•

The living world •

Etf What is living :փE

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Unique features of living organisms

Growth,reproduction,ability to sense environment,respond,metabolism,ability to
self replicate,self organise,interact and emergence to this list

Reproduction,likewise is a Another characteristic of life All living organisms grow

characteristic of living org. is metabolism Increase in mass and in no. Of
For multicellular -> sexual An isolated metabolic individuals are twin characteristics of
For fungi -> asexual spores reaction outside body in test growth. Plants grow by cell
For yeast & hydra -> budding tube is neither living nor non division(multicellular) throughout their
For planeria -> true regeneration living. While metabolism is a life. Unicellular org. Also grow by cell
Fragmentation-> fungi,filamentous defining feature of all living division
alga,protonema of mosses org. Without exception. In animals growth is restricted upto an
For unicellular org. Like amoeba Isolated reactions are not age. In majority of higher organisms
growth and reproduction are living things but surely living growth and reproduction are mutually
synonymous
reactions. exclusive events. Growth has to be
But there are some sterile org. Like
Hence cellular forms/ internally hence it’s not a defining
mule,worker bees,infertile
organisation of body is property.
human,hence it also cannot be an all
defining feature of life form
inclusive defining characteristic of
living org.

IMPORTANT POINTS
Consciousness,a defining property of living LIVING ORGANISMS ARE SELF REPLICATING,
organisms EVOLVING, SELF REGULATING INTERACTIVE
(Organisms are distinguished unexpectedly) SYSTEMS CAPABLE OF RESPONDING TO
Every living organisms respond & sense it’s EXTERNAL STIMULI
environment. (Plants respond to ALL LIVING ORGANISMS (PAST PRESENT AND
light,water,temp,pollutant,org. FUTURE) ARE LINKED TO ONE ANOTHER BY
And photoperiod affects reproduction in seasonal SHARING COMMON GENETIC MATERIAL BUT TO
breeders,both plants & animals. And all animals VARYING DEGREES
handle chemicals entering them.) Property of tissues are not found in cells but
Only human have self consciousness. present due to interaction among cells and similarly
Coma patients are brain dead but body is responding in organelle & molecules.
(heart and lungs get replaced by machines

:
Diversity in the living world
i

Each different kind of plant,animal or organisms you see represents a species.

1.7-1.8 million species have been known and described which refers to

f I
biodiversity (no. & type of org. present on earth

+
Nomenclature Systematics Classification
(To solve the possible dispute) Grouping into convenient
It is only possible when organism is Branch of study including,
Different organisms,their diversity and categories based on easily
described correctly(identification) observable characters.
relationship b/w them. Latin word systema
For plants -> ICBN (international code We use convenient categories to
means systematic arrangement of org.
for botanical nomenclature) Linnaeus used systema naturae as the title of study organisms & scientific term
For animals -> ICZN (international his publication. for these categories is taxa.
code for zoological nomenclature) The scope of systematics was later Animals,mammals,dogs represent
enlarged to include taxa at different levels.
" identification,nomenclature and
classification. Systematics takes into
Based on characteristics all living
organisms can be classified into
Binomial nomenclature different taxa which is called
account evolutionary relationship b/w org.
by Carolus Linnaeus taxonomy

f I
Contains generic name and specific epithet
UNIVERSAL RULES:-
-> latinised (irrespective of origin), written
in italics Modern taxonomic studies-
-> first word in genus & next is species external,internal structures,cell Processes that are basic to
-> when handwritten separately underlined classification-
structure,developmental
& printed in italics which denote latin origin Characterisation,identification,class
-> genus starts with capital letter & species process,ecological info. ification and nomenclature
with small Earlier classifications were based
Eg- Mangifera indica linn on the ‘uses’ of various org.
 Taxonomic categories

1
Each step in classification represents a rank or category called taxonomic category and all of
them makes taxonomic hierarchy. Each category is referred as unit of classification represents
rank & is commonly termed as taxon.
Groups represent category(eg-insects) & it further denotes rank/taxon.
These groups/category are distinct biological entities and not merely morphological aggregates.

"
" ""
"" I
Species- IMPORTANT POINTS
Group of organism with Subcategories in this hierarchy in
fundamental similarities and figure facilitate more sound &
can interbreed. Eg- scientific placement of various taxa.
indica,tuberosum,leo,sapiens Higher the category greater is the → tribe

> One genus may have 1 or more difficulty of determining the

species representing different relationship to other taxa at the same
organisms,but having level.
morphological similarities.
Eg- P. tigris & P. leo , S. tuberosum &
S. nigrum & S. melongena

Genus-
Group of related species
, Eg- solanum (potato & brinjal) ,
panthera (leo,pardus,tigris) , felis
(cats)

Family-
Closely related genera with less no.
Of similarity.
They are characterised on both
Taxonomical Aid-
vegetative & reproductive features Info gathered or actual specimen

:
of plant species. for primary source of taxonomic
studies and training in systematics
Eg- solanum,petunia,datura are placed
in solanaceae family, panthera & felis
are placed in felidae family. Herbarium- ✗ Botanical garden-
Canidae-> dog family Collection of dried,pressed &
Collection of living plants which
preserved plant specimen & then the
Order- sheets are arranged acc. to > are grown for identification. Each
plant is labelled indicating
(Assemblage of families) classification.Info on herbarium botanical name & its family
Order & higher taxonomic categories sheet- date & place of collection, Famous botanical gardens are at
english local & botanical Kew (England), Indian Botanical
are identified based on aggregates of name,family,collectors name. garden, Howrah (India) and at
characters. Similar characters further They serve as quick referral system National Research
decrease. Eg- convolvulaceae in studies & become store institute,lucknow (India)
solanaceae are in order polymoniales house,repository for future use
based on floral characters,
Carnivora order include felidae and
canidae Biological museum- <
> Zoological parks-
Set up in schools,colleges & include (Wild animals under
Class- collection of preserved plant & animal human care) by which we
Eg- mammalia include order specimens in jars in preservative learn their food habits &
solutions(formaline) behaviour. They are
primata (monkey,gorilla,gibbon) Insects are preserved in insect boxes
& carnivora(tiger,cat,dog) provided with condition
after collecting,killing and pinning. similar to natural habitat
Larger animals are stuffed and
preserved. They also contain collection Photos next
Phylum(division in plants) of skeletons
are on
page
Classes like
✓
>pisces ,amphibia,reptilia,aves,ma
mmalia are include in chordata Key-
phylum Used for identification of plants and animal based on
affinity. They are based on contrasting characters
generally in a pair called couplet. Results in acceptance of
Kingdom- only one & rejection of other. Each statement in key is
> (Highest category) called a lead.Separate taxonomic keys are required for
Eg-plantae each taxonomic category such as family, genus and
species for identification purposes. Keys are generally
analytical in nature.
> tribe
 Biological classification ÷

The Early approaches

V v v
v
Aristotle was first to give Linnaeus gave 2 kingdom Aristotle also RH Whittaker in 1969
classification i.e. classified gave 5 kingdom
scientific classification by animals in
classifying plants into plantae(bact.,BGA,Fungi, classification i.e.
mosses,ferns,gymno.,ang groups like MONERA,PROTISTA,
trees,herbs and shrubs enemia (having
(based on morphological io.) & animals on basis of FUNGI,PLANTAE,AN
red blood) &
characters) presence of cell wall anemia(the one
IMALIA
not having)
-
v
Issues in the
Basis of 5 kingdom
early approaches
classification
It brought together prokaryotic
bact. & blue green algae (BGA) => cell structure
=> thallus organisation
Unicellular (eg-chlamydomonas) => mode of nutrition
& multicellular (eg-spirogyra) => reproduction
were placed together =>phylogenetic
Organisms with different cell relationships
wall were placed together
No differentiation between
mode of nutrition

v KINGDOM MONERA Reproduction

in bact.
Introduction (All bact.) Mainly by fission,in
They live in all type of unfavourable cond.
habitat,even extreme. Bacterial Phylum
they produce spores.
structure is simple but complex v & also reproduce
in behaviour. sexually by transfer of
Some are
Archaebacteria
(Primitive/ancient) DNA From one cell to
autotrophic(chemosynthetic or Live in most harsh habitat eg- other(conjugation)
photosynthetic) but majority are HALOPHILES(salty v
heterotrophic. ON BASIS OF areas),METHANOGENS(marshy
SHAPE BACTERIA MAY BE:- areas),THERMOACIDOPHILES(ho Eubacteria
=> spherical - coccus tsprings) Characterised by
=> rod shaped - bacillus presence of rigid
have well defined cell wall.
cell wall & if motile
t
=> comma shaped - vibrium Methanogens found in most
=> spiral - spirillum ruminant guts & produce biogas a flagella
Mycoplasma
from animal dung Lack cell wall
& are smallest
living cells and
can live
without O2

v v v v
Cynobacteria N2 fixing Chemosynthetic Heterotrophs
bacteria autotroph Mostly imp
Also called BGA & have chl- Oxidise inorganic decomposers,help in
a & are photosynthetic Fix atm. N2 in making
substances like
autotrophs,unicellular,colo specialised cells curd,antibiotics,fixing
nitrates,nitrites,am
nial,filamentous,marine or called heterocysts, N2 in legume roots &
monia & use
terrestrial habitat. Colonies Eg- some are pathogens
released energy
are surrounded by NOSTOC,ANABENA causing damage.
for ATP production
gelatinous sheath. Heterocyst provide Eg of bacterial
Play role in
& forms blooms in water anaerobic condition diseases-
recycling N,P,Fe,S
bodies required for N2 fix. cholera,typhoid,tetanus
,citrus canker
 KINGDOM PROTISTA
All single cell eukaryotes,some have flagella or cilia &
reproduces sexually & asexually involving zygote

He ¥7
formation and cell fusion

¥
Crysophytes Dinoflagellates Euglenoids Slime moulds Protozoans
Diatoms/golden All are heterotrophs &
Mostly marine & Most are fresh Saprophytic live as predators or
alga/desmids
photosynthetic. water org. found protists. parasites. 4 main
Fresh water as well groups:-
Appear in stagnant Body moves
as marine water.float
passively in yellow,green,br water. Instead of along decaying A) Amoeboid
own,blue,red cell wall they twigs & leaves Move & capture prey by
water(plankton) psudopodia. Marine
depending on have protein engulfing
Most are forms have silica shells
pigments. Cell layer pellicle organic material. on surface. Eg-
photosynthetic.
wall have stiff (makes body Under suitable amoeba,entamoeba
In diatoms cell walls (parasite)
cellulose plates flexible). Have a conditions they
form two thin
on outer short & a long form aggregation B) Flagellated
overlapping
surface. Most flagella. They called Either free living or
shells,which fit parasite. Have flagella.
have 2 are plasmodium
together in a soap The parasitic forms
flagella(one photosynthetic (may grow over causes disease like
box. Walls are
longitudinal in presence of several feet) in sleeping sickness.
embedded with silica Eg- trypanosoma
other sunlight & unfav. cond.
& are indestructible
transversely in heterotrophs in plasmodium C) Ciliated
thus they left behind
furrow b/w absence of differentiates & Aquatic,actively
large amt. of cell
plates. Red former by forms fruitning moving,have thousands
deposits in their of cilia,have cavity
dinoflagellate predating small bodies bearing
habitat over billions (gullet) that opens to
(GONYAULAX) org. They are spores at their outside of cell surface.
of years & now
multiplies connecting link tips. Spores bear The coordinated
called as movement of rows of
rapidly & cause between plants true
DIATOMACEOUS cilia cause the water
red tide. Toxins & animals. The walls,extremely laden with food to be
EARTH
released by pigments in resistant & steered into the gullet.
Being gritty soil is Eg- paramecium
them may kill them is identical survive for many
used in
fishes. to that of higher years.
polishing,filtration of
plants. Eg- Spores are D) Sporozoans
oils &
EUGLENA dispersed by air Have an infectious
syrups.DIATOMS are
currents. spore like stage in
chief producers of life cycle.
ocean. Eg- plasmodium
(Malarial parasite)

KINGDOM FUNGI
Heterotrophs,cosmopolitan
(occur everywhere)

Introduction "

V v ✓
STRUCTURE NUTRITION REPRODUCTION
They are filamentous except Mostly heterotrophs & => By vegetative-
yeast which is unicellular. absorb soluble organic fragmentation,fission,budding
Body consists of long slender matter from dead substrate => Asexual-
thread like Hyphae & it’s (saprophytes), some are spores(conidia,sporangiospores,
network called mycelium. The parasites too. They can also zoospores,aplanospores)
continuous hyphae with live as symbionts in => Sexual-
multinuclear situation are association with algae as oospore,ascospore,basidiospore
called coenocytic & others lichens and with roots of Spores are produced in fruitning
have septae or cross walls. higher plants like pinus as bodies. The sexual cycle involves-
The cell wall contains chitin mycorrhiza
Plasmogamy —> karyogamy —> meiosis
and polysaccharides Fusion of Fusion of In zygote
protoplasm b/w 2 nuclei results in
2 motile or non haploid
motile gametes spores
Haploid spores—> fusion begin—>
dikaryophase—> nuclei fuse—> diploid
body—> meiosis —> haploid spores
 Four groups of fungi !
v v v v

Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deutromycetes

(Sac fungi) (Mushrooms,bracket (Imperfect fungi)
Found in aquatic
fungi,puff balls)
habitat & on decaying Multicellular (except Sexual phase
Grow in soil,logs,tree
wood in moist & yeast) Mycelium is is absent,they
stamps,living plants as
damp places or as branched & septate. The produce only
parasites Eg-rust &
obligate parasites on asexual spores are asexual
smut. Mycelium is
plants. Mycelium is conidia produced spores called
branched & septate.
asepetate/ exogenously on the conidia. Many
Asexual spores are
coenocytic. Asexual special mycelium called members are
absent. Vegetative
repro. by zoospores conidiophores. Sexual decomposers
repro. by
(motile) or spores are ascospores & help in
fragmentation. Sex
aplanospres (non which are produced mineral
organs are absent but
motile). These are endogenously in sac like cycling.
plasmogamy takes
produces asci which are arranged Eg-
place. Dikaryotic stage
endogenously in in ascocarps (fruitning Colleotrichum
is found which gives
sporangium. bodies). Neurospora is used ,trichoderma,
rise to basidium.
Zygospores are in genetic & biochemical alternaria
Karyogamy and
formed by fusion of work. Many members like
meiosis takes place in
two gametes,if morels & truffles are
basidium producting 4
similar -> isogamous edible & are considered
basidiospores(exogeno
or if dissimilar -> delicacies. Eg-
usly). Fruitning body is
anisogamous or yeast,aspergillus,penicilli
called basidiocarp. Eg-
oogamous um,claviceps,neurospora
Agaricus
Eg- mucor,rhizopus
(mushroom),ustilago(s
(bread mould) and
mut),puccinia(rust)
albugo (parasitic
fungi on mustard)

Alternaria
Aspergillus
Agaricus
Mucor

Viruses,viroids,prions & lichens

These acellular org. were not included in whittaker’s classification

VIRUS
V v N

Introduction History of virus Important points

In addition to proteins
They are not truly living & The name virus meaning venom
viruses also have genetic
are acellular having inert or poison was given by pasteur.
material that could either be
crystalline structure DJ Ivanowsky (1892)
RNA or DNA.
outside living cell. Once recognised certain microbes as
No virus contain both RNA &
they infect a cell they take caused organism of the mosaic
DNA. A Virus is a
over the machinery to disease of tobacco. These were
nucleoprotein and the
replicate,killing the host. found to be smaller than
genetic material is infectious.
They are obligate bacteria-proof filters.
In general viruses that infect
parasites. MW Beijernick (1898)
plants have ssRNA & Viruses
demonstrated that the extract
infecting animals have either
of the infected plants of
ssRNA or dsRNA or dsDNA.
tobacco could cause infection
Bacterial viruses or
in healthy plants called the fluid
bacteriophage are usually
as (contagium vivum fluidum i.e.
dsDNA virus.
infectious living fluid)
In plants symptom may be
WM Stanley (1935) showed that
mosaic formation, leaf rolling
viruses could be crystallised
& curling, yellowing & vein
and crystals consist largely of
clearing,dwarfing & stunted
proteins.
growth
 VIROIDS PRIONS LICHENS
Discovered by TO Diener in
Only contains protein & Symbiotic association b/w algae &
1971. It was smaller than
lack DNA or RNA. Cause fungi.
viruses and caused potato
bovine spongiform ALGAE—> phycobiont(autotroph)
spindle tuber disease. It was
encephalopathy (BSE) i.e. FUNGI—> mycobiont(heterotroph)
found to be a free RNA ; it
mad cow disease in cattle & Lichens are good pollution
lacked the protein coat that is
also cause Cr-Jacob indicators as they do not grow in
found in viruses,hence named
disease (CJD) in humans polluted areas (sulphur indicator)
viroid. The RNA of viroid was
of low molecular weight
 Etf Plant Kingdom Etf
IMPORTANT POINTS
Fungi,monerans,protists were earlier included in plant
Kingdom but not now. BGA is not an algae anymore

Various Systems of classification

Earlier systems were based on gross morphology
like habitat,colour,no. & shape of leaf

✓ ✓ V

Artificial system Natural system Phylogenetic system

Based on natural affinities
Based mainly on vegetative Most acceptable,based
among organisms &
characters (easily affected) or on evolutionary
consider
on the androecium structure. relationships,organism
external,internal,ultra
Eg- Linnaeus classification of s belonging to Same
structure,anatomy,embryol
plants based on no. Of taxa have common
ogy,photochemistry. Eg-
androecium. It had drawbacks ancestor.
George Bentham & Joseph
like it separated closely related Dalton Hooker
species,were based on few classification of flowering
characters & equal weightage plants
given to vegetative & sexual
characters.

Different kinds of taxonomy

V v
Numerical taxonomy r
Chemotaxonomy
Based on observable characters Cytotaxonomy Chemical constituents
using computers(no. & codes are Based on chromosome of the plant to resolve
assigned to each character) each no.,structure,behaviour confusions
character is given equal importance.

ALGAE/THALLOPHYTA
v r v v

Introduction Economic Size & form Reproduction

They are chlorophyll importance Chlamydomonas(
bearing simple They fix 1/2 of the total
Vegetative
microscopic
thalloid,autotrophic CO2,They are primary unicellular),volvox( By fragmentation.
>
& largely aquatic producers & is energy colonial),ulothrix & Each fragment
(both fresh&marine) source for aquatic animals spirogyra(filament develops into thallus
org. Some algae Eg- PORPHYRA, ous),kelps(massiv
form association LAMINARIA, SARGASSUM e marine form) Asexual
with fungi(lichen), are used as food. Algin By production
with animals(on s
(brown algae) & carrageen of zoospores
sloth bear) (red algae) produce (motile)
hydrocolloids(water
holding subst.) Agar is
produced from Geledium & ••-•: >
Sexual
gracilaria. Chlorella and By fusion of 2
I gametes
spirullina are used as
space food (SCP-Single cell
protein)
v v v

Isogamous Anisogamous Oogamous

Gametes are different Female gamete is
Gametes are similar in size in size but of same
1) if motile- non motile but
capability to move male is motile
chlamydomonas Eg- some species of
2) if nonmotile- spirogyra Eg- volvox,fucus
chlamydomonas i.e.
Udorina
 Types of algae
← + →
Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae
/green algae /brown algae /red algae
Plant body is unicellular/colonial/ Branched,filamentous (ectocarpus). They are multicellular. Have red
filamentous. Possess chl-a & b. Have chl a,c,xanthophylls,caroteins. pigment r-phycoerethrin. Found in
Possess different shapes. Have Have stored food as laminarin or warmer areas & occur in all light
stored food as starch or oil. Have mannitol. Have cellulosic cell wall. regions. Stored food is floridean
pyrenoid(starch synthesis) body Have gelatinous covering of ALGIN. starch which is similar to
in chloroplast for storing protein. Plant parts are Holdfast,stipe,frond. amylopectin & glycogen in
Inner cell wall —>cellulose & Vegetative—> by fragmentation. structure. Vegetative—> frag.
outer wall—>pectose. Vegetative Asexual—> by zoospores (heterokont) Asexual—> nonmotile spores
rep.=> fragmentation,spores. sexual—> by iso,aniso,oogamy. Sexual—> oogamous by non
Asexual =>by zoospores. Gametes are pyriform (pear shaped) & motile spores.
Sexual=>isogamy,anisogamy,oog bear a laterally placed flagella. Found some in fresh & brackish
amy. Found in Found rarely in fresh water,mostly in water but most in salt water. Do
fresh,brackish,salty water. Have brackish & salt water. Have 2 unequal not have any flagella.
2-8 equal & apical flagella lateral flagella. Cellulose,pectin & Eg-
Eg- polysulphate esters are found in cell polysiphonia,porphyra,glacilaria,
chlamydomonas,volvox,ulothrix,s wall. geledium
pirogyra,chara Eg-
Ectocarpus,dictyota,laminaria,sargass
um,fucus,kelps

Porphyra Polysiphonia

Volvox Fucus Dictyota

Ulothrix Laminaria

BRYOPHYTES
(amphibians of plant Kingdom)
V
Introduction Structure/plant body Economic importance
Live in soil but dependent on
It is thallus like,prostrate & Some mosses provide food for
water for sexual repro. Play
erect. Have rhizoids in place
important role in plant e herbaceous
of roots. Lack true mammals,birds,other animals.
succession on bare rocks/soil.
root,stem,leaf but may Species of sphagnum,a moss
They also have thalloid like
possess structure like them.

:
body but more differentiated provide peat that have long been
Main plant body is haploid used as fuel, and because of
than algae. Main members of
(gamatophytic cause their capacity to hold water used
bryophytes are mosses
produces gametes) as packing material for
transshipment of living material.
Sex organs Fertilisation & Mosses with lichens are first to
colonise rocks & hence are of
Sex organs are development great ecological importance. Act
multicellular and jacketed. Antherozoids(n) released in
as Decomposers of rocks
Male sex organ—> water come in contact with
> archaegonium/egg(n)—> making suitable for growth of
anthridium(antherozoid)
higher plants. Form green matts
Female sex organ—> zygote(2n)—>sporophyte(2n)
& prevents soil erosion.
archaegonium(eggcell) —> spores(n)—> germination
—> gametophyte(n)

✓ ✓

LIVERWORTS MOSSES
Predominant stage is gametophyte. Consists of 2 stages—
Plant body is thalloid & thallus is dorsiventral & closely >protonema & leafy. Protonema develops from spore, creeping
appressed to substrate. Leafy members have tiny leaf in green,branched & frequently filamentous stage. Leafy
rows looking like stem. Perform ASEXUAL by develops from sec. protonema as a lateral bud,consist of
fragmentation or gemmae formation & SEXUAL as sex spirally arranged leaves(this stage contains sex organs).
organs are present on same or diff. thalli. Sporophyte is Perform ASEXUAL by fragmentation & budding in sec.
consist of foot + setae + capsule. Spores are produced protonema or SEXUAL by antheridia,archaegonia. After
within capsule. They have free living gametophyte & fertilisation zygote develops into sporophyte. They have
sporophyte is parasitised on it. Eg- marchantia,riccia elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal.
Eg- funaria,sphagnum,polytrichum
Marchantia
Funaria Sphagnum
 PTERIDOPHYTES/ferns
v v v v v

Sexual Life cycle Economic

Introduction Structure/plant body importance
Includes Main plant body is sporophyte
reproduction Meiosis in
horsetails & but also have free living Gametophyte bears sporangia Used for
antheridia & archaegonia.
ferns. First to
possess
gametophyte. Differentiation is
Water is required for t medicinal
seen in true root,stem & leaf. Spores purposes
vascular Leaves may be of 2 types:- transfer of male gamete to n
and they

:
tissue. Found microsporophylls(selaginella) archaegonium. also act as
in Antherozoid+egg—> Germination
or macrosporophylls(ferns) soil binders.
cool,damp,sha sporophyte bears sporangia zygote(2n) and it will They are
dy places that are subtended by leaf like further form sporophyte Prothallus also
though some appendages called sporophylls Types of sporophyte (Multicellular) frequently
may flourish in
sandy soil
& sometime it may form
compact structure called
Homosporous-all spore of In grown as
ornamentals
same kind. Eg- Gametophyte
condition. STROBILI or CONES or LAX dryopteris,pteris,equisetum .
Eg- selaginella,equisetum t Spilopsida
(majority) n
Male and Psilotum
Heterosporous-2 types of female gamete
spores are n Lycopsida

:
Selaginella,
produced(microspore & Lycopodium
megaspore) Eg-selaginella Fusion
and salvinia Sphenopsida
Zygote 2h Equisetum
Development of zygote into
young embryo takes place I Pteropsida
within the female Sporophyte 2h Dryopteris,
gametophyte (precursor to Pteris,
Adiantum
seed habit considered an
important step in evolution)

GYMNOSPERMS (naked seeds)

Ovules are exposed i.e. no ovary wall is present. Seeds are naked. They include medium
trees,tall trees & shrubs. Giant redwood tree SEQUOIA is one of the tallest. Possess tap
roots (pinus have mycorrhiza & cycas have coralloid roots i.e. associated with N2 fixing
cyanobact.). Stems may be branched (pinus,cedrus) or unbranched (cycas) they have
simple,compound leaf. Cycas have pinnate leaf that remain for few years & withstand
temp. Humidity & wind. All conifers have needle like Leaves that reduces the surface
area & reduce water loss. They are always heterosporous. The sporophylls may arranged
spirally to form lax/strobili/cones. Strobili bearing microsporophyll/microsporangia is
called microsporangiate/male strobili. Male & female cones on same tree —> Pinus , and
male & female cone on different tree—> cycas

ANGIOSPERMS
Smallest angiosperm—> wolfia , tallest angiosperm—> Eucalyptus. They provide
food,fodder,fuel,medicines. Characteristic of dicots are tetramerous/pentamerous
flower & that of monocot is trimerous flower. PEN (primary endosperm nucleus)
develops into endosperm. Each embryo sac has 3 celled egg apparatus. Synergids and
antipodals degenerate after fertilisation.
 EE
ii. Animal Kingdom -

Levels of organisation Symmetry

Cellular-sponges Asymmetric-sponges Germ layer
Tissue level- Radially symm.- Diploblastic-
coelenterates,ctenophore coelenterates,adult sponge,coelenterates,ctenophore
Organ level-platyhelmenthis echinoderms,ctenophores Triploblastic-

÷
Organ system-annelid…,adults Bilateral symm.-annelid to platyhelmenthis,aschel…
of echinoderms chordate,larvae of echinoderm ^
on

Digestive system Circulatory system

Incomplete-
Basis of classification Open-blood vessel -nt
platyhelmenthis,coelenterates Closed-blood vessel +nt
Complete-aschelmenthis to
chordates

Segmentation
Body is externally and
Coelom internally divided into
Acoelomate- Notochord segments with serial
sponge,coelentera It is mesodermally derived rod like repetition of at least some
te,platyhelmenthis formed on dorsal side during organ. Also called
Pseudocoelomate- embryonic stage. metameric segmentation or
aschelmenthis Chordates-animals with notochord in metamerism(phenomenon)
Coelomate- any stage of life Eg-Earthworm(annelid)
annelids… Eg-fish,amphibia,reptile,bird,mammal
Nonchordates-porifera to echinoderm.

Classification of animals
Phylum Phylum COELENTRATA Phylum
PORIFERA (cnidaria) CTENOPHORA
Habitat-They are generally Sea walnuts/comb jellies
marine,some fresh water. Habitat-aquatic,mostly marine,sessile
multicellular or free swimming Habitat-exclusively
Canal system-water enter through Cnidoblasts/cnidocytes-contain marine
ostia into central cavity stinging capsules/nematocysts & Special organ-8
(spongocoel) & goes out thr’ present on tentacles & used for external rows of
osculum. Helpful in food anchorage,defense,prey capturing ciliated comb plates
gathering,respiratory exchange & Body cavity-have central help in locomotion
waste removal. gastrovascular cavity with single Digestion-both extra &
Choanocytes/collar opening(hypostome) intra-cellular
cells(flagellated)- line spongocoel Digestion-both extra & intra-cellular Special property-
Digestion-intracellular Skeleton-corals have calcium bioluminescence(emits
Skeleton-spicules & sponging carbonate skeleton light)
fibres Basic body forms-polyp(sessile & Reproduction-only
Reproduction- cylindrical form of hydra,adamsia) & sexual (hermaphrodite)
hermaphrodite(bisexual),asexually medusa(umbrella-shaped & free Fertilisation-external
by fragmentation. swimming like Aurelia/jellyfish) with indirect
Fertilisation-internal with indirect Eg-hydra,aurelia(jelly fish),obelia(sea development
development(larval stage is found fur),physalia(portugese man of Eg- pleurobrachia &
with morphologically dissimilar war),adamsia(sea ctenoplana
larvae) anemone),pennatula(sea
Eg- sycon(scypha),spongilla(fresh pen),gorgonia(sea
water sponge),euspongia(bath fan),meardrina(brain coral).
sponge) Alternation of
generation(metagenesis)-
Asexually
Polyp ————————————>
<———————————- Medusa
Sexually
Eg- obelia(sea
fur) perform
metagenesis
 Phylum Phylum Phylum
PLATYHELMENTHIS ASCHELMENTHIS ANNELIDA
Flat worms Round worms
Body shape-dorsiventrally Body shape-circular cross Body shape-marked out into
flattened section metameres/segments (latin,
Habitat-mostly Habitat- annulus:little ring)
endoparasites (in animals) freeliving,aquatic,terrestrial Habitat-aquatic, terrestrial,
Special structure-hooks & ,parasite on plant & animal freeliving,rarely parasite
suckers are found for Digestive system-complete Locomotory organs-body wall has
support & absorption. with well developed longitudinal & circular muscles.
Some absorb nutrients muscular pharynx Aquatic annelids like NEREIS
directly from surface of Excretion-a tube removes possess lateral appendages,
host. waste through excretory Parapodia for swimming.
Excretory cells-flame cells pore Circulatory system-closed
help in osmoregulation Reproduction-unisexual/ Excretory system-nephridia help in
Reproduction- dioecious (also show sexual osmoregulation.
hermaphrodites dimorphism~ male smaller Nervous system-paired ganglia
Fertilisation-internal with than female) connected by lateral nerves to a
indirect development(many Fertilisation-internal with double ventral nerve cord.
larval stages) direct or indirect Reproduction- some
PLANERIA possess high development unisexual(NEREIS),some
regeneration capacity. Eg- ascaris (round bisexual(EARTHWORM,LEECHES)
Eg- taenia(tape worm), worm),wucheria (filarial Eg- nereis,pheretima(earthworm),
Fasciola(liver worm), hirudinaria(blood sucking leech)
fluke),planeria ancyclostoma(hookworm)

Phylum Phylum Phylum

ARTHROPODA MOLLUSCA ECHINODERMATA
Jointed appendages 2nd largest phylum Spiny bodied
Largest phylum(includes insects) Habitat-terrestrial or aquatic(marine/ Habitat-all marine
Segmentation-present freshwater) Endoskeleton-calcareous
Skeleton-exoskeleton is of chitin Body division-covered by calcareous ossicles
Body division-head,thorax,abdomen shell & is unsegmented with a distinct Show retrogressive
Locomotion-by jointed appendages head,muscular foot,visceral hump metamorphism(larvae is
Respiration-by gills,book gills,book Special structure-soft & spongy layer bilateral symmetrical but adult
lungs,tracheal system
of skin forms a mantle over the visceral is radial)
Circulatory system-open
hump Digestive system-complete with
Sensory organs-antennae,compound
Respiration & excretion-space b/w mouth on ventral/lower & anus
& simple eye,statocysts/balance
hump & mantle (mantle cavity) have on dorsal/upper side
organs are found
feather like gills which perform Water vascular system-help in
Excretion-through malphigian tubules
Reproduction-dioecious
respiration & excretion locomotion,capture & transport
Fertilisation-usually Sense organ-anterior head has of food,respiration
internal(oviparous) with direct or sensory tentacles Excretory system-absent
indirect development Feeding organ-mouth have file like Reproduction-dioecious
Eg- rasping organ called radula Fertilisation-usually external
Economically useful- Reproduction-usually dioecious & with indirect development (free
apis(honeybee),bombyx(silkworm), oviparous with indirect development swimming larvae)
Laccifer(lac insect) Eg-pila(apple snail),pinctada(pearl Eg-
Vectors- oyster),sepia(cuttle asterias(starfish),echinus(sea
anopheles,culex,aedes(MOSQUITOES) fish),loligo(squid),octopus(devil urchin),antedon(sea
Gregarious pest-locusta(locust) fish),aplysia(sea hare),dentalium(tusk lily),cucumaria(sea cucumber)
Living fossil-limulus(king crab) shell),chaetuplura(chiton) & ophiura(brittle star)
 Phylum Phylum
HEMICHORDATA CHORDATA
Earlier was considered as a sub- Characteristic features:-
phylum under chordata but now placed notochord,dorsal hollow
separately under nonchordata. nerve chord,paired
Habitat-worm like marine organisms pharyngeal gill slits,post anal
Body shape & division-body is tail,closed circulatory system
cylindrical & contains anterior It is divided into 3 sub-phyla
proboscis,a collar & a long trunk. Urochordata/tunicata ,
Proboscis gland is present. cephalochordata and
Circulatory system-open vertebrata
Respiration-by gills
Excretory organ-proboscis gland
Reproduction-dioecious animals
Fertilisation-external with indirect
development
Eg- balanoglossus & saccoglossus r v

Protochordates Vertebrata
v v

Urochordata Cephalochordata
Exclusively Notochord extends
marine,notoch from head to tail &
ord present is persistent
only in larval throughout their
tail,Eg- life. Eg-
ascidia,salpa, branchiostoma(amp
doliolum hioxus or lancelet)
* agnatha
Class cyclostomata
Ectoparasites on fishes,6-15
pair of gill slits,cranium & tetrapods
vertebral column are
cartilaginous(sucking Class amphibia Class reptilia
circular mouth) ,they migrate Cold blooded,body divided into Cold blooded,skin is cornified &
to fresh water for spawning. head & trunk,have eyelids,have epidermal scaled or scutes are
Eg- tympanum which represents found,tympanum represents
petromyzon(lamprey),myxine ear,have common chamber ear,3-chamber heart except
(hagfish) cloaca for alimentary crocodile,snakes & lizard shed
canal,urinary & reproductive their scales as skin cast,
tracts which open outsides,3- fertilisation is internal(direct
Class chondrichthyes chambered heart. Eg- development) Eg-
bufo(toad),rana(frog),hyla(tree chelone(turtle),testude(tortoise),
(cartilaginous fish) frog),salamandra(salmander),icht chamelion(tree
Cartilaginous endoskeleton,ventral hyophis(limbless amphibia) lizard),calotes(garden
mouth(notochord persistent lizard),crocodilus(crocodile),allig
throughout life),gill slits are ator(alligator),hemidactylus(wall
separate without lizard),poisoning snakes-
operculum,placoid scales are naja(cobra),bangarus(crait),viper
present(modification of teeth),lack a(viper)
air bladder,poikilothermous(cold
blooded),male bear
claspers,internal
fertilisation,viviparous. Eg- electric Class aves Class mammalia
organ present(torpedo),poison feathers are found,forelimbs
modified into wings,oil glands Found in various
sting-trygon(sting ray),scolidon habitat,mammary glands are
(dog fish),pristis(saw are present at the base of the
tail,hindlimbs have found,skin possess hair,external
fish),carcharodon(great white
shark) scales,endoskeleton is ear in form of pinnae,different
bony(ossified) & long bones are types of teeth are found,warm
⇐ Pisces hollow with air cavities
(pneumatic),crop & gizzard are
blooded. Eg- oviparous->
ornithorhynchus(platypus),
Class osteichtyes found,warm blooded viviparous->
organisms(homiothermous).
(bony fish) Eg-
macropus(kangaroo),pteropus(fl
Mouth is terminal,4 pair of gill ying
corvus(crow),columba(pigeon), fox),camelus(camel),macaca(mo
covered by operculum,cycloid/ psittacula(parrot),struthio(ostric
ctenoid scales are present,air nkey),rattus(rat),canis(dog),felis(
h),pavo(peacock),aptenodytes(p cat),elephas(elephant),eqqus(ho
bladder is present which enguin),neophron(vulture)
regulates buoyancy,development rse),delphinus(common
is indirect. Eg- exocoetus(flying dolphin),balaenoptera(blue
fish),hippocampus(sea horse), whale),tiger,lion,pterous(bat)
fresh water-
labeo(rohu),catla(katla),clarias(
magur) aquarium-betta(fighting
fish),pterophyllum(angel fish)
 Morphology of flowering plants
External visible structures of any organism. Which can be either
vegetative or sexual in case of plants. Angiosperms are
characterised by presence of root,stem,leaf,flower,fruit,modification

The root system

In dicots,direct elongate of radical leads to form
primary root which bears lateral roots(sec. & tert.)

V V V V

Types of root Functions of root Regions of root Modifications of root

systems Absorb
water&minerals,prov
Root cap-protect,root Storage-tap roots of carrot
apex(meristematic & turnip,adven. Roots of
Tap root system- ides proper sweet potato
primary root + it’s cells),helps in deep
anchorage,storing enchoring Support-prop
branches Eg- reserve roots(vertically
mustard(dicot) Region for meristematic
food,synthesis of activity-cells divide downwards) of banayan
Fibrous root system-in plant growth tree,stilt roots(oblique
monocots(wheat,rice) without attaining
regulators(auxin) maturity,reponsible for downwards from lower
primary root is nodes of stem) of
shortlived hence growth of root
Region of elongation- sugarcane & maize
replaced by many Respiration-in some
several roots(arise cells enlarge & increase
length marshy plants develops
from base of stem) vertically upward roots
Adventitious root Region of maturation-
cells called pneumatophores.
system-in banyan Eg-rhizophora
tree,grass,monstera differentiate,epidermal
root arises from other cells convert into root
than radicle. hair that absorbs water
& minerals

!
' The stem (shoot system)
Ascending part of plant,bears node & intenode,bears bud(axillary or
terminal),green in early stage & tough later

Storage-eg- Support-slendour & spirally coiled

potato,ginger,turmeric,zaminkand,colocasia. from axillary bud. Eg-
Underground stems act as organs of &
> {watermelon,pumpkin,cucumber}
perennation to tide over unfavourable cond. (gourds),grapevines

Modification of stem

Defense(against plant eating Photosynthesis-stem turns into

animals)-axillary bud develops e flattened structure(opuntia) or
into thorns/spines in citrus & fleshy cylindrical(euphorbia)
bougainvillea which contain chlorophyll.
v

Vegetative propagation- RUNNER-underground stems of grass & strawberry spread to

new niches & when older parts die new plants are formed. STOLON-slender lateral branch
arises from the base of the main axis & after growing aerially for some time arch
downwards to touch the ground. OFFSET-a lateral branch with short internodes & each
node bearing a rosette of leaves & tuft of roots. Eg-pistia & eicchornia(water hyacinth/
terror of bengal). SUCKER-lateral branches originate from the basal and underground
portion of the main stem,grow horizontally beneath the soil and then come out obliquely
upward giving rise to leafy shoots. Eg-banana,pineapple,crysanthemum.
 The leaf
V v Ar v v

Introduction Parts of leaf Types of leaf Phyllotaxy Modification

It is lateral,flattened 1)leaf base-leaf is Patter of leaves on Support-tendrils
SIMPLE LEAF-
structure which attached to stem by branch/stem of peas
lamina is entire
develops leaf base & it may ALTERNATE-one Defense-spines of
or when
exogenously at bear 2 stipules. In leaf at one node. cacti
incised,incisions
node & bears a bud monocot leaf base Eg-china Storage-fleshy
do not touch
in axil(axillary bud) expands into rose,mustard,sunfl leaves of onion &
midrib. Eg-
which later sheathing leaf ower garlic
peepal
develops into base(cover stem OPPOSITE-a pair Photosynthesis-
branch. Leaves partially or wholly) COMPOUND of leaf at one node. (phyllode) petioles
originate from while in some LEAF- Eg- expand & become
shoot apical legumes it may When incisions calotropis,guava green cause
meristem & become swollen reaches midrib WHORLED-more leaves are short
arranged in pulvinus leaf base. breaking it into than 2 leaves from lived. Eg-
acropetal order 2)petiole-holds leaf leaflets. Bud is not one node. Eg- Australian acacia
to stem,allow leaf to found in axil or alstonia Insectivory-pitcher
flutter in wind hence leaflet plant,venus fly
cooling leaf. trap
Pinnately
3)lamina/leaf blade-
compound-leaflets
expanded green part
are present at
with veins & veinlets
rachis(represents
with a midrib. Veins
midrib). Eg-neem
provide rigidity to
blade & transport Palmately
water,minerals & compound-leaflets
food material. are attached at
common point i.e.
t tip of petiole. Eg-
VENATION silk cotton
arrangement of veins & veinlets.
Reticulate venation-veinlets form a
network. Eg-dicots
Parallel venation-when the veins runs
parallel to each other within a lamina. Eg-
banana,monocot

The inflorescence
The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis
A flower is a modified shoot(shoot apical meristem changes to floral meristem, internode do not elongate & the
axis get condensed.
The apex produces different kinds of floral appendages laterally at successive nodes instead of leaf. When
shoot tip transforms into flower it is always solitary.
v v

Racemose inflorescence Cymose inflorescence

1) the main axis continues to 1) the main axis terminate
grow and does not terminate. in a flower.
2) flowers are arranged in 2) flowers are arranged in
acropetal order. basipetal order.
3) main axis is monopodial. 3) main axis is sympodial.
4) Eg- fabeaceae family 4) Eg-potato,liliaceae

The Flower
V W

Introduction Parts of flower

1)calyx-green,protect flower in bud 4)gynoecium/carpel/
stage,photosynthetic,outermost whorl. pistil(stigma+style+ ovary)-
It is reproductive unit. A typical ovary us enlarged basal
Gamosepalous(sepals
flower has 4 whorls on swollen united),polysepalous(sepals free) part,stigma is receptive
end of the stalk/pedicel called 2)corolla-to attract insects,may be surface.each ovary bears
thalamus which are tubular,bell shaped,funnel-shaped,wheel one or more ovules attached
calyx,corolla,androecium,gyno shaped. Gamopetalous(fused to flattened cushion like
ecium. Calyx & corolla are corolla),polypetalous(free petals) placenta & One ovule have
3)Androecium/stamen(stalk+filament+anther)-anther- one embryo sac.
accessory while other too are >bilobed,each lobe having 2 pollen sacs. Sterile Monocarpellary-one carpel
reproductive. stamen is staminode. Stamens attached to petals- in flower. Multicarpellary-
PERIANTH-in lily the calyx & >epipetalous eg-brinjal. Stamens attached to sepals- more than 1 carpel in a
corolla are not distinct or >epiphyllous eg-lily flower. Apocarpous-free
differentiated and are termed Polyandrous-free stamen. Monoadelphous-stamens in carpel(lotus,
as perianth 1 bundle(china rose). Diadelphous-in 2 bundles (pea). rose). Syncarpous-fused
Polyadelphous-in more than 2 bundles(citrus) carpel(mustard, tomato)
There may be variation in length of filaments
 Types of flowers
V N N V

On basis of On basis of On basis of On basis of

symmetry floral position of ovary presence of
Actinomorphic(radial)- appendages Hypogynous(superior ovary)-mustard,china bract
rose,brinjal,mango,coconut Bracteate-
mustard,datura,chilli Trimerous-floral
Perigynous(half inferior)-ovary in centre & flowers with
Zygomorphic(bilateral)- appendages in
other at rim of thalamus. Eg- bract
pea,Gulmohar,bean,cassia multiple of 3
plum,peach,rose ebracteate-
Asymmetric-canna Tetramerous-
Epigynous(inferior)-ovary enclosed in flowers without
multiple of 4
thalamus. Eg-guava,cucumber,ray florets of bract
Pentamerous-
multiple of 5 sunflower

Aestivation
The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with
respect to the other members of the same whorl

V V V V

Valvate Twisted Imbricate Vaxillary

Sepals/petals in a One margin of Margins of Largest
whorl just touch appendage overlaps appendage overlap petal(standard)
one another at that of next one. Eg- one another in any overlaps 2
margin without china rose,lady direction. Eg- lateral(wings) which in
overlapping. Eg- finger,cotton cassia,gulmohur turn overlaps 2
calotropis smallest(keels). Eg-
pea,bean. It is also
called papilonaecious

Placentation
Arrangement of ovules within ovary
V v v v
v
Marginal Axile Parietal Free central Basal
Placenta Placenta is Ovules are born on
Ovules develop on Placenta develops
forms ridge axial, ovules central axis &
inner wall of ovary or from base of ovary
along ventral attached to septum are absent.
periphery. Ovary & single ovule is
suture of multilocular Eg-
becomes 2 attached. Eg-
ovary & ovule ovary Eg- dianthus,primrose
chambered cause of sunflower,marigold
are formed china
false septum. Eg-
on it forming rose,tomato,
Mustard, argemone

%
2 rows Eg- lemon
pea

Fruit (matured ovary) = pericarp(wall) + seed

After fertilisation ovary—> fruit, ovule—>seed. If pericarp is

thick & fleshy it gets differentiated into epi,meso,endo -carps.
Mango and coconut are drupe fruits cause developed from
monocarpellary superior ovary. In mango mesocarp is edible
& in coconut mesocarp is fibrous but in both endocarp is
stony
 Seed = seed coat + embryo(radicle+axis+cotyledon)
← →
Dicot seed Monocot seed
Hilum is a scar on seed coat through which They are generally endospermous but orchid is not.
developing seed was attached to fruit. Seed coat is membranous & fuse with fruit wall.
Above hilum there is small pore (micropyle) Endosperm is bulky & its outer covering is
& cotyledons reserve food and are fleshy. proteinaceous called aleurone layer. Embryo is
Endospermic seeds- castor found in a groove at one end of endosperm. It’s
Non-endospermic seeds-bean,pea,gram, cotyledon is shield shaped & called scutellum.
groundnut Plumule & radical enclosed in sheaths called
coleoptile & coleorrhiza

Semitechnical descriptions of a typical flowering plant ← Mother axis

represented as dot

Br —> bractate G —> gynoecium -| —> actinomorphic

O
K —> calyx __ —> superior ovary
G % —> zygomorphic
C —> corolla
P —> perianth
G —> inferior ovary
♂—> male I
Brassicaceae
A —> androecium ♀ —> female
⚥ —> bisexual
Floral formula shows cohesion & adhesion b/w whorls

Description of some important families

f + 7
FABEACEAE SOLANACEAE LILIACEAE
Earlier called papilionoideae, a sub Also called potato family,distributed in
family of leguminosae & is Also called lily
tropics,subtropics,& event temperate family,representative of
distributed all over world. zones. monocots,distributed world
Vegetative character- Vegetative characters-mostly wide.
trees,herbs,shrubs,roots with herbs,shrubs,rarely small trees. STEM- Vegetative characters-perennial
nodules. STEM-erect/climber. herbaceous,rarely herbs with underground bulb/
LEAVES-alternate,pinnately comp. or woody,aerial;erect,cylindrical corms/rhizomes. LEAVES-
simple,pulvinate branched,solid/hollow,hairy or mostly
base,stipulate,reticulate venation. glabrous,underground in solanum basal,alternate,linear,exstipulat
Floral character- tuberosum. LEAVES- e,parallel venation. Floral
racemose,bisexual,zygomorphic. alternate,simple,rarely pinnately
characters- INFLORESCENCE-
CALYX-5 gamosepalous(valvate/ comp.,exstipulate,reticulate.
solitary/cymose;often umbellate
imbricate aestivation). Floral characters- INFLORESCENCE-
clusters. FLOWER-
COROLLA-5,polypetalous;papilonaec solitary,axillary,cymose in solanum.
bisexual,actinomorphic.
ious,keel enclosing. FLOWER-actinomorphic,bisexual.
PERIANTH-tepal six(3+3){often
ANDROECIUM-10,diadelphous(9+1), CALYX-5(united
united into tube},valvate.
dithecous anther. GYNOECIUM- sepals),valvate,persistant.
ANDROECIUM-6,3+3,
superior,monocarpellary,unilocular COROLLA-5(united & valvate).
ANDROECIUM-5(epipetalous). epitepalous. GYNOECIUM-
with many ovules,single style. FRUIT-
GYNOECIUM-bicarpellary,obligately tricarpellary,syncarpous,
legume;seed:one to many,non
placed,syncarpus,superior,bilocular,pla superior,trilocular with many
endospermic.
centa swollen with many ovules,axile ovules;axile placentation.
Economic importance-sources of
placentation. FRUIT-berry,capsule. FRUIT-capsule,rarely berry.
pulses(gram,arhar,sem,
SEEDS-many,endospermous SEED-endospermous.
moong,soyabean),edible
Economic importance- Economic importance-good
oil(soyabean,groundnut);dye(indigofe
food(tomato,brinjal,potato),spice(chilli), ornamentals(tulip,gloriosa),
ra);fibres(sunhemp);fodder(sesbania
medicine(belladona,ashwagandha);fumi medicine(aloe),vegetables
,trifolium);ornamentals(lupin,sweet
gatory(tobacco);ornamentals(petunia) (asparagus),
pea);medicine(muliathi)
colchicine(colchicum
autumnale)
 ÷
Anatomy of flowering plants
← Group ofTissues
cells having common →

Meristematic tissue origin & usually perform

common function Permanent tissue
Actively dividing cells, growth is
Lost ability to divide
I
restricted to meristems areas
→
Apical meristem Complex tissue
i. Present at root/shoot apex, & Simple tissue
shoot apical meristem left Made of single type of cells Made of many types of cells
behind constitute axillary bud
Primary
meristem Parenchyma XYLEM
Intercalary meristem Isodiametric(spherical,oval,round Conducts water & min. &
↳ ,
Occur b/w mature tissues &
occur in grasses & regenerate >
,polygonal,elongated),thin cell gives mech. strength.
Tracheids-elongated,
wall of cellulose,small
parts removed by grazing intercellular space,performs tubelike,lignified, dead cells,tapering
animals. photosynthesis,storage,secretion ends, without protoplast
Vessels-long cylindrical tube like
Lateral meristem Collenchyma struc.,made of many vessel members
Occur in parts which produce Found in layers or patches below connected via perforations, lignified
Sec. → woody axis,appear later & epidermis in most dicots,thickened at walls,large central cavity,dead cells.
meristem mature regions of shoots/ corners,thick cell Their presence marks plant as
or roots. Eg-fascicular vascular > wall(pectin+hemicellulose),{oval, angiosperm & gymno. do not have it
cylindrical cambium,interfascicular spherical & polygonal},no intercellular Fibres-obliterated central
meristem
cambium,cork cambium space,chloroplast present,provides lumen,maybe septate or aseptate
mech. Support to young stem & Parenchyma-living,thin walled,{store
Newly Mature/
Specialisation
formed ————————> Permanent growing parts. starch,fat,tannins}. The radial
> cells conduction of water takes place by
cells
Schlerenchyma ray parenchymatous cells.
During primary Long narrow cells,lignified Primary xylem is of 2 types-
growth,specific regions of cell wall with pits,dead cells PROTOXYLEM-first formed

É
apical meristems produce without protoplast,mech. METAXYLEM-later formed
dermal tissue,ground
tissue & vascular tissue
Support
I Endarch-protoxylem is towards pith &
metaxylem towards periphery. Eg-
which are permanent. Fibres Sclerids stem
Spherical,oval, thickened, Exarch-opposite. Eg-roots
Thick walled,
dead cells,narrow cavity
elongated/
called lumen is present.
PHLOEM
pointed cells in Transports food. Gymnosperms
form of groups Found in fruit walls,pulp of
lacks sieve tube nut have sieve
fruits like guava,pear,
sapota cells & albuminous cells in place
of companion cells
Sieve tube elements-
long,longitudinally
arranged;perforated end walls(sieve
THE TISSUE SYSTEM (Based on location) plates),mature sieve element possess
peripheral cytoplasm,large vacuole
but lacks nucleus.
V V
Companion cells-specialised
v
parenchymatous cells. Sieve tube
Epidermal T.S. Ground T.S. Vascular T.S. elements & these are connected via
*forms outer covering. *constitute all tissues *Consist of xylem & phloem pit fields & help in maintaining
*comprises except epidermis & in dicot,cambium is found pressure gradient in sieve tubes.
cells+stomata+epidermal vascular bundles. Eg- in b/w vascular bundles & Parenchyma-long,tapering cylindrical
appendages(trichome/hair) parenchyma,collenc.,schle. form sec. phloem & xylem cells,dense cytoplasm & nucleus,have
*epidermis is usually single Parenchyma cells are (open vascular bundles) pits for plasmodesmata,stores food &
layered(elongated,compactl present in cortex,pericycle, *in monocot they are resins,latex,mucilage. It is absent in
y placed parenchymatous pith & medullary rays in closed most monocots.
cells. primary stem & roots. *if xylem & phloem are Fibres/bast fibres-generally absent in
*cuticle(wax) prevents *in leaves ground tissue arranged in alternate primary phloem,have pointed needle
transpiration. consist of thin walled manner in diff. Radii it is like apices,thick cell wall & at maturity
*guard cells of monocot-> chloroplast containing cells called radial (as in roots). they loose protoplast. Phloem fibres
dumbell & is called mesophyll *conjoint-> X & P are alng of jute,flax & hemp are commercially
*guard cells have outer wall same radii. (Common in used.
thin & inner wall thick. & stem & leaves) PROTOPHLOEM-first formed,narrow
sometimes epidermal cells *conjoint vascular bundles sieve tube
form subsidiary cells. usually have phloem METAPHLOEM-later formed,bigger
{stomatal located outside/periphery sieve tube
apparatus=aperture+guardc of xylem
ell+subsidiary cell}
*root hairs are unicellular
elongations,on stem
epidermal hairs are called
trichome[usually
multicellular(branched/
unbranched) & may be
secretory & prevents water
loss]
 Anatomy of Dicot & Monocot plants
DICOT ROOT MONOCOT ROOT DICOT STEM DICOT LEAF
Outer -> epiblema(unicellular It is similar to dicot root but have Epidermis(cuticle+trichome+sto (Dorsiventral)
root hairs) & then more than 6 polyarch xylem mata), then cortex = cells b/w Cosist of epidermis(covers both
parenchymatous cortex(inner bundles & pith is large and well epidermis & pericycle and adaxial/upper surface & abaxial/
layer is endodermis developed. consist of 3 sub-zones -> lower surface) + mesophyll +
comprising barrel shaped hypodermis(collenchyma),cortic vascular system. Veins vary in
cells without intercellular al thickness cause of reticulate
space with casparian layers(parenchyma),endodermis( venation. Abaxial have more
strips(suberin) . Next is rich in starch grain hence called stomata than adaxial. Tissue b/w
pericycle from which several starch sheath). both epidermis is called
roots& vascular camb.(sec. Pericycle -> inner to endodermis mesophyll.
growth) starts. Pith is small/ & above phloem in form of Palisade parenchyma
inconspicuous & parenchyma
b/w vasc. Bundles are called
MONOCOT STEM
Has schlerenchymatous
semilunar patches of
schlerenchyma.
Mesophyll
I Spongy parenchyma
Closer to adaxial surface

Closer to abaxial surface

conjuctive tissue. Usually 2-4 hypodermis,scattered vasc. B/w vasc. Bundles -> few layers
xylem & phloem patches are Bundles(each surrounded by of radially placed parenchyma Vascular system ->seen in veins
found. Cambium ring schlerenchymatous bundle sheath constitute medullary rays. & midrib(size of bundles depend
develops from b/w xylem & Large no. of vasc. bundles are on size of veins.
& large parenchyma ground
phloem. All inner to arranged in a ring with conjoint Vascular bundles are
tissue) , vascular bundle are
endodermis(pith+pericycle+v open & endarch ]-> surrounded by thick walled
conjoint ,closed with peripheral
asc. Bundles) constitutes characteristic of dicot stem. bundle sheath cells.
bundles are smaller than central.
STELE! Phloem parenchyma is absent & Rounded parenchyma with large
water containing cavity are present spaces constitute pith.
within the vascular bundles

MONOCOT LEAF
(Isobilateral)
Similar to dicot but stomata on boths side are same; mesophyll are not differentiated in 2 types.
In grasses, some adaxial epidermal cells along the veins get modified into large,empty,colourless bulliform cells which
gets turgid to make leaf surface exposed & become flaccid (leaf curl) to minimise H2O loss. Parallel venation means same
size veins,same size vascular bundle…except in main veins seen in vertical section of leaf

Secondary growth in(Increase

girth)
Tissues involved (lateral meristem) are
vascular cambium and cork cambium
-

••i
Vascular cambium Cork cambium
Meristematic layer which cuts
off vascular tissue A Due to vasc. cambium,cortex & epidermis get broken &
need to be replaced (new protective layers). Hence cork
Formation of cambial ring
Cambium b/w vasc. bundle(intrafascicular cambium) and cells n cambium/phellogen develops from cortex(a meristem) &
cuts cells in outer cork/phellem & inner in sec. cortex
(phelloderm).
of medullary rays become meristematic & form interfascicular
cambium & in total continuous cambial ring is formed. a Cork has suberin deposition (impervious);sec. cortex is
parenchymatous. Phellem,phellogen & phelloderm are
Activity of cambial ring
It cut off new cells(sec. xylem towards pith,sec. phloem
towards periphery). Cambium is more active on inner side
t collectively known as periderm. Cork cambium builds
pressure upon the remaining layers peripheral to
phellogen which die & slough off. Bark is a non technical
than outer hence amt. of sec. xylem is more than sec. phloem.
Hence soon form compact mass. Primary & sec. phloem get o term used for all exterior to vascular cambium i.e.
periderm with sec. phloem.
crushed due to continued formation & accumulation of sec.
xylem. However primary xylem remains more or less intact in
or around centre. At some places cambium forms narrow band
m EARLY/SOFT BARK- formed early in season
LATE/HARD BARK- formed at end of season
of parenchyma (passes thr’ sec. xylem & sec. phloem in radial
direction which is called sec. medullary rays.
y At certain regions, phellogen cuts off closely arranged
parenchyma cells which soon rupture epidermis,forming
lens shaped openings called lenticles(gaseous exchange
SPRING/EARLY WOOD-produced during spring,cambium is
more active,produces more xylary element with o & occur in most woody trees)
vessels(large cavities),light in colour with low density.
AUTUMN/LATE WOOD-produced during autumn,cambium is
less active,produce less xylary element with narrow
f
vessels,darker in colour with high density.
HEARTWOOD-Comprises dead elements with high lignified D
walls(give mech. Strength to stem from centre)
SAPWOOD-comprises conducting tissue (periphery of sec.
xylem),lighter in colour,H2O & mineral transport.
i Sec. growth in roots
In dicot root,vascular cambium is
In older trees,greater part of sec. xylem is dark brown due to
deposition of tannin,resin,oil,gum,aromatics,essential oils in
c completely sec. in origin (originates
from tissue located just below the
central(innermost stem)
o phloem bundles,a portion of pericycle
tissue ,above the protoxylem forming a

t complete & continuous many

ring,which later becomes circular.
Further events are similar as above.
&
M
“{{Sec. growth also occurs in gymnosperms but
does not occurs in monocotyledons.}}” .
o
n
 Structural organisation in animals
A group of similar cells along with intercellular subst. performing specific function is known as
TISSUE. when 2 or more organs perform a common function by the physical or chemical
interaction,they together form organ system.

Animal Tissue
>
Epithelial tissue

t.ae
It has a free surface which faces body fluid or outside environment hence
forms covering. Cells are compactly packed with little intercellular space.

Simple Compound
2 or more layers of cell, protective function
Single layer,lining for body
in skin. Cover dry surface of skin ,moist
cavities,ducts & tubes
surface of buccal cavity,pharynx,inner
lining of salivary glands & pancreatic
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar ducts.
Flattened cells with Cube like cells Tall,slender cells
irregular boundaries perform secretion with nuclei at base
form diffusion & absorption. Eg- help in secretion &
boundaries. Eg- wall ducts of glands, absorption. Eg-
of blood vessels,air tubular part of Lining of
stomach,intestine
Brush border like cuboidal
sac of lungs. nephron cell are present in PCT.

Ciliated epithelium < > Glandular epithelium

May be cuboidal/columnar,transportation. May be UNICELLULAR-isolated glandular
Present inside hollow organs like cell(eg-goblet cell) OR MULTICELLULAR-
bronchioles,fallopian duct. cluster of cells (eg-salivary gland)
May be EXOCRINE-have duct(eg-
mucus,saliva ear wax,oil,milk) OR
ENDOCRINE-ductless(eg-thyroid)
v

Junctions
v v V
v
Tight Adhering Gap
junction junction junction Connexis
To stop Keeps For communication:- With the help of 2
substance to neighbouring —> transfer of ion protein cylinders
leak cells together —> small molecules
—> sometime big molecules

> Connective tissue

(Most abundant in body)
All cells in them(except in blood) secrete fibres of structural protein collagen & elastin. the
fibres give strength,stretchability,elasticity. Cells also secrete polysaccharide (modified)
which accumulate b/w cells and form matrix(ground substance).

V v v

Loose connective Dense connective Specialised connective

tissue tissue tissue
Fibres loosely arranged in Fibres & fibroblasts are
compactly CARTILAGE- Solid,pliable,resists
semi-fluid matrix compression. Chondrocyte cells present

t I Dense regular
t i
Dense irregular
in self made cavity. Present on nose
tip,ear pinna, b/w bones of vertebra,lips
Areolar Adipose Collagen fibre Oriented & hands of adults.
Beneath skin,contain present in rows b/w differently, BONE-hard, non-pliable & rich in Ca
Beneath
fibroblast(secrete parallel bundles of contain salts,collagen fibres. Osteocytes are
skin,stores
fibre),macrophages, fibres. Eg- fibroblast & present in lacunae. Bone marrow—>
fat
mast cells. Support tendon(bone to mostly production of RBC. Long bone have
framework for muscle),ligament collagen. weight gaining function.
epithelium (bone to bone) Eg- skin BLOOD
 Muscular tissue

:
These fibres are composed of myofibrils they contract(for any
stimulus) & relax in coordinated fashion
V v V

Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle

*Synectium* *fusiform(taper at both ends) *contractile tissue
*attached to skeletal bone *do not shows striations *cell junction fuse plasma
*eg- Biceps(they are arranged in *cell junction hold them membrane and make them
parallel fashion held by together(involuntary) stick together.
connective tissue) *wall of blood vessel,stomach, *intercalated
*striated/striped,voluntary. intestine contain these disc(communication junction)
muscles makes all cell to contract at
single time.
Nucleus

Neural tissue
Unit of neural system are nervous which are excitable cells the neuroglial cells make up
more than half the volume of neural tissue in our body which protection & support
neurons. When it is stimulated,an electrical disturbance travels along its plasma
membrane.

Our heart contain all four type of tissues. The complexity in organ and organ
system displays discernable trend which is called as evolutionary trend

COCKROACH
{ Periplaneta americana }

Introduction Morphology Segments in abdomen

* May be bright yellow/red/
* 34-53 mm long wings(beyond abdomen tip in male)
* body of cockroach = head +
& respective organs
green coloured in tropical thorax(prothorax,mesothorax,metathorax)+ abdomen IN FEMALE- 7th boat shaped
regions. * the exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites {dorsal sterna, {7th,8th,9th sterna} forms
* size - 1/4 inch to 3 inch —> tergite , ventral—> sternite} that are joined by articular brood/genital pouch which
(0.6-7.6cm) memb. (Arthrodial membrane). contains gonopore,spermathecal
* they have flat extension of * triangular head lies anteriorly at right angle to body pore & collateral glands.
upper body wall that axis(longitudinal). Head- 6 segments, thorax- 3 segments, IN MALE- {9th,10th terga + 9th
concoels head. abdomen-10 segments. sterna} forms genital pouch/
* they are serious pests & * mobility in all direction due to flexible neck. chamber contains dorsal
vectors of several diseases. * head capsule bear compound eye. anus,ventral male genital
* antennae(help in monitoring env.) arise from membranous pore,gonapophysis.
sockets lying in front of eye. In male anal style are present.
* mouth is of biting & chewing type. IN BOTH- 10th segment bears anal
* mouth parts = labrum(upper lip) + labium(lower lip) + pair of cerci(filamentous structure)
mandible & maxilla + hypopharynx(tongue)
* the head is connected to thorax by short extension of
prothorax known as neck/pronotum.
* each thoracic segment bear a pair of walking legs. First pair
of wings(tegmina/forewings) -> mesothoracic(opaque & dark
coloured to cover hind wings), second pair of wings
(hindwings)-> metathoracic(for flight/transparent)

ANATOMY OF COCKROACH

Digestive system Blood vascular system Respiratory

*Alimentary canal
Open type,blood vessels (poorly
developed) open into haemocoel. Blood
system
Trachea that open
(foregut+midgut+hindgut) is haemolymph(plasma+haemocytes),
through 10 pairs of small
* mouth(salivary gland)—>tubular heart lies at mid dorsal line of thorax &
holes called spiracles.
pharynx—>oesophagus—>crop(food abdomen. It is differentiated into funnel
Present on lateral side of
storing)—>gizzard/ shaped chambers with ostia on either
body.
proventriculus( secrete gastric side. Blood is entered through ostia and
Tracheoles(subdivisions)
juice,outer lined by circular muscle & pumped anteriorly to sinuses again.
carry oxygen from air to
inner 6 high chitinous plate called
all parts. The opening of
teeth which grind food). —>6,8 blind
spiracles is regulated by
tubules (hepatic ceaceae)—>100-150
the sphincters.
yellow coloured malphigian
Exchange of gases takes
tubule(help in removal of excretory
place by diffusion.
waste from haemolymph). —>
hindgut(broader than midgut)—>anus
 Excretion Nervous system
Performed by malphigian Series of fused segmentally arranged ganglia joined by paired longitudinal connective on the ventral
tubules,each tubule is lined by side. 3 ganglia in thorax & 6 ganglia in abdomen. Head holds a bit of nervous system and rest is
glandular and ciliated cells. situated on ventral(belly) side of body. If head is cut off a cockroach it will be alive for 1week. Brain is
They convert N2 waste into uric represented by supra-oesophageal ganglion which supplies nerves to antennae & compound eyes.
acid. The fat body ,nephrocytes SENSE ORGANS- antennae,eyes,maxillary palps,labial palps and cerci. Compound eyes are located on
& urecose glands also help in dorsal surface. Each eye consist of 2000 omantidia (hexagonal) because o which he can see several
excretion. images of an object. This vision is MOSAIC vision(more sensitivity,less Resolution) {nocturnal vision}

Reproductive system
Male reproductive Female reproductive
system system
One testis lying on each lateral side in 4th - 6th abdomen. Ovaries lie laterally in 2th-6th abdomen. 1 ovary = 8 ovarian tubules/ovarioles
Vas deferens from each testis open into ejaculatory duct containing a chain of developing ova. Oviduct from each ovary unite to form
thr’ seminal vesicle which furthers opens into male median oviduct/vagina which opens into genital chamber. Sperms are
gonopore situated ventral to anus. Mushroom gland is transferred thr’ spermatophores. Their fertilised eggs are encased in
present in b/w 6th-7th abdomen which function as an capsules called oothecae(dark reddish to blackish brown capsule -3/8” (8mm)
accessory reproductive gland. External genitalia are long). They are dropped or glued at a surface near a food source. Female
represented by male gonapophysis or produces 9-10 ootheceae, containing 14-16 eggs each. Development is
phallomere(chitinous asymmetric struct. surrounding through nymphal stage which is known as paurametabolus. Nymph grows by
male gonopore). Sperms are glued in seminal vesicle & moulting 13 times to reach the adult form. Next to last stage have wing pods
formed into bundles called spermatophores, which are but only adult cockroach have wings.
discharged during copulation.

÷
There is no economic use of cockroach. They are pests because spoil food & contaminate it with their
smelly excreta, by this they can transmit a variety of bacterial diseases.
 Cell: The unit of life
A living being have cell that a non living doesn’t have

What is a cell? Cell theory! An overview of cell

Unicellular organisms have In 1838, Mathias Schleiden, a Cell contain dense memb. bound structure,nucleus
independent existence and german botanist concluded that contains chromosomes,cytoplasm is main arena of
capable of performing the plants are composed of many cellular activities. Different chemical reactions in
essential functions of life. different cells. In 1839, Theodre cell makes it living. Prokaryotic cell lacks memb.
Anton Von Lewenhoek Schwann,British zoologist Bound cell organelles. Ribosomes are non memb.
described living cell & robert discovered plasma memb. in bound & found in chloroplast,mitochondria & rough
hook described first dead animals, showed cell wall in plants ER. In animal centrosome(non memb. bound) help in
cell. Robert brown discovered & told that “animals & plants are cell division. Sizes of different cells:-
nucleus. composed of cells”. In 1855, Mycoplasma-0.3um , RBC- 7um , bacteria- 3-5um ,
Rudolf Virchow explained Ominis nerve cell- 1m (longest)
cellula e cellula.

Prokaryotic cells
(Bact.,BGA,mycoplasma,PPLO)

They are smaller & multiply faster than eukaryotes. Types of bacteria are
bacillus,cocci,spiral,vibrio. All have cell wall Except mycoplasma. They have
naked genetic material,have genomic DNA (single chromosome/circular
DNA),have PLASMID(small circular DNA outside genome) which gives
resistance to antibiotics. They have inclusion bodies. And also have MESOSOME
(infoldings of plasma membrane)
- -

Cell envelope & it’s modification Ribosomes &

It is present in most of bacterial cells. inclusion bodies
It includes glycocalyx(outer),cell wall(mid) and cell memb.(inner). Cell envelope acts In prokaryotes, ribosomes are
as protective unit. Glycocalyx could be loose sheath called slime layer or maybe tough associated with the plasma
as capsule. Cell wall prevent from bursting or collapsing. membrane(15nm x 20nm). It
BACTERIA CAN BE:- gram positive or gram negative on basis of different composition have 2 subunits 50s & 30s i.e.
in cell enveelope. total 70s ribosomes. Several
In some prokaryotes,chromatophores(membranous extensions) are present which ribosomes attach to single
store pigments. Bacterial flagellum = filament + hook + basal body. mRNA to form polyribosome.
Pilli—> elongated tubular structure made up of special protein. Or polysome. These ribosomes
Fimbrae—> bristle like fibres help to get attached to substratum. translate mRNA to protein.
INCLUSION BODIES-
MESOSOME Several food material is stored
* may be in the form of vesicles, tubules,lamellae. in the form of it in cytoplasm.
* cell wall formation. They are not bound with
* DNA replication & distribution to daughter cells. memb. Eg- phosphate
* respiration. granules,cyanophycean
* secretion processes. granules & glycogen granules.
* increase surface area of cell membrane. Gas vacuoles are found in Blue
* enzymatic contect. green,purple & green
photosynthetic bacteria.

Eukaryotic cells
Compartmentalisation is present thr’ presence of
memb. Bound organelles. Have cytoskeleton
structures. All eukaryotic cells are not identical.
Cell wall
Non living rigid
Cell membrane structure. Helps in
cell to cell
Electron microscope was discovered in 1950s. Structure of RBC revealed interaction. Algae
lipids arranged within memb. with polar head outwards & hydrophobic tail cell wall contains
inner side.(membrane also contains cholestrol). Lipid content mainly cellulose,
consists of phosphoglycerides. Later it was proved that membrane also galactons,mannans,
contain protein & carbohydrates. RBC memb.= 40% lipid + 52% protein CaCO3.
protein can be PERIPHERAL PROTEIN(lie on surface) or Cell wall of young
INTEGRAL(partially or totally buried in memb.) plant is primary
In 1972 Singer & Nicolson gave fluid mosaic model in wwhich lipid have which is capable of
quasi fluid nature and proteins move laterally within bilayer. This ability is growth but
measured as fluidity which is important for cell growth, intercellular secondary wall

.
junction,secretion,endocytosis, cell division,transport(neutral solutes by develops innerly as
passive transport). Centriole is
cell matures. Middle
present only
lamellae is formed of
in animal cell.
Ca2+ pectate which
holds cells.
 Endomembrane system
Function of ER,golgi apparatus,lysosome &
vacuoles are coordinated hence they are
included in endomembrane system.

V V V V

The endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Vacuoles

Divides intracellular space in Discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898. They consist They are memb. Contains water
2 compartments i.e. of many flat,disc like, sacs or cisternae of bound vesicular sap,excretory
luminal(inside) & extra diameter 0.5um-1um. Which are stalked parallel structure formed product,materials
luminal(cytoplasm) to each other. The cisternae are concentrically by golgi rich in (not useful). In plants
ROUGH ER- Protein synthesis arranged near nucleus with convex cis/forming hydrolytic vacuole occupy 90%
& secretion. They are face & concave trans/maturing face which are enzymes(lipases, space. They are
continuous with memb. Of interconnected. Performs packaging to deliver proteases,carbo layered by tonoplast
nucleus. outside or inside cell & forms glycoproteins & hydratases) which allows active
SMOOTH ER-Lipid synth& glycolipids. Materials in form of vesicles are which are transport. In amoeba
steroid hormone synthesis. passed to cis from ER —> processing takes place activate at acidic contractile vacuole
—> packaged material leaves from trans face. pH. performs excretion &
in protist food
vacuole are formed
by engulfing food
particles.

Mitochondria Plastids Ribosomes

Found in all plants & euglenoids,easily available under In 1953 discovered by George
Specifically stained,sausage shaped/ microscope,bear pigments. Palade under electron microscope.
cylindrical (0.2-1um or avg. 0.5um in CHLOROPLAST-contain chlorophyll & carotenoid Composed of RNA & proteins.
diameter & 1- 4.1um in length). Its pigments(for light trapping). 80s=60s+40s
inner memb. divides it into outer & CHROMOPLAST-carotene,xanthophylls(fat soluble And 70s=50s+30s where ‘s’ is
inner compartment. Outer memb. carotenoid pigments), give red,yellow,orange colour. svedberg’s unit stands for
forms continuous limiting boundary LEUCOPLAST-colourless plastids which store sedimentation coefficient i.e.
for organelle & cristae increases nutrients. For eg- Amyloplast(store carbohydrate in measure of density & size.
surface area which is site for aerobic potato),elaioplast(store oil & fat),aleuroplast(store
respiration. Called power house of protein).
cell, inner memb. Have associated Majority of chloroplast(width:2-4um, length: 5-10um)
enzymes. Matrix = single circular are found in mesophyll cells. Chlamydomonas have 1
DNA+ RNA Molecules+ 70s chloroplast per cell , mesophyll have 20-40 chloroplast
ribosomes+ components required for
proteins synthesis. Mitochondria
per cell. Cytoskeleton
Grana are also called intergranal thylakoids. Network of filamentous
divide by fission. Membrane of thylakoids enclose lumen. Stroma proteinaceous structures
contains small,double stranded circular DNA & 70s present in cytoplasm.
ribosomes. Involved in mech. support,
maintenance of shape of cell.

Cilia & flagella Centrosome & Nucleus

Discovered by Robert Brown in 1831 & material stained
Hair like outgrowths,cilia are like oars & centriole by basic dye was named chromatin by Flemming.
help in cell movement. They both are Centrosome is an
Nucleolus may be one or more. Nuclear envelope
covered with cell memb. Their organelle usually
consist of 2 parallel memb. with a space(10-50nm)
core(called axoneme) have many containing 2 cylindrical
called perinuclear space. Pores are formed by fusion of
microtubule running parallel to axis. structures called
2 memb. Mature RBC & Sieve tube cell lacks nucleus.
Axoneme arrangement (9+2 array) = 9 centrioles surrounded by
Nucleolus is membrane less & site for RNA
pair doublets of radially arranged amorphous pericentriolar
Synthesis(from ribosomes). More nucleolus hence
microtubule + centrally placed 1 pair materials & lie
more protein synthesis. Chromatin = DNA +
microtubule. Central tubules are perpendicular to each
histones(basic protein) + non histone protein + RNA. A
connected by bridge and enclosed in other & are arranged like
single human cell have 2m long thread of DNA
central sheath and sheath is connected cartwheel. They are made
distributed among his 46 chromosomes. Every
to one of the tubules of each doublet by up of 9 triplet of
chromosome has primary constriction called
radial spoke. Total radial spokes are 9. peripheral tubular protein
centromere & disc like structure kinetochores.
Peripheral doublets are interconnected which are linked. It’s
Sometimes few chromosome have nonstaining
by linkers. Both emerge from centriole centre part is
secondary constriction at a constant location which
like structure called basal body. hub(proteinaceous) which
gives the appearance of small fragment called satellite.
is connected to triplet by Chromosomes
radial To IT
spokes(proteinaceous). Metameric Sub-metacentric Acrocentric Telocentric
They form base of Centromere Centromere Centromere Centromere
cilia,flagella & spindle is middle,2 slightly away present near at terminal.
fibres. equal arms. from mid. Short & at end.
long arm found.

Microbodies
They are Memb. Bound vesicles containing enzymes. They are
found in both plant & animals.
.

my
 Biomolecules
They are chemical substance responsible for controlling physiochemical process
within a living system or non living components that make living system. Relative
abundance of C & H are more in living system is higher than in earth’s crust.

Methods for detecting different

components in living system

:-.
For organic comp. extraction For detecting inorganic compounds
Take any living tissue(a vegetable or a piece of liver) & Weigh a small amt. of living tissue (wet weight) & dry it.
grind it in trichloroacetate(Cl3CCOOH) using mortar & Remaining material gives dry weight. Burn it all carbon
pestle. On straining by cheese cloth or cotton & we would comp. get evaporated & ash contains Ca,Mg.
obtain two fractions.

L v

Cnw
FILTRATE/ RETENTATE/
acid soluble acid insoluble Basically all carbon compounds
Cytoplasmic Macromolecules in living tissue are biomolecules.
composition. Rich in from organelles
organic compounds
(phosphate &
sulphate)

α - Amino acids
v
u
Organic comp. containing amino group & PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS:-
acidic grp. as substituents on the same 1) On the basis of no. Of amino, COOH group
carbon i.e. α-carbon. They are substituted a.a are of 3 types:- ACIDIC(glutamic
methanes. They contain four groups - acid),BASIC(Lysine),NEUTRAL(VALINE).
amino,hydrogen,carboxyl grp,variable/alkyl 2) Aromatic a.a (amino acids):- tyrosine,
grp(R). Amino acids which occur in proteins phenylalanine, tryptophan
are of 20 types 3) ionisable nature of -NH2 & -COOH group {in
different pH}

At low pH Zwitterionic form at At high pH

isoelectronic pH (neutral)

Lipids
(Water insoluble)
They could be simple fatty
acids or glycerol (simple lipid)
'
✓ v

Fatty acid Glycerol (Trihydroxy

propane)
(Carboxyl group attached to R) where R
can be (C1 - C19).
Neural tissue have
Eg- palmitic acid (16C including -COOH), lipids with more
Arachidonic acid(20C including -COOH). complex structure.
They can be saturated or unsaturated.

Many lipids have both fatty acids esterified with glycerol. Then they can be
mono,di,tri,poly-glycerides.
They are also called fats & oils based on melting point. Oils have low melting pt.
(eg- gingelly oil) hence remain requid in winters. Some lipids have phosphorus &
a phosphorylated organic compound in them which are called PHOSPHOLIPIDS.
Eg- LECITHIN (found in cell memb.)

NITROGEN BASES + Sugar —-> NUCLEOSIDE + Phosphate —-> NUCLEOTIDE

Eg- Adenine,guanine, Eg-ribose Eg- adenosine, Esterified Eg- adenylic acid,
cytosine,thymine, uracil guanosine,cytidine with sugar guanylic acid,
have heterocyclic ring. ,thymidine,uridine cytidylic acid,
thymidylic acid,
uridylic acid.

DNA & RNA contains only nucleotide.

 V
Metabolites v
Primary metabolites Secondary metabolites
Includes alkaloids,flavonoids,rubber,essential
Includes amino acid,sugars,basic oils,antibiotics,coloured pigments, scents, gums,
organic compounds. Found in spices. Found in plant,fungal & microbial cell. Their
animal tissues. Their role in role in metabolisms is not definite. They are useful
metabolism can be easily for human welfare (eg-rubber, drugs,spices, scents,
identified. Compose the basic cell pigments) & also have some ecological importance.
structure.

Biomolecules
v
v

Biomicromolecules Biomacromolecules
Molecular weight in range of 10,000 Da
Molecular weight less than 1000 Da. except for lipids. Found in acid insoluble
Found in acid soluble pool & have pool & except lipids all are polymeric. Eg-
molecular wt. as 18-800 Da. polysaccharides,proteins,nucleic acids,
lipids

Why lipids are found in acid insoluble pool?

Lipids are arranged in structure like cell memb. On grinding tissue,they get broken & form vesicles which are water insoluble
hence found in macromolecular fraction. Lipids are not strictly macromolecules.

Proteins
v v
Introduction Structure of protein Functions of
They are polypeptide PRIMARY-sequence of a.a i.e. positioned information in a protein protein
i.e. linear chain of a.a which is 1st,2nd a.a. A protein is imagined as a line. Left end has Transport nutrients across
linked by peptide 1st a.a (N-terminal a.a) & right end has last a.a (C-terminal a.a) membrane, fighting with
bonds. They are where N & C stands for amino & carboxyl group. infectious organisms,
heteropolymers of SECONDARY-originally the structure of protein is not linear,the hormones, enzymes.
a.a(20) eg- thread is folded in the form of a helix. In proteins only right handed Collagen is most abundant
alanine,cystine,proline, helices are observed. Those folded portions are called as protein in animal world &
tryptophan,lysine secondary structure. It can be alpha-helix or beta-pleated. RubisCO is most abundant
TERTIARY-The long protein chain is also folded upon itself like a protein in biosphere.
hollow wooden ball,giving rise the tertiary structure. It’s 3-D view
is important for many biological activities.
QUATERNARY(Architecture of a protein)-proteins made up of
more than one polypeptide in which the polypeptide is itself folded
& again get folded upon other polypeptide.
Adult human Hb consists of 4 subunits. Two of these are identical
to each other. Hence two subunits of α-type & two subunits of β-
Amino acids can be type together constitute Hb.
essential(dietary) or non
essential(synthesised by α-helix a- Secondary → β-pleated
body) Structure

Polysaccharide (Acid insoluble pellet)

Long chain of sugars,made up of monosaccharides (building blocks). Eg-cellulose {made up of
only glucose as monomer(HOMOPOLYMER)}, glycogen,starch,inuline
Polymer of
Variant fructose

Right end is reducing & left end is non reducing. Starch forms secondary structure that’s why
holds Iodine & gives blue colour but cellulose doesn’t have that structure.

Branched structure of
polysaccharide(glycogen)
Complex polysaccharide
Paper made from plant pulp
Made up of amino-sugars &
and cotton fibre is cellulosic.
glucasamime, N-acetyl
Complex ←
galactosamine. Eg-
sugar chitin(homopolymer)
 Nucleic acids (Acid insoluble pellet)
They are polynucleotide,possess secondary
structure. Their bulding block is a nucleotide.

Two
← Components of nucleotide
HETEROCYCLIC PHOSPHORIC ACID/
COMPOUND PHOSPHATE
Nitrogenous bases:-
Adenine MONOSACCHARIDE
Substituted purines
Guanine (SUGAR)
Uracil Can be either
Cytosine Substituted pyrimidines of the two Skeletal heterocyclic
ring is called as purine
RIBOSE a. 2’deoxyRIBOSE
Thymine
& pyrimidine
(Monosaccharide [Deoxyribonucleic respectively.
pentode) acid DNA]
[Ribonucleic acid
RNA]

Nature of bond linking monomers in a polymer

In polypeptide a.a are linked by
peptide bond [CO-NH] In nucleic acid phosphate links to 3’C
By dehydration of one sugar of one nucleotide to 5’C
In polysaccharide monosaccharide of sugar of other nucleotide. Bond b/w
are linked by glycosidic bond. phosphate & hydroxyl of sugar is ester
bond. & as it is present on either sides
Model of DNA was given by Watson & Crick, which Hydrogen bond
hence called phosphodiester bond.
says that DNA exist as double helix, 2 strands of Nucleic acids have secondary
polynucleotideare antiparallel,have sugar- structure. Eg- DNA
phosphate backbone. Nitrogenous bases are
projected more or less perpendicular to this A & G of one strand compulsorily
backbone but face inside. base pairs with T&C respectively
on other strand.
At each step strand turns 36°. One full helical
strand would involve 10 steps(basepair). In a line This structure is known as β-DNA.
diagram pitch would be 34A°. And rise per
basepair is 3.4A°

Dynamic state of body constituents- concept of metabolism

Turn Over—> reactions.
All the biomolecules undergo turnover means constantly being changes into some other biomolecules via
Together all this chemical reactions are called & METABOLISM(transformation of biomolecules).
Eg- conversion of amino acid in amine by release of CO2,removal of amino group in nucleotide
base,hydrolysis of glycosidic bond in disaccharide.
Metabolites are converted into each other in a series of linked reactions called metabolic pathways (can be linear or
circular). Flow of metabolism thr’pathway has definite rate & direction which is known as dynamic state of body
constituents. Every chemical reaction is catalysed. Eg- dissolving CO2 in H2O the catalysts are proteins (enzymes).

Metabolic basis for living!

Anabolic pathway ← → Catabolic pathway

1) Releases energy
1) Requires energy
2) complex to simpler
2) simpler to complex
3) eg- glucose by glycolysis into lactic acid &
3) eg- acetic acid + energy —> cholestrol
energy in skeletal muscle.
Living organisms store the released energy in the form of chemical bonds. ATP(Adenosine triphosphate) is energy currency.
BIOENERGETICS- branch of biology which deals with the energy related issues.

The living state

Blood concentration of glucose in a normal healthy individual is 4.5-5.0 mM,while hormones are present in nanograms/ml.
All living organisms exist in steady state/non-equilibrium i.e. to be able to perform work.
Living process is a constant effort to prevent falling into equilibrium. This is achieved by energy input.
The living state & metabolism are synonymous. Without metabolism there cannot be living state.
Biomolecules are in a metabolic flux.
 < ENZYMES ' Inorganic catalysts work efficiently
Almost all at high temp. & pressurewhile
enzymes are enzymes get damaged above 40°C.
proteins V However enzymes from organisms
v The chain of enzymes criss of hotvents,sulphur springs can
Ribozymes-
crosses itself & pockets are retain upto 80-90°C. Thermophilic
nucleic acids
made which are known as organisms have thermostable
that behave like
active sites in which enzyme.
enzymes
substrate fits.

Chemical reactions
When bonds are broken or new bonds are formed. Eg-hydrolysis of starch into glucose.
RATE OF CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESS-Amt. of product formed per unit time.
Rate = δP
δt Rate is influenced by temp. Change
RULE OF THUMB-rate doubles or decreases by half for every 10°C change in either direction

.
Carbonic anhydrase
CO2 + H2O ———————————-> H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
<—— .
In absence of enzyme 200 molecules are formed per hour & when we use enzyme 6,00,000 molecules per second
(acceleration by 10 million times).

Metabolic pathway-a multistep chemical reaction when each of the steps is catalysed by the
same enzyme complex or different enzymes is called metabolic pathway. Eg-glycolysis. In
different condition different products are possible. (Eg-yeast,muscles)

How do enzymes bring about such high rates of chemical conversions!

The chemical which is converted into product(P) is called ‘substrate(S)’ & this conversion takes
place via active site present in 3-d proteins.
The substrate diffuse towards active site & enzyme adjusts its size. After undergoing transient
phenomenon Enzyme substrate(ES) complex is formed. Afterwards the required product is
released (by breaking & making bonds) from active site. The pathway must go through the
transition state structure. In the above pathway some infinite unstable intermediate are also
formed. The transition state is also unstable cause of high energy.
ACTIVATION ENERGY-difference in avg. energy content of S from that of transition state.
If energy of P is lower than S then it is exothermic or spontaneous process.

Nature of enzyme action

————>
E+S <———— ES —————-> EP ————-> E + P
t v
It’s formation is very important & Enzyme product complex
also known as victor henri complex.

Factors affecting enzyme activity

v v

Temperature & pH Concentration of substrate

Enzyme show its highest activity at an On increasing conc. First rate increases &
optimum temp. & pH. Activity declines both then attain a Vmax because enzyme
below(enzyme get inactive) & molecule are fewer and there is no other
above(enzyme get destroyed) the optimum free molecules. There occurs the
value. saturation of enzyme molecules.

V
Some chemicals resembles with substrate & get attached to enzyme which shut off
enzyme activity are called inhibitors & process is called inhibition. More specifically
the chemical is called as competitive inhibitor.
Eg-inhibition of succinic acid dehydrogenase by malonate which closely resemble the
substrate succinate in structure.
 CLASSIFICATION & NOMENCLATURE of Enzymes
Enzymes are divided into 6 classes each with 4-13 sub-classes & named accordingly by a 4 digit no. Enzymes have
suffix of ‘ase’
1) OXIDOREDUCTASES/DEHYDROGENASES- catalyse oxidation b/w 2 substrates.
Eg- S reduced + S’ oxidised ——> S oxidised + S’ reduced
2) TRANSFERASES-catalyse transfer of a group, G(other than H) b/w a pair of substrate.
Eg- S-G + S’ ———> S + S’-G
3) HYDROLASED-catalyse hydrolysis of ester,ether,peptide,glycosidic,c-c,c-halide or P-N bonds.
4) LYSASES- catalyse removal of groups from substrate by mechanism other than hydrolysis leaving a bond.
5) ISOMERASES- catalyse interconversion of optical,geometrical or positional isomers.
6) LIGASES- Catalyse linking together of 2 compounds, eg- joining of C-O,C-S,C-N,P-O bonds.

Co-Factor
There are no. Of cases in which non protein constituents called
cofactors are bound to the enzyme to make enzyme catalytically active.
The rest protein part of enzyme is called as apoenzyme.

COFACTORS can
be of three types

V V V
PROSTHETIC GROUP CO-ENZYMES METAL IONS
* also organic compounds Form coordination bonds with side
* organic compounds
* essential components - vitamin chains at the active site and at the
* tightly bound to apoenzyme
* their association with apoenzyme is same time one or more coordination
Eg- in peroxidase catalase
only transient,usually occuring during bond with the substrate. Eg- zinc is a
haem is prosthetic group which
the course of catalysis. Eg- coenzyme cofactor for proteolytic enzyme
is part of the active site.
nicotinamide adenine Dinucleotide carboxypeptidase.
It makes water from hydrogen
(NAD) & NADP contain vitamin niacin.
peroxide.

Catalytic activity is lost when the cofactors is removed from the enzyme
which testifies that they play crucial role in the catalytic activity of enzyme.
 Cell cycle & Cell division
Growth & reproduction are characteristics of cells indeed of all living organisms.

É?
"
CELL CYCLE CELL DIVISION
The sequence of events by which a cell Division of parental cell into progeny is
duplicated its genome, synthesise the other termed as cell division.
constituents & eventually divides is termed as * Human cell divides in 24 hours {i.e. have
cell cycle. Cell growth(in terms of cytoplasm) is interphase of 24 hours}.
continuous. The events are themselves under * Yeast cell divide in 90 min.
genetic control. * E. coli divide in 20 min.

r v
Interphase M (mitosis) phase
Phase b/w 2 successive M phases. M phase starts with
Interphase/resting phase (cell is karyokinesis & ends with
preparing for division,grows & cytokinesis.
replicates it’s DNA) lasts more than Some cells which do not divide
95% of the duration of cell cycle. While further or will divide occasionally in
case of injury, thus exits G1 phase
only 5% is for M phase (mitosis) to enter an inactive stage called
guiescent stage (Go). The cell
remain metabolically active but
doesn’t proliferate unless called on
- -

:
to do so.
Gap-I phase Synthesis phase Gap-2 phase
Cell grows & is DNA synthesis/ Protein
metabolically replication begins in synthesis
active. It is interval nucleus but not the takes place &
b/w mitosis & chromosomes , centriole cell is ready
initiation of DNA duplicates in cytoplasm. to divide.
replication. If cell is diploid before s
phase then after s phase
it will remain diploid.

MITOSIS
It is a dramatic phase of cell cycle
Means equational division since no. of
chromosomes in parent & progeny is same. Significance of mitosis
Mainly occurs only in diploid cells of animals but In some social insects
may also take place in some haploid cells of plants. (drone of
honeybee),lower plants
V
v haploid cell also divide by
KARYOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS
mitosis.
(Four stages) Growth of multicellular
organisms is due to
1) PROPHASE 2) METAPHASE Division of cytoplasm mitosis.
Nuclear envelope completely In animals it takes It is essential for cell to
Chromosomal material place by cell furrow
condenses to form compact disintegrated means start of divide to restore the
metaphase. (in plasma memb.)
chromosomes attached to method. nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
Morphology of Chromosomes can be
centromere. In plants it takes It contributes to the repair
Centrosome (centriole) starts most easily studied.
Metaphasic chromosomes is made up place by cell plate of cells (epidermis,wall of
moving towards the poles & method because of gut,blood cells
each radiates out of 2 sister chromatids held together
at centromere.The paired presence of cell wall. continuously get
asters(microtubule). It starts from the
Spindle fibre + 2 asters => chromosomes align at the metaphase replaced.
plate (plane of alignment) or centre of cell. The
mitotic apparatus Mitotic division in
equatorial plate with one chromatid simple precursor cell
At the end nuclear envelop and plate represents meristematic
all cell organelles get connected by its kinetochore(disc- tissue(apical & lateral
like) to spindle fibre from one pole & middle lamellae b/w
diminished along with walls of 2 adjacent cambium) is responsible
nucleolus. another sister chromatid to another
pole. cells. for continuous growth of
At the time of plants.
3) ANAPHASE cytokinesis,
Centromeres split & daughter 4) TELOPHASE organelles like
chromatids separate (daughter Chromosomes which reached the mitochondria &
chromosomes of future daughter poles decondense & loose their plastids get
nuclei) own identity (Called as distributed.
Chromatids move to opposite pole. chromosome cluster).
Centromere of each chromosome nuclear envelope develops, ER,
remains directed towards pole & Golgi apparatus, nucleolus reform.
hence at the leading edge, arms
trailing behind.

In some organisms karyokinesis (division of nucleus) is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which
multinuclear condition arises leading to the formation of synectium ( Eg- liq. Endosperm of coconut)
 MEIOSIS
Introduction
Reductional division (reduces chromosomes no. To half)
Gametes are formed by it (gametogenesis in plants & animals)
It occurs in 2 plases => Meiosis-I & Meiosis-II but DNA replicate only once.
Meiosis-I is initiated after the parental chromosomes have replicated to produce
identical sister chromatids at S-phase.
Involves pairing of homologous chromosomes & recombination b/w non sister
chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
4 haploid cells are formed at end of Meiosis-II

-←
MEIOSIS-I MEIOSIS-II
Prophase-I
Prophase-II
1) Lyptotene-chromosomes are seen under light
microscope. After interkinesis nuclear membrane
disappears & chromosomes fully gets
2) Zygotene-synapsis(pairing of homologous condensed.
chromosomes) occur. Under electron microscope
synaptonemal complex is visible. The complex Metaphase-II
formed by a pair of synapsed homologous Chromosomes align at equator & the
chromosomes is called bivalent or tetrad. spindle fibres (microtubule from
3) Pachytene-longest stage. Tetrads are clearly opposite pole of spindle) gets
visible. Recombination nodules (site of crossing attached to kinetochores of sister
over) is visible. Crossing over requires enzyme chromatids.
recombinase. Chromosomes are left linked at the
site of recombination at end of pachytene.
Anaphase-II
4) Diplotene-dissolution of synaptonemal complex
occurs. The homologous chromosomes try to Simultaneous splitting of the
separate except at recombination site which centromere of each chromosome
results in X-shaped structure (called chiasmata) (holding sister chromatids) occurs
which in oocytes of some vertebrates lasts for allowing them to move to opposite
months or years. poles (shortening of microtubules
attached to kinetochores).
5) Diakinesis-terminalisation of chiasmata takes
place. Represents transition to metaphase-I.
Chromosomes get fully condensed & nucleolus
and nuclear membrane get diminished. Telophase-II
Two groups of chromosomes once
Metaphase-I again get enclosed in nuclear
Bivalent chromosomes align at equatorial envelop (cytokinesis results in 4
plate,spindle fibres get attached to kinetochores haploid cells called tetrad of cells).
of homologous chromosomes.

Anaphase-I
Homologous chromosomes separate while sister
chromatids remain associated at their
centromeres.

Telophase-I
Nuclear envelop & nucleolus reappear & dyad of cells
is formed(by cytikinesis). The stage between two
Significance of Meiosis
meiotic divisions is known as interkinesis which is Conservation of specific chromosome no. of
short lived. No DNA Replication during interkinesis. In each species is achieved across generations
many cases chromosomes undergo some dispersion, in sexually reproducing organisms.
don’t reach extremely extended stage of interphase Increases genetic variability in population of
nucleus. organisms from one generation to next.
Variations are very important for the
process of EVOLUTION.
 Etf Transport in plants
For short distance—> by cytoplasmic streaming. & for
long distance—> by vascular system(translocation)
Transport thr’ phloem is multidirectional & thr’ xylem is unidirectional. Xylem
sap-H2O,minerals,org. N2,hormones. Phloem sap- water,sucrose(alkaline)

Diffusion Active transport

Passive,takes place in short dist. Like Special memb. Protein needed,
intercellular space of leaf to outside, which are called pumps to perform
random fashion,obvious in gas & < uphill transport. Transport rate
> reaches max on saturation. These
liquid,only mean of gaseous
transport in plants,slow & does not proteins are also specific &
depend on living system. Rate sensitive towards inhibitors that
affected by conc. Gradient, Means of transport react with protein side chains.
permeability, temp.,pressure.

Facilitated diffusion
Passive,more size of obj. means less diffusion rate,more solubility in lipids means higher rate. Protein helps in transport of
hydrophilic subst. & they do not set conc. gradient. Transport rate reaches maximum when all proteins are used(saturation).
It’s specific & sensitive to inhibitors,some channels are always open & others can be controlled. Porins are large proteins,found
in plastids,mitochondria,bact. memb. allowing molecules upto size of smaller proteins. Eg- water channels made of 8
aquaporins.
In uniport molecule moves
freely(independent)

Plant-Water relations
Water is limiting factor(affects growth & productivity). It provides a medium in
which subst. dissolve. Watermelon has 92% water,herbaceous plant have
10-15% of their fresh weight as dry weight. Mature corn plant absorbs 3L H2O
per day & mustard absorb water equal to mass of plant in 5 hr.

Water potential (Ψs) Osmosis

Determined by solute potential (Ψs) & pressure potential In plant cell vacuolar sap contributes to solute potential.
(Ψp). High conc. Of water means high kinetic energy & In plant cell plasma memb. & tonoplast both are
thus more water potential. Pure water has highest water responsible for transport. Osmosis is diffusion of water
potential i.e. zero. Movement of water is from higher to thr’ selectively permeable membrane & occurs on the
lower water potential. It is measured in Pa & value for pure presence of driving force. Depends upon conc.
water without any pressure is zero. If solute is dissolved Gradient,pressure gradient. & movement of water is
then it decreases hence all solution have less water from high chemical potential to low chemical potential
potential than pure water. Magnitude of lowering of Ψw is until equilibrium i.e. Ψw1 = Ψw2. Osmotic pressure (extra
due to solute is called solute potential which is always -ve. pressure required to stop the osmosis) is positive &
For solution at 1 atm pressure Ψs = Ψw & if more pressure osmotic potential is negative but are same in magnitude.
is applied to pure water or solution then water potential More solute conc. Means more osmotic pressure is
increase. When cell becomes turgid ,pressure potential required.
which is usually +ve. In plants -ve potential is needed for
transpirational pull. { Ψw = Ψs + Ψp }

Plasmolysis Imbibition
If external solution balances osmotic pressure of Special type of diffusion when water is absorbed by
cytoplasm it is said to be isotonic. Further hypotonic(cell solids-colloids causing them to increase in volume. Eg-
swells) & hypertonic(shrinks). In hypertonic first water absorption of H2O by seeds,drywood & pressure
moves out from cytoplasm & then from vacuole due to developed was used by prehistoric men to split rocks &
which protoplast shrink away from wall(PLASMOLYSIS). boulders. The things which are important for imbibition
Flaccid cell means water flow out & in of cell is in to happen are => affinity b/w absorbent & liquid
equilibrium. When the plasmolysed cell kept in hypotonic imbibed and water potential gradient.
solution the turgor pressure (pressure against wall)
increases & cell become deplasmolysed. The pressure
exerted by protoplasts due to entry of water against rigid
walls is called pressure potential (Ψρ) Turgor pressure in hypotonic condition is responsible for
cell enlargement,cell extension growth.
 Long dist. Transport How do plants absorb water?
of water! Root hairs (increase surface area) absorb H2O purely by diffusion & then water come by
2 pathway!
Water & food are transported by
mass/bulk flow. Diffusion rate is 2.5 *APOPLAST PATHWAY-mov. of water thr’ cell memb. in spaced except casparian
sec per cell if cell is 50um. Mass strips,does not involve crossing cell memb. , dependent on gradient. Mass flow occur
flow is a result of pressure thr’ adhesive & cohesive property of water.
differences b/w the 2 points which *SYMPLAST PATHWAY-system of interconnected protoplast,slower because water
can be achieved either by +ve needs to enter cell memb.,aided by cytoplasmic streaming. In hydrilla leaf movement of
hydrostatic pressure gradient (eg- chloroplast is due to cytoplasmic streaming. Most of water move by apoplast because
garden hose) (root pressure) or -ve cortical cells are loosely packed but ultimately it is symplastic. In young stem H2O enters
hydrostatic pressure (suction thr’ directly in xylem vessels/tracheids which are part of apoplast. In mycorrhiza (pinus)
straw) (transpiration). It is unlike hyphae of fungus absorb H2O & min. And demand sugar & N-containing comp. from
diffusion that diff. substance move plant. Pinus cannot germinate without mycorrhiza.
independently on their conc.
Gradient. Also xylem transports N2
& hormones while phloem
transports inorganic solutes.

Water movement up a plant!

r v
Root pressure Transpiration pull
Water follows its potential It’s rate is 15m per hr. Acts in cohesion-tension transpiration pull model. 99% of water absorbed is
gradient & increase lost in transpiration. Cobalt chloride turns pink on absorbing water. (Test to recognise transpiration)
pressure in xylem which is Transpiration
+ve & it is called root In dorsiventral(dicot) leaf there are more stomata on lower side but in monocot there are equal stomata on both
pressure. Can push water sides. The inner wall of guard cell is thick & elastic which becomes crescent shape when turgid. The cellulose
upto small heights. On a microfibrils are arranged radially which helps it to open. Rate of transpiration also depend on no. & distribution
moisture day cut a soft of stomata,% of open stomata,water status,canopy structure.
stem from base the Ascent of sap depend upon the following physical properties of water:-
droplets ooze due to it. 1)cohesion- attraction b/w H2O molecules.
2)adhesion- attraction of H2O molecules & polar surfaces(tracheary elements).
Guttation on early
3)surface tension-H2O molecules are attracted more in liquid phase than in gaseous phase. These properties
morning or night is result give water a high tensile strength i.e. an ability to resist pulling force & high capillarity i.e. ability to rise in thin
of root pressure. The tubes (tracheary elements).
greatest contribution of Force generated can pull xylem sized column of water over 130m high.
root pressure maybe to Transpiration & photosynthesis-a compromise
re-establish the
continuous chains of H2O Transpiration performs ascent of sap,supplies H2O for photosynthesis,supply minerals,cool
molecule in xylem which leaf surface by 10-15°C,keeps cells turgid & maintain shape. C4 plants looses 1/2 of the water
often breaks by tension. than that of lost by C3 for same amt. of CO2 fixed.

Uptake & transport of mineral nutrients

r v
Uptake of mineral ions Translocation of mineral ions
Minerals are present as charged particles (cannot pass
Minerals are unloaded at fine vein endings by
thr’ cell memb.) & their conc. Gradient is opposite. It
diff. Or active uptake by the cells at apical &
requires active transport although some travel with
lateral meristems, young leaves,developing
H2O passively. Transport proteins of endodermal cell
flowers,fruits & seeds, storage organs {chief
are control points,where a plant adjust the quantity &
sinks}. N,P,K,S are remobilised while Ca is
types of solute that reach xylem. Because of casperian
immobile mineral. Much amt. of N & small amt.
strips endodermis have ability to transport actively ions
of P & S travel in organic forms such as amino
in one direction only. The process of osmosis keep
acids. Small exchange of material b/w phloem &
going due to water potential gradient in roots
xylem also occurs.
maintained by active uptake of ions.

Phloem transport:-flow The pressure flow or mass flow hypothesis Girdling

from source to sink Sucrose is transferred into companion experiment!
Source & sink are reversed cells & then to sieve tube cells (living). It
Outer layer
depending on season. Sugar creates hypertonic condition in phloem
of tree is cut
stored in roots act as source in hence H2O moves into phloem from
to show that
early spring. Phloem sap is mainly → xylem. The phloem sap moves towards food is
water & sucrose but other the area of low osmotic potential i.e.
transported
sugars,hormones,a.a,are sink. Again active transportation is
by phloem.
transported or translocated thr’ needed to move sugar out which will use
phloem. Bulk flow is usually sugar converting it into energy,starch,or
achieved by hydrostatic pressure cellulose. Then water passes out of
gradient. phloem. Sugars form cytoplasmic
strands after passing from sieve plate.
 Mineral nutrition

Methods to study mineral requirements of plants

HYDROPONICS-In 1860,Julius Von
Sachs, german botanist showed soilless Essential mineral nutrients
culture which require mineral salts. It is More than 60 of 105 discovered elements
efficient for growing tomato seedless are found in plants like selenium gold &
cucumber & lettuce. It helps in identifying strontium. (Growing near nuclear test
essential elements & their deficiency sites) some techniques can measure 10^-8
syndrome. Aeration is needed for optimum g/ml conc. Of mineral.
growth.

Criteria for essentiality Role of macro & micro-nutrients

1) element should be supportive in growth *NITROGEN(NO3-,NOO2-,NH4+)-required in max. Amt., required by meristem &
or reproduction i.e. without it plant should metabolically active cells. Found in protein,nucleic acid,vitamin,hormone.
not complete its life cycle. *PHOSPHORUS(H2PO4-,HPO4-)-required in cell-membrane,found in certain proteins,all
2) requirement of any element should be nucleic acid,nucleotides & phosphorylation reactions.
specific & not be replaceable by other. *POTASSIUM(K+)-Required by meristem buds,leaves,root tips. Involved in anion cation
3) the element must be directly involved in balance,stomata,activation of enzymes,turgitidy of cells.
the plant metabolism. *CALCIUM(Ca2+)-required by meristem,differentiating tissue,cell wall(Ca2+
MACRONUTRIENTS-in excess of 10mmol/ pectate),mitotic spindle,enzyme activation,immobile!
kg of dry matter. Eg-C,H,N,O,K,S,P,Ca,Mg *MAGNESIUM(Mg2+)-activates enzyme of respiration,photosynthesis,involved in
MICRONUTRIENTS-less than 10mmol/kg of synthesis of DNA & RNA, chlorophyll,helps maintaining ribosome structure.
dry matter. Eg-Fe,Mn,Mo,Cu,Zn,B,Cl,Ni *SULPHUR(SO42-)-present in cysteine & methionine, component of coenzymes,Vit
Benificial elements- Na,Si,Se,Co (needed (thiamine,biotin CoA), and ferredoxin.
by higher plants). *IRON(Fe3+)-constituent of protein involved in ferredoxin & cytochrome. Fe2+ —-> Fe3+
Category of essential elements:- (oxidation during electron transfer) activates catalase enzyme & forms chlorophyll.
* components of biomolecules-C,H,O,N in *MANGANESE(Mn2+)-activates enzymes in photosynthesis, respiration & N2
carbohydrates,protein,… i.e. as structural metabolism. Splits H2O to liberate 02 in photosynthesis.
elements. *ZINC(Zn2+)-activates carboxylases,needed in synthesis of auxin.
* components of energy related *COPPER(Cu2+)-needed for overall metabolism. Associated with certain enzymes
compounds-Mg in chlorophyll & P in ATP. involved in redox reaction & is reversibly oxidise Cu+ —-> Cu2+ .
* activate or inhibit enzymes-Mg2+ activate *BORON(BO33-,B4072-)-needed for uptake of Ca2+ ,memb. Functioning,pollen
RubisCO & PEPCO, Zn2+ activate alcohol germination, cell elongation,differentiation,carbohydrate translocation.
dehydrogenase, Mo activate nitrigenase. *MOLYBDENUM(MoO22-)-component of several enzymes like nitrogenase,nitrate
* changes osmotic potential-K+ in opening reductase (i.e. N2 metabolism).
& closing stomata. *CHLORINE(Cl-)-help in determining solute conc. & anion-cation balance (along with
Na+-K+). Also have use in water splitting.

Deficiency syndromes of Toxicity of micronutrients

essential elements Any mineral ion conc. In tissues that reduces the
The conc. Of essential elements below which plant growth is retarded is dry weight of tissues by about 10% is considered
known as critical conc. (Have importance in agriculture & horticulture). toxic.
Deficiency symptom of N,P,Mg are first seen in older leaves because MANGANESE TOXICITY-Appearance of brown
they are mobile. & that of S & Ca are first seen in young leaves. spots surrounded by chloratic veins.
CHLOROSIS(YELLOWING OF LEAF/LOSS OF CHLOROPHYLL)- Manganese competes with iron & Mg for uptake &
Mo,Mn,K,Zn,Mg,Fe,S,N Deficiency with Mg for for binding with enzymes, Mn also
NECROSIS/DEATH OF LEAF TISSUE-Ca,K,Cu,Mg deficiency inhibit Ca translocation in shoot apex. Excess Mn
CELL DIVISION INHIBITION-Mo,S,N,K deficiency can cause deficiency of Mg,Fe,Ca
DELAY IN FLOWERING-M,S,N Deficiency

MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION OF ELEMENTS

It can be passive or active but usually take place by both.

1 Movement of ion -> flux (inside is influx, outside is efflux)

I
First phase Second phase
> initial rapid uptake > slower
> into free space or outer space. > into inner space
> apoplast > symplast
> passive movement > active transport
> through ion channels (trans > ions move by flux.
membrane proteins) => function
as selective pores.
 Soil as reservoir of essential elements
Minerals are available in soil due to weathering of rocks (inorganic salts). Soil also harbours N2-fixig bact.,other
microbes,holds water,aeration,acts as matrix that stabilises plant. If mineral need is no is not fulfilled naturally then fertilisers
need to used to fulfil the needs. NEED FOR SUPPLY OF FERTILISERS:- N,P,K,S (Macronutrients) & Cu,Zn,Fe,Mn
(micronutrients)

METABOLISM OF NITROGEN

Nitrogen cycle Biological N2 Fixation

Plants compete with microbes for limited N2 that
is available in soil thus N2 is limiting nutrient for N2 fixation by living organisms (prokaryotes)
natural & agro-ecosystems. by enzyme nitrogenase.
FREE LIVING N2 FIXERS AEROBIC-
Nz fixation lightning V5 NO,NOz,Nz0
-

Why / Nz
-

Nz > azotobacter,beijernickia,bacillus, nostoc,

anabena(cyanobact.)
Organic N2 of dead matter ammonificati? NH
Nitwsomonas/ Nitro weeks ,
2N
Mzt Oz 3 2N Of
Nitntbatten Symbiotic biological N2 Fixation
2N
02-+02 >
znoj Rod shaped rhizobium and roots of legumes
No
- Pseudom
# as alfalfa,sweet clove, sweet pea,lentils,
Nz
,
thiobacillus garden pea,broad ban,clover beans.
Most common association on roots is as
Industry are also source for nitrogen oxides
nodules.
• This nitrate is used by plant for making a.a & left Frankia makes nodules with non leguminous
over nitrate is reduced to nitrogen by < plant(alnus).
denitrification. Rhizobium and frankia are freeliving in soil but
symbiotically fix N2.
CENTRE PORTION of nodule is red/pink due to
leguminous haemoglobin (Leg Hb)

Nodule formation
Rhizobium multiplies & get attached to epidermal
&root hair cell. Root hairs curl & bact. invade in it.
Infection thread is prepared leading to cortex of
root. Initiate nodule formation in cortex. Special
N2 fixing cell are formed. Nodule contain
nitrogenase & leg Hb. Nitrogenase is Mo-Fe
protein.
Usually rhizobium is aerobic but under N2 Fixing
conditions it becomes anaerobic hence a factor
Fate of ammonia called leg Hb is present in nodule because
nitrogenase is sensitive towards O2.
1) REDUCTIVE AMINATION

2) TRANSAMINATION
Transfer of amino group from 1 amino acid to keto group of a keto acid.

Glutamine & aspargine are important amides found in plants as structural

parts of protein which are formed by aspartic acid,glutamic acid by
replacing OH by NH2 {i.e. amide have more N tan amino acids.} hence
they are sent to xylem vessels. Along with the transpiration stream the
nodules of some plants (eg-soyabean) export fixed N2 as ureids (ureids
have high N/C (NITROGEN/CARBON) ratio.
 ⏳
Photosynthesis in higher plants
It is physiochemical process. Living forms on earth depends upon sunlight for energy. In
these mindmap photosynthesis is denoted by “ Ptsn.”

Importance of Early experiments What do we

photosynthesis know?
1) JOSEPH PRIESTLY BELL JAR MINT PLANT EXPERIMENT:- in 1770. 1) VARIEGATED LEAF
1) Primary source of food
He discovered O2 in 1774 & told the role of air in Ptsn. (Foul air EXPERIMENT-presence
2) O2 Liberates
concept). of sunlight.
2) JAN INGENHOUSZ:- showed that sunlight is an important factor for 2) HALF LEAF
removing foul air in his aquatic plant experiment. EXPERIMENT-CO2 is
3) JULIUS VON SACHS:- in 1854 told that green part of contain green essential for
pigment stored in special bodies where glucose is prepared and stored photosynthesis.(part of
as starch. leaf enclosed in test
4) TW ENGELMAN:- he spread the spectrum and illuminated. Eg- tube with KOH soaked
cladophora (green alga) placed in suspension of aerobic bact. Bact. cotton).
Were found mainly in red and blue light which resembles to absorption
spectrum of chl a & b.
5) CORNELIUS VAN NIEL:- (MICROBIOLOGIST) in place of H2O any H2
donor can also work like H2S in purple and green sulphur bacteria. But
here O2 will not be released (proved by radioisotopic techniques).
2H2A + CO2 ————> 2A + CH2O + H2O (In presence of light)
6CO2 + 12H20 ————> C6H12O6 + 6 H20 + 6O2

Where does ptsn

takes place?
Mesophyll have large amount of
chloroplast arranged along wall to What is light reaction? The electron transport
get proper light. The membranous >
Light reaction or photochemical Electrons are excited from PSII
system (grana and other
phase include light absorption, & transported to electron
structures) are useful in trapping
water splitting, oxygen release, acceptor. It transfers electron
light & synthesise ATP & NADPH
formation of ATP & NADPH. The to an electron transport
which comes under light reaction.
pigments are arranged into 2 system consisting of
In stroma synthesis of sugar takes
discrete photo chemical light cytochromes which is downhill
place which comes under dark
harvesting complexes (LHC) movement.
reaction which depends upon the
within PSI & PS II. LHC Are Electron are transferred to PSI
products of light reaction but it
made up of 100s of protein. All where they are excited & sent
doesn’t occurs in dark only. (Not
pigments except Chl A form LHS to other electron acceptor
directly light driven)
also called antennae. Chl a with high redox potential &
forms reaction centre ( in PSI -> again a downhill transfer takes
chl a (p700 nm), in PSII -> place which generates
V 680nm NADPH.

HOW MANY PIGMENTS ARE INVOLVED IN PTSN?

By paper chromatography, colour in leaf is due to chl
v
a (bright or blue green), chl b (yellow green), v
xanthophylls (yellow), carotenoids (yellow to yellow
orange) which absorbs different wavelengths of The electron Cyclic & non cyclic photo
various lights. transport phosphorylation
Maximum absorption occurs of chl a occurs in blue
Non cyclic is discussed in electron transport.
and red region and max rate of ptsn is also in same Done at inner side of
When only PSI is functional &
range so chl a is chief pigment. membrane of thylakoid
phosphorylation occurs due to cyclic flow of
Other pigments absorbs light of different wavelen to supply the electron to
electron then it is known the former.
PSII & release O2.
It can take place in stromal lamellae because
2H2O —> 4H+ + O2 + 4 e-
it lacks PSII & NADP reductase.
It results in formation of ATP only.
It occurs when only light wavelength beyond
680nm are available.
:
Chemiosmotic hypothesis
After splitting of water H+ get accumulated in lumen of thylakoids.
When electron move through photosystem the H+ travels from stroma to lumen.
NADP reductase enzyme is present on outer membrane of thylakoid hence it also remove H+ from stroma.
These three events create a proton gradient b/w stroma & lumen.
This gradient is broken by passing H+ via ATP Synthase i.e. CFo (embedded) & CF1 (outwards) phases to release ATP.
Chemiosmosis requires a membrane, a proton pump, a proton gradient & ATP synthase.
Energy is used to create proton gradient.
 Where are the ATP & NADPH used?
v v
V v

They are used in the After world war II Melvin calvin After some time it was Hence based on 2 different
biosynthetic phase/ concluded that first product of concluded that in some 1st product 2 pathways
dark reaction to fixed CO2 is 3- phosphoglyceric plants 1st product was were introduced called C3 &
synthesise sugars. acid or PGA by radioisotopy & again an organic acid C4 pathway.
using radioactive 14C. PGA is a 3C with 4C atom i.e. OAA.
compound.

The Calvin cycle

important.ieptor of CO2 is 5C RuBP. RuBP was regenerated. Found in all photosynthetic plants whether C3 or C4. Let us
study it in 3 stages.
CARBOXYLATION- CO2 is fixed or used in carboxylation of RuBP via RubisCO to form 2 molecules of 3PGA.
REDUCTION- lead to formation of glucose which requires 2 ATP & 2 NADPH.
REGENERATION- it requires 1 ATP & is very much important.
Total in - 6CO2, 18 ATP, 12 NADPH
Total out - 1 C6H12O6 , 18 ADP, 12 NADP.

The C4 pathway!

Present in plants C4 plants tolerate high temp., They have many Primary CO2 OAA forms 3C Malic acid
which are adopted response to more light intensity, chloroplast with acceptor is 3C or aspartic acid which
to dry tropical lack photorespiration, have tough walls phosphenol goes into bundle sheath
region. But they also greater productivity. Leaves of impervious for pyruvate (PEP) & & release CO2 to form
use calvin cycle as C4 plant have kranz anatomy i.e. gaseous Enzyme PEPcase. C3 compound & that
main biosynthetic bundle sheath surrounds exchange. Eg- Mesophyll lack compound further sent
pathway. vascular bundles. Kranz means maize & sorghum RubisCO & OAA is to mesophyll.
wreath & is reflection of formed in
arrangement of cells. mesophyll.

Photorespiration

v v

Rubisco is most abundant enzyme in world which can ATP + RUBP + O2 —> 1PGA + 2C Phosphoglycolate + CO2
bind to O2 & CO2 both. It have more affinity for CO2 but It does not occur in C4 plants because in bundle sheath,
if O2:CO2 ~ 1 then for O2 hence the binding becomes as C4 acid breaks CO2 release i.e. intracellular CO2
competitive. conc. Increase hence RubisCO works as carboxylass
If RuBP binds with O2 then fixation of CO2 is decreased. more and not oxygenase.

Factors affecting photosynthesis

The plants factors include the no., size, age & orientation of leaves, mesophyll cells &
chloroplasts, internal CO2 conc. & amount of chlorophyll.
blackman’s law of limiting factors- if a chemical process is affected by more than 1 factor
then which is nearest to its minimal value it is the factor which directly affects the process if
its quantity is changed.
Eg- despite of a green leaf, optimal light & CO2 conditions, the plant may not photosynthesise
if temp. Is very low this leaf if given optimal temp. Will start photosynthesising.

e v v s
Light CO2 concentration Temperature Water
At higher light Major limiting factor. If in Dark reaction being Water stress also
intensity other atmosphere becomes 0.05% then enzymatic are temp. disable availability
factors become it will be helpful but if further Controlled. C4 —> of CO2 by closing
limiting and increased then cause damage. At high temp. Optimum, stomata & also the
chlorophyll may also low light conditions neither group C3 —> less temp. leaves wilting
get breakdown. Light respond to high CO2 conditions. Optimum. causes decreasing
saturation occurs at C4 plants saturate at 360u1l-1 & Tropical plants have surface area of
10% of full sunlight. C3 plants saturate beyond 450 high temp. Optimum & leaves & their
For plants in shade u1l-1. Its conc. Can be increased temperate plants have metabolic activity as
or in dense forests, by using green house crops such less temp. Optimum. well.
light is rarely a as tomato & bell pepper. They are
limiting factor in grown in CO2 rich atmosphere
nature. which leads to higher yields.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 Respiration in plants
Cells (containing chloroplast) that are most often located in superficial layers carry out photosynthesis.
The compounds that are oxidised during process are known as respiratory substrates.
Green plants & cyanobacterium perform photosynthesis.
Carbon skeleton produced during respiration is used as precursors for biosynthesis of other molecules
in cell.

Do plants breathe?

÷
No direst answer for it! But have stomata & lentil for Root, stem, leaf respire at lower rates than animal do.
it. Because of photosynthesis O2 is already available in cell.
Plants do not need well developed respiratory Most of cells are in contact with air which is facilitated by loose
system because- packing.
1) each plant part is aware of its own gaseous need. Glucose is not oxidised in a single step but in several steps
2) they do not have great demands for gaseous because then most of the energy is lost as heat.
exchange. All the living organisms partially oxidise glucose to pyruvic acid
3) distance for diffusion of gases is not that much and is called glycolysis which takes place anaerobically.
large.

GLYCOLYSIS

Given by embden, meyerhof, parnas Hexokinase

hence also called EMP pathway.

Phosphoglucoisomerase
Takes place in the cytoplasm. Pyruvic
Acid is the key product of glycolysis.
It includes 10 steps from glucose.
In 1st & 3rd step ATP is used & in 5,6,9
NADH, ATP,ATP are released & in 8 H2O
is released.
3 fates of pyruvic acid formed are:
1) lactic acid
2) alcohol fermentation
3) aerobic respiration
For complete oxidation kreb cycle is
needed. Fermentation takes place in
many prokaryotes & unicellular
eukaryotes. Enolase

The step where sucrose is converted to

glucose in presence of invertase only Pyruvate kinase

takes place in plants.

Fermentation Aerobic respiration

Pyruvic acid is converted to CO2 & ethanol in presence of Pyruvic acid is transported to mitochondria and its crucial events
alcohol dehydrogenase and pyruvic acid decarboxylase to are:
catalyse the reaction. 1) complete oxidation of pyruvate by stepwise removal of H atoms
In muscle cell lactic acid is formed in presence of lactate leaving 3 CO2.
dehydrogenase. 2) Passing of e- To O2 with simultaneous synthesis of ATP.
In both reaction reducing agent is NADH + H+ The first step is done in chondrial matrix & another is on inner
In both type of fermentation less than 7 % of energy in membrane.
glucose is released and not all of it is trapped as high Pyruvate first undergo oxidative decarboxylation in presence of
energy bonds of ATP. pyruvate dehydrogenase. (Link reaction)
Yeast poison themselves to death when con. Of alcohol
reaches 13%
Aerobic respiration takes place in mitochondria.
 TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE

In step of conversion of OAA

to citrate citrate synthase
enzyme catalyse the Isomerase

process. & the next step is AFI

catalysed by isomerase.
Uptil now 2 ATP, NADH & 2
FADH are synthesised.

Credits for this diagram goes to BYJU’S

platform

ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM & OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

Respiratory balance sheet

t I
Assumption made for calculating net gain are: But these are not valid in living system. But then
1) sequential, orderly pathway functioning. also there is net gain of 38 ATP molecules. During
2) NADH synthesised in glycolysis undergoes aerobic respiration while in anaerobic respiration
oxidative phosphorylation. net gain is of 2 ATP.
3) none of intermediate in the pathway are NADH is oxidised to NAD+ rather slowly in
utilised to synthesise other compounds. fermentation but reaction is vigorous in aerobic
4) only glucose is being respired, no other respiration. (In fermentation only partial
alternative enters pathway. breakdown occurs)

Amphibolic pathway
✓ →
But was traditionally called catabolic.
Glucose is favoured substrate for respiration.
When organism need fatty acid then acetyl
CoA must be withdrawn from pathway.
Similarly breakdown & synthesis of protein
too respiratory intermediates from the link.
 Respiratory quotient

For proteins RQ = 0.9

(For carbohydrate) (For fat

(tripalmitin)
 Plant growth & development
Development = growth + differentiation

Growth Growth is measurable

Irreversible permanent increase in size of
Growth may be considered as increase in amount of protoplasm.
an organ, or its parts or even of an
It can be measured in terms of increase in fresh weight, dry weight,
individual cell. (Occur at expense of energy)
length, area, volume, cell no.
Accompanied by metabolic process. Eg-
Single maize root apical give rise to more than 17,500 cells per hour.
expansion of leaf growth.
Watermelon cells may increase in size by upto 3,50,000 times.
Growth in pollen tube is measured by length. In dicot leaf it is
measured by surface area.
Plant growth generally is
indeterminate Shoot apical meristem —> primary growth (elongation of axis)
Dicots & gymnosperms —> lateral meristem
Unlimited growth in plants due to —> vascular cambium (appear later in life)
presence of meristems. —> cork cambium
New cells are added always hence it is
termed as open form of growth.

Phases of growth
Meristematic phase (have abundant plasmodesmata), elongation (vacuolation & formation of new cell wall takes place),
and maturation phase (proximal to elongation, attains maximum size, wall thickening, protoplasmic modification, most of
tissue & cell type.

Growth rates
Increased growth per unit
time is termed as growth rate.
V v

Arithmetic growth Geometric growth

Follows mitotic cell division & only 1 cell continue to divide Initial growth is slow (lag), & it increases rapidly thereafter
while other differentiates and matures. Linear curve is at an exponential rate (log or exponential phase).
obtained on l-t graph. Here both progeny cells following mitotic cell division retain
the ability to divide and continue to do so.
With limited nutrient supply the growth slows down leading
Here r is relative growth rate i.e. referred as efficiency to stationary phase.
index which is also a measure of the ability of the plant to Sigmoid curve is obtained.
produce new plant material. Hence final size depends on
initial size.

Quantitive comparison b/w 2 living system:-

1) Absolute growth rate- total growth per unit time comparison.
2) Relative growth rate- growth per unit time expressed on common basis.

Conditions for growth

Water(cell enlargement, turgidity) , O2, nutrients and optimum temp. Are important and any deviation from optimum temperature is
detrimental to its survival.
growth & further developments linked to water status.
Nutrients help in synthesis of protoplasm.
Environmental signals like light, gravity also affect phases/stages of life.

Differentiation, Dedifferentiation & redifferentiation

e v v v

Cells of meristem differentiate Differentiated cells regain Dedifferentiated Growth in plantscan be

to form mature cells called capacity to divide is called cells again loose indeterminate or determinate &
differentiation. Eg- to form dedifferentiation. Eg- formation of capacity to divide differentiation is also open.
tracheary element, protoplasm meristems - interfascicular (from is called Differentiation also depends upon
is lost, strong, elastic, differentiated plant parenchyma) redifferentiation. locations. Cells away from apex
lignocellulosic secondary walls cambium & cork cambium from Eg- woody dicot formed root cap & cell towards
develop to handle extreme parenchyma cells. tissues. periphery formed epidermis.
tension.
 Development
It includes all the changes that an organism goes through during life cycle.
PLASTICITY- plants follow different pathways in response to environment or phases of life to form different kind
of structures.
Eg- heterophylly in cotton, coriander & larkspur.
Heterophylly due to environment in buttercup.

Plant growth regulators / phytohormones

i
-

[1] characteristics [2] the discovery of plant growth regulators-

They could be indole
compounds (indole-3- AUXIN- charles darwin& francis darwin saw phototropism in coleoptile od canary
acetic acid, IAA); Adenine grass. FW Went isolated auxin from coleoptile of oat seedlings. ( site of transmittable
derivative (N6- influence)
furfurylamino purine, GIBBERELIN- bakane (foolish seedling) disease of rice seedling was cause by fungal
kinetin); caroteinoid pathogen giberella fujikuroi. E Karosawa in 1926 detected that it was giberrelic acid
derivatives (ABA), Terpene substance. (Symptoms appear when treated with sterile filtrate of fungi).
(giberrelic acid, GA3) or KINETIN (cytokinin)- F skoog found that cell division (proliferation of callus) in
gases (ethylene, C2H4) tobacco internode take place only if with auxin, extraction of vascular tissue, yeast,
PGR may be growth coconut milk or DNA is added. Skoog & miller named it as kinetin after crystallising it.
promoter. Eg- auxin, Callus is mass of undifferentiated cells.
gibberellin, cytokinin ABCISSIC ACID (ABA)- during mid 1960’s 3 researcher discovered inhibitor B,
Or may be growth inhibitor. abscission II & Dormin which were collectively named as abscissic acid (ABA).
Eg- absiccic acid, ethylene ETHYLENE- cousins confirmed release of volatile substance in ripened orange that
(90%) ripens the banana which was later known as ethylene.

[3] physiological effects of plant growth regulators-

Auxins Giberellins Cytokinins Ethylene

> First isolated from human
urine. > there are 100s of giberrelin > discovered as purine > synthesised by tissue
> IAA & Indole butyric acid (IBA) (GA1, GA2, GA3…) out of i.e. kinetin from undergoing senescence &
have been isolated from plant. which GA3 is most studied. autoclaved herring sperm ripening fruits
> NAA (Napthalene acetic acid) All are acidic. DNA which does not > horizontal growth of
& 2,4-D (dichlorophenoxy acetic > increase in length of grape occur naturally in plants. seedlings, swelling of the axis.
acid) are synthetic auxins. stalk > naturally it is found as > apical hook formation in dicot
These are used in agriculture & > improve shape of apple zeatin in corn- kernels & seedlings
horticulture practices. > delay senescence coconut milk > promotes abscission of
> used for plant propagation. > speed up malting & > found in rapidly dividing leaves, flowers.
> promote flowering in brewing cell zone (root, shoot > increase respiratory rate i.e.
pineapple > increase production in apice, young fruit) respiratory climatic
> used in tea plantation & hedge sugarcane as 20 tone/acre > helps to produce new > breaks seed/bud dormancy
making > hastens maturity period in leaves, chloroplast, > initiate germination in peanut
> causes apical dominance & to juvenile conifers (early seed lateral shoot growth. seeds.
overcome it decapitation is production) > adventitious root > sprouting of potato tubers
done. > promote bolting in beet, formation > promote elongation of
> induce parthenocarpy in cabbage & many plants with > overcome apical internode & in petiole also in
tomatoes. rosette dominance deep water rice plants which
> used as herbicides > increases length along > promote nutrient helps leaves & stem to remain
> 2,4 D used to kill dicot weeds axis. mobilisation above water.
but not affect monocot plant. > delay of leaf > promote root hair formation.
> control xylem differentiation senescence. > initiate flowering & for
> cell division. synchronising fruit set in
pineapple.
> induce flowering in mango.
> most used ethylene is
ethephon which is aquous
Abscissic acid solution readily absorbed by
plant & releases ethylene
> regulate abscission & dormancy slowly.
> inhibits seed germination > ethephon induce fruit ripening
> stimulates closure of stomata & is a stress hormone in tomato & apple & accelerates
> by inducing dormancy it helps seed to withstand dessication abscission in flower & fruits
> ABA acts as antagonist to GA’s (thinning of cotton, cherry,
walnut)
>promotes female flowers in
cucumber thereby increases
yield.
> most used PGR in agriculture.
 Photoperiodism Seed dormancy
Response of plants to period of day/night is termed as
photoperiodism. It is under control of endogenous conditions.
Duration of dark holds same importance as night. To
detect the light leaves are used on a hormone is sent to REASONS-
site of flowering. > Impermeable hard seed coat.
> presence of chemical inhibitor such as ABA,
phenolic acid, para-ascorbic acid.
> immature embryo.
Vernalisation
Prevents precocious reproductive development. HOW TO OVERCOME SEED DORMANCY?
Flowering either quantitatively / qualitatively depend on > by mechanical abrasions using knife, sand paper,
low temperature. etc or vigorous shaking. Naturally these abrasions
Enables plant to have sufficient time to reach maturity. are provided by microbial action, passage through
Wheat, barley have 2 varieties (winter & spring) digestive tract of animal.
If winter variety is grown in spring then it may fail to > by chilling or treating with GA or nitrates.
flower hence they are planted in autumn. But spring > changing environmental conditions such as light &
variety is better. Winter variety is harvested in mid temperature.
summer.
Another example-> biennials (monocarpic plants) that
normally flower & die in the sec. season. Eg- sugarbeet,
cabbage, carrot.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 F-
I

Digestion and Absorption

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF FOOD PROVIDES WATER IS NEEDED FOR? Digestion
FOOD Energy and organic Both mechanical and
Carbohydrate Metabolic processes &
→ →
Proteins materials for growth biochemical process in
prevents from dehydration
→ Fats →
Vitamins and minerals & repair of tissues which bio
↳ Small quantities 2 macromolecules are
broken down in simple
absorbable substance.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
v v

Alimentary canal Associated glands

Begins with mouth,
buccalcavity/oralcavity
which contains teeth &
muscular tongue.

s
Teeth
Muscular tongue
Heterodont Freely movable,
Thecodont Diphyodont
>different attached to floor by
>teeths are >present in majority frenulum & upper
types of teeth
embedded in of mammals surface of tongue have
the socket of >two sets of ~incisor projections called as
jaw bone teeth in life span ~canine papillae (have taste
~premolar buds)
~molar

Temporary/decidious Permanent
For children For adult
2123
____
2123
Dental
formula

Hard chewing surface of teeth made up of

enamel helps in mastication of food

Then comes the short pharynx which is

common passage for food & air
v v

Air (trachea or wind pipe) Food(oesophagus->thin & long)

Epiglottis prevents entry of Post. passing through neck,thorax,diaphragm
food into wind pipe during
swallowing Opens into stomach via muscular
gaestro-oesophageal sphincter

:
Stomach is a J shaped organ at upper
left portion of abdominal cavity
v v
Contains 4 major portion Pyloric sphincter guards the
cardiac, fundic, body (main opening of stomach into 1st
central) & pyloric (opens into part of small intestine
small intestine).

Then comes the small intestine

3 parts:- duodenum (c shaped), middle

jejunum(long coiled) , ileum (highly coiled)
 I
Ileum opens into large intestine

a <

Caecum Colon Rectum

(Small blind sac 1. Ascending
which hosts 2. Transverse
symbiotic 3. Descending
microorganisms) 4. Sigmoid
Vermiform And then it leads
appendix(narrow finally to anus
finger like tubular
projection) arises
from here which is
vestigial

Walls of alimentary canal

All 4 layers show modification in
different parts of alimentary canal

V V V V

Serosa Muscularis Sub mucosa Mucosa

> outermost layer, > inner circular > with Innermost
made of thin > oblique in some nerves,blood,lymph Lines the lumen of
mesothelium with regions vessels canal
some connective > outer > made of loose It contains
tissue longitudinal connective tissue irregular folds in
Mesothelium is the > made of stomach & villi in
epithelium of smooth muscles small intestine.
visceral organs.

V V

Villi have no. Of capillaries & large lymph vessels called lacteals. MICROVILLI
*mucosal epi. has goblet cells which secrete mucus & helps in Formed by cells lining villi.
lubrication Gives brush border
*mucosa forms glands in stomach i.e. gastric glands appearance and increase
*and crypts b/w base of villi in intestine is called crypts of lieberkuhn surface area.
*duodenum glands are present in submucosa

Digestive glands

V V V

Salivary glands Liver Pancreas

Compound gland,
Three pairs:- Largest gland(1.2-1.5kg) situated b/w limbs of
> parotid Just below diaphragm duodenum. Its
> sub maxillary (abdominal cavity) endocrine part
> submandibular It have 2 hepatic lobes or lobules releases alkaline
> sublingual (str. & functional unit) pancreatic juice
Outside the buccal cavity containing enzymes &
& secrete salivary juice. It have hepatic cells in form of
cords & covered by thin connective endocrine part
tissue sheath c/a glisson’s capsule. secretes hormones,
Secrete bile in hepatic duct which insulin, glucagon.
is stored in gall bladder which is
thin muscular sac.
Cystic duct from gall bladder joins
with hepatic duct to form common
bile duct and which further joins
with pancreatic duct to form
hepatopancreatic duct which
enters duodenum guarded via
sphincter of oddi.
 DIGESTION OF FOOD
It is both mechanical & biochemical

V V V
In buccal cavity Gastric glands Small intestine
Mastication of food with teeth
& tongue, facilitation of Various types of movements by
Mucus neck Peptic/chief cell Parietal/oxyntic
swallowing. Digestion is muscularis & mixes bile juice, pancreatic
cells secrete secrete cell secrete HCl
initiated. juice & secretion from small intestine
mucus proenzyme & castle intrinsic
Saliva contains electrolytes with the food.
pepsinogen factor (needed
(Na+, K+ , Cl-, HCO3-), The pancreatic juice contains inactive
for absorption of
Enzymes, salivary amylase, enzymes, trypsinogen,
vit B12)
lysozyme (antibacterial chymotrypsinogen,
agent and prevents procarboxypeptidase, amylase, lipase,
Food in stomach is stored for 4-5 hours & then called nucleases
infection) chyme. Food is mixed with acidic gastric juice via Trypsinogen in presence of entrokinase
churning movement of its muscular walls. (by intestinal mucosa) is converted into
trypsin which further activates other
Pepsinogen + HCl Pepsin(active proteolytic
enzymes
>

Enzyme)
Bile juice contains bile pigments bilirubin
& biliverdin, bile salts, cholesterol,
Proteins
pepsin Proteoses + peptones
>
phospholipids, no enzymes!. It activates
lipases & perform emulsification of fat in
Mucus & bicarbonate provides lubrication & small micelles.
protection of mucosal epithelium from excorication Intestinal juice:- mucosal epithelium have
(pH of stomach- 1.8) goblet cells and forms the succus
entericus or intestinal juice. It have
Rennin (proteolytic enzyme) in infants help in milk disaccharidases, dipeptidases, lipases,
proteins digestion. Small amount of lipase also secreted nucleosidases, mucus & bicarbonate
by gastric glands but no amylase. (pancreas) protect intestinal mucosa &
provide alkaline medium (pH 1.8) for
enzymes. Submucosal brunners gland
also help in this.

The food is absorbed in jejunum & ileum. And undigested & unabsorbed
food is sent to large intestine. Large intestine doesn’t have significant
digestive activity hence absorption of water, minerals & drugs take place.
It also secrete mucus which adheres waste for easy passage.

Regulation
It is under both neural & hormonal control.
*Sight, smell presence of food secretes saliva
*gastric and intestinal tract are under neural signals
*muscular activities of diff. Parts are under neural mechanism (local or
by CNS
*digestive juices[hormonal control]
*local hormones=gastric and intestinal mucosa

ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS

End products of digestion are absorbed into blood/lymph via
intestinal mucosa. Maximum absorption takes place in small intestine.

Absorption *Transport of water depends

← t → on osmotic gradient
Passive Active Facilitated *fatty acids and glycerol
Conc. Gradient Requires energy Carrier proteins (insoluble) can’t be absorbed
into blood
t t t *incorporated into small
droplets c/a micelles
Glucose,amino Amino Glucose, *micelles in intestinal mucosa
acids, acids,glucose, Amino acids reformed into chylomicrons
Some Na+ (very small protein coated fat
electrolytes globules) which are further
into blood
Cl~ transported into lacteals via
*
villi which further deport them
may into blood stream
 ASSIMILATION The absorbed substance reaches tissues which utilises them

The rectum produces neural reflex & thus egestion of faeces through anal opening
(defaecation) takes place. It is a voluntary process carried out by mass peristalsis
movement.

Jaundice
Inflammation Constipation
Liver is affected.
It is most common Skin, eyes are *Faeces is

: :
ailment in intestinal tract yellow due to retained within
& can be caused by disposition of bile colon
parasites of intestine pigments. *bowel mov.
like tapeworm, Occur

:
roundworm, pinworm, irregularly
hookworm.

DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM-

Vomiting Indigestion
*Food is not properly
*Ejection of stomach digested
content via mouth and Diarrhoea
*feeling of fullness
controlled by vomit *due to inadequate
*Abnormal
centre in medulla enzymes
frequency of bowel
*a reflex action secretion,anxiety,food
mov.
*feeling of nausea poisoning,over eating and
*increase liquidity
in faecus spicy food
*less absorption
NCERT diagrams for reference
 Breathing and exchange of gases
Process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the
cells is called breathing/ respiration (physical, chemical & biological process).

Respiratory organs

V v v v V
Lower invertebrates Earthworms use Aquatic arthropods Vascularised bags Among vertebrates
like sponges, their moist cuticle (prawns/ called lungs fishes use gills-
coelenterates, & insects have a crustachians) and (pulmonary amphibia, reptilia,
flatworms breath over network of tubes molluscs use respiration) are use birds, mammals
their entire body (tracheal tubes) to vascularised by terrestial forms. use lungs.
surface. transport structures called Frogs can respire
atmospheric air gills (branchial through their skin
within the body. respiration) (cutaneous
respiration)

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

External nostrils —> nasal passage —> nasal chamber —> pharynx (nasopharynx) —> larynx region in trachea —> trachea
divides at 5th vertebra (thoracic) into right & left primary bronchi —> secondary & tertiary bronchi & bronchioles—> terminal
bronchioles (thin) —> irregular walled vascularised bag like structure called alveoli (the branching network of bronchi,
bronchioles & alveoli comprise the lungs)

Trachea primary, secondary, We have 2 lungs - double layered called as pleural

Larynx is a cartilaginous
tertiary bronchi and initial membrane with pleural fluid filled b/w them. It reduces
box helps in sound
bronchioles are supported by friction on the lung surface the outer pleural membrane is in
production & hence
incomplete cartilaginous rings. contact with the thoracic lining whereas the inner layer is in
called the sound box.
contact with the lung surface.

Respiratory system

CONDUCTING PART
RESPIRATORY/ EXCHANGE PART
(External nostrils to terminal bronchioles)
e (Alveoli & their ducts)
>
> Conducts atmospheric air to alveoli
> clears foreign particles > site of actual diffusion of O2
> humidifies air & CO2 b/w blood &
> brings air to body temperature atmospheric air.

V
V
Any change in the volume of the
Lungs are situated in the thoracic cavity will be reflected in
thoracic chamber which is an lung (pulmonary) cavity. It is very
anatomically air tight chamber. important as we cannot directly
alter the pulmonary volume.

<
Steps of respiration v

Breathing (intake of O2 Utilisation of O2 by cells in

& exhalation of CO2) deriving energy and
release of CO2 (cellular
V V
v
Diffusion of respiration)
Diffusion of gases Transport of
across alveolar gases b/w
gases by the blood &
membrane blood tissues.
 Mechanism of breathing
Pressure gradient b/w lungs & atmosphere

r v

Inspiration Expiration
We have ability to increase the
strength of breathing with the > alveolar air is released out.
1) Atmospheric air is moved in help of additional muscles in
2) there is a negative pressure in the lungs with > intrapulmonary pressure is higher
abdomen. Healthy man
respect to atmospheric pressure. breaths 12-16 times per than the atmospheric pressure.
3) diaphragm contracts (increases volume of minute. The volume of air > relaxation of diaphragm and the
anterio posterior axis) involved in breathing intercostal muscle return to their
movements can be estimated original position & reduce the
4) external intercostal muscles contract & ribs/ by using spirometer helps in
sternum moves upwards which increases volume clinical assessment of
thoracic volume.
of the thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis. pulmonary functions. > intrapulmonary pressure is
5) intrapulmonary pressure is decreased. increased
> causes expulsion of air from the
lungs.

Respiratory volumes & capacities

L L v v V s

TIDAL VOLUME(TV)- EXPIRATORY RESIDUAL INSPIRATORY EXPIRATORY

INSPIRATORY
Volume of air RESERVE VOLUME VOLUME (RV)- CAPACITY (IC)- CAPACITY (EC)-
RESERVE VOLUME
inspired or expired (ERV)- Volume of air Total volume of Total volume of
(IRV)-
during a normal Additional volume of remaining in air a person can air a person can
Additional volume of
respiration. It is air a person can lungs even inspire after a expire after a
air, a person can
approx 500ml. i.e. expire forcefully. after forceful normal expiration. normal
inspire by a forcible
healthy man can This averages expiration. Sum of tidal inspiration. Sum
inspiration. This
inspire or expire 1000ml to 1100ml. This averages volume and of total tidal
averages 2500 ml to
approximately 6000 1100 to inspiratory volume &
3000 ml.
to 8000 ml per 1200ml. reserve volume. Expiratory
minute. (TV+IRV). reserve volume
(TV+ERV).

FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY (FRC)- VITAL CAPACITY (VC)- TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY-
volume of air that will remain in lungs after Maximum volume of air a Total volume of air accomodated in the
a normal expiration. This includes ERV+RV. person can breath in or out lungs at the end of a forced inspiration.
after a forced expiration/ Includes RV, ERV, TV, IRV or VC+RV
inhalation. Includes
ERV+TV+IRV.

Exchange of gases

v v v

It is based on pressure and Pressure contributed by an As the solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher
concentration gradient. individual gas in a mixture of gases than that of O2, the amount of CO2 that can
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE- is known as partial pressure and is diffuse through the diffusion membrane per unit
solubility of gases, thickness denoted as pO2 & pCO2 for O2 & difference in partial pressure is much higher
of membrane. CO2 respectively. compared to that of O2.

DIFFUSION MEMBRANE
IS MADE OF 3 LAYERS
v

J Its total thickness is less than 1mm. Hence every

Thin squamous L u
Basement condition is favourable for respiration in our body.
epithelium of Endothelium of substance b/w
alveoli alveolar capillaries them
 Transport of gases
v v

Transport of O2 Transport of CO2

Oxygen - 97% by RBC + 3% by Plasma CO2 - 70% by bicarbonate + 20-25% by RBC + 7% By plasma

Oxygen bind with Hb to form oxyhaemoglobin CO2 carried by Hb (20-25%) thus carbamino haemoglobin is
(reversible reaction). Then each Hb molecule carries 4 formed.
O2 molecules.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR BINDING OF Hb WITH Conditions for formation of carbaminohaemoglobin - high
O2: PCO2, less pO2 in tissues.
pO2, pCO2, hydrogen ion concentration, temperature. Conditions for dissociation of Carbaminohaemoglobin - less
pCO2, High pO2 in alveoli.
Oxygen dissociation curve is sigmoid in shape (graph b/ RBC Contain a very high concentration of enzyme carbonic
w % saturation of Hb with O2 against O2. anhydrase and some quantity in plasma too. Hence the
following reaction takes place.
Factors favourable for the formation of oxyhemoglobin-
In alveoli high pO2, less pCo2, less H+, less temp.
Factors responsible for breaking of HbO2-
In tissues less pO2, high pCO2, High H+, high At tissue the reaction forward in right direction and at alveoli
temperature. reaction forward in opposite direction.
Every 100ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around Every 100ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately 4ml
5ml of O2 to tissues. of CO2 to the alveoli.

Regulation of Respiration
Performed by neural system
Respiratory rythm centre present in the medulla is responsible for the regulation.
Another centre present in the pons region of the brain called pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of the
respiratory rythm.
Neural signal from this centre can reduce the duration of inspiration and thereby alter the respiratory rate.
A chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the rythm centre which is highly sensitive to CO2 and H+ ion increase in these
substance can activate this center which in turn can signal the rythm centre to make necessary adjustment in the respiratory
process by which these substance can be eliminated.
Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also recognise changes in CO2 & H+ conc. And send necessary
signals to the rhythm centre for remedial actions the role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite
insignificant.

Disorders of respiratory system

v v
e

Asthama Emphysema Occupational respiratory disorder

Chronic (cannot be easily cured) In stone breaking industry, so much dust is produced,
Difficulty in breathing
disorder in which alveolar walls long exposure can give rise to inflammation leading to
causing wheeziness due
are damaged due to which fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissue) and causes
to inflammation of
respiratory surface is decreased. serious lung damage.
bronchi & bronchioles.
Reason is cigarette smoking. Workers in such industries should wear protective
masks.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 Body fluids and circulation
Simple organisms like sponges and coelenterates circulate water from their surroundings
through their body cavities to facilitate the cells to exchange these substances.

Blood
(Fluid matrix + plasma + formed elements)

v v

Plasma Formed elements

Constitute 45% of blood
Straw coloured, viscous fluid
constituting nearly 55% of blood.
Plasma = 90-92% water + 6-8% r r
proteins.
Fibrinogen (for blood clotting), Erythrocytes/ RBC Thrombocytes/platelets
globulin (primary defense Most abundant of all cells in blood. Cell fragments produced by
mechanism), albumin (help in Healthy man have 5 million RBC Per mm3 of megakaryocytes (special
osmotic balance) are major proteins. blood. cells in the bone marrow).
Plasma also contain small amount of Formed in red bone marrow. They are devoid of 1,500,00- 3,500,00 platelets
minerals like Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, nucleus, biconcave in shape, have coloured per mm3 of blood.
HCO3-, Cl-, etc. Glucose, amino protein (complex) called haemoglobin. Healthy Release variety of
acids, lipids are also present. 13 individual have 12-16 gm of haemoglobin in substance involved in
clotting factors are also present in every 100ml of blood. Life span of 120 days. clotting or coagulation of
an inactive form. Plasma without They are destroyed in spleen (graveyard of blood.
clotting factors is called serum. RBC).

Leucocytes/ WBC
Colourless, nucleated (6000-8000 per mm3 of blood), short lived.

e s
GRANULOCYTES AGRANULOCYTES

e v
s V
Neutrophils g
Basophil Lymphocytes Monocyte
Most abundant Eosinophil Phagocytic cell
Least (0.5-1%) Involved in
among WBC Resist infections
Secrete histamine, immune
(60-65%) and associated
serotonin, heparin & response of
phagocytic cell with allergic
are involved in body.
reaction
inflammatory
reaction.
r v
B-Lymphocytes T-Lymphocytes
(First affected in aids)

BLOOD GROUPS

r v

ABO grouping Rh- grouping

Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus Monkey is also
Based on presence or absence of 2 surface observed on the surface of RBC of nearly 80% humans such
antigens (chemicals that can induce immune individuals are called Rh positive and rest are called as Rh -ve.
response) on RBC namely A & B. Similarly, the If Rh+ve blood is transferred to Rh -ve person then production of
plasma of different individuals contain 2 natural antibodies against antigen take place (hence we need to take care
antibodies. (Proteins produced in response to of it)
antigens). During the blood transfusion if wrong Incompatibility case of Rh -ve blood of a pregnant mother with Rh
blood is transferred then clumping (destruction of +ve blood of foetus.
RBC) may take place. The first child can be delivered successfully but during delivery of
first child there is possibility of exposure-of maternal blood to
small amount of Rh +ve blood from foetus. In case of her further
pregnancies the Rh antibodies from the mother can leak into the
blood of the foetus and destroy the foetal RBC. This can cause
anaemia, jaundice to baby.
This condition is called as erythroblastosis foetalis. It can be
avoided by providing anti Rh- antibodies to the mother after
delivery of 1st child.
 Coagulation of blood Lymph (tissue fluid)
Colourless fluid containing lymphocytes which are
Clot is formed mainly of a network of threads called fibrins in
responsible for immune responses. Lymph is also an
which dead & damaged formed elements of blood are
important carrier for nutrients, hormones, fats are absorbed
trapped.
through lymph in lacteals present in intestinal villi.
Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens in
As blood passes in blood vessels —> many substance are
the plasma by the enzyme thrombin (formed from
left in tissue, cell —> tissue fluid/ interstitial fluid —>
prothrombin). Thrombokinase enzyme complex is required for
exchange of nutrient, gases occur by this fluid —> lymphatic
above reaction. Which is formed by cascade process involving
system takes this fluid and deliver it to major veins —> now
a no. Of factors present in plasma in inactive state.
it is known as lymph.
Ca2+ & Vit K are very important for clotting.

Circulatory pathways

CIRCULATORY PATTERNS
OPEN CLOSED
w
L > blood flow is more
> blood is pumped into open/ free
spaces called sinuses. advantageous as the flow of fluid
> Eg- arthropods, molluscs can be more precisely regulated.
R > Eg- annelida, chordates.

r r

Fishes (single circulation)

Amphibian/ reptiles (incomplete double circulation)
Deoxygenated blood is pumped by heart —>
through gills oxygenated blood is taken to all body Oxygenated blood from left atria & deoxygenated blood from right
parts —> deoxygenated blood is collected & atria goes into single ventricle & mixed blood is circulated.
transferred to heart. Crocodile have 4 chambered heart in reptiles (exception).

Human circulatory system

v
v

Heart Nerve impulse initiation and

conduction in heart
Mesodermal in origin, size Atria’s are separated by thin
equal to clenched fist. inter atrail septum and A specialised cardiac Bundle of nodal fibres (AV
Protected by double walled ventricles are separated by musculature called the bundle) continues from
membranous bag, thick interventricular septum. nodal tissue is present in AVN passes through AVS
pericardium enclosing Atrium and ventricles are the heart. A patch of this & emerge on the top of
pericardial fluid. Atria are separated by atrioventricular tissue is present in the interventricular septum &
smaller than ventricles. septum. upper right corner of the divide into right & left
right atrium called sino- bundle. Branches give
The opening of the right & left atrial node (SAN). Another rise to minute fibres
Right ventricle and
ventricles into the pulmonary mass of this tissue is seen throughout the
auricle are joined with
artery & aorta respectively in the lower left corner of ventricular musculation
3 muscular flaps or
are provided with semilunar the right atrium close to and are called as purkinje
cusps, tricuspid valve
valve. atrioventricular septum fibres.
and bicuspid or mitral
Heart is made of cardiac called the atrioventricular
valve guards opening
muscle & walls of ventricles node (AVN).
b/w left atrium &
ventricle. are thicker than that of aorta.
The nodal musculature has ability to generate action
potential without external stimuli i.e. autoexcitable. No. Of
action potential generated in 1 minute vary at different
parts of the nodal system. SAN is also known as pace
maker which generates action potential 70-75 per minute
which is responsible for normal heart beat rate i.e. 72 times
per minute.

CARDIAC CYCLE

v v v
First the atria and ventricles are AVN & AV bundles transfer the The ventricles now relax (ventricular
in joint diastole that is relaxed all potential to ventricle. This bundle of diastole) and because of it
tri/bicuspid valves are open. his transfers it to whole ventricular semilunar valve get closed and bi/
(Semilunar valves are closed) musculature. tricuspid valves get opened by
SAN generates action potential Because of this the ventricles undergo pressure of blood from atria. The
which tells atria to undergo contraction (ventricular systole) the blood once again move freely into
contraction (atrial systole) hence atria undergo relaxation (diastole) ventricles and the process
flow of blood in ventricles coinciding with ventricular systole. continues.
increases by 30%. Joint systole is never possible.
 This sequential event in the heart which is clinically repeated is called the cardiac cycle & it consists of systole & diastole of
both atria and ventricles.
Duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 sec.

The cardiac output of an athlete will be much higher than that of an

STROKE VOLUME- CARDIAC OUTPUT- ordinary man.
During a cardiac cycle Stroke volume x heartrate / During each cardiac cycle two prominent sound are produced.
each ventricle pumps volume pumped by ventricle 1) LUB (closure of tri/bicuspid valves)
70ml of blood which is in 1 minute. 2) DUB (closure of semilunar valve)
called as stroke volume. For healthy person it is 5L. These sounds are of clinical diagnostic significance which can be
easily heard by stethoscope.

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)

v v v v
It is a machine & is used to Patient is connected to the P wave represents the electrical T wave represents the
obtain a electrocardiogram. machine with 3 electrical excitation (or depolarisation) of repolarisation of ventricles (i.e.
ECG is a graphical leads (2 at wrists and third atria (contraction of atria). return to normal state)
representation of electrical at left ankle) for a detailed QRS complex represents the The end of T wave marks the end
activity of the heart during evaluation multiple leads depolarisation of ventricles of systole.
a cardiac cycle. are attached to the chest (ventricular contraction) One can determine heart rate by
region. Q marks the beginning of systole. counting no. Of QRS complex.

Double circulation
v
HISTOLOGY OF BLOOD VESSELS
v
A unique vascular connection exists b/w the digestive tract and liver
C s
v called the hepatic portal system. The hepatic portal vein carries blood
Tunica intima Tunica media Tunica externa from intestine to the liver before it is delivered to the systemic
(inner lining of (middle layer of (outer layer of circulation. A special coronary system of blood vessels is present in
squamous smooth muscles fibrous connective our body exclusively for the circulation of blood to and from the
endothelium) & elastic fibres) tissue with collagen cardiac musculature.
It is thin in veins. fibres)

Regulation of cardiac activity

Human heart is myogenic because it is auto regulated by special muscles (nodal tissue). A special neurL centre in the
medulla oblongata can moderate the cardiac function through autonomic nervous system.
Neural signals from sympathetic nerves (part of ANS)) can increase heart rate, the strength of ventricular contraction and
these by cardiac output. Parasympathetic neural signals (another component of ANS) decrease the rate of heart beat,
speed of conduction of action potential and thereby the cardiac output.
Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac activity.

DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

v v v V
Heart failure
High blood pressure/ Coronary artery Angina/angina
Heart is not pumping
hypertension disease(CAD) or pectoris efficiently to meet the body

Bl higher than normal

artherosclerosis Acute chest pain when requirements of O2.
there is not enough Sometimes called congestive
(120/80 mmHg) 120 is the Caused due to heart failure because
supply of O2 to heart
systolic or pumping pressure deposit of Ca, fat, congestion of lungs is one of
muscles. More common
& 80 is the diastolic or cholesterol & the main symptoms of this
in middle aged or elderly
resting pressure. If it fibrous tissue in disease.
people.
reaches to 140/90 or higher the vessel causing CARDIAC ARREST - heart
Occurs due to
then it is known as high Bp & lumen of arteries stops beating
conditions which affect
can cause heart diseases or narrower. HEART ATTACK - heart
blood flow.
can affect brain/kidney. muscle is suddenly damaged
by an inadequate blood
supply.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
Excretory products & their elimination

Ammonia (most toxic Many bony fishes, aquatic Mammals, many Reptiles, birds, land
and need high amounts amphibians & aquatic insects terrestrial amphibians snails & insects
of water for excretion), are ammonotelix in nature in & marine fishes mainly secrete nitrogenous
urea, uric acid (least which ammonium ion is excrete urea & are waste as uric acid in
toxic) are the major released from body surface or called ureotelic the form of pellet of
forms of nitrogenous gill surface kidneys do not animals. Ammonia in paste and are called
wastes excreted by the play a significant role in its liver by ornithine cycle uricotelic animals.
animals. removal. is converted to urea.

Protonephridia/flame cells are excretory Nephridia are the tubular Malphigian tubules are Antennal glands or
structures in platyhelmenthis (eg- excretory structures of present in insects green glands perform
planaria), rotifers, some annelids and earthworm & other (cockroach) which help the excretory
cephalochordates (amphioxus). annelids. Nephridia help in the removal of N2 function in
Protonephridia are primarily concerned to remove N2 waste & waste & crustaceans like
with ionic and fluid volume regulation i.e. maintain osmoregulation. osmoregulation. prawns.
osmoregulation.

Human excretory system

2 kidneys + 2 ureter + urinary bladder + urethra

v v v V

Kidneys are present b/w levels of Inner to hilum is a broad The cortex extends GLOMERULUS- tuft of
last thoracic & lumbar vertebrae funnel shaped space called in b/w the capillaries formed by
close to dorsal inner wall of the the renal pelvis with the medullary pyramids afferent arteriole (a fine
abdominal cavity. projections called calyces. as renal columns branch of renal artery) blood
Parameters -> 10-12 cm in Outer layer of kidney is tough called columns of is taken away by efferent
length, 5-7 cm width, 2-3 cm in capsule & 2 zone of internal bertini. arteriole.
thickness , avg wt. - 120-170gm. kidney- outer cortex & inner Each kidney have 1 RENAL TUBULE- begins with
Towards the centre of the inner medulla. Medulla is divided million nephron the cup. Bowman’s capsule
concave side of kidney is a notch into few conical masses (functional unit). (encloses glomerulus)
called hilum through which (medullary pyramids) Each nephron have Glomerulus and bowmans
ureter, blood vessels and nerves projecting into calyces. 2 parts (glomerulus capsule forms malphigian
enter. & renal tubule) body or renal corpuscle.

The tubules further grows to form a highly coiled network (proximal convulated tubule/ PCT) further a hairpin shaped
henle loop is present. Ascending limb continues to form distal convulated tubule (DCT). DCT’s of many nephron open
into a straight tube called collecting duct, many of which converge and open into the renal pelvis through medullary
pyramids in the calyces.
Malphigian corpuscle, PCT & DCT are situated in cortical region while henle loop dips into the medulla.

Nephrons are of 2 types

t >

CORTICAL
JUXTRA MEDULLARY
(Major nephrons)
The henle loop is short (Minor in no.)
Henle loop is long

The capillary network of efferent arterioles around renal tubule is called peritubular capillaries. The vessel
which runs parallel to henle loop is known as vasa recta (U- shaped). Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced
in cortical nephrons.
 URINE FORMATION

÷
Glomerular filtration Reabsorption Tubular secretion
On an average kidney filters 1100-1200ml of blood per minute Filtrate formed is 180l/
which constitute 1/5th of the blood pumped by heart in one Tubular cells
day but urine
minute. secrete substance
generated only 1.5 l per
The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of like H+, K+, NH3
day hence rest all is
blood through 3 layers i.e. endothelium of glomerular blood into filtrate as it
reabsorbed by renal
vessels, the epithelium of bowmans capsule & a basement helps in the
tubules. It can be
memb. b/w thse 2 layers. maintenance of
performed actively or
There are some slits or slip pores in b/w the podocyte cells ionic & acid base
passively by tubular
(epithelial cells of bowmans capsule) balance of body
epithelial cells in
All the components of plasma except proteins pass onto the fluids.
different segments.
lumen of bowmans capsule hence it is known as ultra filtration. For eg- glucose, amino
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (GFR) - amount of filtrate acid, Na+ are actively
formed by the kidneys per minute for healthy individual it is reabsorbed whereas
about 125 ml/min i.e. 180l/day. N2 waste are absorbed
JUXTA GLOMERULAR APPARATUS- mechanism for regulation by passive transport.
of GFR & it is located by cellular modification in the DCT & Reabsorption of H2O is
afferent arteriole joining. A fall in GFR can activate JG cells to also passive in initial
release renin which can stimulate the glomerular blood flow & segments of nephron.
thereby GFR back to normal.

FUNCTIONS OF THE TUBULES

Proximal convulated tubule (PCT) Henle’s loop

Lined by simple cuboidal brush border Reabsorption is minimum in ascending limb because
epithelium which increases area of absorption. this region plays important role in maintenance of high
Nearly all essential nutrients, 70-80% osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid. The

:
electrolytes and water are reabsorbed. It descending limb is permeable to water but impermeable
secretes H+, K+, NH3 in the filtrate and to electrolytes. The ascending limb is permeable for
Absorption of HCO3- is done. electrolyte but impermeable to water hence hypertonic
in descending limb & hypotonic in ascending limb.

Distal convulated tubule (DCT) Collecting duct

Extend from cortex to medulla. Large part of H2O is
Conditional reabsorption of Na+ & H2O > reabsorbed to produce a concentrated urine, this
Takes place. Reabsorption of HCO3- & allows passage of urea (little) into the medullary
secretion of H+, K+ & NH3 to maintain pH & interstitum to keep up the osmolarity it performs the
Na+, K+ balance in blood. secretion of H+, K+ ion for maintenance of H+ & ionic
balance in blood.

Mechanism of concentration of filtrate (Mammals)

✓ u

The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of henle loop Gradient is mainly caused by Nacl & urea. The transport
is in opposite direction and the flow of blood of substance facilitated by the special arrangement of
through the two limbs of vasa recta is also in a henle loop & vasa recta is called the counter current
counter current pattern. The proximity b/w henle mechanism.
loop & vasa recta as well as counter current in This helps to maintain a conc. gradient in the medullary
them help in maintaining an increasing interstitium which helps in an easy passage of water from
osmolarity towards the inner medullary the collecting tubule thereby concentrating the filtrate.
interstitium i.e. from 300 mOsmoL-1 in cortex to Human kidneys can produce urine nearly 4 times
1200 mOsmolL-1 in the inner medulla. concentrated than the initial filtrate formed.
 Regulation of kidney function
Regulated by hormonal feedback mechanisms involving
the hypothalamus, JGA & heart (little extent)

V v v v

ADH canals affect Falling glomerular blood flow/ BP/ GFR An increase in blood
Osmoregulators in the body are
the kidney function can activate the JG cells to release renin flow to the atria of
activated by changes in blood volume,
by its constrictory which converts angiotensinogen in blood heart can cause the
body fluid volume & ionic concentration
effects on blood to angiotensin I & angiotensin II. release of atrial
(for eg- an excessive loss of fluid.
vessels. This causes Angiotensin II (powerful vasoconstrictor) natriuretic factor
This stimulates hypothalamus to release
an increase in Bp, an increases glomerular Bp thereby GFR it (ANF) which causes
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or
increase in blood activates the adrenal cortex to release vasodilation and
vasopressin from neurohypophysis ADH
pressure can aldosterone which causes reabsorption thereby causes
facilitates reabsorption from later part
increase the of Na+ & H2O from the distal parts of decrease in BP.
of tubules hence prevents diuresis.
glomerular blood tubule. This also increase GFR. ANF mechanism acts
Increase in body fluid volume shut the
flow & thereby the THE MECHANISM IS KNOWN AS RENIN as a check on renin
osmoreceptors & suppress ADH release
GFR. ANGIOTENSIN MECHANISM. angiotensin
to complete the feedback.
mechanism.

Micturation Role of other organs in excretion

Urine is stored in urinary bladder until a voluntary signal is given by the Lungs remove 20pml CO2 per minute and also
central nervous system. This signal is initiated by the stretching of the significant quantity of water.
urinary bladder as it gets filled with urine in response, the stretch Liver secretes bile containing bilirubin,
receptors on the walls of the bladder send signals to the CNS. The CNS biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid
passes on motor messages to initiate the contraction of smooth muscles hormones, vitamins & drugs. These substance
of the bladder and simultaneous relaxation of the urethral sphincter pass through digestive tract.
causing the release of urine. This is known as micturation reflex. Sweat & subaceous gland in skin eliminate
An adult human excretes 1.5L- 1L urine per day. pH of urine is 6 and has a sweat (water + NaCl + urea + lactic acid) &
characteristic odour. 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per day. Analysis of (sterols, hydrocarbons, water) through sebum.
urine helps in clinical diagnosis of many metabolic disorders as well as Small amount of Nitrogenous waste could be
malfunctioning of the kidney. eliminated through saliva.
Eg- presence of glucose (glycosuria) & ketone bodies (ketonuria) in urine
are signs of diabetes mellitus.

Disorders of excretory system

Uremia Renal canaliculi

:
Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in Stone or insoluble mass of crystallised
blood which is highly harmful & may lead to kidney failure. salts (oxalates) formed within the kidney.
In such patients, urea can be removed by a process called
haemodialysis in which blood drained from a convenient artery is
pumped into a dialysing unit called artificial kidney after adding
an anticoagulant like heparin. The unit contains a coiled
cellophane tube surrounded by a fluid (dialysing fluid) having Glomerulonephritis
same composition that of plasma except the nitrogenous waste.
The cleared blood is pumped back to the body through a vein Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney
after adding anti heparin to it. This method is a boon for
thousand of uremic patients all over the world.
Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method in the correction of
acute renal (kidney) failures. A functioning kidney is used in
transplantation from a donor, preferably a close relative, to
minimise its chances of rejection by the immune system of the
host.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 Locomotion and Movement
> streaming of protoplasm in the unicellular organisms TYPES OF MOVEMENT
like amoeba is a simple form of movement.
> in paramaecium cilia helps in movement of food he & →
through cytopharynx and in Locomotion as well. AMOEBOID CILIARY MUSCULAR
> hydra can use its tentacles for capturing its prey and Eg-macrophages & Occur in Their
also use them for locomotion. leucocytes. internal organs contractile
> locomotion is generally for search of It is effected by which are lined property is
food,shelter,mate,suitable breeding grounds,favourable pseudopodia formed by by ciliated effectively
climate,escape from enemies. Method of locomotion streaming of epithelium. Eg- used for
depend on habitat & demand of situation. protoplasm. trachea(coordi locomotion or
Cytoskeletal elements nated), movement.
like microfilaments are fallopian duct Eg-limbs,jaw,
MUSCLE also involved in it. tongue
Flagellar movements help in the swimming of movement.
spermatozoa, maintenance of water current in the canal Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated activity
system of sponges and in locomotion of protozoans like of muscular,skeletal and neural systems.
euglena.
Muscle is a specialised tissue of mesodermal origin
(40-50% body wt. = muscle).
They are excitable,contractile,extensible and elastic.

TYPES OF MUSCLE

SKELETAL VISCERAL
CARDIAC
> striated,voluntary (under nervous system) > located in the inner walls of
> heart muscles, striated, branched and
> primary involved in locomotory action. hollow visceral organs (alimentary
involuntary in nature as the nervous
> skeletal components of the body. canal/respiratory tract)
system does not control their activities
> smooth,involuntary,non striated
directly.
> assist in transportation.

STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Skeletal muscle is made of a no. Of muscle bundles/fascicle held together by common collagenous connective tissue
layer called fascia. Each muscle bundle contains a no. Of muscle fibres. (Synctium => multinucleated)
Plasma membrane ——> sarcolemma
Cytoplasm ——> sarcoplasm
Endoplasmic reticulum ——> sarcoplasmic reticulum (store house of Ca2+)
They have large no. Of parallel arranged filaments called myofibrils or myofilaments.
Striated appearance is due to the distribution pattern of two important proteins -> ACTIN & MYOSIN.
The light bands contain actin and is called isotropic or I-Band. Whereas the dark band called A or Anisotropic band
contains myosin. Both the proteins are arranged rod like structures parallel to each other and also to the longitudinal axis
of the myofibrils, actin filaments are thinner as compared to myosin filaments.
Z line bisects I-band, mmade of elastic fibres and attaches thin filament. Thick filaments are held by M line.
SARCOMERE - functional unit of contraction/portion of myofibril b/w two successive Z line.
Central part of thick filament,not overlapped by thin filament is called the H zone.

STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEINS MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Each actin (thin) filament is made of two F (Sliding filament theory)
(filamentous) actins helically wound to each other. > sliding of thin filaments over thick filaments.
Each F actin is a polymer of monomeric G > muscle contraction is initiated by signal sent by CNS.
(globular) actins. Two filaments of another protein, > the junction b/w a motor neuron and & sarcolemma is called
tropomyosin also run close to F actins throughout neuromuscular junction or motor end plate.
its length. A complex protein troponin is distributed > neural signal releases acetylcholine
at regular intervals on the tropomyosin in resting > action potential is generated in sarcolemma.
state a subunit of troponin masks the active site for > it spreads through the muscle fibre & causes release of Ca2+ in
myosin on the actin filaments. the sarcoplasm.
Each myosin (thick) filament is polymerised protein > Ca2+ binds with troponin unmasking the binding site.
of monomers as meromyosin (cone thick filament) > using ATP myosin head binds to exposed active sites on actin to
Meromyosin —-> tail (light meromyosin) + short form cross bridge.
arm + globular head (heavy meromyosin) > z line are pulled inverts (shortening of sarcomere) i.e. contraction
The head and short arm projects outward at (A band are as it is only I band come closer)
regular distance and angle from each other from > new ATP binds and cross bridge is broken and the cycle
the surface of a polymerised myosin filament and continues till Ca2+ are pumped back to sarcoplasmic reticulum.
is known as cross arm. > masking again takes place, Z lines return to their position i.e.
Globular head has active site for ATP, Active relaxation.
ATP’ase enzyme and actin. Repeated activation of muscle may lead to formation of lactic acid
because of anaerobic break down of glycogen causing fatigue.
 MUSCLES
Red fibres White fibres
> myoglobin (red coloured O2 > myoglobin content is less
storing pigment) content is high > less amt. of mitochondria
> more amt. of mitochondria > do not use O2 for ATP production
> use O2 for ATP production > Amt. of sarcoplasmic reticulum
> aerobic muscles is high

SKELETAL SYSTEM
Bones have hard matrix due to Ca salts & cartilage have
slightly pliable matrix due to chondritin salts.
Total 206 bones are present in skeletal system
N
V

AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON

(80 bones) (126 Bones)
> 80 bones distributed along the main axis. > bones of limbs along with their girdles
> skull + vertebral column + sternum + ribs constitute the appendicular skeleton.
> each limb have 30 bones

Points regarding skeletal system

> SKULL(22 bones) = 8 Cranial bones + 14 facial bones
> single U shaped bone called hyoid is present at the base of buccal cavity. (Included in skull)
> each middle ear contains 3 tiny bones - Malleus incus and stapes (smallest) collectively called ear ossicles.
> the skull articulates with superior region of vertebral column with the help of 2 occipital condyles (dicondylic skull)
> vertebral column attaches ribs,supports head, protects spinal cord & musculature.
> our vertebral column is formed by 26 vertebrae (dorsally placed).
> each vertebra have neural canal (central hollow portion).
> atlas (1st vertebrae) articulates with occipital condyles.
> vertebral column = cervical (7) + thoracic (12) + lumbar (5) + sacral {(5)=1} + coccyx {(4)=1}
> sternum is a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax.
> 12 pair of ribs dorsally connected to vertebrae and ventrally to sternum
(Hence it is known as bicephalic)
> 12 pair of ribs = 7 true ribs + 3 false ribs (vertebrochondral ribs) + 2 floating ribs
> the bones of fore limb are humerus, radius,ulna,8 carpals(wrist bones),5 metacarpals(palm bones), 14 phalanges
(digits)
> bones of hind limb are femur (longest),tibia,fibula,7 tarsals (ankle bone),5 metatarsals,14 phalanges,1 cup shaped
patella over knee (knee cap)
> pectoral and pelvic girdle bones help in articulation of the upper and lower limbs respectively with axial skeleton.
> each girdle is formed of 2 halves.
> each half of pectoral girdle include clavicle(collar bone with 2 curvature)& scapula (triangular shaped dorsal flat
bone present b/w 2nd & 7th rib).
> the scapula has slightly elevated ridge called spine which forms acromion process (clavicle articulates with it).
Below acromion a depression glenoid cavity is present which articulates with the head of humerus to form shoulder
joint.
> pelvic girdle is formed of 2 coxal bones each is formed of 3 bones (ilium,pubis,ischium). At the point of fusion a
cavity acetabulum to which thigh bone articulates. 2 halves meef to form pubic symphysis (help in parturation)
ventrally containing fibrous cartilage.

JOINTS
Force generated by muscles is used ti carry movements
through joints where joint act as fulcrum.
L a →
Fibrous joints Cartilaginous joints Synovial joints
Do not allow any movement. Eg- joint b/w adjacent Characterised by fluid filled
Eg- sutures connected with vertebrae (permits little synovial cavity b/w bones.
fibrous connective tissue. movement) These joints helps in locomotion
(Flat skull bone)

v v v
v
v

BALL AND HINGE JOINT PIVOT JOINT GLIDING JOINT SADDLE JOINT
SOCKET JOINT Eg- knee joint Eg- b/w atlas Eg- b/w carpals Eg- b/w carpal
Eg- b/w humerus & & axis and metacarpal
pectoral girdle of thumb
 DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM
1) MYASTHENIA GRAVIS - auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue (weakening &
paralysis of skeletal muscle)
2) MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY- degeneration of skeletal muscle due to gene disorder
3) TETANI - less Ca2+ in body fluid hence rapid spasms (wild contraction)
4) ARTHRITIS - inflammation of joints
5) OSTEOPOROSIS - (age related disorder) decrease in bone mass and increase in bone fractures because of
decreased estrogen.
6) GOUT - inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
 Neural control and coordination
Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and complement the functions
of one another. All the organs must work in synchronised fashion under neural & endocrine system.
Neural system provides point to point connections for a quick coordination.

NEURAL SYSTEM
It is composed of neurons which can detect, receive &
transmit different kinds of stimuli. In hydra it is
composed of a network of neurons in insects a brain is
present along with a no. Of ganglia & neural tissues.
v v

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain & spinal cord which v Nerves of body associated with CNS
involve information processing i.e. afferent fibres (tissue to CNS)
Visceral nervous system and efferent fibres (CNS to tissue).
and control.
Include complexes of nerve
fibres ganglia or plexus relating
with viscera & CNS.

r J

NEURON Somatic nervous system Autonomous nervous system

> Structural and functional unit of neural Relays impulse from Transmits impulse from
system CNS to skeletal CNS to the involuntary
> composed of 3 parts - cell body, muscle organs & smooth muscles
dendrites, axon. Dendrites contain nissils
granules (modification of endoplasmic
reticulum).
> each branch of axon terminates into
V
synaptic knob (bulb like) which possess L
synaptic vesicles containing Sympathetic Parasympathetic
neurotransmitter.
They can be of 3 types on the basis of no.
nerve fibres nerve fibres
Of dendrites:- MULTIPOLAR (1 axon +
many dendrites & found in cerebral e They work e
cortex) or BIPOLAR (1axon + 1 dendrite antagonist
and found in retina of eye) or UNIPOLAR
(only axon and found in embryonic stage.
Neuron can be of 2 types on the basis of GENERATION AND CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
presence or absence of mylein sheath. Their membranes are in a polarised state. The ion channels are selectively
MYELINATED:- enveloped by shwann cells permeable to diff. ions. When the neuron is resting the axonemal memb. Is
which produce myelin sheath. They are more permeable to K+ & impermeable to Na+. Hence the membrane is
found in spinal and cranial nerves. They impermeable to negative charged proteins present in axoplasm. The axon
transfer the signal more faster. contains more K+ conc. & -vely charged proteins & less Na+ conc. The fluid
NON-MYELINATED:- enveloped by shwann outside contain less K+ & more Na+. Hence a conc. Gradient is formed
cells which do not produce myelin sheath. which is maintained by active pump which transports 3Na+ outward & 2K+
They are found in autonomous and inward. Hence outer membrane becomes +ve and inner -ve. The electric
somatic neural system. potential difference across the resting plasma memb. is known as resting
Gaps b/w two adjacent myelin sheath is potential. When a stimulus is applied the membrane becomes freely
known as node of ranvier. permeable to Na+ hence polarity is reversed. Hence the membrane gets
depolarised & electric potential difference at that site is called action
potential which is termed as a nerve impulse at the inner site the impulse
flows from A to B. i.e. from + to - and from outer side B to A i.e. from + to -.

Transmission of impulse
A synapse is formed by the membranes of a presynaptic neuron & a postsynaptic
neuron which may or may not be separated by a gap called synaptic cleft.

Synapse is of t wo types

1 it
.

I
ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
> the synaptic cleft is very small > pre & post synaptic neurons are separated by fluid filled space
> directly can flow from 1 neuron into the other called synaptic cleft.
across this synapse > neurotransmitter are used
> it is so similar to impulse conduction in axon > telodendron contain vesicle filled with neurotransmitter
> it is faster than chemical synapse > during the passage of impulse vesicle fuse with the memb. and
> they are rare in our system release the chemicals in cleft. The chemicals bind to their specific
receptors this opens ion channels which generate new potential in
postsynaptic neuron. The new potential generated may be excitatory
or inhibitory.
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain act as command and control system. The human is well protected
by skull, cranial meninges (duramater, arachnoid and piamater)

Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain

Consist of cerebrum, thalamus & hypothalamus a deep cleft divides cerebrum Located b/w thalamus/ PONS- consist of
into a2 cerebral hemispheres which are interconnected by tract of nerve fibres hypothalamus of fibre tracts that
called corpus callosum. Cerebral cortex are thrown in prominent folds & referred forebrain & pons of interconnect
as grey matter because of conc. Of neuron. Cerebral cortex contain motor and hind brain. A canal different regions of
sensory areas and largely areas which have neither function which are known as called cerebral brain.
association areas. They are responsible for inter sensory association, memory aquaduct passes CEREBELLUM- has
and communication. Fibres of tract are covered with the myelin sheath. Which through midbrain. It’s very convulated
constitute the inner part of cerebral hemisphere they give an opaque white dorsal portion consist surface in order to
appearance to the layer (white matter) of 4 round swollen provide additional
The cerebrum wraps around a structure called thalamus, which is major (lobes) called corpora space for many
coordinating centre for sensory & motor signalling. The hypothalamus contains a quadrigemina neurons.
no. Of centres for thermoregulation, urge for drinking & eating. It have some Brain stem = mid brain MEDULLA-
neurosecretory cells which secrete hypothalamic hormones. Inner parts of + hind brain except connected to spinal
cerebral hemispheres consist of associated deep structure like cerebellum. Brain cord, control
amygdala,hippocampus form limbic system/limbic lobe along with hypothalamus stem connects brain respiration,cardiova
it is involved in regulating sexual behaviour,expression of emotional reactions. to spinal cord. scular
(Eg-excitement,pleasure,rage & fear) and motivation. reflexes,gastric
secretions.

REFLEX ACTION & REFLEX ARC

The entire process of response to a conscious effort or thought and requires involvement or a part of the CNS is called a reflex action.
Reflex arc:- Afferent (receptor)
—————————->
EFFECTOR ORGAN <————————— CNS (At the level of spinal cord)
Efferent (effector)

SENSE ORGAN
NOSE:- mucous coated olfactory receptors (made of olfactory epithelium consist of 3 cells). Neurons
from surrounding comes to bean sized organ called olfactory bulb (limbic system). Nose & tongue
detect dissolved chemical. Gustation and olfactory functions similarly & interrelated.
In tongue we have taste buds in which gustatory receptors are present.

EYE!

> located in sockets of skull (orbits)

> eye ball is spherical in structure which is composed of 3 layers.
> external layer is sclera (composed of dense connective tissue. Its anterior portion is called the cornea
> middle layer/choroid- bluish in colour (contain many blood vessels) it is thin over the posterior 2/3rd of the
eye ball but it becomes thick in anterior part to form ciliary body. Ciliary body continues forward to form a
pigmented opaque structure called iris (visible coloured portion of eye).
> crystalline lens is held by ligaments attached to ciliary body. Pupil is surrounded by iris whose diameter is
regulated by the muscle fibres of iris.
> inner layer/retina- contains 3 layers of nerve cell. Outer photoreceptor cells, middle bipolar cells, inner
ganglion cells. Photoreceptor cells light sensitive proteins called photopigments.
RODS:- twilight/scotopic vision, contain rhodopsin (purplish-red protein) its also called visual purple and is
a derivative of Vit A
CONES:- daylight (photopic) & coloured vision. They are of three types which responds to red,green & blue
light. (If stimulated equally then sensation of white light is produced)
Optic nerve leave & retinal b.v. enter it at a point (slightly above the posterior pole of eyeball) where
photoreceptor cells are not present i.e. called as blind spot.
Lateral to blind spot a yellow spot is present with greatest visual acuity (resolution) due to dense packing of
cones. That point is known as maculae lutea with central pit called fovea.
MECHANISM OF VISION:-
Light generate potential in rods & cones —> photopigments composed of opsin & retinal (aldehyde of vit A)
—> dissociation of retinal and change in structure of opsin —> membrane permeability changes & p.d.
generated in rods & cones. —> action carried in ganglion cells through bipolar cells —> via optic nerve it
travels to visual cortex of brain and nerve impulses are analysed & image is formed on retina which is
recognised based on earlier memory.
 "

EAR!

Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear

> pinna + external auditory Consist of ear ossicles Fluid filled inner ear called labyrinth (bony labyrinth-
meatus (canal) (malleus incus and series of channels & membranous labyrinth- present
> pinna collect sound stapes) arranged in chain in that channels)
vibrations. like fashion. > membranous labyrinth is filled with fluid called
> meatus Leads vibration > vibration from eardrum endolymph and is surrounded by fluid called
upto tympanic -> malleus -> incus -> perilymph. Coiled portion of membranous labyrinth is
membrane(eardrum) stapes -> oval window of called cochlea.
> various hairs,wax cochlea. > cochlea constitutes 2 membranes (reissners and
secreting substance/ Ear ossicles increase basilar) which divide bony labyrinth (surrounding
glands are present. efficiency of transmission perilymph filled) unto upper scala vestibuli & lower
> tympanic membrane = of sound waves. scala tympani.
connective tissue + skin Eustachian tube connects Space within cochlea is known as scala media &
outside + mucous middle ear to pharynx fillded with endolymph.
membrane inside. which equalises pressure > at the base of cochlea the scala vestibuli ends at the
on either side of ear oval window, while scala tympani terminates at round
drum. window which opens to the middle ear.

Organ of corti is present on basilar membrane which contain hair cells that act as auditory receptors and are present in
rows on the internal side of organ of corti.
Basal end of hair cell is in contact with the afferent nerve fibres & stereocilia are present at its apical part.
Above hair cells, then elastic membrane called tectorial membrane is present.
VESTIBULAR APPARATUS:- present above cochlea & is composed of 3 semicircular canal & otolith (macula is the
sensory part of saccule & utricle)
Each semi circular canal lies in a different plane perpendicular to each other. The membranous canals are suspended in
the perilymph of the bony canals. The base of canals js swollen and called ampulla which contains a projecting ridge
called crista ampullaris which has hair cells. The saccule & utricle contain a projecting ridge called macula (crista &
macula are specific receptors of vestibular apparatus responsible for body balance and posture maintenance).

MECHANISM OF HEARING:-
Eardrum vibrates due to sound vibration —> vibration is sent to oval window via ossicles —> vibrations are
passed in fluid of cochlea which generate waves in lymph. —> this induce ripple in basilar membrane—> basilar
membrane bend hair cells pressing them against tectorial membrane—> nerve impulse is generated in afferent
fibres which travel to auditory cortex in brain via auditory nerves —> and thus sound is recognised.
NCERT diagrams for reference
 Chemical coordination and integration
Needed because neural coordination is short lived.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS & HORMONES:- HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Classically hormones are chemicals Endocrine glands + hormone secreting cells
released by ductless glands. They are non It consists of pituitary, pineal, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid,
nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular thymus, gonads, gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney (JGA), Heart.
messengers and are produced in trace Biochemicals released from pituitary causes physiological
amounts. Invertebrates have less hormone response dissolved in blood.
while vertebrates have more hormonea.

The hypothalamus The pituitary gland

Basal part of diencephalon fore Present in bony cavity called sella tursical
brain. and attached to hypothalamus by a stalk. It
It contains neurosecretory cells is anatomically divided into:
(group) called nuclei to secrete
ADENOHYPOPHYSIS ← s NEUROHYPOPHYSIS/
hormone which regulate the pars nervosa/
function of pituitary. It secrete 2 E ↳ posterior pituitary
type of hormone. Pars distalis Pars intermedia
RELEASING HORMONES(RH) - (Anterior pituitary) (Merged with distalis) Stores and
stimulate secretion of pituitary release oxytocin
Secrete: Secrete only
hormone. Eg- gonadotropin & vasopressin
> growth hormone (GH) melanocyte
Releasing hormone (GnRH) (released by
> prolactin (PRL) stimulating
stimulates release of gonadotropin hypothalamus
> Thyroid stimulating hormone hormone (MSH)
via axonally to
from pituitary. (TSH) it)
INHIBITING HORMONE(IH) - inhibit > Adrenocorticotropic hormone
the secretion. Eg- somatostatin (ACTH)
inhibits secretion of growth > Lutenizing hormone (LH)
hormone. > follicle stimulating hoemone
Hormone travels via hypothalamic (FSH)
neuron to axon and release after Increased secretion of GH causes Gigantism, and less secretion causes dwarfism.
reaching nerve ending. If there is increased secretion of GH In middle age then disfigurement in face
Hormones regulate anterior (acromegaly) which may lead to premature death which is not detected in earlu
pituitary reaching via portal stages until changes in external features occurs.
circulatory system and posterior
pituitary is under direct neural Prolactin:-growth of mammary gland & formation of milk in them
regulation. It secretes total 14 TSH:- stimulate release of thyroid hormone
hormones. ACTH:- synthesis of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex.
LH & FSH are the gonadotropins
LH:- stimulate secretion of secretion of androgen from testis in male & induces
Pineal gland ovulation of fully mature follicles (Graafian follicle) and maintains corpus luteum
Present at dorsal side of fore brain, formed from remnants of graafian follicle after ovulation.
secretes melatonin which regulates 24 FSH:- in male it with androgen regulate spermatogenesis & in female it stimulate
hour (circardian rhythm) diurnal growth and development of ovarian follicles.
rhythm of body. It is directly affected MSH:- acts on melanocytes (melanin containing cells) and regulate pigmentation.
by light. It regulates the sleep wake Oxytocin:- stimulate contraction of smooth muscle and in females it contracts
uterus at times of childbirth and milk ejection.
cycle, temp. , metabolism,
Vasopressin:- stimulate reabsorption of water & electrolytes & called anti diuretic
pigmentation, menstrual cycle, hormone (ADH) because it overcomes diuresis (loss of H2O) and its impairment
defence capabilities. leads ti excessive loss of H2O (dehydration) & leads to diabetes insipidus.

Thyroid gland
2 lobes located on either side of trachea which are interconnected by thin flap of connective tissue called isthmus.
Thyroid = follicles + stromal tissues.
Follicles are formed of follicular cells enclosing a cavity and they secrete two types of hormones,
TETRAIODOTHYRONINE/Thyroxine (T4) and TRIIODOTHYRONINE (T3)
>Deficiency of iodine/ hypothyroidism:- enlargement of thyroid/goitre. During pregnancy causes defective development
like stunted growth (cretinism,mental retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf mutism, etc. In adult
women it disturbs menstrual cycle.
>Hyperthyroidism:- because of thyroid cancer or development of nodules in thyroid. Eg- Exopthalmic goitre/ Grave’s
disease => enlargement of thyroid, protrusion of eyeball, increased rate of metabolism, weight loss.
Thyroid hormones help in formation of RBC & Carbs,protein,fat metabolism. They also maintain H2O electrolyte balance
and BMR. The gland secretes a protein hormone called thyrocalcitonin (TCT) which regulate Ca2+ levels in blood.

Parathyroid gland
> in humans there are 4 PTG on back side of thyroid.
> they secrete peptide hormone (parathyroid hormone or PTH) which is regulated by circulating Ca2+ levels in blood.
> PTH increase Ca2+ Level in blood by bone resorption (dissolution/demineralisation)
> PTH increase Ca2+ absorption from digested food and reabsorption from renal tubules.
PTH is hypercalcimic hormone and along with TCT it plays a significant role in calcium balance.
 Thymus Adrenal gland
Lobular(bilobed) structure present In pair, present on anterior part of kidney. Its centrally located tissue is called
b/w lungs behind sternum on ventral adrenal medulla and outside (periphery) located is called adrenal cortex.
side of aorta. Involved in primary ADDISON’S DISEASE:- underproduction of hormone from adrenal cortex causing
immune system (lymphatic system) weakness, fatigue due to alter in carbs metabolism.
and secrete thymosins which help in ADRENAL MEDULLA SECRETE:- adrenaline/epinephrine or noradrenaline/
differentiation of T lymphocytes norepinephrine both called catecholamines/ emergency hormones/ hormones of
which provide cell mediated fight or flight.
immunity. Thymosins also promote These hormones increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of
production of antibodies to provide hair), sweating. Both increase heart beat, BP, rate of respiration. They increase
the humoral immunity. It degenerate blood sugar level by breaking glycogen & lipids & proteins.
in older humans hence immune
3 Layers of adrenal cortex are zona reticularis (inner layer), zona fasciculata
system becomes weak.
(middle layer), zona glomerulosa (outer layer).
Adrenal cortex secrete various corticoids hormones:-
GLUCOCORTICOIDS:- involved in glucose metabolism. Eg- cortisol in our body
Pancreas which also maintains cardiovascular system and kidney functions. They stimulate
Composite/heterocrine/mixocrine gland gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, proteolysis & inhibit cellular uptake and utilisation of
Endocrine pancreas consists of 1-2 amino acids. Cortisol produce anti inflammatory reactions & suppress immune
million islets of langerhans representing response & also stimulate RBC production.
only 1-2 % of pancreatic tissue. MINERALOCORTICOIDS:- regulate balance of H2O & electrolyte in body. Eg-
Islet of langerhans => α cells (secrete aldosterone which acts at renal tubules & allows reabsorption of Na+ & H2O and
glucagon) + β cells (secrete insulin) + δ cells secretion of K+ & Phosphate. It also maintains osmotic pressure & blood pressure
(somatostatin). & also maintains electrolyte, body fluid volume.
GLUCAGON:- peptide hormone, maintain ANDROGENIC STEROIDS:- play role in growth of axial hair, pubic hair & facial hair
blood sugar level. Acts on hepatocytes during puberty.
and it also stimulate gluconeogenesis
which also support to hyperglycemia. It
reduces the cellular glucose uptake & Testis
utilisation and hence called Present in pair in scrotal sac (outside abdomen) & performs as primary sex
hyperglycaemic hormone. Prolonged organs as well as endocrine gland. Testis = seminiferous tubules + stromal/
hyperglycaemia causes diabetes mellitus interstitial tissue + leydig cells/interstitial cells (present in intertubular space &
which means loss of glucose through secrete androgens mainly testosterone).
urine & formation of harmful ketone Androgen regulate function of accessory sex organs like epididymis, vas
bodies. Thus the victims are treated with deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra & sec. sexual character in
insulin therapy. male and also stimulate spermatogenesis (formation of spermatozoa) and also
INSULIN:- peptide hormone, maintain affect CNS & influence male sexual behaviour (libio). These hormones anabolic
regulation of glucose homeostasis. Acts effects on protein & carbs metabolism.
on hepatocytes & adipocytes to enhance
cellular glucose level which leads to
movement of glucose from blood to cells
Ovary
i.e. Blood sugar level decreases i.e. Pair of ovary in abdomen and produces 1 ovum during each menstrual cycle. It
hypoglycaemia. Insulin stimulates produces 2 groups of steroid hormones estrogen and progesterone.
glycogenesis. Ovary = ovarian follicles(secrete estrogen) + stromal tissues
Hence glucose level in blood is After ovulation ruptured follicle is converted to corpus luteum which secrete
maintained by both glucagon and insulin. progesterone.
ESTROGEN:- produce sec. sexual character in female, development of ovarian
follicles, mammary gland development, female sexual behaviour.
Hormones of heart, kidney & PROGESTERONE:- supports pregnancy, acts on mammary gland to form alveoli
gastro-intestinal tract (sac structure to store milk) & milk secretion.
> Atrial wall of heart secrete atrial
natriuretic factor (ANF) which decreases
BP by dilating blood vessel. ANF is a
Mechanism of hormone action
peptide hormone. Hormone bind with hormone receptors located on the cell membrane of target
> Juxtraglomeular cells secrete cell and also intracellular receptors (mostly nuclear receptors). Hormone
erythropoietin (peptide hormone ) which receptor complex is formed. Each receptor is specific to 1 hormone only.
stimulate erythropoiesis. Biochemical changes occur in target tissue i.e. took over metabolism &
> In gastrointestinal tract there are mainly physiological function.
4 peptide hormones. TYPES OF HORMONES ON THE BASIS OF CHEMICAL NATURE:-
GASTRIN:- acts on gastric glands to 1)PEPTIDE,POLYPEPTIDE,PROTEIN HORMONES- insulin,glucagon,pituitary,
secrete HCl & pepsinogen hypothalamic hormones.
SECRETIN:- acts on exocrine pancreas to 2) STEROIDS- cortisol, testosterone, estradiol, progesterone
secrete H2O & HCO3- ion. 3) IODOTHYRONINES- thyroid hormones.
CHOLECYSTOKININ (CCK):- acts on 4) AMINO-ACID DERIVATIVES- epinephrine
pancreas & gall bladder to secrete Hormones which interact with membra bound receptors normally do not enter
pancreatic enzymes & bile. cell but generate second messengers. Eg- normally do not enter cell but generate
GASTRIC INHIBITORY PEPTIDE (GIP):- second messenger (Eg- cyclic AMP,IP3,Ca2+) which further regulates
inhibits gastric secretion. metabolism.
Some other non endocrine tissue secrete Hormones which interact with intracellular receptors (eg-
hormones called growth factors steroids,iodothyronines) mostly regulate gene expression or chromosome
responsible for normal growth of tissues function by the interaction of hormone receptor complex with the genome.
and their repairing/regeneration. Cumulative biochemical actions result in physiological & developmental effects.
NCERT diagrams for reference