Forensic Anthropology

21
Muktikanta Panda, Karan Sharma, A. N. Sharma, Pankaj Shrivastava,
and Ankit Srivastava

Abstract

Forensic Anthropology, a subdiscipline of Physical Anthropology, practices

various methodological aspects for the welfare of society, especially for law
and authority. In the modern era, medico-legal aspects use the old age features
and concurrently realise the shift towards state-of-the-art. Forensic
anthropologists, like other forensic professionals, share their knowledge and
views and gather physical evidence for cadavers, associate pieces or matters
and identify living ones. This chapter depicts the meaning, scope, and some
application of forensic anthropology systematically. Here the growing concern
of Forensic Anthropology is also discussed.

Keywords

Forensic anthropology · Forensic anthropologist · Human identification · Skeletal

remains

M. Panda · A. N. Sharma
Department of Anthropology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, India
K. Sharma
Jaipur National University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
P. Shrivastava
Biology and Serology Division, Regional Forensic Science Laboratory, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh,
India
A. Srivastava (✉)
School of Forensic Sciences, The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, Kolkata,
West Bengal, India
e-mail: ankitsrivastava@nujs.edu

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 621
Ltd. 2023
P. Shrivastava et al. (eds.), Textbook of Forensic Science,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1377-0_21
622 M. Panda et al.

21.1 Introduction

Anthropology is the study of human kind in every space and time through applying
knowledge for the welfare of humankind. Its holistic stance is unique as it studies
about the bodily features, ecological behaviour/responses, societal aspects, historical
occurrence, and cognitive aspects of human being, as well as treat human as whole;
physically like a biological being and intellectually as a social creature (Kehoe
2013). Broadly speaking it gathers the evidence about variation, evolution and
facts linked to the human and its society. Though an interdisciplinary science it
synthesizes the knowledge with both theoretical and application perspective for the
welfare of humanity. The term Anthropology came from the Greek words
‘anthropos’ which means ‘human’ and the word ‘logos’ which means ‘thought’
(Britannica 2021). Physiques of Anthropology are built with the platform of knowl-
edge with different dimensions encircling a number of subjects and their tributaries.
Its identity as a major discipline, can broadly be categorized into subsequent
subdivisions or branches (Fig. 21.1).

21.2 Forensic Anthropology

As a sub discipline, Forensic Anthropology is classified under Physical or Biological

anthropology. The American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) describes the
discipline by the definition- ‘the application of the science of physical or biological
anthropology to the legal process’ (American Board of Forensic Anthropology
2021). Forensic anthropology is an inter-disciplinary arena that pleats evidences of
human remnants for the purpose of medico-legal exploration, especially for an

Fig. 21.1 Different specialized areas of study in Anthropology

21 Forensic Anthropology 623

identification perspective. From the goal point of view, forensic anthropology is a

discipline comparable with forensic pathology and considered as more multidisci-
plinary (Cattaneo 2007). Similarly from the methodological point of view, the
discipline of forensic anthropology enriches itself from different slants of biological
anthropology, forensic sciences and medicine. Forensic anthropologists are profes-
sional experts in the skeletal morphology of human beings, proficient in human
anatomy, osteoarchaeology, and in biological anthropology (OBE 2003). This
multidisciplinary field working in corresponding with other disciplines like taphon-
omy, archaeology, anatomy, odontology, pathology, biology, osteology, entomol-
ogy and botany (James and Nordby 2002).

21.2.1 Sub-Fields of Forensic Anthropology

The major sub-fields of Forensic Anthropology are mentioned in Fig. 21.2.

21.2.1.1 Forensic Osteology

Forensic Osteology is a sub-branch of forensic anthropology that deals with different
issues like the facial reconstruction and superimposition, bone pathology, and
archaeological investigations; provide evidences that either confirm, or support in
determining the identity from the skeletal remains of an individual associated to
different mysterious or natural death cases, a suicide, homicide victims, and remains
of a mass disaster (Scheuer 2002). As, all the matters associated to the legal arena,
levels of accuracy need to be greater than comparable to other disciplines. The word
osteology is derived from the Greek words “osteon”, which means bone and
“logos”, which means knowledge. It is the scientific study including structure,
function, development and variation of bones of the skeleton. Human Osteology
focuses on the morphology of the human skeleton and incorporates information
about the names, placement, visible features of bones and articulations of bones with
other bones etc.

Fig. 21.2 Sub-fields of Forensic Anthropology

624 M. Panda et al.

There is always a challenge for the forensic scientist in identification of deceased

through their skeletal remains. Hence having knowledge of human osteology is
important in positive identification of the individual from its skeletal remains. An
expert forensic anthropologist identify a human skeleton as whole or in fragmentary
remains. Skeletal remains are used for determining the demographic characters of
the deceased including race, age, sex and stature. Study of human osteology also
helps in understanding what is called normal in the human skeleton, and by knowing
these standards, differences can be identified which help in positive identification of
the deceased and also give information relating to the cause and manner of death.

21.2.1.2 Forensic Odontology

Forensic Odontology is the application of the science of dentistry in legal matters.
The examination, assessment, management and demonstration of dental evidences
are done by Forensic odontologists for civil or criminal proceedings for legal
perspective (Avon 2004). Roughly speaking the sub-discipline alienated into
3 major fields based upon the activities, i.e. criminal, noncriminal or civil and
research (Cameron et al. 1974; Neville et al. 2002). It is the science behind the
practice of dentistry. Forensic odontology basically uses the science of dentistry to
identify a person from the dental evidences left by him/her (i.e. bite marks, dental
remains etc.).The forensic anthropologist is the first person to see the dental evi-
dence, chart them, and report the evidence but for accurate results, the final analysis
is done by an expert odontologist.
The importance of dental evidence in a forensic analysis is very high. The teeth
have an outer layer of enamel that makes it the hardest and most durable substance of
the human body. Hence they are highly resistant to physical and chemical influences
such as high temperature, decomposition, desiccation, or long-term submersion in
water etc. Having almost similar composition, teeth are more resilient then bones,
thus sometimes dental evidences are the only human remains recovered from
forensic scenes. Another important aspect is the pattern of dentition which is unique
in every human being exactly like the fingerprints. This unique character of human
dentition makes it important evidence when it comes to identification of a person.
Apart from identification, dental evidence can also help in the determination of age,
race and medical history of an individual.

21.2.1.3 Forensic Taphonomy

The word Taphonomy comes from the Greek word “taphos” which means burial or
grave and “anomy” which means law. Taphonomy is a sub-field of forensic
anthropology basically studied under the science of paleontology. The procedures
linked with decay of cadaver are study in Forensic taphonomy (Tibbett and Carter
2009). Or it can be said that Forensic taphonomy is the study of the events (such as
postmortem changes and interval, decomposition, mummification, saponification
etc.) that happens to an organism after its death to the point of its recovery. The
postmortem changes, decomposition of the body and the factors affecting such
changes are studied in this discipline. Most of the changes occur to the body after
death is due to natural factors such as temperature, plant, animals, soils, weather,
21 Forensic Anthropology 625

Fig. 21.3 Stages of Decomposition

gravity etc. Studying the specific role played by each of these natural factors is
important in understanding and establishing the present state of the collected skeletal
evidence. This also helps to focus on unusual patterns of dispersal or removal of
evidence that indicates any human intervention (i.e. removing/moving remains to
hide evidence). Taphonomy, on the basis of studying the condition of skeletal
remains at the time of its recovery help to determine the circumstances surrounding
the death, assessment of post-mortem interval and how long the body remains has
been at the location of its recovery.
Taphonomy involves the study of all peri- and post-mortem processes including
stages of decomposition mentioned below (Fig. 21.3).
The difficulties in estimating the postmortem interval (PMI) increase with the
older human remnants. Particularly in the case of PMI the knowledge of forensic
anthropologist is very limited, only confined to the dry bone; whether the bones
belong to archaeological period, old, or very recent. It is a very difficult question for
forensic anthropologists that ‘time since death’ is to be answered due to the lack of
effective methods for the evaluation of the PMI. Even in some cases, it is impossible
to say whether it is a forensic case or from earlier populations.

21.2.1.4 Forensic Archaeology

An essential set of methodologies in the discipline of Archaeology dealing with
different buried remnants, evaluating and recording a graveyard and the close
surrounding setting associated to them (Haglund 2001; Schmitt 2001; Tuller 2012;
Wright et al. 2005). Forensic archaeology is placed at the juncture of various
626 M. Panda et al.

evidential regimes that articulate diverse and often contradictory prospects for
different archaeological works (Crossland 2013). It is a sub-field of forensic anthro-
pology in which archaeological theories and methods are applied to solve medicole-
gal issues. The Forensic Archaeologist uses various methods and techniques of
archaeology in the investigation of a crime scene with the purpose to identify and
reconstruct the crime scene. The major duties of a Forensic archaeologist are to assist
in crime scene recovery and evidence collection that includes searching, locating,
surveying, sampling, recording and interpreting relevant evidence, as well as the
recovery and documentation of human remains and associated evidence.
The objective of Forensic archaeology is to properly investigate the crime scene
using an archaeological approach. It includes selecting a precise detection or recov-
ery strategy which will provide maximum data and evidence from the crime scene
while minimizing the alterations of the scene and evidence. Another objective of
Forensic archaeology is the proper recovery, systematic storage and recording of all
evidences (such as human remains and associated materials) which helps in deter-
mining the manner of death, reconstructing the scene and identifying the post-
depositional taphonomic processes and ultimately identifying the deceased. A
proper chain of custody is to be maintained from point of recovery to accession by
the appropriate agency. Diverse studies of the recent past have encouraged different
new scenarios by the growth of forensic archaeology (Buchli and Lucas 2002).

21.3 Need of Forensic Anthropologist

Forensic anthropology has emerged extensively as an important field of study in last

several decades. Different cases related to individual identification like the severely
decayed body remnants, burned, maimed and disrupted are solved or assisted with
the help of forensic anthropologist. Conventionally speaking the forensic anthropol-
ogist investigates the recovered human remnants to examine the bones associated
with human or not, species recognition, time intervals from death and age at death,
taphonomic history, sex, ancestry, height and not least to other sorts clues to
identification and to spot the foul plays (Blau and Ubelaker 2016; Stewart 1951;
Ubelaker 2018). The major concerning areas called upon the forensic anthropologist
are the inquiries associated with criminal cases, like homicide, natural deaths with
unknown causes, mass fatalities and different accidents; issues linked with
non-criminal events i.e. numerous deaths in natural calamities; an inquiry into
genocide and war crimes (Randolph-Quinney et al. 2011); estimate the age of a
living individual related to immigration cases or asylum status and matter with legal
accountability (Scheuer and Black 2007). As the present century expects a high
perception of risks associated with mass fatality, accidents, terror outbreaks and
different natural calamities (Thompson and Black 2006), which needs more meth-
odological inventions and collaborations with forensic anthropologists. Different
other methods like the techniques of facial approximation and/or photographic
superimposition are used by the forensic anthropologists in different circumstances
(Stephan 2016; Ubelaker 2015, 2018) for facial recognition. The expanded
21 Forensic Anthropology 627

theoretical concept and their practicality in medico-legal field encourage the forensic
anthropologist to solve issues like age determination and identification of living
being (Black et al. 2010; Fenger et al. 1996; Sauer et al. 2012).

21.4 Historical Background: Development of the Forensic

Anthropology as Discipline (World and India)

The field of Forensic Anthropology, which is an application of skeletal biology to

medicolegal investigation, first emerged in the late eighteenth century in the
European continent. Forensic anthropology is a relatively young subfield of
biological anthropology, which is said to have its roots in the American continent
during the nineteenth century. The development in the field of Forensic Anthropol-
ogy majorly occurred in these two subcontinents. Academically the development of
forensic anthropology rooted back to European centres of comparative anatomy
closely linked to physical anthropology (Spencer 1982; Stewart 1979; Ubelaker
2009). Among key early scholars, Jeffries Wyman (1814–1874) known for forensic
anthropology testimony (Ubelaker 2018) (Table 21.1).

21.5 What a Forensic Anthropologist Do

The ultimate aim is to establish or rebutting the personal identification with the
confirmation through specifics knowledge of morphological characteristics, devel-
opment and variation in human bodies (Randolph-Quinney et al. 2011). This is not a
single task undertaken by the forensic anthropologist but must recognize the cause of
the death along with the personal identification (Cattaneo 2007) wherever necessary.
All these purpose are fulfilled with four elementary biological principles,
i.e. biological sex determination, developmental or skeletal age estimation, assess-
ment of living stature and establish the ethnic or racial affiliation (Klepinger 2006);
followed by secondary examinations wherever applicable. The secondary investiga-
tion deals with identification of different macroscopic and microscopic marks like
the trauma, scar marks, chronic pathological alterations in soft and hard tissue,
modification found in human body and proof of surgical intercessions (Black and
Thompson 2007; Clarkson and Schaefer 2007; Eugænia Cunha 2006). Broadly
speaking the present day forensic anthropologist not only deal with the dead but
also to identify and age approximation of a living one, hence become a crucial in
medico-legal investigation.
Here we try to discuss the work of a forensic anthropologist with reference to
explain three broad aspects, i.e. A. Identification/investigation associated with dead
individuals/scattered remains and B. Identification/investigation associated with the
living one C. New emerging trends in forensic anthropology.
628 M. Panda et al.

Table 21.1 shows a timeline view of developments and personalities behind the major contribu-
tion to literature and developments in the field of Forensic Anthropology from world context
Personality/
S. organization/
No. Year/time region Description of work References
1 1684 François Bernier François Bernier’s ‘‘new Stuurman (2000)
division of earth by the
different species or races
which inhabit it”.
Classified world
population into 4 races-
considered as first racial
classification
2 17th J. Sigismund The word anthropometry Venkatachalam (2008)
centurt Elshwltz was first used in the
(1623–88 AD) seventeenth century by
him for his graduation
thesis entitled
“Authropometria”
3 1775–1899 European Foundation work related Beddoe (1888),
scholars to forensic anthropology Manouvrier (1893),
by estimation of living Orfila and Lesueur
stature (1831), Pearson (1899),
Rollet (1888), Sue
(1755) and Topinard
(1885)
4 1859 Paul Broca Founded world’s first Sapweb (n.d.)
(1824–1880) official organization of
physical anthropology in
Paris, the “Société
d’Anthropologie de
Paris”. Initiated study
and training in
comparative skeletal
anatomy and developed
instruments (e.g., the
stereograph, osteometric
board and goniometer)
for the quantification of
skeletal measurements
5 1878-1905 Dwight Father of American Stewart (1979b) and
(1843 AD– forensic anthropology. Dwight, (1878a, b,
1911 AD) He published many 1881, 1890a, b,
literatures that build an 1894a, b, 1905)
initial foundation for
forensic anthropology
and skeletal biology
6 1883 Alphonse Known as Father of Bertillon (1853–1914)
Bertillon Criminal Identification,
(1853–1914) Devised a criminal
identification system
based on measurement of
(continued)
21 Forensic Anthropology 629

Table 21.1 (continued)

Personality/
S. organization/
No. Year/time region Description of work References
physical dimensions of
the body such as arm,
foot length etc. In 1884,
Bertillon’s
Anthropometric
Identification System
which later called as
Bertillonage is
announced to be used in
all of the french prisons
and accepted as a popular
criminal identification
technique
7 1897–1903 Wilder Trying to establish Wilder (1897, 1902,
(1864 AD– academic bridge between 1903) and Ubelaker
1928 AD) American and European (2018)
scholar with respect to
forensic anthropology.
Published literature on
dermatoglyphics and
facial approximation
techniques
8 1918 Wilder and Published manual on Wilder and Wentworth
Wentworth personal identification (1918)
(fingerprint analysis and
facial approximation)
9 1924 N. Pan An Indian anatomist was Pan (1924)
first to study the length of
long bones and their
proportions to body
height in Indian
population and observed
that males have larger
length of long bones as
compared to females
10 1932 Ales Hrdlička First attempt on cranial/ Ubelaker (1999)
photograph comparison
in a legal context was
done
11 1939 Krogman Published “guide to the Krogman (1939)
(1903–1987) identification of human
skeletal material”
12 1972 American Newly section named Pickering and Bach
Academy of “physical anthropology” (2009)
forensic sciences was formed by AAFS
(AAFS)
(continued)
630 M. Panda et al.

Table 21.1 (continued)

Personality/
S. organization/
No. Year/time region Description of work References
13 1989 Surinder Nath Indian anthropologist Nath (1989)
published an book “an
introduction to forensic
anthropology”
14 2003 Establishment of FASE was established as Forensic Anthropology
forensic a subsection of the Society of Europe (n.d.)
anthropological international academy of
Society of legal medicine
Europe (FASE)
15 2005-2009 L’Abbe et al. World-wide skeletal L’Abbe et al. (2005),
Hunt and collections from different Hunt and Albanese
Albanese; Dayal geography and people (2005) and Dayal et al.
et al. (2009)
16 2008 SWAGANTH Scientific working Group Forensic-Science
establishment for Forensic Anthropology-
Anthropology Subcommittee (n.d.)
(SWGANTH), was
formed under joint
sponsorship of FBI
laboratory and
Department of Defense
Identification Laboratory
(DDIL) with the
objective to develop and
spread best practice
guidelines and standards
for forensic
anthropological
investigations

21.5.1 The Stages/Scenario of Forensic Human Identification

Process Conducted by a Physical Anthropologist: A Brief View

21.5.1.1 Initial Assessment of Skeletons

Some are the general question arise after collection of Skeletal Evidence from
different areas:

• Whether the collected evidence is a skeletal material (i.e. bone or tooth) or some
other material?
• Whether the collected evidence belongs to human or non-human decedent?
• Whether the collected evidence belong to a single or more persons (i.e. what is the
number of victims)?
21 Forensic Anthropology 631

21.5.1.1.1 Is the Evidence, Skeletal Material or Not?

Ans: For a forensic anthropologist, the determination of skeleton remains during
evidence collection is not considered as easy in every cases. Identification of
skeleton remains can be done on the basis of thorough visual examination of
different morphological features. But sometimes it is difficult to recognize skeleton
remains when the bones are found in fragments or due to taphonomic processes
which may degenerate the recognizable morphological features of the bones. Also in
cases of burning, especially within a confined space (e.g. house fires) it is difficult to
distinguish skeleton material from other materials (such as wood, plastic, mineral,
shell or metal) due to intermixing of bone fragments with other burned materials
(such as furniture, appliances, building material etc.).
In cases where the determination of skeleton material is not possible by thorough
visual examination following techniques could be used,

• Radiography: Skeleton remains due to their high mineral content are more
radiopaque, which can differentiate them from commonly encountered
non-mineralized materials.
• Microscopic Analysis: Using a high magnification microscope identification of
skeleton material can be done by locating microstructures such as trabecular
bone, Haversian system, layers of bones etc.
• Elemental Analysis: Most accurate but destructive technique. Skeleton remains
can be identified by their elemental analysis using techniques like SEM/EDS,
XRF(non-destructive analysis).
• Alternative Light Source (ALS): Due to the fluorescence property of the
collagen protein of the bones, identification of the bones can be done using a
short wavelength alternate light source.

21.5.1.1.2 Is the Skeletal Evidence Belongs to Human Skeleton or Not?

Ans: After identification of the collected evidence as skeleton material the next
question arises is what the origin is? Is it belonging to a human or some other
animal? Again answering such questions is easy for an expert anthropologist on the
basis of gross visual examination of the morphological features. Due to differences
in locomotion, growth and development, there are numerous differences exist
between a human and animal skeleton (Table 21.2). But, certain taxa may be difficult
to discriminate because of resemblances in structure, size, or quality; particularly the
mammalian species such as cows, bears, deer, large dogs and pigs (Randolph-
Quinney et al. 2011). But still certain exceptions are there where some animal
bones resemble to humans and hence difficulty arises in differentiation
(Table 21.3). Another problem in differentiation comes when scattered/ fragments
of bones are found which lack the presence of diagnostic morphology.
Determination of origin of the skeleton (i.e. human or non-human) can be
assessed by following methods:

• Macroscopic Method: Includes visual and radiographic examination of the

skeleton, with attention to the shape, size as well as stage of growth and
development of the skeleton. E.g. at macrostructural level cancellous bone of
632 M. Panda et al.

Table 21.2 Differences between human and non-human skeleton

Bone Human Non-human
Skull Rounded, globular, non-projecting face, Elongated front to back, projecting
anterior foramen magnum snout, posterior foramen magnum
Vertebral S-shaped curve, bifurcated spinous Little variation in vertebrae size, some
column process in cervical vertebrae, sharp, have elongated spinous process which
point inferior in thoracic vertebrae forms shoulder hump
Thorax Broad and shallow, high degree of Narrow and deeper, costal grooves are
curvature, well defined costal groove on absent in non-human mammalian
internal and inferior aspect of human skeleton
ribs
Pectoral Clavicle is elongated, scapula is Clavicle is reduced or absent, scapula is
girdle triangular and elongated supero- longest Medio-laterally
inferiorly
Pelvic Pelvis is wide and broad, illium is short Narrow and elongated illium, pelvis is
girdle and flaring, fused along pubic symphysis
Long Long bones are more gracile and More defined morphology of
bones smoother, less complex joint surface, non-human mammal joint surfaces,
rounded and large femoral and humoral smaller size of head of femur and
heads humerus

Table 21.3 Bones of human and non-human origin that resembles each other
Non-human bone Human bone
Raccoon baculum (penis bone) Clavicle bone (young child)
Long bones of the birds Metacarpals/metatarsals (adult), long bones
(infant)
Tortoise carapace (dorsal shell) and plastron Cranial bone (infant or child)
(ventral shell)
Bones of Hindpaw of bear Bones of human foot

non-human origin is more homogeneously distributed then the bone of human

origin.
• Microscopic or Histologic Method: Such method help in case of burned,
fragmented or weathered bones. In these methods microscopy (Cuijpers 2006)
is used to compare the microstructures of the bones. E.g. at microstructural level
human bones contain Haversian system of arrangement (i.e. concentric rings
oriented around the long axis of the bone) whereas non-human bones are arranged
in more linear form (i.e. non-Haversian system).
• Biochemical/immunological Method: Includes protein based methods
(e.g. protein based RIA and solid-phase double antibody RIA) (Lowenstein
et al. 2006; Ubelaker et al. 2004) where protein is extracted from bone’s organic
matter and combined with rabbit antisera pre-exposed with sera of selected
animal species (e.g. human, bear, goat, dog etc.). Species-specific antibodies
are then combined with protein-antisera and show precipitin reaction and thus
species can be determined.
• DNA Analysis: This method gives the most accurate result (Guglich et al. 1994)
but is comprised of a complex procedure and also not so economical and hence is
21 Forensic Anthropology 633

used when other methods are not effective. mtDNA cyt-b gene (the specific
coding regions) is also useful for taxa differentiation (Linacre and Lee 2016;
Matsuda et al. 2005).

21.5.1.1.3 Is the Skeletal Evidence Belongs to a Single or More Persons?

Ans: Once the origin of the skeletal material is determined, the next problem that a
Forensic anthropologist faces is the determination of the number of deceased from
whom the skeletal material comes from or in other words identifying the number of
victims. The process of identifying the number of individuals from the commingled
skeletal remains is called the determination of a minimum number of individuals
(MNI). The process involves the following steps.

• The first step of analysis involves the arrangement of collected skeletal remains or
fragments in anatomical order (i.e. arrange remains into left side and right side
elements into complete skeleton).
• The next step is identifying duplicates or duplicating segments of bone. E.g. if
two right femur bones are present it means the remains belong to two individuals
as no single human has two right femur bones.
• Differentiation can also be made by visual analysis of the remains by checking the
size of the elements with each other. E.g. if two complete femur bones are
identified, both are different in size. Then it’s indicative of the presence of
more than one person.
• Another way of segregation between remains is done by checking the compatibility
of the bones with each other on the basis of age, sex, robusticity, or configuration.

In 2001, a formula was developed to determine the probable number of

individuals (PNI) from commingled skeletal remains by West and Giles (Klepinger
2006). They create the formula by taking the Lincoln Index approach in mind.

PNI = ðR × LÞ=P

where ‘R’ = Number of right side elements, ‘L’ = Number of left side elements and
‘P’ = Number of matched pair of elements.
Formula for small samples and small number of pairs:

PNI = ðL þ 1ÞðR þ 1Þ=ðP þ 1Þ - 1

Formula if no right-left pairs are found:

PNI = ðR þ 1ÞðL þ 1Þ

Besides this, other new methodologies, like the use of pair-wise maximum
likelihood models, recording of distinct anatomical sutures, DNA analysis and
Geographical Information System (GIS) -based statistical models will be useful to
mentioned above matter (Adams and Byrd 2006; Adams and Konigsberg 2004,
2008; Outram et al. 2005).
634 M. Panda et al.

21.6 Determination of Demographic Characteristics

Forensic anthropologists have an important role to provide enough information

regarding the human skeletal remains. The law enforcement agency by using that
information and matching it with a missing persons file, can lead to a positive
identification of a person. The information or data required for positive identification
of individual from skeletal remains include determination of the four principle
components that together makes up the biological profile of an individual. These
basic demographics are

1. Ancestry.
2. Sex.
3. Age.
4. Stature.

This text provides in depth knowledge regarding determination of the above

mentioned components of the biological profile which leads to the positive identifi-
cation of an individual from its skeletal remains.

21.6.1 Determination of Ancestry

Classification of a population is done on the basis of geographical region of origin.

People of different geographic location have significant morphological as well as
cultural differences between them and it is due to the climate and environment where
they lived for ages. People get these different morphological traits from their
ancestors. These ancestral traits provide a means to classify people for identification
purposes in forensic anthropology. Groups of physical traits differ in frequency from
one major region of the world to another and help to determine ancestry. Variation in
genotype and phenotypic characters among human population group are shaped by
the geography and culture (Klepinger 2006). The genetic variation among inter-
individuals inside a population account for about 93–95% of and that differences
between major population groups (inter-population) account for only 3–5%
(Rosenberg et al. 2002).
Forensic Anthropologist, tend to classify individuals into three major groups:

1. Caucasoid: It includes Europeans, inhabitants of South-Western Asia and North

Africa.
2. Mongoloid: It includes rest of inhabitants of Asia (i.e. Chinese, Japanese, and
Koreans etc.).
3. Negroid: It includes rest of inhabitants of the continent of Africa.

Ancestry can be traced by different indicators, which are discussed below.

21 Forensic Anthropology 635

21.6.1.1 Skeletal Indicators

Racial/ancestral association in forensic investigation are conceded out using metric
and morphological methods both, on the cranial and postcranial skeletons (Barker
et al. 2008; Craig 1995; Gilbert 1976; St Hoyme and Iscan 1989; Walker 2005). The
differences are associated to the morphology of the human skeleton as well and
hence classifying an individual on the basis of these morphological variations at the
skeletal level plays an important role in the identification of individual’s ancestry.
The variations can be studied under following types:

(a) Nonmetric Variation in Skeletal Morphology: It includes morphological

variation in various part of the skeleton (i.e. skull, dentition, postcranial bones
etc.) that can be visually identified. Table 21.4 shows Non-metric racial traits.

Table 21.4 Morphological variations in skeleton of different race

Elements of difference Caucasoid Mongoloid Negroid
Skull
Facial profile Orthognathic Orthognathic Prognathic
Nasal spine Large, long Medium, tilted Little or none
Nasal aperture Narrow, elongated Medium, rounded Broad
Nasal sill Single, sharp Single, sharp Double, guttered
Skull shape Rounded Square Narrow,
elongated
Forehead Raised Inclined Small,
compressed
Orbits Triangular Small, round Square
Palatal shape Parabolic, Elliptical, rounded U-shaped, square
triangular
Palatal suture Not straight Straight Not straight
Cranial sutures Simple Complex Simple
Chin Square, projecting Blunt Retreating
Skull length Short Long Long
Skull breadth Broad Board Narrow
Skull height High Middle Low
Sagittal contour Arched Arched Flat
Dentition
Maxillary incisors Blade shaped Shovel shaped Blade shaped
Maxillary molars Carabelli’s cusp Simple, 4 cusps Simple, 4 cusps
Dentition Crowded Not crowded Not crowded
Postcranial bones (femur)
Anterior curvature More curved Straight Straight
Proximal diaphysis Round Anteroposterior Round
shape flattening
Intercondylar notch Shallow Undetermined Deep
depth
636 M. Panda et al.

Table 21.5 Metric indexes to differentiate between skeleton of various races

Index Formula Caucasoid Mongoloid Negroid
Cephalic (maximum transverse breadth of 75–79.99 80–84.99 70–74.99
index (CI) skull)/(maximum anteroposterior
length of skull) × 100
Skull height (height of the skull)/(length of the 71 75 72
index (HI) skull) × 100
Nasal index (width of nasal aperture)/(height of 46 50 55
(NI) nasal aperture) × 100
Brachial (length of radius)/(length of 74.5 – 78.5
index Humerus) × 100
Crural index (length of tibia)/(length of 83.3 86.5 86.2
femur) × 100 (Indians)
Humero- (length of Humerus)/(length of 69 – 72.4
femoral index femur) × 100
Intermembral (length of Humerus + radius)/(length More than – Less than
index of femur + tibia) × 100 72 70.5

Other than the above-mentioned variation, few differences are also there such
as,
• Mongoloids have the largest teeth among the three races.
• Third upper molar is absent in Mongoloids.
• Mongoloids have an extra tubercle on mandibular premolars (i.e. Dens
Evaginatus).
• Negroids have extra lingual cusp in the mandibular molars (i.e. Tuberculum
intermedium).
• Mongoloids have long pointed canines and also have a condition of
Taurodontism (i.e. Bull tooth).
• Caucasoid population has a small additional cusp at the mesiopalatal line
angle of maxillary molars (i.e. Carabelli’s cusp).
(b) Metric Variation in Skeletal Morphology: Metric variations are the
differences related to measurements. People of different races have different
body measurements (i.e. height, length, breadth and width) using these
variations multiple indexes (i.e. cephalic index, brachial index, nasal index
etc.) are formed which help to differentiate between races of individuals.
Some of the indexes use to differentiate between races along with their formula
and approximate values are mentioned in (Table 21.5).

Skull can be classified into three categories on the basis of Cephalic Index,

1. Dolicho-cephalic: When the CI is 70–74.99, then they are long, narrow-headed

person or dolichocranic. E.g. Negroid, Aborigines, Aryans etc.
2. Mesati-cephalic: When the CI is 75–79.99, then they are medium or average
headed person or mesocranic. E.g. Caucasoid, Indians etc.
21 Forensic Anthropology 637

3. Brachy-cephalic: When the CI is 80–84.99, then they are short, broad, round
headed person or brachycranic. E.g. Mongoloids.

Below the Table 21.5 shows various indexes related to person of different racial
backgrounds.

21.6.1.2 Cultural Indicators

The forensic anthropologist always seeks for the cultural indicators associated with
the body remains of also with living individuals and connect them to their ancestry/
race. These indicators are the customs, jewelleries, different body modification
(as that practises by specified groups all over the world) and materials with religious
significances. E.g. hole in ear lobe is common among adult Brahmins and Kshatriyas
in Hindu community. Other cultural Modification marks are imprinted on skin
includes permanent and semipermanent tattoos, cutting marks, beads and rings
implant sub-dermally and piercing trans-dermally respectively and also
scarifications has significance potentiality for personal identification purpose. Also
surgical inventions or modifications were performed as a part of cultural or religious/
aesthetic and cosmetic purpose either by trained medical practitioner or by
non-medically trained persons. E.g. penis circumcision by the Jews and Muslims
all over the world. These kind of crucial indicators are comparable to different ethnic
groups of different geography during the legal investigation. The major issues/
drawbacks associated to these practises are seen due to the availability of these
crucial witnesses due to preservation point of view. Also in present globalised world
the modern lifestyle promote/distribute different ethnic wears and practises among
the natives, hence creates misconception to the investigation agency if they found
any such evidences.

21.6.1.3 Molecular Indicators

With the advancement in DNA based identification methods, allows forensic anthro-
pologist to adopt such techniques where the traditional methods (osteological inves-
tigation) are not suited to identification confirmation of evidential remains. The cases
like the identification of mass disaster victims, totally burnt individuals with limited
body residues fragmented body parts of skeletons and ancestry of an orphan can be
solved by DNA analysis. The drawback is associated with the biological samples,
which immediately start the degradation after the death of an individuals. To
compare the ancestry a proper sophisticated DNA data base is needed, which now
lacks to even in different developed nations.

21.6.1.4 Somatoscopic Indicators

These indicators are different somatic features that can be seen to the naked eyes.
Those are the skin tone type, eye-fold pattern, hair pattern and colour etc. These
characters helps the physical anthropologist to trace the ancestry to the respective
family or with an ethnic group or to conclude in personal identification.
638 M. Panda et al.

21.6.2 Determination of Sex

After estimation of ancestry of an unidentified skeleton the next step is the determi-
nation of its sex. The skeleton remains serves best in the estimation of sex until most
of the bones are available for analysis. Sexual dimorphism or expression of pheno-
typic differences between male and female of the same species have the ability to
differentiate between male and female skeleton. Due to this condition of sexual
dimorphism male and female skeleton have prominent morphological differences
(i.e. in size and architecture).
Estimation of sex from bone morphology is not so reliable in immature skeletal
cases, where the molecular analysis, i.e. amelogenin marker testing consider as
reliable alternative irrespective of age and where the skeletal remains are fragmen-
tary or incomplete (Baker 2016; Ostrofsky and Churchill 2015; Ubelaker 2019). Sex
is an important component of the biological profile of a missing person. In most of
the cases the sex can be reliably estimated from pelvis and found difficult in cases
where the pelvis is damaged or completely absent (Abdel Fatah et al. 2014; Michel
et al. 2015). Different researches established substantial population variation in
appearance of sexual dimorphism seen in human skeleton (Brzobohatá et al.
2015), and published literature for specific data based on the sex differences
(Spradley et al. 2015).
In general speaking, an adult male human skeleton is larger in size and more
strongly built than female skeleton. The difference in size between male and female
skeleton is about 8% i.e. female skeleton is about 92% the size of male skeleton.
Male skeleton exceeds the female skeleton in height, weight and breadth. The bones
of male skeleton are longer, thicker and have more prominent attachment of muscles.
On the other hand the architecture of both male and female skeleton also varies
greatly. One of the reason of difference in architecture is that female gave birth due
to which they have wider pelvis (i.e. to accommodate passage of infants) than males
of comparable size.
A forensic anthropologist, classify two categories of methods to differentiate
between male and female skeleton,
Non-metric (microscopic or visual analysis) Methods, involve examination of
morphological features of bones that vary between male and female (i.e. pelvis,
skull, long bones etc.). These methods are more accurate to identify the sex of the
skeleton. The entire skeleton can be used to assess the sex, but some of the major
bones like skull, pelvis, long bones play major role in establishment of sex because
they show prominent difference in male and female skeleton. Table 21.6 shows
accuracy of sex determination based on skeletal remains.
According to the above data, pelvis is the best single bone which gives 95%
accuracy in sex determination. Table 21.7 shows features of pelvis that are diagnos-
tic of sex.
After pelvis, another sex differentiating bone is the skull that gives around 92%
accuracy in sex estimation. Table 21.8 shows various differentiating feature of male
and female skull.
21 Forensic Anthropology 639

Table 21.6 Accuracy in Skeletal remains Accuracy in sex determination

sex determination based on
Pelvis 95%
skeletal remains
Skull 92%
Long bones 80–85%
Skull + pelvis 98%
Long bones + pelvis 98%
Entire skeleton 100%

Table 21.7 Differentiating features of male and female pelvis

Features Male pelvis Female pelvis
General Massive, rougher, prominent Less massive, slender, smoother,
appearance muscular markings muscular markings are not prominent
Shape Deep funnel Flat bowl
Body of pubis Narrow, triangular Broad, square, pits on posterior surface
Acetabulam Large (52 mm diameter), more Small (46 mm diameter), more laterally
forwardly directed directed
Preauricular Generally absent, if present Better developed, broad, deep
sulcus narrow, shallow
Iliac auricular That is not elevated from the That partially or completely elevated
surface surrounding bone
Ischio-pubic Broader and less everted Sharp, often everted with ridge
ramus
Greater sciatic Deep, small, narrow Shallow, large, wide
notch
Obturator Large, oval, base upwards Small, triangular, apex forwards
foramen
Ischial Inverted Everted
tuberosity
Ilium High and vertical Low and flaring
Subpubic V-shaped, sharp angle (700–750) U-shaped, rounded, broader angle (900–
angle 1000)
Pelvic inlet Heart shaped Circular or elliptical shaped
Pelvic outlet Smaller Larger
Pelvic cavity Conical, funnel shaped Broad, round
Subpubic Straight Concave
contour
Auricular Raised Flat
surface

Other bones such as mandible, sacrum, scapula, clavicle, long bones

(i.e. humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia) also have differentiating features in male
and female skeleton that can also be used for the assessment of sex from the skeletal
remains.
Metric Methods, involve estimation of sex on the basis of measurement of bone
lengths, width and breadth. Table 21.9 contains certain indexes that tell about the sex
from the skeletal remains.
640 M. Panda et al.

Table 21.8 Differentiating features of male and female skull

Features Male skull Female skull
General appearance Large, heavy, rugged, marked Small, light, thin walls, smooth
muscular ridges
Forehead More retreating, irregular, rough, Vertical, rounded, full,
less rounded infantile, smooth
Mastoid process Large, round, blunt Small, smooth, pointed
Cranial capacity 1450–1550 cc 1300–1350 cc
Orbits Square, small Rounded, large
Frontal and parietal Less prominent Prominent
eminence
Zygomatic arch Prominent Not prominent
Supraorbital ridges Thick, rounded, more pronounced Sharp and less pronounced
Suprameatal crest Present (extends) Absent (no extension)
Nasal aperture High, thin,sharp margins Lower, wider, rounded
margins
Palate Large, U-shaped, broad Small, parabolic
Foramen magnum Relatively large, long Small, round
Mental eminence Large projection Small or no projection
Glabella Prominent Less prominent

Table 21.9 Diagnostic Indexes for determination of sex

Average Average
value in value in
Index Formula male female
Ischiopubic index Length of pubis/length of ischium × 100 73–94 91–115
(average (average
75) 100)
Sciatic notch index Width of sciatic notch/depth of sciatic 145 166
notch × 100
Sternal index Length of manubrium/length of body × 100 46.2 54.3
Chilotic line index Sacral part of chilotic line/pelvic part of More than Less than
chilotic line × 100 100 100
Sacral index Transverse diameter of base of sacrum/ Less than More than
anterior length of sacrum × 100 114 114
Kimura’s base Width of wing (ala of sacrum)/width of base 65 80
wing index (alar (transverse diameter of body of S1) × 100
index)
Corporobasal Breadth of body of first sacral vertebra/ More than Less than
index breadth of base of sacrum × 100 42 42

21.6.3 Determination of Age/Age at Death

Human skeleton can also be used to estimate the age of the deceased at the time of
death. In case of unidentified skeletal remains, once the age is determined, the law
enforcement agency can narrow down their search and this information will limit the
21 Forensic Anthropology 641

pool of potential matches with missing individuals and identification of the individ-
ual can be done.
Forensic anthropologist can determine the age from skeletal remains by in-depth
understanding of the nature, sequence and timing of skeletal changes throughout a
lifetime. A Forensic anthropologist provides the estimated age in a range, because
there is no method or clue present which allows the determination of exact age from
the skeletal remain. The age range will be narrow (i.e. 1–3 years) in case of younger
person (i.e. 15–25 years) and will widen (i.e. 5–10 years) as the age of the person
increases or in case of an older (i.e. 40 years and above) person. The most accurate
age determination is done for infants and children.
Until the sub-adult age (i.e. from infant to children to adolescents) there are many
biological changes going on the body including in the bones that are occurring at
regular times and rates and hence estimation of age in subadults is quite precise
(i.e. Age range is narrower). At the age of biological maturity the number and rate of
developmental changes in the body decreases as during this age (25–35 years) the
body is in maintenance phase. After the age of 40 years, the developmental change
ceases. Estimation of age in adults (i.e 40 years and above) are based basically on the
degenerative changes (i.e. breakdown, wear and tear of skeleton) that vary person to
person and hence age range is broader (i.e. 5–10 years) in adults as compared to
subadults (i.e. 1–3 years).
Determination of Age from skeletal remains in subadults, depends upon growing
characteristics of the bones and teeth whereas in adults (i.e. 40 years or more) it
depends upon the degenerative changes in the bones. The features that are used to
establish the age from skeletal remains are mentioned below,

21.6.3.1 Determination of Age from Dentition

Age of an individual can be determined from its dentition. The stages of dental
development (i.e. formation, mineralization, and eruption of the deciduous and
permanent dentition) are the most relevant processes for age estimation. Eruption
of teeth and dental ageing are said to be the most precise method of age estimation
upto the juvenile period (i.e. 15 years) because dental development starts early in the
sixth fetal week and does not complete until the early adulthood. Tables 21.10 and
21.11 shows time of eruption of deciduous and permanent dentition respectively.
Period of mixed dentition, is the time when both the deciduous and permanent
teeth are present in the jaw and this is the most informative period for determination
of the age, usually it is between 6–11 years, but may persist until 12–13 years.
Table 21.12 represents the number of teeth with age.
By following the information given in Table 21.9, estimation of age can be done
on the basis of presence of different numbers and types of teeth in the dental
evidence of the skeletal remains.
Other methods of estimation of age from dental evidence include,

1. Stack’s Method: This method helps in estimating the age of the fetus and infants
from the weight of erupting teeth. Stack derived a regression line of weight of
642 M. Panda et al.

Table 21.10 Eruption S. No. Tooth Eruption time No. of teeth

time of deciduous teeth
1. Central incisor
• Lower 6–8 months 2
• Upper 7–9 months 4
2. Lateral incisor
• Upper 7–9 months 6
• Lower 10–12 months 8
3. First molar 12–14 months 12
4. Canine 17–18 months 16
5. Second molar 20–30 months 20

Table 21.11 Eruption time of permanent teeth

No. of teeth
S. No. Tooth Eruption time Permanent Deciduous
1. First molar 6–7 years 4 20
2. Central incisor 6–8 years 8 16
3. Lateral incisor 8–9 years 12 12
4. First pre-molar 9–10 years 16 8
5. Second pre-molar 10–11 years 20 4
6. Canine 11–12 years 24 0
7. Second molar 12–14 years 28 0
8. Third molar 17–25 years 32 0

Table 21.12 Number and types of teeth present at various age

Age (in years) No. of teeth Type of teeth
2–5 20 All deciduous
6 21–24 20 deciduous, 1–4 first permanent molars
7–9 24 12 permanent—8 incisors, 4 molars
12 deciduous—8 molars, 4 canines
10 24 16 permanent—8 incisors, 4 molars, 4 premolars
8 deciduous—4 second molars, 4 canines
11 24 20 permanent—8 incisors, 4 molars, 8 premolars
4 deciduous—4 canines
12–14 25–28 Eruption of second permanent molars
14–17 28 All permanent
17–25 29–32 Eruption of third permanent molars

growing dental tissues with respect to age. Table 21.13 shows the weight of
dental tissues with respect to age.
2. Boyde’s Method: This method is basically used to determine the age of dead
infants. This method estimates the age of the dead infant on the basis of counting
the number of cross striations (i.e. incremental lines) in the enamel of the teeth.
3. Gustafson’s Method: A method for estimation of age between 25–60 years using
dental evidence. By microscopically examining the physiological age changes
21 Forensic Anthropology 643

Table 21.13 Weight of Age (in weeks) Sum of teeth weight (in mg)
dental tissue with respect
28 (prenatal) 60
to age
40 (prenatal) 460
2 (postnatal) 530
30 (postnatal) 1840

(i.e. wear and tear) in each of the dental tissue, age of an individual is determined.
This method is useful in determining the age from a dead body or skeletal remains
because the methodology requires extraction of tooth from the jaw. After extrac-
tion, the longitudinal section of central part of the tooth is taken for assessing
following physiological changes,
(a) Secondary dentin.
(b) Cementum Apposition.
(c) Root Resorption.
(d) Attrition.
(e) Periodontosis.
(f) Root transparency.
By assessing the above given changes, age of the deceased is determined
(Table 21.14).

1. Miles Method: He derived a method of estimation of age at death from the dental
remains. The method involves measuring the thickness of enamel and dentin from
neonatal line and divided it by appropriate daily rate of formation.
2. Radiocarbon Analysis of Tooth enamel: On the basis of levels of radiocarbon
present in tooth enamel, the year of tooth formation can be determined.
3. Chemical Analysis: Chemical methods are also useful for determination of age
from skeletal remains. These methods are destructive but can produce precise
results. Some of the chemical method includes,
(a) Estimation of Nitrogen content in tooth enamel (Increase with age).
(b) Estimation of Carbonate content (Decreases with age).
(c) Estimation of Copper, selenium, lead and iron ions (Increases with age).
(d) Amino Acid Racemization: Most reliable destructive method for dental age
estimation. With age the L-form of amino acid transformed to D-form by
racemization. By estimation of extent of racemization of amino acid in the
tooth enamel and crown dentin, age can be estimated. Out of all amino acid
Aspartic acid has one of the fastest racemization and hence used to estimate
age from dental tissues.

21.6.3.2 Determination of Age from Ossification of Bones

Ossification is the process where soft bone tissues become hard and calcified. The
process of ossification starts around the sixth and seventh week of embryonic
development and continues until 25 years of age (except in case of ossification of
644 M. Panda et al.

Table 21.14 Ossification of bones with age in human male

Age of
Ossification appearance of
Bone centres ossification Age of complete ossification
1. Manubrium 5th month of IUL 60–70 years
Sternum 1st sternebrae 5th month of IUL 14–25 years
Second and 7th month of IUL 14–25 years
third
sternebrae
4th sternbrae 10th month of 14–25 years
IUL
Xiphisternum 3rd year (after 40–45 years
birth)
2. Medial end 15–17 years 20–22 years
Clavicle
3. Coracoid base 10–11 years 14–15 years
Scapula
4. Hyiod Greater cornu – 40–60 years
5. – – 20–25 years
Sacrum
Upper Head 1 year Conjoint epiphysis in three bones at age of
limb 5–6 years and union with shaft at
6. Greater 3 years 17–18 years.
Humerus tubercle
Lesser 5 years
tubercle
Capitulum 1 year At 14–15 years, all three fuses with the shaft.
Trochlea 9–10 years
Lateral 10–11 years
epicondyle
Medial 5–6 years 16 years
epicondyle
7. Upper end 5–6 years 15–17 years
Radius Lower end 1–2 years 17–19 years
8. Ulna Upper end 8–9 years 15–17 years
Lower end 5–6 years 17–19 years
9. Capitate At birth 2 month
Carpals Hamate 3 month 14–16 years
Triquetrum 3 years 6–7 years
Lunate 4 years 6–7 years
Scaphoid 4 years 5 years
Trapezium 4–5 years 6 years
Trapezoid 5 years 7 years
Pisiform 9–12 years –
Lower Ischiopubic – 7 years
limb rami
21 Forensic Anthropology 645

Table 21.14 (continued)

Age of
Ossification appearance of
Bone centres ossification Age of complete ossification
10. Hip Triradiate – 12–14 years
bone cartilage
Iliac crest 15–16 years 19–21 years
Ischial 16–17 years 20–22 years
tuberosity
11. Head 1 year 17–18 years
Femur Greater 4 years 14–15 years
trochanter
Lesser 14 years 15–17 years
trochanter
Lower end At birth 17–18 years
12. Tibia Upper end At birth 17–18 years
Lower end 1 year 16–17 years
13. Upper end 4 years 17–18 years
Fibula Lower end 2 years 16–17 years
14. Calcaneum 5th month of IUL 17–18 years
Tarsals Talus 7th month of IUL –
Cuboid 9th month of IUL –

cranial sutures, sternum and hyoid bone). Ossification starts centrally in an epiphysis
and spread peripherally. The centre of ossification in most of the bones appears
during the seventh to 12th week of embryonic development. At about 11th to 12th
week of embryonic development there are around 806 centres of ossification which
decreases to 450 during the birth. The disappearance of ossification centres shows
that ossification centres unites with adjacent centres and forms an adult bone and
finally an adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones.
Ossification of bones is a relevant method to estimate the age in the subadults as
this process continues until the age of 25 years. Table 21.16 shows the age at which
these ossification centres appear and unite to complete the ossification in a human
male. In females the union of epiphyses occurs 1 year earlier.
Fusion of joints can also be used for age estimation before 25 years of age,
because all the joint get fused in 25 years. Table 21.15 shows the approximate age of
fusion of various joints.

21.6.4 Determination of Age from Skull Suture Closure

The human skull is not a single bone but it is composed of several major bones which
are joined together with the help of fibrous joints known as the suture. These sutures
help the skull bones in movement during the birth process and act as expansion
joints. Closure of cranial sutures is said to be a reliable method of age estimation
646 M. Panda et al.

Table 21.15 Age of Joint Approximate age of fusion

fusion of various joints
Elbow joint 16 years
Ankle joint 16–17 years
Hip joint 17–18 years
Shoulder joint 18 years
Knee joint 18 years
Wrist joint 18 years

Table 21.16 Closure age of various sutures of the skull

Suture Age of closure
Posterior Fontanelle (occipital) At birth to 6 months
Anterior Fontanelle (bregma) 1 1=2–2 years
Two halves of mendible 1–2 years
Metopic suture (between frontal bones) 2–4 years, may extend to 6 years or remain
unfused
Bassiocciput and basisphenoid 18–20 years in female, 20–22 years in male
Coronal suture (between frontal and parietal Lower half in 40–50 years, upper half in
bones) 50–60 years
Lambdoid suture (between occipital and 45–50 years
parietal bones)
Sagittal suture (between right and left parietals)
Posterior one third in 30–40 years, anterior one third in 40–50 years, middle part in 50–60 years
Parieto-temporal 60–70 years

between 25–40 years of age. The human skull contains sutures on the inner and outer
surfaces known as endocranial and ectocranial sutures respectively. Closure of
sutures on the outer surface (i.e ectocranial sutures) is useful in estimation of age at
death whereas the inner sutures (i.e. endocranial sutures) are said to give a rough
estimate of age at death. Closure of endocranial sutures begin 5–10 years earlier than
the ectocranial sutures. The palate also contains sutures known as the palatal sutures
which are also used in age estimation. Table 21.16 shows the ages at which different
sutures closes.
The above given information is utilized to estimate the age at death and the most
precise age estimation is done from sagittal suture followed by lambdoid suture and
then from coronal suture. Closure of all sutures indicates that the age is above
60 years.
Other method of age estimation from skeletal remains include,

21.6.5 Determination of Age Based on Changes in Pubic Symphyseal

Surface

The pubic symphyseal surface starts changing from 18 years of age. This surface at
young age is an undulating surface, at 25–40 years the surface become granular and
21 Forensic Anthropology 647

become eroded around 60 years. These alterations in the pubic symphyseal surface
with ageing are the best single criteria to determine the age at death for the
individuals of 30—50 years of age.

21.6.6 Determination of Age Based on Changes in Morphology

of Mendible

Morphological features of the mendible bone can be utilized to estimate a rough

outline regarding the age group (i.e. infant, adult and oldage) of the individual.
Mendible bone’s morphology changes with time like the body is shallow at infancy
which become thick and long during the adulthood and in old age again become
shallow. The angle of Ramus with the body is obtuse (about 140°) at infancy which
become less obtuse during adulthood and again become obtuse at oldage. The mental
foramen moves towards the alveolar margin with age.

21.6.7 Determination of Stature from Skeletal Remains

From the four principle components of a person’s biological profile or demographics

(i.e. ancestry, sex, age, stature) stature is the fourth component of importance.
Estimation of stature along with other demographics from the skeletal remains will
help the law enforcement agency to identify the person. The word stature is derived
from Latin word “statura” which means height or size of the body and the Latin verb
“stare” which means to stand. Stature of a person relates to its standing height.
Estimation of stature from skeletal remains can be done by following methods,

(a) Anatomical or full skeleton method: It is a rarely used method also known as
full skeleton method. This method involves taking vertical measurements of all
the bones that contribute to stature (i.e skull, vertebrae, scapula, long bones,
tarsals etc.) using calipers and osteometric boards. After taking the
measurements, stature is estimated by adding the measurements of all bones
along with a correction factor for soft tissue. This method gives high accuracy
but from a forensic point of view it is bit impractical. As this method requires
measurements of all bones and it is quite difficult to recover a full skeleton
because usually incomplete skeletons and fragmentary remains are recovered
from the scene.
(b) Mathematical or Regression method: This is the most commonly used
method for stature estimation. Based on the principle that components of the
skeleton grow in an orderly manner along with the growing human body and
hence have a specific relationship with the increasing height of the body. The
mathematical relationship between body height and various bones that
contributes to the stature (i.e humerus, radius, ulna etc.) is devised in the form
of regression formula. This formula consists of a multiplication factor which is
different for different bone along with correction factor for soft tissues and is
648 M. Panda et al.

Table 21.17 Long bones Bone Multiplication factor (approx.)

with their respective multi-
Femur 3.6–3.8 (3.7)
plication factors for stature
estimation Tibia/fibula 4.48
Humerus 5.30
Radius 6.7–6.9
Ulna 6.0–6.3 (6.1)

used to estimate the stature from different bones. From the forensic perspective
the regression method is better as single bone is sufficient to estimate the stature
but it is better to have combination of bones as they provide more accurate
results than single bone. Regression formulas are derived for various long bones
as they give better results. Karl Pearson’s regression formula is the most
commonly used method for estimation of stature from long bones. For e.g. the
formula for stature estimation from femur is,

Stature = 81:306 þ 1:88 × F ðLength of femur in malesÞ

Table 21.17 shows multiplication factors for calculation of stature from various
long bones.
Sex and race of individuals should be taken into account while applying these
methods. Long bones of lower limb gave more accurate result than long bones
of upper limb. Apart from long bones studies have been done for the estimation of
stature from non-long bones such as calcaneus bones, metatarsals, size and shape of
foot and hand, parts of vertebral column etc.
Other methods used for Stature estimation include,

• Radiographs to study stature and bone lengths of living and recently deceased
person.
• Multislice CT scans to determine regression formula between stature and bone
(i.e. sacrum) length.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) also been used in few studies.

21.7 Identity Markers Related to Individual and Its Life History

Personal identity of the deceased may judge more appropriately by difference

skeletal marks acquires by live events. Certain type of erosions like the depressions,
scars and pits on the dorsal surface of the pubic bones that adjacent to the pubic
symphyses portion observed more often in female’s pelvis than the opposite sex.
Radiographic examination are carried out during forensic post-mortem to examine
the pathological and non-pathological marks acquired by the deceased and the ante
mortem radiographic report should compare to the previous one in case of availabil-
ity, either confirm or exclude in identification point of view (Murphy and Gantner
1982). Some characters are unique to a single individual. Some of them are secure
21 Forensic Anthropology 649

characteristics as they control by genetics itself, or acquired due to the addition,

removal, or alteration of bodily tissues i.e. in ontogeny and phenotypically become
plastic/fix (Randolph-Quinney et al. 2011). Such type of individualities are ascend
upon intervention in development naturally or intesionally, through accident, or
intended alteration, with the aim that those are suitably becomes a mark of identity
to an individual. These are the pathological effects of any disease or trauma, surgical
mediation for therapeutic or cosmetic tenacities and uniqueness in soft tissue or in
bones; and such signs should provide a resilient evident for establish discrete
identity. Joint replacement surgery/ orthopedic plating, breast augmentation in
female, use of cardiac pacemakers, or other life supporting surgical maneuvers
(having manufactures mark/number) are certain types of surgical interventions that
left some imprints permanently, useful as personal identification purpose.

21.8 Trauma Analysis

Forensic anthropologist are expert to access the bone’s response with respect to any
type of trauma. Systematic analysis of skeletal remains for knew the timing and
mechanism of skeletal trauma give clues to relevant forensic questions. That involve
careful observation, documentation and interpretation with proper scientific methods
and principles. For trauma analysis forensic anthropologist through assessing the
timing of occurrence of the trauma (antemortem, post-mortem/perimortem) and the
mechanism responsible for the occurrence of the trauma (like the projectile, blunt,
sharp and thermal) (SWGANTH 2011). This needs an interdisciplinary approach
and brings methodologies from disciplines like osteology, taphonomy, anatomy,
physics, materials engineering, biomechanics and ballistics. Not only the trauma
associated with the bones but with the cartilages are recruited to forensic
anthropologists. They carefully restructure the fragmented bone, study the pattern
of any fracture, characteristics of the wound, and lastly the nature of tool as well as
the minimal force that should responsible for the trauma (Love and Wiersema 2016).

21.9 Craniofacial Reconstruction

When the other methods are failed to identify the unknown human remnant Forensic
facial reconstruction can be useful to identification purpose. Forensic facial recon-
struction is a quick, non-invasive as well as effectual method that made facial
reconstruction, useful for individual identification from skeletal remains and also
in archaeological research (Gupta et al. 2015). The techniques are varied from two
dimensional (2D) drawings to three dimensional (3D) clay models (Abate et al.
2004; Yadav et al. 2010). Based on antemortem snaps and the skull the former model
requires an artist and a forensic anthropologist to work on the facial reconstruction
(Yadav et al. 2010). Accurate identification allows the legal agencies to make a list of
alleged victims’. A 3D techniques called as Anatomical Russian Method used for
reconstruction of face of fossilized skulls (Kähler et al. 2003). For facial recognition
650 M. Panda et al.

of an individual the combination Manchester method has been considered as the best
and most precise one (Short et al. 2014).

21.10 Identifying Living Individuals

Forensic anthropologist also involve in the matter of identifying the living being, but
facial identification is quite difficult (Fraser et al. 2003). It is quite a different aspect
in the field of forensic identification, which study the human diversity and attempt to
construct and verify morphological characteristics to understand the differences in
physiognomy of one from other. They collect the CCTV footages and reconstruct the
face of the suspects who involves in crimes like robberies and assaults etc. proper
attention should be given to verify the falsification arises by projective geometry
during the measurement of the dimension of the real items seen at crime surround-
ings (Criminisi et al. 1999). Traditional literature use conventional anthropometry
(i.e. indices and facial characters) in for verify the resemblance in between the two
individuals (Halberstein 2001). The 3D models of the person are examined to check
matching of different facial landmarks and outlines, for an efficient analysis on 2D
image (Fraser et al. 2003; Yoshino et al. 2001). Most recently the with technological
shift improvement in 3D image acquisition technology will enable the researcher to
achieve 3D-3D facial superimposition goal (Gibelli et al. 2017).

21.11 Determining the Age of Living Individuals (Imputability,

Migration Issues and Pedo-Pornography)

The issues related to the individual’s identification arises, when there is no docu-
mental evidence present near the person. This kind of concerns related to the victims
of war survivals, persons associated with illegal migration and children survived in
mass disaster cases. Other issues arises with the culprit, whose age is not known to
the law enforcement agencies, hence issue arises with the type of court proceedings
either for underage or adults. Forensic anthropologist with radiological, anthropo-
logical, and odontological investigations determine whether they belongs to under-
age or adult after the ancestry tracing, as the somatic growth differ with the
geographical areas and ethnicity (Cattaneo 2007; Eugénia Cunha and Cattaneo
2006). Where the person ≥18 years old then CT examination of collar bones is
necessary to construct the accurate age (Schmeling et al. 2006). A recent method is
called as exfoliative cytology (EC) is considered as unique, use noninvasive tech-
nique, that involving simple, and based on the pain-free collection of intact cells
from the oral cavity for different microscopic examination (Nallamala et al. 2017).
Child pornography is a type sexual exploitation, where the victims are the
children/ underages. The issue associated to the pedoponography is quite difference,
where the age calculation are performed with the help of 2D images over anthropo-
logical assessment. The facial and secondary sexual characteristics are extremely
variable and do not represent chronological age, even the rate of sexual maturation is
21 Forensic Anthropology 651

vary with geography, hence considered as a novel and very tough aspect of age
estimation (Gehlen et al. 2005; Greil and Kahl 2005; Parent et al. 2003). Now other
new methods of age estimation used ‘Iris Ratio’ (Machado et al. 2017) and face
(Ratnayake et al. 2014) as indicator that capable with the potentiality for forensic
applications, especially to the crimes like the child pornography and child abuse
issues.

21.12 Positive or Confirmed Identity and Exclusion

The important step of any forensic investigation is to conclude its own way. Proper
identification in the forensic anthropological investigation complete with the
two-step procedure. Formerly, the features which are found are match in between
the recovered remains and the antemortem feature/evidences of the missing person.
The later step must clarify any differences which exists and explain the uniqueness
of the common attributes. When the commonly found features are properly umpired
as unique and the differences are reconciled successfully, a positive identification
result will be established, otherwise exclusion is concluded.

21.12.1 Human Right Issues and Forensic Anthropologist

Forensic anthropology apply scientific knowledge as well as methodologies to solve

law and justice related issues. The problem not only associated with the individual
identification and identify the foul play in crimes but also with humanitarian and
issues with human right. Forensic anthropologists identify the missing persons and
helps in detect crime and take part to give justice against the culprit for of any crimes.
Human rights in forensic anthropology is the specific application of forensic anthro-
pology to the cases with mass killing or genocide has occurred intensively in a large
scale. Forensic anthropologists associated to the human rights work are recruited by
federal agency to gather precise evidence related to any war, genocide, human
trafficking and child abuse. The first ever involvement of international forensic
anthropologist into human rights inquiries started in 1984 by the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) sponsored forensic anthropology
experts responded to Argentina’s request regarding the support of forensic experts
in unearthing and identifying thousands of individuals who missed during the period
of 1976 and 1983.

21.12.2 Case Studies/Famous Case Histories

• In 1849, The Parkman Murder (Killgrove 2016), known to be the first case that
originates Forensic anthropology in America. Two anatomists Oliver Wendell
Holmes and Jeffries Wyman at Harvard University investigate the Murder of the
prominent physician Dr. George Parkman who was killed by a chemistry
652 M. Panda et al.

professor at Harvard named John W. Webster. The conviction was done on the
basis of investigation done by the two anatomists by examining the segmented
body parts for stature estimation and comparing the dentures found in the furnace.
• In 1897, The Luetgert Case (Murderpedia n.d.), become another famous case in
which Adolph Luetgert, a Chicago based sausage producer was accused of killing
his wife and attempting to dispose of the remains by cooking them in a potash vat
in the factory. George A. Dorsey, an anthropologist, investigated the case and
recovered small fragments of bones and a ring (belongs to Luetgert’s wife) from
the vat. On examination he found that the small fragments were from a human
hand, foot and rib, hence stated Luetgert as guilty and gave testimony in court
which helped in conviction of Adolph Luetgert. His testimony was sternly
challenged by other specialists, and Dorsey left his contribute further to the
study of forensic anthropology.
• In April 1997, The Marty Miller Case(Casto 2016), is an incident that happen in a
quite rural area of upstate of New York. Marty Miller shot his daughter with a
shotgun which fatally wounded her. After this incident Marty ran into the woods
behind his house, in spite of a massive manhunt, he was not seen again. This
incident became something of a legend in the community due to the notoriety of
the missing suspect. Marty was an enthusiastic outdoorsman and know the
survival techniques in the forest. As a fugitive, he could be quite dangerous and
people feared of his reappearance. After 4 years in December 8, 2001, a hunter
found a human skeleton at a remote place into the woods and called to the police.
The New York Police investigated the scene and recover the skeletal remains
along with other important evidences (such as clothes, wallet, eye glasses, wrist
watch, shotgun etc.) and send the evidences to Forensic Anthropology Lab at
Binghamton University where anthropologist using methods of identification
through skeletal remains helped in positive identification of the deceased as
Marty Miller.

Case Study 1: Ancestry Estimation

In 2012, a scattered human remain was found along a hill side in Northern
California. The skeletal remains found were highly fragmentary and incomplete.
Due to carnivore scavenging the pelvic features are not clear but the intact skull was
located which is then used for assessment of ancestry. Although the age estimation
was not easy task due to scavenging but cranial sutures and osteophytic lipping on
vertebral column gave an idea that the decedent was of 40+ years and on the basis of
maximum length of ulna, the stature was estimated as 6 ft. ±4.5 in. Apart from these
findings law was interested in ancestry of the decedent to narrow down the search
from the pool of missing persons hence they compared 16 measurement of cranium
with the sample group of male and found the results as:

– Fordisc 3.0 classified it as white male.

– High posterior probability value p = 0.984 indicated it as white male.
– Typical value p = 0.366 indicated the skull as white male.
21 Forensic Anthropology 653

After all the above mentioned findings it was identified by DNA analysis that the
remains was of a 54 year old white male with a stature of 6 ft. 3 in. and the result is
consistent with the above findings.

Case Study 2: Sex Estimation

In 2006, a nearly complete human skeleton is recovered from grave in Northern
California. The deceased remains showed male pelvic traits such as a narrow
sub-pubic angle, absence of a ventral arc, a narrow sciatic notch etc. The cranial
features like mastoid process temporal lines, supraorbital region indicated the skele-
ton to be of male sex. On comparing the postcranial measurement with statistics of
Forensic Anthropology Databank (i.e. Fordisc 3.0) it was suggested that the skeleton
was of human male. It was later identified that the remains were of a 26 year old
white male with living stature of 5 ft. 8 in.

Case Study 3: Age Estimation

In 2008, human remains from a cemetery in Northern California were exhumed; the
decedent’s age was estimated to be of 6.0 ± 2 years. This age was estimated by
seeing the dental eruption, dental development and epiphyseal union in the skeletal
elements which were surprisingly in a good preserved state with clearly visible
features even after 30 years of the body being buried. The maxillary and mandibular
first molars were almost erupted and permanent central incisors were in process of
eruption. Apart from this even the degree of fusion of vertebral column, early stage
development of several epiphyses and length of limb bones indicated the age of the
decedent to be approx. 6–8 years. Later the individual was identified as 6 year old
child from American Ancestry.

Case Study 4: Stature Estimation

A different case of carnivorous scavenging of human skeleton was discovered in
Northern California in 2008. The estimated biological profile said, descendent was
an adult male of European ancestry and was of about 50–80 years of age. The
skeleton was heavily degraded but the case was solved on the basis of postcranial
elements. Osteometric data was collected from left long bones of upper and lower
limbs, clavicle, and scapula. The data then entered into Fordisc. Using the formula
derived for twentieth century white males the stature is estimated. The result
concluded that the stature is best estimated using the maximum lengths of bones
like clavicle, femur and tibia.
The combination of the measurements of these bones was used in regression
formula which generated the stature as 67 ± 3.3 in. with 95% confidence level. Later
the profile matched closely with a missing individual’s file and descendent was
identified as 70 years old white male with a stature of 68 in.

Case Study 5: Human or Non-human

In this case, a partly skeletonized leg was discovered in a river in Northern
California. Local law enforcement sent it to an archeologist, pathologist and veteri-
narian for identification to which the archeologist and pathologist identified it as
654 M. Panda et al.

human right leg but the veterinarian identified it from a non-human origin. The leg
was attacked by a saw which caused dismemberment of the bone. The law enforce-
ment searched for the other remains of the skeleton for 3 days considering the
skeleton to be of a human. On searching a complete left femur and proximal two
thirds of a tibia and fibula were found which is then identified to be of a black bear. In
this case much time and money would have been saved if the case was handed to the
forensic anthropologist and not to the experts of three different streams who had the
conflicting opinion.

21.12.3 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects

Forensic anthropologists work in humanitarian and medico-legal issues with the

primary aim of establishing the identity. Traditionally, the forensic anthropology
begins from human anatomy and focuses majorly on osteological evidences. With
the ongoing research and increasing need of forensic anthropologists in world
scenario the branch become more liberal in accepting methodological collaborations
and make the investigation effective. Over time forensic anthropologist makes the
discipline as a unique one, at its standpoint. In the present scenario, new experimen-
tal trends in forensic sciences focus on trauma analysis, taphonomy, examination of
isotopes, time since death and visual interpretation are going on to meet the demand
in the identification process. The current trend of forensic anthropological research
and teaching progressively attracts the best and dedicated students through graduate
and post-graduate studies as an applied discipline with problem-oriented interdisci-
plinary approaches. During the investigation by the forensic anthropologist number
of ethical issues faces by them, brings a challenge when establish the study conclu-
sion. The future perspective will focus on, but not least to utilization of interdisci-
plinary techniques, expansion of new centres and laboratories, introduce new school
programs, and enhanced understanding on the variation of global population Lastly
it can be said that in this age of ‘necronominalism’ the personal identification of
deceased is important as much as like the identity of a living.

References
Abate AF, Nappi M, Ricciardi S, Tortora G (2004) FACES: 3D FAcial reConstruction from anciEnt
skulls using content based image retrieval. J Visual Lang Comput 15(5):373–389
Abdel Fatah EE, Shirley NR, Jantz RL, Mahfouz MR (2014) Improving sex estimation from crania
using a novel three-dimensional quantitative method. J Forensic Sci 59(3):590–600
Adams BJ, Byrd JE (2006) Resolution of small-scale commingling: a case report from the Vietnam
war. Forensic Sci Int 156(1):63–69
Adams BJ, Konigsberg LW (2004) Estimation of the most likely number of individuals from
commingled human skeletal remains. Am J Phys Anthropol 125(2):138–151
Adams BJ, Konigsberg LW (2008) How many people? Determining the number of individuals
represented by commingled human remains. In: Recovery, analysis, and identification of
commingled human remains. Springer, Berlin, pp 241–255
American Board of Forensic Anthropology (2021). http://theabfa.org/
21 Forensic Anthropology 655

Avon SL (2004) Forensic odontology: the roles and responsibilities of the dentist. J Canad Dental
Assoc 70(7):453–458
Baker L (2016) Biomolecular applications. In: Handbook of forensic anthropology and archaeol-
ogy. Routledge, London, pp 458–471. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315528939-38
Barker C, Cox M, Flavel A, Laver J, Loe L (2008) Mortuary procedures II—skeletal analysis I:
basic procedures and demographic assessment. In: The Scientific Investigation of Mass Graves:
Towards Protocols and Standard Operating Procedures. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, MA, pp 295–382
Beddoe J (1888) On the stature of the older races of England, as estimated from the long bones. J.R
Anthropol Inst G. B. Irel 17:201–209
A Bertillon (1853–1914) Visible proofs: Forensic views of thn.d.e Body: Galleries: Biographies:
[Exhibitions]. U.S. National Library of Medicine. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/
visibleproofs/galleries/biographies/bertillon.html. Accessed 27 Feb 2021
Black S, Thompson T (2007) Body modification. In: Forensic human identification. CRC, Boca
Raton, pp 379–399
Black S, Aggrawal A, Payne-James J (2010) Age estimation in the living: the practitioner’s guide.
Wiley, Hoboken, NJ
Blau S, Ubelaker DH (2016) Handbook of forensic anthropology and archeology, 2nd edn.
Routledge, London
Britannica (2021) Anthropology. https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/anthropology/272896
Brzobohatá H, Krajíček V, Horák Z, Velemínská J (2015) Sex classification using the three-
dimensional tibia form or shape including population specificity approach. J Forensic Sci
60(1):29–40
Buchli V, Lucas G (2002) Archaeologies of the contemporary past. Routledge, London
Cameron JM, Sims BG, Simpson KC (1974) Forensic dentistry. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh
Casto M (2016) The Marty miller case. https://prezi.com/ojkwwf8ndx1m/the-marty-miller-case/
Cattaneo C (2007) Forensic anthropology: developments of a classical discipline in the new
millennium. Forensic Sci Int 165(2–3):185–193
Clarkson J, Schaefer M (2007) Surgical intervention. In: Forensic human identification. CRC, Boca
Raton, FL, pp 127–146
Craig EA (1995) Intercondylar shelf angle: a new method to determine race from the distal femur. J
Forensic Sci 40(5):777–782
Criminisi A, Zisserman A, Van Gool LJ, Bramble SK, Compton D (1999) New approach to obtain
height measurements from video. Proceedings of SPIE 3576:227–238
Crossland Z (2013) Evidential regimes of forensic archaeology. Annu Rev Anthropol 42:121–137
Cuijpers A (2006) Histological identification of bone fragments in archaeology: telling humans
apart from horses and cattle. Int J Osteoarchaeol 16(6):465–480
Cunha E (2006) Pathology as a factor of personal identity in forensic anthropology. In: Forensic
anthropology and medicine. Springer, Berlin, pp 333–358
Cunha E, Cattaneo C (2006) Forensic anthropology and forensic pathology. In: Forensic anthro-
pology and medicine. Springer, Berlin, pp 39–53
Dayal MR, Kegley AD, Strkalj G et al (2009) The history and composition of the Raymond A. Dart
collection of human skeletons at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg,
South Africa. Am J Phys Anthropol 140:324–335
Dwight T (1878a) The identification of the human skeleton: a medico-legal study. David Clapp &
Son, Boston, MA
Dwight T (1878b) In: Clapp D (ed) The identification of the human skeleton: a medico-legal study:
to which was awarded the prize of the Massachusetts medical society for 1878, vol 153.
Kessinger Publishing, Whitefish, p 201
Dwight T (1881) The sternum as an index of sex, height, and age. J Anat Physiol 15:327–330
Dwight T (1890a) The closure of the cranial sutures as a sign of age. Boston Med Surg J 122:389–
392
Dwight T (1890b) The sternum as an index of sex, height and age. J Anat Physiol 24:527–535
656 M. Panda et al.

Dwight T (1894a) Methods of estimating the height from parts of the skeleton, medical records in
New York, vol 46. Trow Directory, New York, NY, pp 293–296
Dwight T (1894b) The range and significance of variations in the human skeleton. Boston Med Surg
J 1:73–76
Dwight T (1905) The size of the auricular surfaces of the long bones as a characteristic of sex: an
anthropological study. Am J Anat 4:19–31
Fenger S, Ubelaker D, Rubinstein D (1996) Identification of workers’ compensation fraud through
radiographic comparison. JFI 46:418–431
Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe (n.d.). http://forensicanthropology.eu/
Forensic-Science Anthropology-Subcommittee (n.d.). https://www.nist.gov/topics/forensic-sci
ence/anthropology-subcommittee
Fraser NL, Yoshino M, Imaizumi K, Blackwell SA, Thomas CDL, Clement JG (2003) A Japanese
computer-assisted facial identification system successfully identifies non-Japanese faces. Foren-
sic Sci Int 135(2):122–128
Gehlen S, Broker H, Ritz-Timme S, Tuktuviene J, Cattaneo C (2005) Child pornography: develop-
ment of a method for identification of faces as childish. Second international conference on
reconstruction of soft facial parts, RheinAhrCampus Remagen
Gibelli D, De Angelis D, Poppa P, Sforza C, Cattaneo C (2017) A view to the future: a novel
approach for 3D–3D superimposition and quantification of differences for identification from
next-generation video surveillance systems. J Forensic Sci 62(2):457–461
Gilbert BM (1976) Anterior femoral curvature: its probable basis and utility as a criterion of racial
assessment. Am J Phys Anthropol 45(3):601–604
Greil H, Kahl H (2005) Assessment of developmental age: cross-sectional analysis of secondary
sexual characteristics. Anthropol Anz 63:63–75
Guglich EA, Wilson PJ, White B (1994) Forensic application of repetitive DNA markers to the
species identification of animal tissues. J Forensic Sci 39(2):353–361
Gupta S, Gupta V, Vij H, Vij R, Tyagi N (2015) Forensic facial reconstruction: the final frontier. J
Clin Diagn Res 9(9):ZE26–ZE28. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2015/14621.6568
Haglund WD (2001) Archaeology and forensic death investigations. Hist Archaeol 35(1):26–34
Halberstein R (2001) The application of anthropometric indices in forensic photography: three case
studies. J Forensic Sci 46(6):1438–1441
Hunt DR, Albanese J (2005) History and demographic composition of the Robert J. Terry
anatomical colletion. Am J Phys Anthropol 127:406–417
James SH, Nordby JJ (2002) Forensic science: an introduction to scientific and investigative
techniques. CRC, Boca Raton, FL
Kähler K, Haber J, Seidel H-P (2003) Reanimating the dead: reconstruction of expressive faces
from skull data. ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG) 22(3):554–561
Kehoe AB (2013) Humans: an introduction to four-field anthropology. Routledge, London
Killgrove K (2016) How a Harvard doctor’s sordid murder launched modern forensic anthropology.
Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2016/08/26/how-a-harvard-doctors-sor
did-murder-launched-modern-forensic-anthropology/
Klepinger LL (2006) Deciphering ancestral background. In: Fundamentals of forensic anthropol-
ogy. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp 64–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470007729.ch6
Krogman WM (1939) A guide to the identification of human skeletal material. United States
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, DC
L’Abbe EN, Loots M, Meiring JH (2005) The pretoria bone collection: a modern south African
skeletal sample. Homo 56:197–205
Linacre A, Lee JC-I (2016) Species determination: the role and use of the cytochrome b gene. In:
Forensic DNA typing protocols. Springer, Berlin, pp 287–296
Love JC, Wiersema JM (2016) Skeletal trauma: an anthropological review. Acad Forensic Pathol
6(3):463–477
21 Forensic Anthropology 657

Lowenstein JM, Reuther JD, Hood DG, Scheuenstuhl G, Gerlach SC, Ubelaker DH (2006)
Identification of animal species by protein radioimmunoassay of bone fragments and blood-
stained stone tools. Forensic Sci Int 159(2–3):182–188
Machado CEP, Flores MRP, Lima LNC, Tinoco RLR, Franco A, Bezerra ACB, Evison MP,
Guimarães MA (2017) A new approach for the analysis of facial growth and age estimation:
iris ratio. PLoS One 12(7):e0180330. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180330
Manouvrier L (1893) La determination de la taille d’après les grands os des membres. Memoires de
la Societe Anthropologie de Paris 4:347–402
Matsuda H, Seo Y, Kakizaki E, Kozawa S, Muraoka E, Yukawa N (2005) Identification of DNA of
human origin based on amplification of human-specific mitochondrial cytochrome b region.
Forensic Sci Int 152(2–3):109–114
Michel J, Paganelli A, Varoquaux A, Piercecchi-Marti M, Adalian P, Leonetti G, Dessi P (2015)
Determination of sex: interest of frontal sinus 3 D reconstructions. J Forensic Sci 60(2):269–273
Murderpedia (n.d.) Adolph Luetgert|Murderpedia, the encyclopedia of murderers. https://
murderpedia.org/male.L/l/luetgert-dolph.htm. Accessed 1 Mar 2021
Murphy W, Gantner G (1982) Radiologic examination of anatomic parts and skeletonized remains.
J Forensic Sci 27(1):9–18
Nallamala S, Guttikonda VR, Manchikatla PK, Taneeru S (2017) Age estimation using exfoliative
cytology and radiovisiography: a comparative study. J Forensic Dent Sci 9(3):144–148. https://
doi.org/10.4103/jfo.jfds_39_16
Nath S (1989) An introduction to forensic anthropology. Gian Publishing House, New Delhi
Neville B, Douglas D, Allen C, Bouquot J (2002) Forensic dentistry. In: Oral and maxillofacial
pathology, 2nd edn. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA
OBE SMB (2003) Forensic anthropology–regulation in the United Kingdom. Sci Justice 43(4):
187–192
Orfila MJB, Lesueur O (1831) Traite des exhumation juridique. considerations Sur les changemens
physiques que les cadavres eprouvent en se pourrissant dans la terre, dans l’eau, dans
lesfossesd’aisance et dans le fumier, vol 2. Bechet Jeune, Paris
Ostrofsky KR, Churchill SE (2015) Sex determination by discriminant function analysis of lumbar
vertebrae. J Forensic Sci 60(1):21–28
Outram AK, Knüsel CJ, Knight S, Harding AF (2005) Understanding complex fragmented
assemblages of human and animal remains: a fully integrated approach. J Archaeol Sci
32(12):1699–1710
Pan N (1924) Length of long bones and their proportion to body height in Hindus. J Anat 58(Pt 4):
374
Parent A-S, Teilmann G, Juul A, Skakkebaek NE, Toppari J, Bourguignon J-P (2003) The timing of
normal puberty and the age limits of sexual precocity: variations around the world, secular
trends, and changes after migration. Endocr Rev 24(5):668–693
Pearson K (1899) Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution. V. on the reconstruction of
the stature of prehistoric races. Series a. containing papers of a mathematical or physical
character, vol 192. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, London, pp
169–244
Pickering R, Bach D (2009) The use of forensic anthropology, 2nd edn. CRC, Boca Raton, FL
Randolph-Quinney P, Mallett X, Black S (2011) Forensic anthropology. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp
152–178
Ratnayake M, Obertová Z, Dose M, Gabriel P, Bröker H, Brauckmann M, Barkus A, Rizgeliene R,
Tutkuviene J, Ritz-Timme S (2014) The juvenile face as a suitable age indicator in child
pornography cases: a pilot study on the reliability of automated and visual estimation
approaches. Int J Legal Med 128(5):803–808
Rollet E (1888) De la mensuration des os longs des membres dans sesrapportsavec l’anthropologie,
la clinique et la medecine judici- aire. D’Anthropologie Criminelle Et Des Sciences Penales,
Paris, France
658 M. Panda et al.

Rosenberg NA, Pritchard JK, Weber JL, Cann HM, Kidd KK, Zhivotovsky LA, Feldman MW
(2002) Genetic structure of human populations. Science 298(5602):2381–2385
Sapweb (n.d.). https://Sapweb.Fr/
Sauer NJ, Michael AR, Fenton TW (2012) Human identification using skull–photo superimposition
and forensic image comparison. In: A companion to forensic anthropology. Wiley, Hoboken,
NJ, pp 432–446
Scheuer L (2002) Application of osteology to forensic medicine. Clin Anat 15(4):297–312
Scheuer L, Black S (2007) Osteology. In: Forensic human identification: an introduction. CRC,
Boca Raton, FL, pp 199–219
Schmeling A, Reisinger W, Geserick G, Olze A (2006) Age estimation of unaccompanied minors:
part I. General considerations. Forensic Sci Int 159:S61–S64
Schmitt S (2001) Mass graves and the collection of forensic evidence: genocide, war crimes, and
crimes against humanity. In: Advances in forensic taphonomy: method, theory, and archaeolog-
ical perspectives, vol 277. CRC, Boca Raton, FL
Short LJ, Khambay B, Ayoub A, Erolin C, Rynn C, Wilkinson C (2014) Validation of a computer
modelled forensic facial reconstruction technique using CT data from live subjects: a pilot study.
Forensic Sci Int 237:147–1e1
Spencer F (1982) A history of American physical anthropology 1930–1980. Academic,
Cambridge, MA
Spradley MK, Anderson BE, Tise ML (2015) Postcranial sex estimation criteria for Mexican
Hispanics. J Forensic Sci 60:S27–S31
St Hoyme LE, Iscan MY (1989) Determination of sex and race: accuracy and assumptions. In:
Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp 53–93
Stephan CN (2016) Craniofacial identification: techniques of facial approximation and craniofacial
superimposition. In: Handbook of forensic anthropology and archaeology, vol 25. CRC, Boca
Raton, FL, pp 304–321
Stewart T (1951) What the bone tell. FBI L Enforcement Bull 20:2–5
Stewart TD (1979) Essentials of forensic anthropology: especially as developed in the United
States. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL
Stewart TD (1979b) A tribute to the French forensic anthropologist georges fully (1926–1973). J
Forensic Sci 24:916–924
Stuurman S (2000) François Bernier and the invention of racial classification. Hist Workshop J
50(1):1–21
Sue M (1755) Sur les proportions des squelette de homme, examine depuis lage le plus tendre,
jusqu’ a celui de vingt-cinq, soixante ans, & au dela. In: Academie des sciences, vol 2. Memoires
de Mathematique, et de Physique, Presentes par Divers Savants et lus dan ses Assemblees, Paris,
pp 572–585
SWGANTH (2011) In: Trauma analysis. Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology
(SWGANTH)
Thompson T, Black S (2006) Forensic human identification: an introduction. CRC, Boca Raton, FL
Tibbett M, Carter DO (2009) Research in forensic taphonomy: a soil-based perspective. In:
Criminal and environmental soil forensics. Springer, Berlin, pp 317–331
Topinard P (1885) Procede de mensuration des os longs, dans le but de reconstituer la taille. Bull de
la Soc Anthropol de Paris 8:73–83
Tuller HH (2012) Mass graves and human rights: latest developments, methods, and lessons
learned. In: A companion to forensic anthropology. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp 157–174
Ubelaker DH (1999) Ales Hrdlička’s role in the history of forensic anthropology. J For Sci 44:724–
730
Ubelaker DH (2009) Historical development of forensic anthropology: perspective from the United
States. In: Handbook of forensic anthropology and archaeology. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp
76–86
Ubelaker DH (2015) Craniofacial superimposition: historical review and current issues. J Forensic
Sci 60(6):1412–1419
21 Forensic Anthropology 659

Ubelaker DH (2018) A history of forensic anthropology. Am J Phys Anthropol 165:915

Ubelaker DH (2019) New directions in forensic anthropology. In: Martell DA (ed) The future of
forensic science. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119226703.ch1
Ubelaker DH, Lowenstein JM, Hood DG (2004) Use of solid-phase double-antibody radioimmu-
noassay to identify species from small skeletal fragments. J Forensic Sci 49(5):924
Venkatachalam KSM (2008) Stature estimation from hand length and foot length in adults—a
regional study in Chennai, Tamilnadu
Walker PL (2005) Greater sciatic notch morphology: sex, age, and population differences. Am J
Phys Anthropol 127(4):385–391
Wilder HH (1897) On the disposition of the epidermic folds upon the palms and soles of primates.
Anat Anz 13:250–256
Wilder HH (1902) Scientific palmistry. Pop Sci Mon 62:41–54
Wilder HH (1903) Palm and sole impressions and their use for purposes of personal identification.
Pop Sci Mon 63:385–410
Wilder HH, Wentworth B (1918) Personal identification: methods for the identification of
individuals, living or dead. The Gorham Press, Boston, MA, pp 96–110
Wright R, Hanson I, Sterenberg J (2005) The archaeology of mass graves. In: Forensic archaeology:
advances in theory and practice, vol 137. Routledge, London, p 58
Yadav N, Panat R, Aggarwal A (2010) CT scans- a compelling tool in forensic facial reconstruction
1(39):42
Yoshino M, Matsuda H, Kubota S, Imaizumi K, Miyasaka S (2001) Computer-assisted facial image
identification system. Forensic Sci Commun 3(1):225–237