(ii) Impact of WWII: Decline of the European colonial powers

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 After WWII, the European colonial powers further declined.

- They were unable to restore or maintain colonial rule.
 Their colonies in Asia and Africa eventually gained independence through
negotiations or wars.

(b) Decolonization of Asia

 During WWII, Japan occupied the colonies of Western countries in Southeast

Asia, further stimulating nationalism in the region.
 After the war, these colonies resisted the resumption of colonial rule by their
former suzerains. Anti-colonialism also ran high in British India in South Asia.
 Decolonization in Asia developed rapidly during the late 1940s and the 1950s.
- The colonies gained their independence through the suzerain's assistance,
negotiation and armed struggle.

(i) American colony: through the suzerain's assistance

 In the 1930s, the United States introduced reforms in the Philippines and passed
the Philippine Independence Act (1934) to provide for the adoption of a
constitution and establishment of a new government.
 1935: The Commonwealth of the Philippines, led by an elected president, was
established.
 1946: The Philippines became independent.

(ii) British colonies: through negotiation

 Britain was relatively moderate towards its colonies after WWII.

- The colonies gained independence through negotiation, and their process
was relatively peaceful.

 Burma
 Soon after restoring its rule in Burma, Britain held talks with the independence
leader Aung San to end colonial rule.
 1947: The two sides reached an agreement.
 1948: The Union of Burma was founded in.

 India and Pakistan

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 After WWII, the Indian leader Gandhi negotiated with Britain to gain
independence.
- At the same time, differences between the Hindus and the Muslims
intensified.
 According to the Indian Independence Act, passed in 1947, British India would
be divided into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan.
- August: India and Pakistan became independent.

 Malaya and Singapore

 Malayan leader Tunku Abdul Rahman and Chinese leader Lee Kuan Yew
advocated peaceful means to gain independence from Britain.
 1957: Malaya and Singapore became autonomous.
 1963: Malaya, Singapore and other former British colonies formed Malaysia.
- The population of Singapore was Chinese-majority while people in other
parts of Malaysia were mainly Malays.
- Political and economic differences and ethnic conflicts in Malaysia became
increasingly serious.
 1965: Lee Kuan Yew announced Singapore's independence from Malaysia.

 Brunei
 In 1959, Brunei gained autonomy.
 In 1979, Britain agreed to help Brunei prepare for independence in a five-year
transition period.
 In 1984, Brunei declared independence.

(iii) French and Dutch colonies: through armed struggle

 After WWII, France and the Netherlands attempted to restore their colonial rule
in Southeast Asia by force.
 French Indochina and the Dutch East Indies then started armed struggles for
independence.

 French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia)

 After WWII, nationalists in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia organized armed
forces against French rule.
 1953-1954: France suffered military setbacks and had to recognize their
independence.

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 Due to the outbreak of a civil war, Vietnam was divided into two until
reunification in 1976.

 Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)

 1945: The nationalist leader Sukarno proclaimed the independence of Indonesia.
- Armed conflicts broke out between the Dutch and Indonesians.
 1949: The Netherlands finally agreed to end its rule in Indonesia. Indonesia
gained independence.

Independent country (Year Way to gain

Former suzerain
of independence) independence
1. The Philippines (1946) The United States Suzerain's assistance
2. India (1947)
3. Pakistan (1947)
4. Burma (1948)
5. Sri Lanka (1948) Britain Through negotiation
6. Malaysia (1963)
7. Singapore (1965)
8. Brunei (1984)
9. Laos (1953)
10. Cambodia (1953) France Through armed struggle
11. Vietnam (1954)
12. Indonesia (1949) The Netherlands Through armed struggle

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(c) Decolonization of Africa

 During WWII, the Allied Powers gathered supplies from Africa.

 After the war, Africans believed that their suzerains should give them more rights
in return. Decolonization began.
- New nation-states emerged successively.
- The year 1960 was called the 'Year of Africa'.

(i) Total independence of Egypt and decline of British colonial power

 1922: In 1922, Britain recognized Egypt’s independence, but still controlled its
military and foreign affairs.
 After WWII, Egyptian nationalists demanded total independence and the
withdrawal of British troops from Egypt
 1952: Nasser, an Egyptian officer, overthrew the pro-Western Egyptian king in a
coup.
 1956: Britain agreed to withdraw from Egypt. Egypt became completely
independent.
- In the same year, Egypt gained control of the Suez Canal from Britain.
- The decline of Britain accelerated the decolonization of its African colonies.

(ii) Independence of Ghana and rise of Pan-Africanism

 In the 1950s, Nkrumah, a nationalist leader of the Gold Coast in West Africa,
negotiated with Britain for independence.
 1957: The Gold Coast gained independence and was renamed Ghana.
 Nkrumah advocated and spread Pan-Africanism, meaning 'Africa for Africans'.
 Ghana contributed to the establishment of the Organization of African Unity in
1963. This further encouraged the independence of the whole of Africa.

(iii) Year of Africa (1960)

 After WWII, independence movements developed rapidly in the French colonies

in Central and West Africa.
 1958: France allowed most African colonies to hold referendums to decide their
future course.
- Guinea voted for independence first.

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 1960: 12 colonies and two mandated territories of France, as well as some British
and Belgian colonies, gained independence.
- A total of 17 new African nation-states were founded in that year.
- Nearly two-thirds of Africa had completed decolonization.

(iv) Major developments of decolonization after 1961

 1961-1964: Most French and British colonies gained independence successively.

- The process of decolonization was generally peaceful.
 Angola and Mozambique fought against Portugal in 1961 and 1964 respectively.
- They won independence in 1975.
- Their decolonization processes were relatively bloody.

2. Rise of the Third World

 In the 1950s and the early 1960s, many former colonies in Asia and Africa
gained full independence.
- They began to engage in different international conferences and
organizations.
 The 'Third World' was gradually formed and became an emerging force in
international politics.

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(a) What is the Third World?

 'Third World', a term that emerged during the Cold War, referred to those
countries belonging neither to the First World (more developed capitalist
countries led by the United States) nor the Second World (communist countries
led by the Soviet Union).
 In general, the Third World included the less developed countries of Asia, Africa
and Latin America. Many of them were former Western colonies.

(b) Bandung Conference

 April 1955: Indonesia, Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan held the Bandung
Conference in Bandung, Indonesia.
- 29 Asian and African leaders attended it.
- It was the first Asian-African conference without the participation of the
Western powers.

(i) Major achievements

 Participating countries discussed economic and cultural cooperation and colonial

issues.
 They also opposed colonialism and affirmed the right of national self-
determination.
 They further declared the Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference to promote
world peace and strengthen international cooperation.
 The main points included:
 Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations;
 Recognition of the equality of all races and all nations;
 Non-intervention in the internal affairs of other countries;
 Rejecting the use of collective defence systems to serve the big powers;
 Prohibiting acts or threats against the territorial integrity of any country;
 Settling all international disputes by peaceful means;
 Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation.

(ii) Significance

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 Consolidated independent position

 Asian and African countries showed their diplomatic autonomy through
participating in the Bandung Conference.
 This further consolidated their position as independent countries.

 Promoted the rise of the Third World

 The participating countries declared that they would not align with the United
States or the Soviet Union.
 The collaboration of these countries was influential as they accounted for half of
the world population.
 Their unity laid the foundation for the Non-Aligned Movement and gave rise to
the Third World.

(c) Non-Aligned Movement

 The Non-Aligned Movement was an international organization founded in 1961.

- Most members were Third World countries.
 Its membership is now second only to the United Nations.

(i) Background

 During the 1950s, the Cold War spread around the world. Also, over ten Asian
and African countries were newly established.
 1961: Yugoslavia, Egypt, Ghana, Indonesia and India held a summit in Belgrade,
Yugoslavia, to discuss international affairs.
- The Non-Aligned Movement was formally founded.

(ii) Main objectives

 Based on the Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference, the Non-Aligned

Movement advocated being unaligned with the United States or the Soviet
Union.
 It also supported national self-determination, and advocated cooperation to
narrow the economic gap between more developed and less developed countries.

(iii) Structure

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 The Non-Aligned Movement did not have a headquarters or permanent

institutions.
- A summit conference would be held every three years.
 Members could not join any military alliances or sign military agreements with
any major power or intervene in the conflicts between these powers.

(iv) Major developments

 The Non-Aligned Movement supported decolonization. It also absorbed newly

independent countries as members to affirm their independent position.
 By 1964, it already had 47 member countries.
 17 Latin American countries also joined in the 1970s and 1980s.

Member countries and observer countries of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1999

 The organization also strove for the rights of its Third World members.
 1973: The summit conference of the organization proposed a 'new international
economic order'.
- This idea helped facilitate the adoption of the Declaration on the
Establishment of a New International Economic Order, which protected the
right of less developed countries to have control over their natural resources,
by the United Nations in 1974.

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(v) Significance

 Rising influence of the Third World

 The Non-Aligned Movement was mainly formed by Third World countries.
 In addition to supporting decolonization, it held summit conferences regularly
and united its members.
 A 'new international economic order' proposed at a summit conference was also
adopted by the international community.
 All of this showed the rising influence of the Third World.

 Helped maintain world peace

 The Non-Aligned Movement opposed forming alliances with the United States
or the Soviet Union.
- This helped stop the spread of the Cold War.
 It also advocated that all countries should be allowed to develop their economies
based on equality and mutual cooperation.
 All of this helped prevent conflicts and maintain peace.

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Wars and inventions: the total war, new military warfare and other inventions

Change in the mode of warfare: total war (p.64-67)

 The two world wars becoming total wars
- The warring countries mobilized more resources in the rear, including manpower and agricultural and
industrial goods to support the long-lasting war.
 Features of total war
- The warring countries would control and mobilize all national resources. Their policies were military-
oriented.
- People were conscripted into the army or mobilized to produce military supplies. The differentiation
between combatants and non-combatants disappeared.
 Impacts of total war on people
- Political aspect: loss of freedom
- Economic aspect: economic disruption
- Social aspects: heavier civilian casualties, rise in women’s position

Change in the mode of warfare: New armaments and three-dimensional warfare (p.68-72)
 New armaments and the rise of three-dimensional warfare
- the rise of three-dimensional warfare, including land, sea and air battles.
- WWI: dreadnoughts, submarines (Sea); trench warfare, tanks, machine guns, toxic gas, grenades
(Land); fighter planes (Air)
- WWII: nuclear weapons, bomber aircrafts, rockets, aircraft carriers
 Impacts of military innovation
- Unprecedented heavy casualties; Huge economic losses; Continuing threats to peace

Technological innovations brought by wars (p.73-78)

- Aviation and aerospace: jet engines, rocket engines
- Information and communication technology: radar, computer
- Materials: cellucotton, stainless steel
- Medicine and treatment: plastic surgery, penicillin
- Daily tools: zipper, waterproof clothing
- Energy: use of nuclear energy

D.

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Wars and inventions: the total war, new Guiding Questions

 How did the two world wars change the mode of warfare?
military warfare, and other inventions 
What were the impacts of these changes?
What technological innovations were brought by the two
wars? How did they affect our daily lives?

1. Change in the mode of warfare:

total war

(a) The two world wars becoming total wars

 During the First World War, neither the Central Powers nor the Allied Powers
could win decisive victory quickly.
 The stalemate and technological innovations gradually caused the First World
War to be a total war.
 Under total war:
- Warfare was not confined to the front lines where the armies fought.
- The warring countries mobilized more resources in the rear, including
manpower and agricultural and industrial goods to support the long-lasting
war.
 This mode of warfare was also adopted during the Second World War.

(b) Features of total war

 In general, lives of civilians away from the front lines were less affected by the
wars, except in paying for military expenses.
 Under total war, the warring countries would control and mobilize all national
resources. Their policies were military-oriented.
- People were conscripted into the army or mobilized to produce military
supplies.
- The differentiation between combatants and non-combatants disappeared.
 As civilians were regarded as rear servicemen, they also became attack targets.

(c) Impacts of total war on people

 Total war is warfare not restricted by the territory.

- It affects broader aspects of people's lives and has greater influence.

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(i) Political aspect: loss of freedom

 The warring countries in the two world wars nationalized private enterprises and
forced their people to participate in war production.
- People lost their property rights and freedom of employment.
 The governments suppressed those who were against their rule.
- These deprived people of their freedom of speech, of publication and of
communication.

(ii) Economic aspect: economic disruption

 As priority was given to production of military supplies, daily necessities were in

shortage.
 Massive printing of banknotes caused serious inflation.
 During the First World War, the failure of food rationing in Germany even led to
a great famine.

(iii) Social aspects

 Heavier civilian casualties

 As the battlefield was extended to the home front, total war caused more civilian
casualties than other wars.
 During the First World War, civilians who died as a result of military operations
accounted for more than one-tenth of the war deaths.
- This seriously disrupted the social structure of the participating countries.

 Rise in women's position

 Women were encouraged to participate in agricultural and industrial production
in total war. Some women even served in the military.
 After the two world wars, their social status rose.
- European countries and the United States granted women the right to vote
one after another.
- Women also got more employment opportunities and became economically
independent.

2. Change in the mode of warfare: New armaments and three-dimensional

warfare

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(a) New armaments and the rise of three-dimensional warfare

 With the use of new armaments, the First World War saw the rise of three-
dimensional warfare, including land, sea and air battles.

Sea
 Dreadnoughts were the most powerful warships at that time. In
1916, more than 40 dreadnoughts were involved in the Anglo-
German war.
 The submarines of Germany were called 'U-boats'. They sank
many neutral ships sailing to Britain.

Land
 Both German soldiers and AngloFrench allied soldiers dug trenches.
This was known as trench warfare.
 Britain was the first country to use tanks in the war. Tanks could
cross the trenches. However, they did not perform well then.
 In order to defend or break through the trenches, the participating
countries used different weapons of mass destruction, including:
- machine guns that were capable of sustained rapid fire (several
hundred rounds per minute);
- toxic gas that was capable of damaging optic nerves or causing
death;
- grenades that could be thrown from a distance and cause an
explosion.

Air
Fighter planes mainly carried out aerial spying, expulsion of
enemies and air-to-air fighting in the early days of the war. Later,
they started to launch air raids. Aerial bombing became a key
strategy in modern warfare.

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 The Second World War was also fought in three dimensions.

- Fighter planes, tanks and submarines were improved and more new
armaments appeared.

Nuclear weapons
The United States was the first country to have atomic bombs. Atomic
explosions caused severe destruction and radioactive pollution of vast areas.
In 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in Japan. Japan was forced to surrender unconditionally.

Bomber aircraft
In the Second World War, bomber aircraft became an important air weapon
of the participating countries. They were good at long-range bombing. For
example, they could destroy the enemy’s rear military installations,
factories and cities. Some could even carry and drop nuclear weapons.

Rockets
In 1944, Germany began launching unmanned V-2 rockets at British cities.
These rockets proceeded on a particular course. They were capable of flying
over the English Channel for long-range attacks, causing heavy civilian
casualties and destruction.

Aircraft carriers
Aircraft carriers could carry fighter planes and bomber aircraft. They
could provide air support for fleets and carry out long-range attacks. In
1942, the American bomber aircraft that bombed Tokyo, Japan, took off
from aircraft carriers.

(b) Impacts of military innovations

(i) Unprecedented heavy casualties

 New armaments and three-dimensional warfare made the two world wars the
most destructive wars in history.

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- They killed more than 80 million people.

 The use of toxic gas and nuclear weapons had long-term effects on human
health.

(ii) Huge economic losses

 The First World War cost USD 330 billion in damages.

- Many farmlands, factories and houses in Europe were destroyed.
 The Second World War caused USD 1,000 billion in damages.
- Many regions were completely destroyed after attacks using the new
weapons.

(iii) Continuing threats to peace

 The use of atomic bombs in the Second World War started the era of nuclear
weapons.
 During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union developed the more
destructive hydrogen bombs.
 Today, nuclear weapons are still a major threat to world peace.

3. Technological innovations brought by wars

 During the two world wars, military needs promoted new technological
innovations.
- These technologies and products were further developed and put to civil use
after the war.

(a) Aviation and aerospace

(i) Jet engine

 1939: A jet aircraft, developed by German designer Heinkel, made its first flight.
 In the latter stages of the Second World War, Germany developed jet fighters and
operated them in the war.
 1949: British civilian planes first used the jet engine.
- This allowed planes to travel farther and faster.

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 Civilian jet planes became popular.

- More airlines routes were opened and air transport was improved.

(ii) Rocket engine

 During the Second World War, Germany successfully developed rockets, which
could travel through the atmosphere, to bomb Britain.
 Starting from the 1950s, the United States and the Soviet Union used rocket
engines to launch space exploration devices, such as artificial satellites and space
shuttles.
- The space age began.
 Artificial satellites were widely used in daily mobile communications,
broadcasting and weather forecasting.

(b) Information and communications technology

(i) Radar

 During the Second World War, the Allied Powers greatly improved radar
technology, which could be used to detect and track their enemies.
 After the Second World War, more functions of radars were developed.
 Today, civil radars are widely used in navigation, weather forecasting and
environmental monitoring.

(ii) Computer

 During the Second World War, the United States invented 'ENIAC', the world's
first computer.
- Its processing speed was much faster than that of previous machines.
- It was also equipped with various programmes which enabled the American
army to study the paths of missiles.
 After the war, computers were used in administration and business.
 In the 1970s, cheaper and more user-friendly personal computers became
available. Computers became popular.
 Today, computer-controlled systems are very common in daily life.

(c) Materials

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(i) Cellucotton

 1914: Kimberly-Clark Corporation, an American company, invented cellucotton.

 During the First World War, cellucotton was widely used on battlefields and in
military hospitals.
 In the 1920s, cellucotton was used to make tissue paper and toilet paper.
- These paper products became popular quickly.
- Today, they are necessities in people's daily lives.

(ii) Stainless steel

 During the First World War, the British scientist Brearley studied ways to
improve the quality of gun barrels.
- He eventually made stainless steel, a material that is resistant to corrosion
and oxidation.
 After the war, scientists further developed different types of stainless steel.
- They are different in hardness, corrosion resistance and heat resistance.
 Today, stainless steel is also widely used in tableware and insulated products, as
a building material, and so on.

(d) Medicine and treatment

(i) Plastic surgery

 During the First World War, doctor Gillies invented many new surgical
techniques for treating soldiers' facial wounds.
- They included taking gristle and skin from wounded soldiers' bodies to repair
their damaged faces.
 In the post-war period, plastic surgery was highly valued and increasingly
important.
 Today, many physical defects or disabilities can be better treated through plastic
surgery.

(ii) Penicillin

 During the Second World War, the United States urgently needed drugs that
could effectively cure wounded soldiers.

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- It eventually developed the techniques of large-scale penicillin production.

 After the war, penicillin became a civilian drug.
- It was used to treat some lung and brain diseases, and greatly improved
human health.

(e) Daily tools

(i) Zipper

 1914: The engineer Sundback improved the zipper.

 During the First World War, zippers were used by the United States on military
uniforms and boots.
 From the 1930s, the use of zippers on clothes, shoes and handbags became
increasingly popular.
 Today, zippers have become a necessary accessory in people's lives.

(ii) Waterproof clothing

 During the First World War, British businessman Burberry designed a waterproof
suit for the military.
- It was wind and water resistant. Solders could wear it to fight in the trenches.
- Therefore, it was called a 'trench coat'.
 This waterproof military coat was still popular during the Second World War.
 Later, it further developed into the 'windbreaker' for daily wear.
 Today, windbreakers are a fashionable clothing item with different styles.

(f) Energy: use of nuclear energy

 1942: The United States started the 'Manhattan Project' to develop nuclear
weapons.
- The scientist Fermi built the first nuclear reactor in Chicago to generate
nuclear energy.
 After the Second World War, many countries built nuclear power plants to satisfy
the increasing demand for energy source.
 By 1999, nuclear energy had become an important energy source.
- It accounted for about 16% of the world's total power generation.

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Genocide: using the Holocaust as an example

Genocide and the Holocaust (p.80)

 Genocide: the intentional elimination of all or part of a nationals, ethnical, racial, or religious group
 The Holocaust (1941-1945): carried out by Nazi Germany. It was the most brutal genocide

Reasons for Nazi anti-Semitism (p.81)

 ‘Stab-in-the-back’ myth: saw the Jews as traitors and hated them
 Germany’s post-war problems: blamed the Jews as the origins of economic and social crises
 Nazi theory of racial superiority: believed the Aryans (ancestors of the Germans) were the most
superior race; the Jews were the inferior race and devils

Early stages of Jewish persecution (1933-1940) (p.82-84)

- Anti-Jewish measures: Hitler introduced a series of anti-Jewish policies in 1933.
- The Nuremberg Laws (1935): abolished the civil rights of Jews
- The Night of Broken Glass (1938): heavy causalities caused
- Nazi concentration camps：work camps, extermination camps etc.

The Holocaust (1941-1945) (p.84-87)

- Start of the genocide: Since 1941, the Nazi Party systematically arrested and
murdered the Jews there on a massive scale
- The ‘Final Solution to the Jewish Question’: The Wannsee Conference (1942)
decided to adopt a plan to systemically exterminate all Jews in Europe
- Historical evidence of the genocide: Auschwitz Concentration Camp

Post-Second World War developments (p.88-92)

- Trials before the International Military Tribunal: Nuremberg Trials (1945)
- Passage of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide(1948): prevent genocide
- Germany’s self-reflection on the Holocaust: Eradicated totalitarianism and racial discrimination; public apology
and mourning; compensation and consolation; long-term investigation and trials; education

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E. Genocide: using the Guiding Questions

 What is Genocide?
Holocaust as an example 

Why were the Jews massacred by Nazi Germany? What harm did it cause?
How did the international community avoid repeating the same mistake?
What reflections did the Germans have in the post-war period?

1. What is genocide?

 The United Nations

defines 'genocide' as the intentional elimination of all or part of a national,
ethnical, racial or religious group.
 In the 20th century, several genocides occurred.
- The Holocaust (1941- 1945) carried out by Nazi Germany was the most
brutal in history. About six million Jews were killed.

2. Origins of anti-Semitism

 Anti-Semitism refers to hostile thoughts and activities against Jewish people. It

had a long history in Europe.
- Jews believed in Judaism and kept their own customs.
- They had long been discriminated against by Christians and were always
blamed for disasters.
 In the late 19th century, extreme nationalism emerged in Europe. Anti-Semitism
became more radical.
- Many anti-Jewish political parties were formed in Germany.

3. Reasons for Nazi anti-Semitism

 During the inter-war period, the Nazi Party in Germany, led by Hitler, was
hostile to the Jews for various reasons. It proposed extreme anti-Jewish policies.

(a) 'Stab-in-the-back' myth

 The Nazis believed in the 'stab-in-the-back' myth.

- The myth was that the Jews had 'stabbed Germany in the back', which led to
Germany's defeat in the First World War.
 The Nazis saw the Jews as traitors and extremely hated them.

(b) ) Germany's post-war problems

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 After the First World War, Germans lived hard lives, but Jews were relatively
better off.
- The Nazi Party accused the Jews of making huge profits through disrupting
the economy. They were blamed as the origin of economic and social crises.

(c) Nazi theory of racial superiority

 Hitler advocated the theory of racial superiority and believed that the Aryans
(ancestors of the Germans) were the most superior race.
 He regarded the Jews as an inferior race and devils. They would destroy Aryan
culture, and were enemies of all Germans.

4. Early stages of Jewish persecution, 1933-1940

(a) Anti-Jewish measures

 1933: Hitler came to power. He introduced a series of anti-Jewish policies,

including:
 dismissing Jewish civil servants;
 prohibiting the Jews from working as doctors, judges and journalists;
 destroying Jewish shops, prayer halls and schools.

(b) The Nuremberg Laws (1935)

 September 1935: The Nazi Party enacted the Nuremberg Laws. It abolished the
civil rights of Jews. The main points included:
 prohibition of marriages between Jews and Germans;
 abolition of the citizenship of Jews;
 abolition of the right of Jews to vote and to hold public office.

(c) The Night of Broken Glass (1938)

 November 1938: The Nazi Party claimed that an official was killed by a Jew. The
Nazis destroyed Jewish prayer halls and shops. Heavy causalities resulted.
- The incident was called the 'Night of Broken Glass'.
 However, many Jews were imprisoned and asked to pay reparations after the
incident.

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(d) Nazi concentration camps

 1933: The Nazi Party started to build concentration camps, at first for
imprisoning people opposed to the Nazis.
 During the Second World War, the Nazi Party not only set up Jewish ghettos in
its occupied areas, but also built many concentration camps to hold Jews.
 Jewish concentration camps were divided into different categories.
- In work camps, the Jews engaged in military production and coal mining.
They were forced to work for more than 12 hours a day.
- In extermination camps, Jews were killed by shooting and poisoning.

5. The Holocaust, 1941-1945

(a) Start of the genocide

 1941: Nazi Germany occupied most of the Eastern European territories of the
Soviet Union.
- It then systematically arrested and murdered the Jews there on a massive
scale.
 The Nazis also encouraged people in the occupied territories, such as Romania,
Lithuania and Latvia, to kill Jews.

(b) The 'Final Solution to the Jewish Question'

 January 1942: Nazi leaders decided to adopt the 'Final Solution to the Jewish
Question', a plan to systematically exterminate all Jews in Europe, at the
Wannsee Conference.
- After that, Nazi Germany sped up the construction of concentration camps.
 By 1944, 90% of the Jews in Germany and Poland had been killed and most of
the Jewish communities in the occupied territories had been destroyed.
 About six million Jews were killed in the Holocaust.

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Distribution of major Nazi concentration camps in September 1944

(c) Historical evidence of the genocide: the Auschwitz Concentration Camp

 During the Second World War, about one million Jews were killed in the
Auschwitz Concentration Camp.
 After the war, the brutalities of the concentration camps were revealed.
- People can learn about the genocide committed by Nazi Germany.

Female camp

Male camp

Cremation ground

Gas chamber

Medical laboratory

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6. Post-Second World War developments

(a) Trials before the International Military Tribunal

 May 1945: Germany surrendered.

- The Allied Powers immediately banned the Nazi Party.
 Later, the Charter of the International Military Tribunal was issued.
- It confirmed the establishment of the world's first international military
tribunal in Nuremberg to try major Nazi war criminals and organizations.
 November: The Nuremberg Trials started.
- Nazi leaders who led the Holocaust were sentenced to life imprisonment or
death.
 1946-1949: More than 1,000 Nazis were tried in other trials.
- Some charges included genocide of the Jews.

(b) Passage of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide

 During the Second World War, the Polish Jewish lawyer Lemkin first proposed
the concept of 'genocide'.
- After the war, he actively called for the recognition of genocide as a crime.
 In 1948, the United Nations adopted the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
 The Convention aimed to prevent genocide.
- For the first time, it adopted 'genocide' as a legal term and confirmed that it
was an international crime, whether in peace or war.
- The signatories agreed to prevent genocide and to severely punish the crime.

(c) Germany's self-reflection on the Holocaust

(i) Eradicated totalitarianism and racial discrimination

 Germany drew lessons from Nazi rule. It carried out political and legal reforms.
 Post-war Germany adopted a federal system and weakened presidential power. It
also introduced a new constitution which protected people from racial and
religious discrimination.

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(ii) Public apology and mourning

 Post-war Germany bore its responsibility for the Holocaust.

 German leaders admitted in public the crime of genocide. They also apologized
to the victims on behalf of the nation.
- Brandt, the former Chancellor of West Germany, even knelt in front of the
Monument to the Ghetto Heroes in Warsaw in 1970.
 Annual events were held throughout Germany to recall and reflect on the history
of the Holocaust.
 The government built monuments and museums, and changed some former Nazi
concentration camps into memorial halls to commemorate the murdered Jews.

(iii) Compensation and consolation

 1952: West Germany and Israel signed the Luxembourg Agreement.

- Germany would supply Israel with goods and services valued at 3.5 billion
marks, as well as personal compensation to Jewish people.
- West Germany would also return property taken from Jews.
 Germany set up compensation funds.
 Today, Jewish Holocaust survivors still receive compensation.
 The German government also regularly sends its regards to them.

(iv) Long-term investigations and trials

 Germany continued to investigate criminals involved in the persecution and

murder of Jews. Those who had left Germany were repatriated for trial.
- 1963-1968: The West German government filed a lawsuit against Nazi
officials who managed the Auschwitz Concentration Camp.

(v) Education

 After the war, the German government taught people about the harms of extreme
nationalism and Nazism.
 It worked with Poland, Israel and other countries to write history textbooks
to reveal historical truth.

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 It reaffirmed that school education should not deny or praise Nazi crimes.
 The textbooks clearly stated that Nazi Germany's persecution and massacres
of the Jews caused atrocities.
 It organized overseas visits to let students learn about the cultures and
customs of different peoples.
 It arranged student visits to concentration camp sites to explore and reflect
on the cruelties of the Holocaust.

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Tim Important event Extended point

e
1870 Franco-Prussian War broke out  Franco-German relations worsened
 Extreme Nationalism: Revenge against Germany
1881 Tunisian Incident occurred  Colonial conflicts
 Franco-Italian relations worsened
1882 Triple Alliance formed  Alliance system
 Relations between Germany, Austria-Hungary and
Italy strengthened
1905 The First Moroccan Crisis  Colonial conflicts
occurred  Extreme Nationalism: confrontation between different
forms of extreme nationalisms
 Alliance system: competition between rival camps
 France, Britain and Russia drew closer; Austro-
German relations strengthened
 German became more hostile to France, Britain and
Russia
1906 Britain built dreadnoughts.  Naval race between Britain and Germany intensified
1907 Triple Entente formed  Alliance system: formation of two major rival camps
 France, Britain and Russia drew closer
1908 The Bosnian Crisis occurred  Extreme Nationalism: confrontation between different
forms of extreme nationalisms
 Alliance system: competition between rival camps
 Austro-Serbian relations worsened; Russia became
hostile to Germany and Austro-Hungary
 Russo-Serbian relations improved; Austro-German
relations improved
1911 The Second Moroccan Crisis  Colonial conflicts
occurred  Extreme Nationalism: confrontation between different
forms of extreme nationalisms
 Alliance system: competition between rival camps
 Anglo-French relations improved; Germany became
more hostile to Britain and France
1912 The First Balkan War broke out  Extreme Nationalism: confrontation between different
forms of extreme nationalisms

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 Austro-Serbian relations worsened

1913 The Second Balkan War broke  Extreme Nationalism: confrontation between different
out forms of extreme nationalisms
 Austro-Serbian relations worsened
1914 The Sarajevo Incident occurred  Extreme Nationalism: confrontation between different
forms of extreme nationalisms
 Austro-Serbian relations further worsened
Austro-Serbia War broke out  Extreme Nationalism: confrontation between different
forms of extreme nationalisms
The First World War broke out  Alliance system: regional conflicts turned to world
war
1917 Entry of the United States  Turning point: strengthened the economic and military
power of the Allied Powers.
1918 The First World War ended
1919 Paris Peace Conference held  The ‘Big Three’ dominated the conference
 The principle of national self-determination: gave
birth to the idea of decolonization
Germany signed the Treaty of  Sowed the seeds of the rise of Nazism in Germany
Versailles
Italy failed to get all the lands  Sowed the seeds of the rise of Fascism in Italy
promised
Weimar Republic government  The Germans were discontented with the signing of
established in Germany the Treaty of Versailles
1920 The League of Nations  World’s first international peacekeeping organization
established
1928 Fascist regime established in Italy  Italy's threat to peace deepened
1929 The Wall Street Crash  The Great Depression
 The United States became more self-isolated
 Weakened the determination and ability of Britain and
France to maintain peace
 Fueled the rise of totalitarianism in Germany and
Japan
1931 Japanese troops invaded the  Totalitarian aggression: Japan
northeast provinces of China  Appeasement policy of Britain and France
1932 Japan set up Manzhouguo  Japan's threat to peace deepened
1934 Nazi regime established in  Germany's threat to peace deepened
Germany

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1935 Italy invaded Abyssinia  Totalitarian aggression: Italy

 Appeasement policy of Britain and France
1936 German troops entered the  Totalitarian aggression: Germany
demilitarized Rhineland  Appeasement policy of Britain and France
Germany and Japan concluded  The relations between Germany and Japan improved
the Anti-Comintern Pact
1937 Lugouqiao Incident occurred.  Totalitarian aggression: Japan
Full-scale invasion of China
started
Germany and Italy concluded the  The relations between Germany and Italy improved
Anti-Comintern Pact
1938 Germany annexed Austria  Totalitarian aggression: Germany
 Appeasement policy of Britain and France
Munich Agreement reached  Totalitarian aggression: Germany
 The exemplary of the appeasement policy of Britain
and France
1939 Germany annexed  Totalitarian aggression: Germany, Italy
Czechoslovakia; Italy invaded  Britain and France abandoned the appeasement policy
Albania
Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact  German-Soviet relations improved
signed
Germany invaded Poland; The  Totalitarian aggression: Germany
Second World War broke out
1940 Germany, Italy and Japan formed  Formation of the Axis Powers
the Axis Powers
1945 The Second World War ended
1946 The Philippines became  Way to gain independence: through the suzerain's
independent assistance
1947 India and Pakistan became  Way to gain independence: through negotiation
independent
1948 Burma became independent  Way to gain independence: through negotiation
1950 Indonesia became independent  Way to gain independence: through armed struggle
1953 Laos and Cambodia became  Way to gain independence: through armed struggle
independent
1954 Vietnam became independent  Way to gain independence: through armed struggle
1955 Bandung Conference held  The participating countries declared the Ten Principles
of the Bandung Conference

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 Consolidated independent position

 Promoted the rise of the Third World
1956 Egypt became completely
independent
1957 Ghana became independent
1960 Year of Africa  17 new African nation-states were founded
1961 The Non-Aligned Movement  Most members were Third World countries
established  Rising influence of the Third World
 Helped maintain world peace
1963 Malaysia became independent  Way to gain independence: through negotiation
The Organization of African  This further encouraged the independence of the
Unity established whole of Africa
1965 Singapore became independent  Way to gain independence: through negotiation
1975 Angola and Mozambique became  Decolonization processes were relatively bloody
independent
1984 Brunei became independent  Way to gain independence: through negotiation

Extended Topic:
Tim Important event Extended point
e
1933 Hitler introduced a series of anti-
Jewish policies
1935 The Nazi Party enacted the  Abolished the civil rights of Jews
Nuremberg Laws
1938 The Night of Broken Glass  Heavy causalities resulted
1941 Start of the genocide
1942 Nazi leaders adopted the ‘Final  A plan to systematically exterminate all Jews in
Solution to the Jewish Question’ Europe
1945 Nuremberg Trials started  Charges included genocide of the Jews
1948 The Convention on the Prevention  To prevent genocide and to severely punish the crime
and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide adopted
1952 Germany and Israel signed the  Reached a consensus on reparations for the
Luxembourg Agreement persecution of Jews by the Nazi regime

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

International relations and reasons for conflicts before the two world wars

1. Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

- France was defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War. France was forced to
cede land and pay reparation. It paved the way for Franco-German conflicts
afterwards.

2. Alliance system
- It was initiated by Germany. Germany sought to maintain its leadership in
Europe and isolate France through the formation of alliances.

3. Triple Alliance (1882)

- A secret alliance formed by Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy in 1882. They
promised to support their allies during conflicts or wars. The Triple Alliance was
hostile to the later formed Triple Entente.

4. Triple Entente (1907)

- After the Anglo-Russian Entente was signed in 1907, Britain, France and Russia
formed the Triple Entente. The Triple Entente was hostile to the previously
formed Triple Entente.

5. Armaments race
- The European powers competed in expanding armies and improving armaments
to suppress each other.

6. Dreadnoughts
- Dreadnoughts were the most powerful warships in the early 20 th century. Britain
and Germany were the chief rivals in building dreadnoughts.

7. Extreme nationalism
- Nationalism became extreme in Europe in the early 20th century. Europeans
supported territorial expansion to gain national glory and the use of force to
solve conflicts. Extreme nationalism triggered some threatening national
movements in Europe.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

8. Pan-Germanism
- Pan-Germanists promoted the idea of uniting all Germans in Europe to build a
'Greater Germanic Empire'. Some Pan-Germanists even believed that Germans
were the most superior race and they hoped to conquer the world.

9. Pan-Slavism
- Russia's Pan-Slavism advocated bringing all Slavs in Europe under Russian
leadership. Therefore, Russia supported Slavic states, including Serbia, to
expand in the Balkans.

10. Greater Serbia

- Serbia wanted to unite the Serbians in Austria-Hungary and the Balkans to form
a ‘Greater Serbia.’

11. The Moroccan Crises (1905-1906 and 1911)

- France and Germany competed for Morocco and triggered two crises. Germany
became more hostile to Britain and France after the Moroccan Crises.

12. The Bosnian Crisis (1908)

- Serbia was angry about Austria-Hungary annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. At
last, the crisis resolved peacefully, but hostility intensified between Austria-
Hungary and Serbia after the crisis.

13. The Balkan Wars (1912 and 1913)

- Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece formed the Balkan League and
declared war on the Ottoman Empire and they won. Then, the Balkan League
split up and triggered the Second Balkan War. The expansion of Serbia and the
independence of Albania further worsened Austro-Serbian relations.

14. The Sarajevo Incident (1914)

- Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary accused
Serbia of causing the incident and sent an ultimatum to Serbia. At last, the
Austro-Serbian War broke out in July 1914 and became a world war.

15. The Central Powers and the Allied Powers

- The rival camps in the First World War. The Central Powers included Germany,
Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire. The Allied Powers mainly
included Britain, France, Russia and the United States.

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

16. Paris Peace Conference (1919)

- The victorious countries held this conference after WWI. Paris Peace Conference
put the principle of national self-determination in practice and formed a
collective security system. However, the powers did not make up after the peace
conference. Some post-war settlements even sowed the seeds of conflict.

17. ‘Big Three’

- American President Wilson, British Prime Minister Lloyd George and
Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of France dominated the Paris Peace
Conference. They were known as the 'Big Three'.

18. Treaty of Versailles (June 1919)

- Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles after the defeat in WWI. Germany had
to disarm, pay reparations and cede some land. It also had to accept the war-guilt
clause, bearing full responsibility for causing the war. German hatred of the
treaty paved the way to the outbreak of the Second World War (1939-1945).

19. The League of Nations

- An international peacekeeping organization established after WWI. It aimed to
maintain peace through collective security. Countries would take collective
actions to solve international conflicts and prevent war.

20. The Great Depression

- The Wall Street Crash in 1929 caused economic slump in the United States. As
the United States was the major creditor and financier of Europe, the economic
recession hit the global economy (Europe countries and Japan in particular),
leading to the Great Depression.

21. Totalitarianism
- In a totalitarian state, the ruler holds total authority over the state and controls all
aspects of public and private life.

22. Fascism
- An example of totalitarianism advocated by the Fascist Party. Mussolini
established Fascist dictatorial rule in Italy.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

23. Nazism
- An example of totalitarianism advocated by the Nazi Party. Hitler established
Nazi dictatorial rule in Germany.

24. Anti-Semitism
- The Nazi Party promoted anti-Semitism. They advocated exterminating the Jews
in order to preserve the purity of the Aryan race. During the reign of the Nazis,
about six million Jews died under different kinds of Nazi persecution.

25. Militarism
- An example of totalitarianism that believed in military power. The Japanese
militarists advocated expansion to protect or strive for national interests.

26. The Rhineland

- It became a demilitarized zone after WWI. In March 1938, German troops
entered the demilitarized Rhineland, violating the Treaty of Versailles.

27. Appeasement policy

- Appeasement is a policy of making concessions to an aggressor state in order to
prevent war. Britain and France adopted an appeasement policy in the 1930s.
They conceded to the territorial demands of the totalitarian states in exchange for
peace. However, it could not prevent the outbreak of the Second World War in
1939.

28. Munich Agreement (1938)

- In September 1938, British Prime Minister Chamberlain, and the leaders of
France and Italy met with Hitler in Munich. The four leaders agreed to give the
Sudetenland to Germany. The Munich Agreement was an example of
appeasement policy.

29. Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939)

- In 1939, the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was signed. Germany and the
Soviet Union agreed secretly to divide Poland and their spheres of influence in
Eastern Europe. The pact removed the main obstacle to German expansion
eastward and further aroused its ambition to invade Poland.

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

30. The Axis Powers and the Allied Powers

- The two rival camps in the Second World War. Germany, Italy and Japan were
the major Axis Powers. The Allied Powers mainly comprised Britain, France and
the United States, the Soviet Union and China.

Decolonization of Asia and Africa and the rise of the ‘Third World’ in the post-war
periods

1. Decolonization
- After WWII, the European colonial powers further declined, it led to the start of
decolonization. Asian and African colonies resisted the resumption of colonial
rule by their former suzerains and they eventually gained independence.

2. National self-determination
- It claims that a group of people with a common language and culture have the
right to form their own state and choose their own government.

3. Year of Africa (1960)

- A total of 17 new African nation-states were founded in that year. Nearly two-
thirds of Africa had completed decolonization.

4. Third World
- Those countries belonging neither to the First World (more developed capitalist
countries led by the United States) nor the Second World (communist countries
led by the Soviet Union). In general, the Third World included the less developed
countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Many of them were former Western
colonies.

5. Bandung Conference (1955)

- It was the first Asian-African conference without the participation of the Western
powers. The participating countries declared the Ten Principles of the Bandung
Conference to promote world peace and strengthen international cooperation.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

6. Non-Aligned Movement (1961)

- An international organization advocated by Yugoslavia, Egypt, Ghana, Indonesia
and India. Most members were Third World countries. Based on the Ten
Principles of the Bandung Conference, the Non-Aligned Movement advocated
being unaligned with the United States or the Soviet Union. It also supported
national self-determination, and advocated cooperation to narrow the economic
gap between more developed and less developed countries.

Wars and inventions: the total war, new military warfare, and other inventions

1. Total war
- Under total war, warfare was not confined to the front lines where the armies
fought. The warring countries mobilized more resources in the rear, including
manpower and agricultural and industrial goods to support the long-lasting war.
- Under total war, the warring countries would control and mobilize all national
resources. Their policies were military-oriented. People were conscripted into the
army or mobilized to produce military supplies. The differentiation between
combatants and non-combatants disappeared.

Genocide: using the Holocaust as an example

1. Genocide
- The United Nations defines 'genocide' as the intentional elimination of all or part
of a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.

2. The Holocaust
- The Holocaust (1941- 1945) carried out by Nazi Germany was the most brutal in
history. About six million Jews were killed.

3. The Nuremberg Laws (1935)

- In September 1935, the Nazi Party enacted the Nuremberg Laws. It abolished the
civil rights of Jews.

4. The Night of Broken Glass (1938)

- In November 1938, the Nazi Party claimed that an official was killed by a Jew.
The Nazis destroyed Jewish prayer halls and shops. Heavy causalities resulted.
The incident was called the 'Night of Broken Glass'.

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

5. The 'Final Solution to the Jewish Question' (1942)

- In January 1942, Nazi leaders decided to adopt the 'Final Solution to the Jewish
Question', a plan to systematically exterminate all Jews in Europe, at the
Wannsee Conference.

6. The Nuremberg Trials

- The world's first international military tribunal to try major Nazi war criminals
and organizations. Some charges included genocide of the Jews. Nazi leaders
who led the Holocaust were sentenced to life imprisonment or death.

7. The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

(1948)
- It aimed to prevent genocide. For the first time, it adopted 'genocide' as a legal
term and confirmed that it was an international crime, whether in peace or war.
The signatories agreed to prevent genocide and to severely punish the crime.

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

1. William II (1859-1941)
German Emperor. His colonial aggression, economic and naval
expansions brought hostility to the international relations. In
1918, he fled to the Netherland and abdicated in November.

2. Wilson (1856-1924)
The 28th President of the United States (1913-1921).
Under his leadership, the United States won the WWI.
He was the promoter of the League of Nations and
national self-determination.

3. Clemenceau (1841-1929)
Prime Minister of France, a French statesman and one of the
‘Big Three’ at the Paris Peace Conference. He demanded
harsh punishment on Germany in the conference; hence, he
was regarded as an enemy by the Germans.

4. Lloyd George (1863 – 1945)

British Prime Minister, a British statesman and one of
the ‘Big Three’ at the Paris Peace Conference. He
maintained a balance of powers in the conference and
promoted the Signing the Treaty of Versailles.

5. Hitler (1889 – 1945)

Chancellor and President of Germany. He established
Nazi dictatorial rule in Germany between 1933 and
1945. Under his leadership, about six million Jews were
killed during WWII. It was known as the Holocaust.

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

6. Mussolini (1883-1945)
Italian leader. He established Fascist dictatorial rule in
Italy between 1928 and 1943. With the defeat of the war
and the collapse of his dictatorship, he was executed by
Italian guerilla in 1945.

7. Chamberlin (1869-1940)
British Prime Minister and statesman. He advocated the
signing of the Munich Agreement, but the appeasement
policy failed. Germany then annexed whole
Czechoslovakia and triggered WWII.

8. Stalin (1878-1953)
Soviet leader. He advocated national industrialization
and made the Soviet Union became the world's second
largest industrial country after the United State. He
signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with
Germany, agreed to divide Poland.

9. Gandhi (1869-1948)
Independence movement leader of India. He negotiated
with Britain to gain independence. He advocated peace
and non-violence, and the peaceful cooperation between
Hindus and Muslims.

10. Jinnah (1876-1948)

Independence movement leader of India and Pakistan.
He promoted the independence of India at first, then he
turned to seek the establishment of Muslim independent
country in South Asia. At last, he contributed to the
establishment of Pakistan.

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

11. Tunku Abdul Rahman (1903-1990)

Independence movement leader of Malaya. He advocated the
formation of Malaysia in 1963 and became its first prime
minister. Then, he believed Singapore was harmful to national
benefits. He thus expelled Singapore from the Federation.

12. Lee Kuan Yew (1923-2015)

Nationalist leader of Singapore. He sought Singapore's
independence from Britain and later advocated joining the
Federation of Malaysia. However, in 1965, he was forced to
declare Singapore's independence from Malaysia.

13. Sukarno (1901-1970)

Nationalist leader of Indonesia and the first president of
Indonesia. He led the Indonesians against the Dutch army that
was trying to re-establish colonial rule, and eventually
succeeded in forcing the Dutch to recognize Indonesian
independence.

14. Nasser (1918-1970)

Nationalist leader of Egypt and the second president of Egypt.
He overthrew the pro-Western Egyptian king and advocated
completely independent of Egypt. He also gained control of the
Suez Canal from Britain.

15. Nkrumah (1909-1972)

Nationalist leader, and the first president and prime
minister of Ghana. He led Ghana to independence. He also
advocated Pan-Africanism and contributed to the
establishment of the Organization of African Unity.

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 Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 The main points of the four major factors that led to the outbreak of WWI

Factors Main points

Two rival camps:
Alliance system Triple Alliance (Formed by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1882)
Versus Triple Entente (Formed by France, Britain and Russia in 1907)
Armaments
Naval race between Germany and Britain (dreadnoughts in particular)
race
Economic and
The Moroccan Crises (1905-1906 and 1911):
colonial
Germany became hostile to Britain, France and Russia.
competition
Germany: Pan-Germanism
France: Revenge against
Franco-German relations worsened
Germany
Extreme Russian-German relations worsened
Russia: Pan-Slavism
nationalism Austro-Russian relations worsened
Serbia: Greater Serbia
Austro-Serbian relations worsened
Austria-Hungary:
Expanding into the Balkans

 The importance of the four major factors that led to the outbreak of WWI

Factor Importance
Alliance  Alliances made in secret caused suspicion and fear among the powers
System  Easy for small quarrel between two powers to turn into a general war
 The powers would not give way easily when they had quarrels with
Armaments other countries
race  Europeans were more warlike and supported going to war to solve
problems
Economic and
 To protect their own interests, the powers formed alliances and
colonial
expanded their armaments
competition
Extreme  Intensified the tensions in Europe
nationalism  Triggered some threatening national movements in Europe

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 Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 Calling of Paris Peace Conference (1919)

 American President Wilson

'Big Three'
 British Prime Minister Lloyd George
domination
 French Prime Minister Clemenceau

 Signing the Treaty of Versailles (Germany had to disarm, pay reparations,

cede some land and accept the war-guilt clause)
Major  Achieving national self-determination: establishment of new independent
settlements nation-states in Eastern Europe.
 Forming a collective security system: establishment of the League of
Nation in 1920

 Italy was failed to get all the lands promised, Germany was punished too
Discontent
harshly: paved the way to the rise of totalitarianism in Germany and Italy
and hidden
 Hidden dangers in national self-determination: Eastern European
dangers
countries became an excuse for Germany's expansion

 Reasons for the rise of totalitarianism during the two world wars

Ideology Italy: Germany: Japan:

Reason Fascism Nazism Militarism
Discontent
Failed to get all the Germans felt that the Treaty of
from the peace /
lands promised Versailles was harsh
conference
The government The Weimar Republic was
Rampant power
Incapability of failed to solve the unpopular as it signed the Treaty
struggles and
the current post-war economic of Versailles; it also failed to
corruption in Japan's
governments and social solve the post-war economic
party government
problems problems
The Great Depression caused an
Impact of the Economic crisis made
economic slump in Germany.
Great / the Japanese began to
Germans started to support
Depression support the militarists
Hitler and his Nazi Party

 The Fascist regime was established in Italy in 1928, while the Great Depression
began in 1929.

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 Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 Features of the totalitarianism in Germany, Italy and Japan

Ideology Italy: Germany: Japan:

Feature Fascism Nazism Militarism
Leader Mussolini Hitler Emperor
 One-party dictatorship
 Absolute obedience  One-party dictatorship
 Military dictatorship
 Total control and  Total control and
 Control over thoughts
oppression oppression
and emperor worship
Ideology and  Cult of personality  Cult of personality
 Anti-communism
policy  Anti-communism  Anti-Semitism
 Military and territorial
 Economic self-  Anti-communism
expansion
sufficiency  Military and territorial
 State control
 Military and territorial expansion
expansion
The main
continents that
Africa Europe Asia
expanded
before WWII

 Response from the major countries on the aggression of totalitarian countries

 Reason: Britain and France were badly hit in the Great Depression. They
made concessions to an aggressor state in order to prevent war
Appeasement
 Did not take real action to stop Japan's invasion of northeast China (1931)
policy of Britain
 Allowed Italy to occupy two-thirds of Abyssinia (1935)
and France
 Signed the Munich Agreement with Germany, allowing Germany to
occupy the Sudetenland (1938)

 Did not join the League of Nations

Isolationism of the
 The Great Depression deepened its isolationist stance: passed the first
United States
Neutrality Act (1935), only condemned the aggressions

 Reason: It was not trusted by the Western countries; doubted that Britain
The Soviet Union and France planned to play Germany against the Soviet Union
drawn closer to  Signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with Germany (1938):
Germany removed the main obstacle to German expansion eastward and further
aroused its ambition to invade Poland

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 Decolonization of Asia and Africa after the Second World War

Background
 Principle of national self-determination: It claims that a group of
Impact of WWI:
people with a common language and culture have the right to form
Birth of the idea
their own state and choose their own government
of decolonization
 Encouragement from Eastern European peoples

Impact of
 The declined European colonial powers were unable to restore or
WWII: Decline
maintain colonial rule
of the European
 Colonies gained independence through negotiations or wars.
colonial powers

Progress

 Through suzerain's assistance

 The Philippines (former American colony)
 Through negotiation
Decolonization  India, Pakistan, Burma, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei (former British
of Asia colonies)
 Through armed struggle
 Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia (former French colonies); Indonesia
(former Dutch colonies)

 Total independence of Egypt and decline of British colonial

power
 Independence of Ghana and rise of Pan-Africanism
 The establishment of the Organization of African Unity in 1963
Decolonization
further encouraged the independence of the whole of Africa
of Africa
 Year of Africa (1960): A total of 17 new African nation-states were
founded
 Major developments of decolonization after 1961: The process of
decolonization was generally peaceful

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 Rise of the Third World

 Those countries belonging neither to the First World (more developed

capitalist countries led by the United States) nor the Second World
Definition of the
(communist countries led by the Soviet Union)
“Third World’
 In general, it included the less developed countries of Asia, Africa and
Latin America. Many of them were former Western colonies

 Indonesia, Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan held the conference in

Bandung, Indonesia
 The first Asian-African conference without the participation of the
Western powers
Bandung  Major achievements
Conference  Opposed colonialism
(1955)  Declared the Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference to promote
world peace and strengthen international cooperation
 Significance
 Consolidated independent position
 Promoted the rise of the Third World

 Most members were Third World countries.

 Yugoslavia, Egypt, Ghana, Indonesia and India held a summit in
Belgrade, Yugoslavia: The Non-Aligned Movement was formally
founded
 Main objectives
Non-Aligned  Based on the Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference, it advocated
Movement being unaligned with the United States or the Soviet Union
(1961)  Supported national self-determination
 Advocated cooperation to narrow the economic gap between more
developed and less developed countries.
 Significance
 Rising influence of the Third World
 Helped maintain world peace

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

 Wars and inventions: the total war, new military warfare, and other
inventions

Total war
 The warring countries mobilized more resources in the rear, including
manpower and agricultural and industrial goods to support the long-lasting
war
 The warring countries would control and mobilize all national resources.
Their policies were military-oriented
Feature
 People were conscripted into the army or mobilized to produce military
supplies. The differentiation between combatants and non-combatants
disappeared
 As civilians were regarded as rear servicemen, they also became attack
targets

 Political aspect: loss of freedom

Impact on
 Economic aspect: economic disruption
people
 Social aspects: heavier civilian casualties; rise in women's position

New armaments and threedimensional warfare

 WWI: the rise of three-dimensional warfare

 Sea: Dreadnoughts, submarine
 Land: trench warfare, tanks, machine guns, toxic gas, grenades
Form
 Air: Fighter planes
 WWII: also fought in three-dimensions
 Nuclear weapon, bomber aircraft, rocket, aircraft carriers

 Unprecedented heavy casualties

Impact  Huge economic losses
 Continuing threats to peace

 Technological innovations brought by wars

Aviation and aerospace Jet engine, rocket engine

Information and communications technology Radar, computer
Materials Cellucotton, stainless steel
Medicine and treatment Plastic surgery, penicillin
Daily tools Zipper, waterproof clothing

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

Energy Use of nuclear energy

 Genocide: using the Holocaust as an example

Genocide and the Holocaust

 The intentional elimination of all or part of a national, ethnical, racial or

Genocide
religious group

 The Holocaust (1941- 1945) carried out by Nazi Germany was the
Holocaust
most brutal in history. About six million Jews were killed

Nazi anti-Jewish measures and the Holocaust

 'Stab-in-the-back' myth: saw the Jews as traitors and extremely hated

them
 Germany's post-war problems: blamed the Jews as the origin of
Reason economic and social crises
 Nazi theory of racial superiority: believed that the Aryans (ancestors of
the Germans) were the most superior race and regarded the Jews as an
inferior race and devils

 The Nazi Party introduced a series of anti-Jewish policies since 1933,

including the enactment of the Nuremberg Laws (1935): abolished the
Anti-Jewish civil rights of Jews
measures and the  The Night of Broken Glass (1938): Heavy causalities resulted
Holocaust  Nazi concentration camps (Auschwitz Concentration Camp)
 The Holocaust, 1941-1945: The 'Final Solution to the Jewish Question',
a plan to systematically exterminate all Jews in Europe

Post-Second World War developments

Trials before the  Nuremberg Trials (1945): the establishment of the world's first
International international military tribunal to try major Nazi war criminals and
Military Tribunal organizations

Passage of the
 The United Nations adopted the Convention on the Prevention and
Convention on the
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948): For the first time, it
Prevention and
adopted 'genocide' as a legal term; to prevent genocide and to severely
Punishment of the
punish the crime
Crime of Genocide

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 Eradicated totalitarianism and racial discrimination

 Public apology and mourning: Brandt, the former Chancellor of West
Germany, knelt in front of the Monument to the Ghetto Heroes in
Germany's self-
Warsaw
reflection on the
 Compensation and consolation
Holocaust
 Long-term investigations and trials
 Education: taught people about the harms of extreme nationalism and
Nazism

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Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

1. Which of the following European countries adopted the foreign policy called
‘world politics’?
A. France
B. Britain
C. Russia
D. Germany

2. Which of the following countries competed with Germany in building

‘dreadnoughts’ since 1906?
A. Austria-Hungary
B. Britain
C. Italy
D. Russia

3. When did the Triple Alliance form?

A. 1871
B. 1882
C. 1907
D. 1914

4. Which of the following matchings is INCORRECT?

A. France: Revenge against Germany
B. Germany: Pan-Germanism
C. Austria-Hungary: Expanding into the Balkans
D. Italy: Pan-Slavism

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

5. Which of the following chronological orders is correct?

A. The First Moroccan Crisis→The Sarajevo Incident→The Bosnian Crisis→The
Second Balkan War
B. The Second Balkan War→The First Moroccan Crisis→The Sarajevo Incident→The
Bosnian Crisis
C. The First Moroccan Crisis→The Bosnian Crisis→The Second Balkan War→The
Sarajevo Incident
D. The Second Balkan War→The Bosnian Crisis→The First Moroccan Crisis→The
Sarajevo Incident

6. After the Second Balkan War, which of the following country was supported by
Austria-Hungary to become independent?
A. Bosnia
B. Bulgaria
C. Albania
D. Herzegovina

7. Which of the following is NOT the major settlement of the Paris Peace
Conference?
A. Dividing Russia by the victorious countries
B. Signing the Treaty of Versailles with Germany
C. Achieving national self-determination
D. Forming a collective security system

8. Which of the following statements is NOT regarded as an impact of the Great

Depression?
A. The United States became more self-isolated.
B. Britain refused to use force to deal with international disputes.
C. The Germans started to support the Nazi Party.
D. Militarism became popular in Italy.

9. Which of the following was NOT the feature of Fascism?

A. Anti-Semitism
B. Anti-communism
C. Economic self-sufficiency
D. Cult of personality

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

10. Which of the following statements about the League of Nations is correct?
A. It was established in 1931.
B. Germany did not join the League of Nations.
C. It worked to maintain world peace through collective security.
D. It had 85 member countries at its peak.

11. Which of the following countries passed the Neutrality Act in 1935?
A. France
B. Britain
C. Japan
D. The United States

12. According to the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, which country was to be

divided by Germany and the Soviet Union secretly?
A. Poland
B. Czechoslovakia
C. Austria
D. Abyssinia

13. Who proposed the principle of national self-determination?

A. Clemenceau
B. Lloyd George
C. Wilson
D. Stalin

14. Which of the following matchings is correct?

A. British colonies: Gain independence through armed struggle
B. American colonies: Gain independence through suzerain's assistance
C. French colonies: Gain independence through suzerain's assistance
D. Dutch colonies: Gain independence through negotiation

15. When was the ‘Year of Africa’?

A. 1945
B. 1960
C. 1975
D. 1980

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

16. Which of the following statements about the Bandung Conference is correct?
A. 29 Asian, African, and European leaders attended it.
B. The participating countries declared the Ten Principles of the Bandung
Conference.
C. It was held in Yugoslavia.
D. It advocated the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement.

17. Which of the following was NOT regarded as an impact of total war?
A. Economic disruption
B. Loss of freedom
C. Heavier civilian casualties
D. Decline in women's position

18. Which of the following matchings is correct?

A. The United States: invented 'ENIAC', the world's first computer
B. Burberry: improved the zipper
C. Gillies: made stainless steel
D. Sunbacks: designed a waterproof suit

19. What law did the Nazi Party enact to abolish the civil rights of Jews?
A. Munich Laws
B. Versailles Laws
C. Nuremberg Laws
D. Auschwitz Laws

20. Which of the following statements about Germany's self-reflection on the

Holocaust is INCORRECT?
A. Brandt, the former Chancellor of West Germany, knelt in front of the
Monument to the Ghetto Heroes in Warsaw.
B. East Germany and Israel signed the Luxembourg Agreement.
C. West German government filed a lawsuit against Nazi officials who managed
the Auschwitz Concentration Camp.
D. Germany reaffirmed that school education should not deny or praise Nazi
crimes.

©2022 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN3A_T9_SN-85

Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

Study the Sources below and answer the questions that follow. (12 marks)

Source A: A British cartoon published in 1909

Source B: An excerpt from the article published by a German general in 1912

We (the Germans) are compelled to obtain space for our increasing population and
markets for our growing industries. But at every step which we take in this direction
England (Britain) will resolutely oppose us. English policy ... doubtless wishes ... to
hinder every further expansion of German international influence and maritime
power. … the attitude of the English Government leaves no doubt on this point.

1. Did the cartoonist of Source A think that Germany can successfully challenge
British naval supremacy? Cite TWO clues from the Source to explain. (3 marks)

2. Why did the author of Source B think that Germany needed to “obtain space and
markets”? (2 marks)

3. “Between 1900 and 1912, the Anglo-German relations remained tense.” Explain
the statement with reference to Sources A and B, and using your own knowledge.

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

(7 marks)
1. Did the cartoonist of Source A think that Germany can successfully
challenge British naval supremacy? Cite TWO clues from the Source to
explain. (3 marks)

2. Why did the author of Source B think that Germany needed to “obtain
space and markets”? (2 marks)

3. “Between 1900 and 1912, the Anglo-German relations remained tense.”

Explain the statement with reference to Sources A and B, and using your
own knowledge. (7 marks)

©2022 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN3A_T9_SN-87

Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

Study the Source below and answer the questions that follow. (13 marks)

Source A: An American cartoon published in 1919 related to the Paris Peace

Conference; Man X and representatives of Britain and France were known as the ‘Big
Three’ in the conference

1. Identify Man X in Source A and indicate the country he represented. (2 marks)

2. Did the cartoonist believe that the aims of the ‘Big Three’ of the Paris Peace
Conference were consistent? Cite clues from Source A to explain. (3 marks)

3. Can Source A fully reflect the aims of the ‘Big Three’ who participated in the
Paris Peace Conference? Explain your answer with reference to the Source, and
using your own knowledge. (8 marks)

©2022 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN3A_T9_SN-88

Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

1. Identify Man X in Source A and indicate the country he represented. (2

marks)

 Man X:
 The country he represented:

2. Did the cartoonist believe that the aims of the ‘Big Three’ of the Paris Peace
Conference were consistent? Cite clues from Source A to explain. (3 marks)

3. Can Source A fully reflect the aims of the ‘Big Three’ who participated in
the Paris Peace Conference? Explain your answer with reference to the
Source, and using your own knowledge. (8 marks)

©2022 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN3A_T9_SN-89

Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

Study the Sources below and answer the questions that follow. (13 marks)

Source A: British MP Attlee’s comments on the Munich Agreement in October 1938

We have nothing but an armistice in a state of war. … We have felt that we are in the
midst of a tragedy. We have seen today a … democratic people betrayed and
handed over to a ruthless despotism. … There can be no doubt that it is a
tremendous victory for Herr Hitler. Without firing a shot, by the mere display of
military force, he has achieved a dominating position in Europe …

Source B: A scholar's comments on the Munich Conference

(British Prime Minister) Chamberlain, however, had done everything to keep Stalin
away from the conference table. … Although he (Stalin) had considered Nazi
Germany as the predominant threat …, he now suspected that the Western powers
were playing Germany off against the Soviet Union. He was terrified at the thought
of the capitalist powers standing united against the Soviet Union and began thinking
about ways to reach an agreement with Hitler that might deflect German aggression
… toward the West.

1. What was Attlee’s attitude towards the Munich Agreement? Cite ONE clue from
Source A to explain. (2 marks)

2. With reference to your own knowledge, indicate where the “democratic people”
in Source A were from? (1 mark)

3. According to Source B, who prevented the Soviet leader Stalin from

participating in the Munich Conference? (1 mark)

4. “Britain’s appeasement policy towards Germany indirectly triggered WWII.”

Explain the statement with reference to Sources A and B, and using your own
knowledge. (9 marks)

©2022 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN3A_T9_SN-90

Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

1. What was Attlee’s attitude towards the Munich Agreement? Cite ONE clue
from Source A to explain. (2 marks)

 Attitude:
 Clue from the Source:

2. With reference to your own knowledge, indicate where the “democratic

people” in Source A were from? (1 mark)

3. According to Source B, who prevented the Soviet leader Stalin from

participating in the Munich Conference? (1 mark)

4. “Britain’s appeasement policy towards Germany indirectly triggered

WWII.” Explain the statement with reference to Sources A and B, and using
your own knowledge. (9 marks)

©2022 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN3A_T9_SN-91

Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 9 International conflicts and crises in the 20th century (I) – the two world wars

Answer the following question in paragraph form and complete sentences. (10
marks)

How did the two world wars lead to the decolonization of Asia and Africa? Explain
your answer.

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