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Observation
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Observation (disambiguation).
 Observing the air traffic in Rõuge, Estonia
Observation in the natural sciences[1] is an act or instance of noticing or
perceiving [2] and the acquisition of information from a primary source. In living
beings, observation employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve
the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific instruments. The term
may also refer to any data collected during the scientific activity. Observations can
be qualitative, that is, the absence or presence of a property is noted and the
observed phenomenon described, or quantitative if a numerical value is attached to
the observed phenomenon by counting or measuring.

Science[edit]
The scientific method requires observations of natural phenomena to formulate and
test hypotheses.[3] It consists of the following steps:[4][5]

1. Ask a question about a natural phenomenon

2. Make observations of the phenomenon
3. Formulate a hypothesis that tentatively answers the question
4. Predict logical, observable consequences of the hypothesis that have
not yet been investigated
5. Test the hypothesis' predictions by an experiment, observational
study, field study, or simulation
6. Draw a conclusion from data gathered in the experiment, or revise the
hypothesis or form a new one and repeat the process
7. Write a descriptive method of observation and the results or
conclusions reached
8. Have peers with experience researching the same
phenomenon evaluate the results
Observations play a role in the second and fifth steps of the scientific method.
However, the need for reproducibility requires that observations by different
observers can be comparable. Human sense impressions
are subjective and qualitative, making them difficult to record or compare. The use
of measurement was developed to allow recording and comparison of observations
made at different times and places, by different people. The measurement consists
of using observation to compare the phenomenon being observed to a standard unit.
The standard unit can be an artifact, process, or definition which can be duplicated
or shared by all observers. In measurement, the number of standard units which is
equal to the observation is counted. Measurement reduces an observation to a
number that can be recorded, and two observations which result in the same number
are equal within the resolution of the process.
Human senses are limited and subject to errors in perception, such as optical
illusions. Scientific instruments were developed to aid human abilities of observation,
such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras,
and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are
unobservable by the senses, such as indicator
dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared
cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, Geiger counters, and radio receivers.

One problem encountered throughout scientific fields is that the observation may
affect the process being observed, resulting in a different outcome than if the
process was unobserved. This is called the observer effect. For example, it is not
normally possible to check the air pressure in an automobile tire without letting out
some of the air, thereby changing the pressure. However, in most fields of science, it
is possible to reduce the effects of observation to insignificance by using better
instruments.

Considered as a physical process itself, all forms of observation (human or

instrumental) involve amplification and are thus thermodynamically irreversible
processes, increasing entropy.

Paradoxes[edit]
In some specific fields of science, the results of observation differ depending on
factors that are not important in everyday observation. These are usually illustrated
with apparent "paradoxes" in which an event appears different when observed from
two different points of view, seeming to violate "common sense".

 Relativity: In relativistic physics which deals with velocities close to

the speed of light, it is found that different observers may observe different
values for the length, time rates, mass, and many other properties of an
object, depending on the observer's velocity relative to the object. For
example, in the twin paradox one twin goes on a trip near the speed of
light and comes home younger than the twin who stayed at home. This is
not a paradox: time passes at a slower rate when measured from a frame
moving concerning the object.[clarification needed] In relativistic physics, an
observation must always be qualified by specifying the state of motion of
the observer, its reference frame.[citation needed]
 Quantum mechanics: In quantum mechanics, which deals with the
behavior of very small objects, it is not possible to observe a
system without changing the system, and the "observer" must be
considered part of the system being observed. In isolation, quantum
objects are represented by a wave function which often exists in
a superposition or mixture of different states. However, when an
observation is made to determine the actual location or state of the object,
it always finds the object in a single state, not a "mixture". The interaction
of the observation process appears to "collapse" the wave function into a
single state. So any interaction between an isolated wave function and the
external world that results in this wave function collapse is called
an observation or measurement, whether or not it is part of a deliberate
observation process.
Biases[edit]
The human senses do not function like a video camcorder, impartially recording all
observations.[6] Human perception occurs by a complex, unconscious process
of abstraction, in which certain details of the incoming sense data are noticed and
remembered, and the rest is forgotten. What is kept and what is thrown away
depends on an internal model or representation of the world, called by psychologists
a schema, that is built up over our entire lives. The data is fitted into this schema.
Later when events are remembered, memory gaps may even be filled by "plausible"
data the mind makes up to fit the model; this is called reconstructive memory. How
much attention the various perceived data are given depends on an internal value
system, which judges how important it is to the individual. Thus two people can view
the same event and come away with entirely different perceptions of it, even
disagreeing about simple facts. This is why eyewitness testimony is notoriously
unreliable.[citation needed]

Several of the more important ways observations can be affected by human

psychology are given below.

Confirmation bias[edit]
Main article: confirmation bias
Human observations are biased toward confirming the observer's conscious and
unconscious expectations and view of the world; we "see what we expect to see".
[7]
In psychology, this is called confirmation bias.[7] Since the object of scientific
research is the discovery of new phenomena, this bias can and has caused new
discoveries to be overlooked; one example is the discovery of x-rays. It can also
result in erroneous scientific support for widely held cultural myths, on the other
hand, as in the scientific racism that supported ideas of racial superiority in the early
20th century.[8] Correct scientific technique emphasizes careful recording of
observations, separating experimental observations from the conclusions drawn from
them, and techniques such as blind or double blind experiments, to minimize
observational bias.

Processing bias[edit]
Modern scientific instruments can extensively process "observations" before they are
presented to the human senses, and particularly with computerized instruments,
there is sometimes a question as to where in the data processing chain "observing"
ends and "drawing conclusions" begins. This has recently become an issue
with digitally enhanced images published as experimental data in papers in scientific
journals. The images are enhanced to bring out features that the researcher wants to
emphasize, but this also has the effect of supporting the researcher's conclusions.
This is a form of bias that is difficult to quantify. Some scientific journals have begun
to set detailed standards for what types of image processing are allowed in research
results. Computerized instruments often keep a copy of the "raw data" from sensors
before processing, which is the ultimate defense against processing bias, and
similarly, scientific standards require preservation of the original unenhanced "raw"
versions of images used as research data.[citation needed]

Philosophy[edit]
Main article: Philosophy
In Cosmology the origins of observation are related with the origins of evolutions in
our cosmos.[9]

Process philosophy is the changing relationships of

our senses, minds and experiences to ourselves.[10]

"Observe always that everything is the result of a change, and get used to thinking
that there is nothing Nature loves so well as to change existing forms and to make
new ones like them."

— Meditations. iv. 36. – Marcus Aurelius

See also[edit]
 Deixis
 Extrospection
 Introspection
 List of cognitive biases
 Metaphysics of presence
 Naturalistic observation
 Observation unit
 Observational astronomy
 Observational error
 Observational learning
 Observational study
 Observable quantity
 Observations and Measurements
 Observatory
 Observer effect
 Noumenon
 Present
 Self
 Theory ladenness
 Uncertainty principle
 Unobservable
References[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related to Observation.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Observation.

Look up Observation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

 1. ^ "Philosophy of Cosmology". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2017.
2. ^ "Meanings and Definitions of Words at". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2022-
05-13.
3. ^ Kosso, Peter (2011). A Summary of Scientific Method. Springer.
p. 9. ISBN 978-9400716131.
4. ^ Mendez, Carl Cedrick L.; Heller, H. Craig; Berenbaum, May (2009). Life:
The Science of Biology, 9th Ed. US: Macmillan. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-
1429219624.
5. ^ Shipman, James; Wilson, Jerry D.; Todd, Aaron (2009). Introduction to
Physical Science, 12th Ed. Cengage Learning. p. 4. ISBN 978-0538731874.
6. ^ Shaw, Julia (Aug 12, 2016). "Not all memories happened: What experts
wish you knew about false memories". Scientific American. Nature America,
Inc. Retrieved August 13, 2016.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Shermer, Michael (2002). Why People Believe Weird Things:
Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time. MacMillan.
pp. 299–302. ISBN 1429996765.
8. ^ Gardner, Martin (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Dover
Publications, Inc. pp. 152–163. ISBN 9780486131627.
9. ^ "Philosophy of Cosmology". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2017.
10.^ "Process Philosophy". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2022.
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