Vol. 8(8), pp.

418-424, 23 April, 2013

DOI: 10.5897/ERR12.124
Educational Research and Reviews
ISSN 1996-0816 © 2013 Academic Journals
http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR

Full Length Research Paper

Academic motivation of the first-year university

students and the self- determination theory
Yaman Köseoğlu
Bahçeşehir University, Turkey.
Accepted 16 November, 2012

The Self Determination Theory has identified various types of motivation along a continuum from
weakest to strongest. Yet, until recently, no reliable method existed to measure accurately the strength
of motivation along this continuum. Vallerand et al. (1992) developed the Academic Motivation Scale
(AMS) to measure the validity of the Self Determination Theory in education. This theory identifies three
levels of academic motivation – intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation - which are measured by AMS. The
current study assesses the academic motivations of the first year students in a non-profit university
using this scale. Statistical procedures such as descriptive statistics, ANOVA and t-tests were used in
analyzing data. The differences in gender and differences among various faculties are investigated and
results disclosed with relevant recommendations.

Key words: Intrinsic, extrinsic, amotivation, self-determination, academic motivation scale.

INTRODUCTION

Learning is a process that entails many issues. The most (Vroom, 1964). And then Deci and Ryan introduced the
potent of these issues is motivation, which may be Self-Determination Theory (1985) which proposed that
defined as an internal state that arouses, directs and individuals had an innate desire for stimulation and
maintains behavior. That internal state is a necessary learning from birth. The extent to which this natural drive
component of any type of activity undertaken. The is realized depends upon the fulfillment of the individual’s
ramifications of this became globally apparent, especially psychological needs which are delineated as the need for
after the dissemination of the concept of scientific competence (understanding how to realize various
management of Frederick Taylor at the beginning of the external and internal results and being efficient in doing
twentieth century. Since then, interest in motivation has so), the need for autonomy (being self- initiating and self-
intensified and more and more research has been regulating of one’s behavior) and the need for
conducted with the end result of various theories relatedness (developing secure and satisfying connec-
shedding light on motivation. tions with others in one’s social life). The needs and the
Among early theories of motivation, the Theory of environment interact to generate several types of
Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1954), Theory X and motivation - intrinsic (the drive to pursue an activity
Theory Y (McGregor, 1960) and the Two Factor Theory – simply for the pleasure or satisfaction derived from it),
also called motivation-hygiene theory - (Herzberg et al., extrinsic (pursuing an activity out of a sense of obligation)
1959) can be mentioned. Later came the Theory of or amotivation (absence of intent or drive). Among early
Needs (McClleland, 1961), Cognitive Evaluation Theory fields of application of the self-determination theory was
(de Charms, 1968; Deci, 1975), Goal Setting Theory education (Deci et al., 1991). Furthermore, a scale was
(Locke, 1968), Self Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1997), developed by Vallerand and his colleagues that provided
Reinforcement Theory (Komaki et al., 1996), Equity a measurement of the academic motivation in education
Theory (Adams, 1965) and the Expectancy Theory (Vallerand et al., 1992).

E-mail: yaman.koseoglu@bahcesehir.edu.tr.
 Köseoğlu 419

The distinction between and the relative importance of that the practice will improve his or her performance
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is a classical undertaking (Vallerand, 2004) or a student may study extensively in
in psychology. Intrinsic motivation relies on internal, order to improve his or her knowledge.
personal factors such as needs, interest and curiosity. The last type of motivational construct is identified to be
When an individual is intrinsically motivated, incentives or amotivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985) which may be defined
punishments are not required because the activity itself is as relative absence of motivation. The individual lacks
found to be rewarding. Three components or subscales purpose and intentionality. A student may question his or
make up the intrinsic motivation: to know, to accomplish her studying every day or an athlete may start to wonder
things and to experience stimulation. The intrinsic whether participating in sports still represents a worth-
motivation to know is associated with the need for while objective.
autonomy and may be depicted as performing for the The Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) was developed
pleasure and the satisfaction derived during the process by Vallerand et al. (1992) to assess the motivation level
of learning, exploring and understanding. An example of university students, taking into consideration the
may be a student studying a book for the pleasure of intrinsic, extrinsic factors and amotivation. The scale is
discovering what he/she does not know. Intrinsic motiva- designed to assess the extent to which an individual’s
tion toward accomplishment is related to competence and academic motivation is intrinsically or extrinsically driven
is getting involved in an activity in an accomplished or and has been used mostly in Canadian, Australian,
creative way. Expanding efforts beyond the requirements American and British universities (Barkousis et al., 2008;
of a project or a term paper just for personal satisfaction Grouzet et al., 2006; Cockley et al., 2001; Spittle et al.,
may be cited as a case in point. Intrinsic motivation to 2009; Vallerand et al., 1992; Nunez et al., 2004). Besides
experience stimulation is linked to relatedness and may these investigations, various studies have been carried
be delineated by the example of a student going to out in Turkey such as those of Arıoğul (2009), Umay
school to get involved in a stimulating class discussion (2002) and Sungur and Senler (2010).
(Vallerand et al., 1992). The stimulation may reflect Other scales have been developed to assess the
intellectual or physical sensations. internal motivation but none of them have reached the
On the other hand, extrinsic motivation refers to the efficiency and the popularity level of the AMS. Among
types of behavior that are pursued not for the sake of these are the Achievement Goal Questionnaire of Finney
deriving personal pleasure or satisfaction from learning et al. (2004), the Mastery, Performance and Alienation
or exploring an educational activity but for attaining an Goal Scale of Archer (1994).
outcome such as earning a good grade or avoiding
teacher’s reprimand (Deci et al.,1991). When extrinsically
motivated, individuals pursue activities that provide Purposes of the study
rewards that are external to the activity itself. An example
may be an athlete who participates in the Olympics to This particular study has been carried out in a non-profit
obtain a gold medal and the associated fame and fortune university in Istanbul, Turkey with three major purposes:
that go with it. Deci and Ryan, in their work Intrinsic to try to determine if a difference exists between male
Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior and female students in terms of their academic
(1985), proposed the existence of three types of extrinsic motivations; whether or not students of different faculties
motivation. In an ascending manner, these are the exter- have different academic motivations; and to what extent
nal regulation, identified regulation and introjected do external supports such as scholarships affect
regulation. The external regulation refers to behavior that academic motivation.
is carried out for obtaining medals and/or good grades
from assessments and also for avoiding parental or social
MATERIALS AND METHODS
pressure and it entails minimum amount of self-
determination. The introjected regulation follows the Participants
external regulation and is the state in which the individual
has internalized the reasons for his or her actions. Such Those who participated in the survey were all first-year students
internalization replaces the external source of control with studying at a university with a number of faculties. As the medium
an internal one, which may be self-imposed guilt and/or of instruction is English, the scale used was the English version.
The total number of valid questionnaires was 728, with 355 (49%)
anxiety. A student may get to class on time regularly and from female students and 372 (51%) from male. The ages of the
behave properly during the lesson or may feel guilty if he students ranged from 18 to 22. From a statistical point of view, this
or she does not study or practice. The extrinsic represents the parent population comprising the first- year students.
motivation with the highest level of self-determination is
the identified regulation which depicts the state in which
The scale and the collection of data
the individual values and judges a behavior to be
important for him or her, especially to the extent that such The Academic Motivation Scale has been utilized along with a
a behavior has been chosen by him or her. For example, demographic questionnaire. The scale was developed originally in
an athlete may practice because he or she recognizes French, and then translated to English. It is a 28-item form with a 7-
420 Educ. Res. Rev.

Table 1. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients.

Subscale Alpha ( n = 728)

Intrinsic – to know 0.78
Intrinsic – toward accomplishment 0.84
Intrinsic – to experience stimulation 0.79
Extrinsic – identified 0.74
Extrinsic – introjected 0.77
Extrinsic – external regulation 0.72
Amotivation 0.76

Table 2. Descriptive statistics and the t-test results for motivation by gender.

Gender t df p
Motivational subscale Male Female
Mean SD Mean SD
Intrinsic – to know 4.99 1.15 5.26 1.08 -3.206 726 0.01
Intrinsic – towards accomplishment 4.47 1.06 4.72 1.03 -3.277 726 0.01
Intrinsic – to experience stimulation 4.38 1.15 4.70 1.13 -3.747 726 0.00
Extrinsic – identified 5.08 1.12 5.61 1.03 -6.604 726 0.00
Extrinsic – introjected 4.51 1.32 4.79 1.33 -2.855 726 0.04
Extrinsic – external regulation 5.11 1.25 5.50 1.14 -4.409 726 0.00
Amotivation 2.95 1.40 2.43 1.24 5.293 726 0.00

point Likert scale that ranges from 1, which implies no corres- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
pondence, to 7, which indicates perfect correspondence with the
items. The scale consists of three parts – intrinsic motivation,
extrinsic motivation and amotivation. The intrinsic part consists of
In the following two sections, the results are presented
three subscales – to know, toward accomplishment and to and discussed.
experience stimulation. The part on extrinsic motivation comprises
the subscales of identified, extrinsic and external. The third part,
amotivation, stands by itself. Vallerand et al. (1992) maintained that Is there a difference between male and female
the internal consistency of the Academic Motivation Scale ranged in students in their academic motivation?
0.80s and displayed a test/retest correlation value of 0.79. In
addition, Spittle et al. (2009), who carried out a similar investigation,
reported an internal consistency that ranged from 0.72 to 0.86. Descriptive statistics and independent t-test were used to
Cronbach’s alpha of Arioğul (2009) was reported to be 0.770 and determine whether a difference existed in the academic
0.801. Still in another study, Fairchild et al. (2005) evaluated new motivations of female and male students. The analysis
and existing validity evidence for the Academic Motivation scale. showed statistically significant differences between male
The demographic questionnaire dealt with the gender and faculties. and female students at p = 0.05 confidence level in all of
the motivational subscales displayed in Table 2.
The procedure It has been found that the female students are more
intrinsically and extrinsically motivated than the males
The study was conducted during regular class time. The students overall. In their part, the answers of the male students to
were informed that their participation was voluntary and their items such as, “Because with only a high-school degree, I
responses would remain confidential. No time limit was imposed.
would not find a high-paying job later on”, “In order to
obtain a more prestigious job later on”, “Because I want
Analysis of the data to have the good life later on” and “In order to have a
better salary later on” show that male students have a
Descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA and the independent propensity for external regulation. In addition, in
sample t-test were the statistical tools used for analyzing the data. answering items such as “Honestly, I do not know; I really
One-way ANOVA and independent sample t-test were applied in
order to ascertain the differences between the motivational
feel that I am wasting my time in school”, “I once had
subscales. No weights were attached to any one of the items. The good reasons for going to university, now, I wonder
following Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were obtained for subscale whether I should continue”, “I cannot see why I go to
items of the AMS (Table 1). university and frankly, I couldn’t care less” and “I don’t
 Köseoğlu 421

Table 3. The results of the ANOVA with homogenous variances.

Faculties
Motiv. subscale Sci.and Lit. Bus. Man. Commun. Engin. Arch. Law F df p
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean σ Mean SD Mean SD
Intrin. – to know 5.36 1.19 4.97 1.035 5.11 1.19 5.05 1.099 5.03 1.046 5.40 1.144 2.577 5/723 0.025
Intrin. – accomplish. 4.93 1.101 4.64 1.036 4.42 1.09 4.48 1.054 4.52 0.934 4.63 1.056 3.591 5/723 0.003
Intrin. – stimulation 4.70 1.334 4.63 1.131 4.53 1.099 4.36 1.11 4.37 1.096 4.81 1.042 2.763 5/723 0.018
Extrin. – introject 4.62 1.415 4.62 1.277 4.48 1.407 4.74 1.285 4.57 1236 4.89 1.454 1.058 5/723 0.038
Extrin – ext reg 5.51 1.225 5.36 1.088 4.79 1.375 5.39 1.219 5.21 1.051 5.55 1.135 6.083 5/723 0.000

Table 4. The results of the ANOVA with non-homogenous variances.

Faculties
Motiv.
Sci. and Lit. Bus. Man. Commun. Engin. Arch. Law F df p
subscale
Mean SD Mean SD mean SD mean SD mean SD mean SD.
Extrin. – iden. 5.51 1.236 5.41 1.056 5.07 1.248 5.29 1119 5.26 0.893 5.59 0.927 2.865 5/723 0.014
Amotivation 2.13 1.141 2.96 1.332 2.98 1.503 2.71 1.378 2.70 1.262 2.54 1.162 6.613 5/723 0.000

know; I can’t understand what I am doing in Analysis of variance is a procedure used for the motivations of the students do not change
school”, the male students seem to be more comparing sample means to see if there is according to the faculties may be rejected and the
amotivated than the females. This finding sufficient evidence to infer that the means of the alternative hypothesis that faculties instigate
contradicts that of Arıoğul (2009) who found no corresponding population distributions also differ. differences in the academic motivations of the
significant difference between males and females The null hypothesis is that the academic moti- students may be accepted.
in any of the subscales and corroborates those of vations of the students do not change according The set of subscales whose variances are not
Spittle et al. (2009), Vallerand et al. (1992), Nunez to their faculties with the alternative hypothesis homogenous (Levene values < 0.05) are given in
et al. (2004), Barkousis et al. (2008) and Cockley claiming the opposite, that in at least some of the Table 4.
et al. (2001) – studies in which females scored faculties, the motivations are different. Replacing the one-way ANOVA with the Welch
higher than males. This may be due to the Prior to the ANOVA, the Levene test was carried test, the results in Table 5 have been obtained.
developmental differences between boys and out for determining the homogeneity of the Like the ANOVA of Table 4, the Welch test of
girls. variances and this yielded two sets. The ANOVA Table 5 confirms the rejection of the null
was applied directly to the first set that encom- hypothesis and the acceptance of the alternative.
passed subscales with homogenous variances Combining the Tables 3 and 5, it is possible to
Do the academic motivations of the students (Levene values ≥ 0.05) and the results are listed assert that the academic motivations of the
vary according to faculties? in Table 3. Table 3 illustrates that in so far as the students differ according to the faculties. Indivi-
intrinsic motivational subscales and the introjected duals in different faculties experience different
In order to answer this question, the ANOVA and externally regulated subscales of extrinsic motivations. Scheffe’s comparison of means
process – analysis of variance - was performed. motivation are concerned, the null hypothesis that identified the predominant motivation of the
422 Educ. Res. Rev.

Table 5. The results of the Welch procedure for subscales with non-homogenous variances.

Faculties
Motiv.
Sci. and Lit. Bus. Man. Commun. Engin. Arch. Law Statistic Df1 Df2 P
subscale
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Extrin. – iden. 5.51 1.236 5.41 1.056 5.077 1.248 5.29 1119 5.26 0.893 5.59 0.927 2.760 5 290.567 0.019
Amotivation 2.13 1.141 2.96 1.332 2.98 1.503 2.71 1.378 2.70 1.262 2.54 1.162 7.597 5 287 0.000

Table 6. Descriptive statistics and t-test results for the effects of scholarships.

Scholarship No scholarship Levene t-test

Motivational subscale
Mean sd Mean Sd f Sig t df P
Intrinsic – to know 4.820 1.240 4.680 1.160 0.186 0.667 2.550 1448 0.011
Intrinsic – toward accomplishment 4.390 1.220 4.420 1.120 2.727 0.099 -0.086 1448 0.932
Intrinsic- to experience stimulation 4.440 1.180 4.400 1.170 1.139 0.286 -0.715 1448 0.475
Extrinsic – identified 4.990 1.220 4.950 1.150 0.190 0.663 0.541 1448 0.589
Extrinsic – introjected 4.460 1.370 4.520 1.690 0.819 0.366 -0.371 1448 0.711
Extrinsic – external regulation 4.860 1.280 4.950 1.300 0.940 0.759 -0.887 1448 0.376
Amotivated 3.060 1.460 3.330 1.360 4.790 0.029 -2.280 1448 0.010

students as being extrinsic in nature. The results motivation (Vallerand et al., 1992). Table 6. Levene’s test was used for determining
illustrate that among the six faculties, the Science Understanding the relationship between goal the homogeneity of variances for every subscale
and Literature seem to be the best in intrinsic orientation and motivation may be important for (p ≥ 0.05), with the findings indicating no
motivation with the Law leading in extrinsic. The long term, especially those between mastery and differences in variances, with the exception of
students of the Engineering Faculty are highly intrinsic motivation and avoidance and extrinsic amotivation. Moving on to evaluating the mean
susceptible to external regulation. Those of the motivation. More research may unearth the values using the t-test, with the exception of the
Communication Faculty have scored highest in underlying factors. subscales of intrinsic – to know and amotivated,
amotivation and in general, received lower scores all the subscales turned out to be more than 0.05,
in both intrinsic and extrinsic subscales. confirming the hypothesis of mean values of
When combined, the overall intrinsic mean for To what extent do external supports such as those subscales being equal.
all the students returned an average of 4.77 and scholarships affect academic motivation? Ostensibly, since the loss of a scholarship may
the extrinsic mean was 5.11. The fact that the represent a drain on financial resources, it may be
participating students have scored higher in Again, an analysis has been carried out for expected that families put pressure on the
extrinsic subscales than intrinsic evokes the argu- establishing the extent to which academic students and demand success. However, contrary
ments of other researchers that external events, motivation is affected by external events such as to such expectations, with the exception of two
imposed goals and competition stifle intrinsic scholarships. The results obtained are given in subscales, the findings suggest that scholarships
 Köseoğlu 423

do not play very little, if any, role in academic motivation. from this study as the range of the socio-economical
Considering the two subscales of amotivation and conditions of the country is quite wide.
intrinsic – to know, it may be surmised that since an The last limiting factor is confidentiality due to which the
amotivated student may feel that he or she may be names, thereby the GPAs and the minimum admission
wasting time in school, it may be superfluous to anticipate levels of the students to the university were kept
the impact of any external influence such as a anonymous. Student’s profiles have not been a part of
scholarship. A student who is in the intrinsic-to know this study and hence, no correlation between these and
subscale studies because of the pleasure and the motivation subscales was possible.
satisfaction he or she derives while learning new things,
broadening his or her knowledge. As has been
mentioned previously, such a motivation is observed in Conclusion
individuals who are engaged in an activity or behavior for
its own sake with no intention of material gain. Perceived This particular study has been carried out with two major
rewards such as scholarships do not alter their stance. A purposes in mind: to find out whether or not a difference
scholarship would probably ensure the efforts put in, exists between male and female students in terms of their
anyway. academic motivations and to try to determine if the
The results of the t-test in Table 6 show that there is no academic motivations of the students in different faculties
difference between the mean values of the remaining five are the same.
subscales, indicating that scholarships do not exert much The analysis has demonstrated that a significant
of an influence. Promised rewards such as prizes and difference between the academic motivations of male and
money and threatened punishments are often utilized as female students exists and that the motivations of the
a means of procuring desired behaviors. Research on students in different faculties are not the same but vary.
intrinsic motivation has consistently shown that although The extrinsic motivation seems to be more deeply rooted
such external events may serve to manipulate behavior than intrinsic.
while they are operative, they also tend to undermine Intrinsic motivation should be viewed as a valuable ass-
intrinsic motivation for interesting tasks and hinder et as it is closely related to several desirable outcomes
internalization. Performance evaluations in school such as increased attention, greater creativity, flexibility,
systems, deadlines in general, competition etc have been spontaneity, persistence and study skills (Koestner et al.,
found to decrease intrinsic motivation. Each of these 1984). Previous research has revealed that if the
external events is typically used to pressure the individual autonomous behaviors of the students are supported, this
to think, feel or behave in a specific way. The presence of in turn would lead to greater intrinsic motivation (Pelletier
such a pressure signifies to the individual that he or she et al., 2002; Reeve et al., 1999).
is being controlled, which leads to diminished sense of The intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amoti-
autonomy. These arguments are cited by other re- vation comprise a continuum that reflects the degree of
searchers in Deci et al. (1991) and Vallerand et al. self-determined behavior, where more internalized
(1992). behaviors produce a greater sense of self-determination
in the following manner:

LIMITATIONS Amotivation ► extrinsic motivation ► intrinsic motivation

A number of limiting factors should be taken into Thus, if the motivation level of an amotivated student who
consideration for assessing the study appropriately. The feels that he or she is wasting his or her time in school
first limitation of this research is the fact that the can be raised to the level where he or she would be
Academic Motivation Scale is employed at a single experiencing pleasure and satisfaction while learning new
institution, an issue that hinders generalization. things, then the motivational level of that student has
The second constraint is the lack of previous been elevated to intrinsic, where the degree of self-
documented research which might have been used for determination is the highest. This requires belief,
comparison. The Academic Motivation Scale has been commitment, conscious and planned support both of the
used for analyzing the student populations of other students and the teaching staff.
countries, however, only a number of attempts have been As intrinsic motivation has been shown to increase
made in this country. Common premises are not available performance, further research examining the motivation
currently. of the teaching staff and ways in which it may be
The location of the institution in the study is another strengthened and maintained may be recommended as
drawback. As this university is located in a large much as that of the students. In addition, it would be
metropolitan city, results obtained can only be used to beneficial to include other universities in order to
infer about universities in similarly sized metropolitan determine whether or not the trends observed in this
cities. No inferences of smaller urban areas can be drawn study are common or just peculiar to a single institution.
424 Educ. Res. Rev.

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Properties of the Achievement Goal Questionnaire in a General
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Achieving such an outcome necessitates amendments Factorial Invariance of the Academic Motivational Scale. Struct. Equ.
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Herzberg F, Mausner B, Snyderman B (1959). The Motivation To Work.
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