Typewriter

A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for

typing characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of keys, and
each one causes a different single character to be produced on paper
by striking an inked ribbon selectively against the paper with a type
element. At the end of the nineteenth century, the term 'typewriter'
was also applied to a person who used such a device.[1]

The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874,[2] but

did not become common in offices in the United States until after
the mid-1880s.[3] The typewriter quickly became an indispensable
tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten
correspondence. It was widely used by professional writers, in
Mechanical desktop typewriters,
offices, in business correspondence in private homes, and by
such as this Underwood Typewriter,
students preparing written assignments.
were long-time standards in
Typewriters were a standard fixture in most offices up to the 1980s. government agencies, newsrooms,
After that, they began to be largely supplanted by personal and offices.
computers running word processing software. Nevertheless,
typewriters remain common in some parts of the world. For
example, typewriters are still used in many Indian cities and towns,
especially in roadside and legal offices, due to a lack of continuous,
reliable electricity.[4]

The QWERTY keyboard layout, developed for typewriters in the

1870s, remains the de facto standard for English-language computer
keyboards. The origins of this layout still need to be clarified.[5] Video showing the operation of an
Similar typewriter keyboards, with layouts optimised for other Olivetti Valentine typewriter
languages and orthographies, emerged soon afterward, and their
layouts have also become standard for computer keyboards in their
respective markets.

History
Although many modern typewriters have one of several similar
designs, their invention was incremental, developed by numerous
inventors working independently or in competition with each other
over a series of decades. As with the automobile, the telephone, and
telegraph, several people contributed insights and inventions that
eventually resulted in ever more commercially successful
instruments. Historians have estimated that some form of the
typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come up with a
workable design.[6]
Peter Mitterhofer's typewriter
Some early typing instruments include: prototype (1864)
 In 1575, an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazetto, invented the scrittura tattile, a
machine to impress letters in papers.[7]
In 1714, Henry Mill obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to
have been similar to a typewriter. The patent shows that this machine was created: "[he] hath
by his great study and paines & expence invented and brought to perfection an artificial
machine or method for impressing or transcribing of letters, one after another, as in writing,
whereby all writing whatsoever may be engrossed in paper or parchment so neat and exact
as not to be distinguished from print; that the said machine or method may be of great use in
settlements and public records, the impression being deeper and more lasting than any other
writing, and not to be erased or counterfeited without manifest discovery."[8]
In 1802, Italian Agostino Fantoni developed a particular typewriter to enable his blind sister
to write.[9]
Between 1801 and 1808, Italian Pellegrino Turri invented a typewriter for his blind friend
Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzano.[10]
In 1823, Italian Pietro Conti da Cilavegna invented a new model of the typewriter, the
tachigrafo, also known as tachitipo.[11]
In 1829, American William Austin Burt patented a machine called the "Typographer" which,
in common with many other early machines, is listed as the "first typewriter". The London
Science Museum describes it merely as "the first writing mechanism whose invention was
documented", but even that claim may be excessive since Turri's invention pre-dates it.[12]

By the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need to mechanize
the writing process. Stenographers and telegraphers could take down information at rates up to 130 words
per minute, whereas a writer with a pen was limited to a maximum of 30 words per minute (the 1853 speed
record).[13]

From 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America,
but none went into commercial production.[14]

American Charles Thurber developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was created
as an aid to blind people, such as the 1845 Chirographer.[15]
In 1855, the Italian Giuseppe Ravizza created a prototype typewriter called Cembalo
scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti ("Scribe harpsichord, or machine for writing with
keys"). It was an advanced machine that let the user see the writing as it was typed.[16]
In 1861, Father Francisco João de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, made his typewriter with
basic materials and tools, such as wood and knives. In that same year, the Brazilian emperor
D. Pedro II, presented a gold medal to Father Azevedo for this invention. Many Brazilian
people, as well as the Brazilian federal government recognize Fr. Azevedo as the inventor of
the typewriter, a claim that has been the subject of some controversy.[17]
In 1865, John Jonathon Pratt, of Centre, Alabama (US), built a machine called the Pterotype
which appeared in an 1867 Scientific American article[18] and inspired other inventors.
Between 1864 and 1867, Peter Mitterhofer, a carpenter from South Tyrol (then part of Austria)
developed several models and a fully functioning prototype typewriter in 1867.[19]
By 2000, notable typewriter manufacturers included E. Remington and Sons, IBM,
Godrej,[20] Imperial Typewriter Company, Oliver Typewriter Company, Olivetti, Royal
Typewriter Company, Smith Corona, Underwood Typewriter Company, Facit, Adler, and
Olympia-Werke.[21]
After the market had matured under the market dominance of large companies from Britain, Europe and the
United States — but before the advent of dailywheel and electonic machines — the typewriter market faced
strong competition from less expensive typewriters from Asia, including Brother Industries and Silver Seiko
Ltd. of Japan.

Hansen Writing Ball

In 1865, Rev. Rasmus Malling-Hansen of Denmark invented the

Hansen Writing Ball, which went into commercial production in
1870 and was the first commercially sold typewriter. It was a
success in Europe and was reported as being used in offices on the
European continent as late as 1909.[22][23]

Malling-Hansen used a solenoid escapement to return the carriage

An Elliott-Fisher book typewriter on
on some of his models, which makes him a candidate for the title of display at the Historic Archive and
inventor of the first "electric" typewriter.[24] Museum of Mining in Pachuca,
Mexico
The Hansen Writing Ball was produced with only upper-case
characters. The Writing Ball was a template for inventor Frank
Haven Hall to create a derivative that would produce letter prints cheaper
and faster.[25][26][27]

Malling-Hansen developed his typewriter further through the 1870s and

1880s and made many improvements, but the writing head remained the
same. On the first model of the writing ball from 1870, the paper was
attached to a cylinder inside a wooden box. In 1874, the cylinder was
replaced by a carriage, moving beneath the writing head. Then, in 1875, the
well-known "tall model" was patented, which was the first of the writing
balls that worked without electricity. Malling-Hansen attended the world
exhibitions in Vienna in 1873 and Paris in 1878 and he received the first-
prize for his invention at both exhibitions.[28][29][30]
Hansen Writing Ball was the
Sholes and Glidden typewriter first typewriter manufactured
commercially (1870)
The first typewriter to be commercially successful was patented in 1868 by
Americans Christopher Latham Sholes, Frank Haven Hall, Carlos Glidden
and Samuel W. Soule in Milwaukee, Wisconsin,[31] although Sholes soon disowned the machine and
refused to use or even recommend it.[32] The working prototype was made by clock-maker and machinist
Matthias Schwalbach.[33] Hall, Glidden and Soule sold their shares in the patent (US 79,265) to Densmore
and Sholes,[34] who made an agreement with E. Remington and Sons (then famous as a manufacturer of
sewing machines) to commercialize the machine as the Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer.[33] This was the
origin of the term typewriter.
Remington began production of its first typewriter on March 1, 1873, in
Ilion, New York. It had a QWERTY keyboard layout, which, because of
the machine's success, was slowly adopted by other typewriter
manufacturers. As with most other early typewriters, because the typebars
strike upwards, the typist could not see the characters as they were
typed.[34]

Index typewriter

The index typewriter came into the market in the early 1880s.[35] The index
typewriter uses a pointer or stylus to choose a letter from an index. The Prototype of the Sholes and
pointer is mechanically linked so that the letter chosen could then be Glidden typewriter, the first
printed, most often by the activation of a lever.[14] commercially successful
typewriter, and the first with
The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they a QWERTY keyboard (1873)
were slower than keyboard type machines they were mechanically simpler
and lighter, they were therefore marketed as being suitable for
travellers and, because they could be produced more cheaply than
keyboard machines, as budget machines for users who needed to
produce small quantities of typed correspondence.[35] For example,
the Simplex Typewriter Company made index typewriters for 1/40
the price of a Remington typewriter.[36]

The index typewriter's niche appeal however soon disappeared, as

on the one hand new keyboard typewriters became lighter and more
portable and on the other refurbished second-hand machines began
to become available.[35] The last widely available western index
machine was the Mignon typewriter produced by AEG which was
produced until 1934. Considered one of the very best of the index A Mignon Model 4 index typewriter
typewriters, part of the Mignon's popularity was that it featured both from 1924
interchangeable indexes and type,[37] allowing the use of different
fonts and character sets, something very few keyboard machines
allowed and only at considerable added cost.[37]

Although pushed out of the market in most of the world by keyboard machines, successful Japanese and
Chinese typewriters are of the index type albeit with a very much larger index and number of type
elements.[38]

Embossing tape label makers are the most common index typewriters today, and perhaps the most common
typewriters of any kind still being manufactured.[36]

The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the
typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to
the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically.
A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to
complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.[39]

Other typewriters
1884 – Hammond "Ideal" typewriter with case, by Hammond Typewriter Company Limited,
United States. Despite an unusual, curved keyboard (see picture in citation), the Hammond
 became popular because of its superior print quality and changeable typeface. Invented by
James Hammond of Boston, Massachusetts in 1880, and commercially released in 1884.
The type is carried on a pair of interchangeable rotating sectors, one controlled by each half
of the keyboard. A small hammer pushes the paper against the ribbon and type sector to print
each character. The mechanism was later adapted to give a straight QWERTY keyboard and
proportional spacing.[40]
1891 – Fitch typewriter – No. 3287, typebar class, on a base board, made by the Fitch
Typewriter Company (UK) in London. Operators of the early typewriters had to work "blind":
the typed text emerged only after several lines had been completed. The Fitch was one of
the first machines to allow prompt correction of mistakes; it was said to be the second
machine operating on the visible writing system. The typebars were positioned behind the
paper and the writing area faced upwards so that the result could be seen instantly. A curved
frame kept the emerging paper from obscuring the keyboard, but the Fitch was soon eclipsed
by machines in which the paper could be fed more conveniently at the rear.[41]
1893 – Gardner typewriter. This typewriter, patented by Mr J Gardner in 1893, was an attempt
to reduce the size and cost. Although it prints 84 symbols, it has only 14 keys and two
change-case keys. Several characters are indicated on each key and the character printed is
determined by the position of the case keys, which choose one of six cases.[42]
1897 – The "Underwood 1 typewriter, 10" Pica, No. 990". This was the first typewriter with a
typing area fully visible to the typist until a key is struck. These features, copied by all
subsequent typewriters, allowed the typist to see and if necessary correct the typing as it
proceeded. The mechanism was developed in the US by Franz X. Wagner from about 1892
and taken up, in 1895, by John T. Underwood (1857–1937), a producer of office supplies.[43]

Standardization

By about 1910, the "manual" or "mechanical" typewriter had

reached a somewhat standardized design.[44] There were minor
variations from one manufacturer to another, but most typewriters
followed the concept that each key was attached to a typebar that
had the corresponding letter molded, in reverse, into its striking
head. When a key was struck briskly and firmly, the typebar hit a
ribbon (usually made of inked fabric), making a printed mark on the
paper wrapped around a cylindrical platen.[45][46]

The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to

the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each
character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was
then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position
and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell
was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was
A very early typewritten letter as part reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the
of a court case in the Utah Territory,
carriage-return lever.[39] Typewriters for languages written right-to-
from Appeal #6544, dated 1886.
left operate in the opposite direction.[47]

Frontstriking

In most of the early typewriters, the typebars struck upward against the paper, pressed against the bottom of
the platen, so the typist could not see the text as it was typed.[48] What was typed was not visible until a
carriage return caused it to scroll into view.
The difficulty with any other arrangement was ensuring the typebars fell back into place reliably when the
key was released. This was eventually achieved with various ingenious mechanical designs and so-called
"visible typewriters" which used frontstriking, in which the typebars struck forward against the front side of
the platen, became standard.

One of the first was the Daugherty Visible, introduced in 1893, which also introduced the four-bank
keyboard that became standard, although the Underwood which came out two years later was the first
major typewriter with these features.[49][50]

Shift key

A significant innovation was the shift key, introduced with the

Remington No. 2 in 1878. This key physically "shifted" either the
basket of typebars, in which case the typewriter is described as
"basket shift", or the paper-holding carriage, in which case the
typewriter is described as "carriage shift".[51] Either mechanism
caused a different portion of the typebar to come in contact with the
ribbon/platen.

The result is that each typebar could type two different characters, Comparison of full-keyboard, single-
cutting the number of keys and typebars in half (and simplifying the shift, and double-shift typewriters in
internal mechanisms considerably). The obvious use for this was to 1911
allow letter keys to type both upper and lower case, but normally
the number keys were also duplexed, allowing access to special
symbols such as percent, % , and ampersand, &.[52]

Before the shift key, typewriters had to have a separate key and
typebar for upper-case letters; in essence, the typewriter had two
keyboards, one above the other. With the shift key, manufacturing
costs (and therefore purchase price) were greatly reduced, and typist
operation was simplified; both factors contributed greatly to mass
adoption of the technology.

Corona #3 typewriter owned by

Three-bank typewriters Ernest Hemingway, with a "FIG" shift
key as well as a "CAP" shift key
Certain models further reduced the number of keys and typebars by
making each key perform three functions – each typebar could type
three different characters. These little three-row machines were portable and could be used by
journalists.[53]

Such three-row machines were popular with WWI journalists because they were lighter and more compact
than four-bank typewriters, while they could type just as fast and use just as many symbols.[54]

Such three-row machines, such as the Bar-Let[55] and the Corona No. 3 Typewriter[56][57] have two
separate shift keys, a "CAP" shift (for uppercase) and a "FIG" shift (for numbers and symbols).[58]

The Murray code was developed for a teletypewriter with a similar three-row typewriter keyboard.[59]

Tab key
To facilitate typewriter use in business settings, a tab (tabulator) key was added in the late nineteenth
century. Before using the key, the operator had to set mechanical "tab stops", pre-designated locations to
which the carriage would advance when the tab key was pressed. This facilitated the typing of columns of
numbers, freeing the operator from the need to manually position the carriage. The first models had one tab
stop and one tab key; later ones allowed as many stops as desired, and sometimes had multiple tab keys,
each of which moved the carriage a different number of spaces ahead of the decimal point (the tab stop), to
facilitate the typing of columns with numbers of different length ($1.00, $10.00, $100.00, etc.)

Dead keys

Languages such as French, Spanish, and German required diacritics, special signs attached to or on top of
the base letter: for example, a combination of the acute accent ´ plus e produced é ; ~ plus n produced ñ .
In metal typesetting, ⟨é⟩, ⟨ñ⟩, and others were separate sorts. With mechanical typewriters, the number of
whose characters (sorts) was constrained by the physical limits of the machine, the number of keys required
was reduced by the use of dead keys. Diacritics such as ´ (acute accent) would be assigned to a dead key,
which did not move the platen forward, permitting another character to be imprinted at the same location;
thus a single dead key such as the acute accent could be combined with a , e , i, o and u to produce á , é , í, ó
and ú , reducing the number of sorts needed from 5 to 1. The typebars of "normal" characters struck a rod
as they moved the metal character desired toward the ribbon and platen, and each rod depression moved the
platen forward the width of one character. Dead keys had a typebar shaped so as not to strike the rod.[60]

Character sizes

In English-speaking countries, ordinary typewriters printing fixed-width characters were standardized to

print six horizontal lines per vertical inch, and had either of two variants of character width, one called pica
for ten characters per horizontal inch and the other elite, for twelve. This differed from the use of these
terms in printing, where pica is a linear unit (approximately 1 ⁄6 of an inch) used for any measurement, the
most common one being the height of a type face.[61]

Color

Some ribbons were inked in black and red stripes, each being half the width and running the entire length of
the ribbon. A lever on most machines allowed switching between colors, which was useful for bookkeeping
entries where negative amounts were highlighted in red. The red color was also used on some selected
characters in running text, for emphasis. When a typewriter had this facility, it could still be fitted with a
solid black ribbon; the lever was then used to switch to fresh ribbon when the first stripe ran out of ink.
Some typewriters also had a third position which stopped the ribbon being struck at all. This enabled the
keys to hit the paper unobstructed, and was used for cutting stencils for stencil duplicators (aka mimeograph
machines).[62]

"Noiseless" designs

In the early part of the 20th century, a typewriter was marketed under the name Noiseless and advertised as
"silent". It was developed by Wellington Parker Kidder and the first model was marketed by the Noiseless
Typewriter Company in 1917.[63] Noiseless portables sold well in the 1930s and 1940s, and noiseless
standards continued to be manufactured until the 1960s.[64]
In a conventional typewriter the typebar reaches the end of its travel simply by striking the ribbon and
paper. A "noiseless" typewriter has a complex lever mechanism that decelerates the typebar mechanically
before pressing it against the ribbon and paper in an attempt to dampen the noise.[65]

Electric designs

Although electric typewriters would not achieve widespread popularity until nearly a century later, the basic
groundwork for the electric typewriter was laid by the Universal Stock Ticker, invented by Thomas Edison
in 1870. This device remotely printed letters and numbers on a stream of paper tape from input generated by
a specially designed typewriter at the other end of a telegraph line.

Early electric models

Some electric typewriters were patented in the 19th century, but the first machine known to be produced in
series is the Cahill of 1900.[66]

Another electric typewriter was produced by the Blickensderfer Manufacturing Company, of Stamford,
Connecticut, in 1902. Like the manual Blickensderfer typewriters, it used a cylindrical typewheel rather
than individual typebars. The machine was produced in several variants but apparently not a commercial
success,[67] having come to market ahead of its time, before ubiquitous electrification.

The next step in the development of the electric typewriter came in 1910, when Charles and Howard Krum
filed a patent for the first practical teletypewriter.[68] The Krums' machine, named the Morkrum Printing
Telegraph, used a typewheel rather than individual typebars. This machine was used for the first
commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Company lines between Boston and New York City
in 1910.[69]

James Fields Smathers of Kansas City invented what is considered the first practical power-operated
typewriter in 1914. In 1920, after returning from Army service, he produced a successful model and in 1923
turned it over to the Northeast Electric Company of Rochester for development. Northeast was interested in
finding new markets for their electric motors and developed Smathers's design so that it could be marketed
to typewriter manufacturers, and from 1925 Remington Electric typewriters were produced powered by
Northeast's motors.[70]

After some 2,500 electric typewriters had been produced, Northeast asked Remington for a firm contract for
the next batch. However, Remington was engaged in merger talks, which would eventually result in the
creation of Remington Rand and no executives were willing to commit to a firm order. Northeast instead
decided to enter the typewriter business for itself, and in 1929 produced the first Electromatic
Typewriter.[71]

In 1928, Delco, a division of General Motors, purchased Northeast Electric, and the typewriter business
was spun off as Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. In 1933, Electromatic was acquired by IBM, which then
spent $1 million on a redesign of the Electromatic Typewriter, launching the IBM Electric Typewriter
Model 01.[72]

In 1931, an electric typewriter was introduced by Varityper Corporation. It was called the Varityper,
because a narrow cylinder-like wheel could be replaced to change the font.[73]

In 1941, IBM announced the Electromatic Model 04 electric typewriter, featuring the revolutionary concept
of proportional spacing. By assigning varied rather than uniform spacing to different sized characters, the
Type 4 recreated the appearance of a typeset page, an effect that was further enhanced by including the
1937 innovation of carbon-film ribbons that produced clearer, sharper words on the page.[74]

IBM Selectric

IBM introduced the IBM Selectric typewriter in 1961, which

replaced the typebars with a spherical element (or typeball) slightly
smaller than a golf ball, with reverse-image letters molded into its
surface. The Selectric used a system of latches, metal tapes, and
pulleys driven by an electric motor to rotate the ball into the correct
position and then strike it against the ribbon and platen. The
typeball moved laterally in front of the paper, instead of the
previous designs using a platen-carrying carriage moving the paper
across a stationary print position.[75]
IBM Selectric II (dual Latin/Hebrew
typeball and keyboard)
Due to the physical similarity, the typeball was sometimes referred
to as a "golfball".[76] The typeball design had many advantages,
especially the elimination of "jams" (when more than one key was struck at once and the typebars became
entangled) and in the ability to change the typeball, allowing multiple fonts to be used in a single
document.[77]

The IBM Selectric became a commercial success, dominating the office typewriter market for at least two
decades.[76] IBM also gained an advantage by marketing more heavily to schools than did Remington, with
the idea that students who learned to type on a Selectric would later choose IBM typewriters over the
competition in the workplace as businesses replaced their old manual models.[78]

Later models of IBM Executives and Selectrics replaced inked fabric ribbons with "carbon film" ribbons
that had a dry black or colored powder on a clear plastic tape. These could be used only once, but later
models used a cartridge that was simple to replace. A side effect of this technology was that the text typed
on the machine could be easily read from the used ribbon, raising issues where the machines were used for
preparing classified documents (ribbons had to be accounted for to ensure that typists did not carry them
from the facility).[79]

A variation known as "Correcting Selectrics" introduced a correction feature, later imitated by competing
machines, where a sticky tape in front of the carbon film ribbon could remove the black-powdered image of
a typed character, eliminating the need for little bottles of white dab-on correction fluid and for hard erasers
that could tear the paper. These machines also introduced selectable "pitch" so that the typewriter could be
switched between pica type (10 characters per inch) and elite type (12 per inch), even within one document.
Even so, all Selectrics were monospaced – each character and letterspace was allotted the same width on
the page, from a capital "W" to a period. IBM did produce a successful typebar-based machine with five
levels of proportional spacing, called the IBM Executive.[80]

The only fully electromechanical Selectric Typewriter with fully proportional spacing and which used a
Selectric type element was the expensive Selectric Composer, which was capable of right-margin
justification (typing each line twice was required, once to calculate and again to print) and was considered a
typesetting machine rather than a typewriter. Composer typeballs physically resembled those of the Selectric
typewriter but were not interchangeable.[81]

In addition to its electronic successors, the Magnetic Tape Selectric Composer (MT/SC), the Mag Card
Selectric Composer, and the Electronic Selectric Composer, IBM also made electronic typewriters with
proportional spacing using the Selectric element that were considered typewriters or word processors
instead of typesetting machines.[81][82]
The first of these was the relatively obscure Mag Card Executive,
which used 88-character elements. Later, some of the same
typestyles used for it were used on the 96-character elements used
on the IBM Electronic Typewriter 50 and the later models 65 and Composer output showing Roman,
85.[83] Bold and Italic fonts available by
changing the type ball
By 1970, as offset printing began to replace letterpress printing, the
Composer would be adapted as the output unit for a typesetting
system. The system included a computer-driven input station to capture the key strokes on magnetic tape
and insert the operator's format commands, and a Composer unit to read the tape and produce the formatted
text for photo reproduction.[84]

The IBM 2741 terminal was a popular example of a Selectric-based computer terminal, and similar
mechanisms were employed as the console devices for many IBM System/360 computers. These
mechanisms used "ruggedized" designs compared to those in standard office typewriters.[85]

Later electric models

Smith-Corona Prestige Auto 12 being tapped
0:00 / 0:00
A recording of the sound of typing on a Smith-Corona electric typewriter.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Some of IBM's advances were later adopted in less expensive machines from competitors. For example,
Smith-Corona electric typewriters introduced in 1973 switched to interchangeable Coronamatic (SCM-
patented) ribbon cartridges.[86] including fabric, film, erasing, and two-color versions. At about the same
time, the advent of photocopying meant that carbon copies, correction fluid and erasers were less and less
necessary; only the original need be typed, and photocopies made from it.[87]

Electronic typewriters

The final major development of the typewriter was the electronic typewriter. Most of these replaced the
typeball with a plastic or metal daisy wheel mechanism (a disk with the letters molded on the outside edge
of the "petals"). The daisy wheel concept first emerged in printers developed by Diablo Systems in the
1970s. The first electronic daisywheel typewriter marketed in the world (in 1976) is the Olivetti Tes 501,
and subsequently in 1978, the Olivetti ET101 (with function display) and Olivetti TES 401 (with text
display and floppy disk for memory storage). This has allowed Olivetti to maintain the world record in the
design of electronic typewriters, proposing increasingly advanced and performing models in the following
years.[88]

Unlike the Selectrics and earlier models, these really were "electronic" and relied on integrated circuits and
electromechanical components. These typewriters were sometimes called display typewriters,[89] dedicated
word processors or word-processing typewriters, though the latter term was also frequently applied to less
sophisticated machines that featured only a tiny, sometimes just single-row display. Sophisticated models
were also called word processors, though today that term almost always denotes a type of software
program. Manufacturers of such machines included Olivetti (TES501, first totally electronic Olivetti word
processor with daisywheel and floppy disk in 1976; TES621 in 1979 etc.), Brother (Brother WP1 and
WP500 etc., where WP stood for word processor), Canon (Canon Cat), Smith-Corona (PWP, i.e. Personal
Word Processor line)[90] and Philips/Magnavox (VideoWriter).
 Electronic typewriter – The Brother WP1, an
the final stage in electronic typewriter
typewriter complete with a small
development. A 1989 screen and a floppy
Canon Typestar 110 disk reader

Decline

The pace of change was so rapid that it was common for clerical staff to have to learn several new systems,
one after the other, in just a few years.[91] While such rapid change is commonplace today, and is taken for
granted, this was not always so; in fact, typewriting technology changed very little in its first 80 or 90
years.[92]

Due to falling sales, IBM sold its typewriter division in 1991 to the newly formed Lexmark, completely
exiting from a market it once dominated.[93]

The increasing dominance of personal computers, desktop publishing, the introduction of low-cost, truly
high-quality laser and inkjet printer technologies, and the pervasive use of web publishing, email, text
messaging, and other electronic communication techniques have largely replaced typewriters in the United
States. Still, as of 2009, typewriters continued to be used by a number of government agencies and other
institutions in the US, where they are primarily used to fill preprinted forms. According to a Boston
typewriter repairman quoted by The Boston Globe, "Every maternity ward has a typewriter, as well as
funeral homes".[94]

A rather specialized market for typewriters exists due to the regulations of many correctional systems in the
US, where prisoners are prohibited from having computers or telecommunication equipment, but are
allowed to own typewriters. The Swintec corporation (headquartered in Moonachie, New Jersey), which,
as of 2011, still produced typewriters at its overseas factories (in Japan, Indonesia, and/or Malaysia),
manufactures a variety of typewriters for use in prisons, made of clear plastic (to make it harder for
prisoners to hide prohibited items inside it). As of 2011, the company had contracts with prisons in 43 US
states.[95][96]

In April 2011, Godrej and Boyce, a Mumbai-based manufacturer of mechanical typewriters, closed its
doors, leading to a flurry of news reports that the "world's last typewriter factory" had shut down.[97] The
reports were quickly contested, with opinions settling to agree that it was indeed the world's last producer of
manual typewriters.[98][99][100][101]

In November 2012, Brother's UK factory manufactured what it claimed to be the last typewriter ever made
in the UK; the typewriter was donated to the London Science Museum.[102]
Russian typewriters use Cyrillic, which has made the ongoing Azerbaijani reconversion from Cyrillic to
Latin alphabet more difficult. In 1997, the government of Turkey offered to donate western typewriters to
the Republic of Azerbaijan in exchange for more zealous and exclusive promotion of the Latin alphabet for
the Azerbaijani language; this offer, however, was declined.[103]

In Latin America and Africa, mechanical typewriters are still common because they can be used without
electrical power. In Latin America, the typewriters used are most often Brazilian models; Brazil continues to
produce mechanical (Facit) and electronic (Olivetti) typewriters to the present day.[104]

The early 21st century saw revival of interest in typewriters among certain subcultures, including makers,
steampunks, hipsters, and street poets.[105]

Correction technologies
According to the standards taught in secretarial schools in the mid-20th century, a business letter was
supposed to have no mistakes and no visible corrections.[106]

Typewriter erasers

The traditional erasing method involved the use of a special

typewriter eraser made of hard rubber that contained an abrasive
material. Some were thin, flat disks, pink or gray, approximately 2
inches (51 mm) in diameter by 1 ⁄8 inch (3.2 mm) thick, with a brush
attached from the center, while others looked like pink pencils, with
a sharpenable eraser at the "lead" end and a stiff nylon brush at the
other end. Either way, these tools made possible erasure of
individual typed letters. Business letters were typed on
heavyweight, high-rag-content bond paper, not merely to provide a
luxurious appearance, but also to stand up to erasure.[107]

Typewriter eraser brushes were necessary for clearing eraser

Triumph typewriter eraser (1960)
crumbs and paper dust, and using the brush properly was an
important element of typewriting skill; if erasure detritus fell into the
typewriter, a small buildup could cause the typebars to jam in their
narrow supporting grooves.[108]

Erasing shield

Erasing a set of carbon copies was particularly difficult, and called

for the use of a device called an erasing shield or eraser shield (a
thin stainless-steel rectangle about 2 by 3 inches (51 by 76 mm)
with several tiny holes in it) to prevent the pressure of erasing on
the upper copies from producing carbon smudges on the lower Erasing Shield (1992)
copies. To correct copies, typists had to go from one carbon copy
layer to the next carbon copy layer, trying not to get their fingers dirty as they leafed through the carbon
papers, and moving and repositioning the eraser shield and eraser for each copy.

Erasable bond

Paper companies produced a special form of typewriter paper called erasable bond (for example, Eaton's
Corrasable Bond). This incorporated a thin layer of material that prevented ink from penetrating and was
relatively soft and easy to remove from the page. An ordinary soft pencil eraser could quickly produce
perfect erasures on this kind of paper. However, the same characteristics that made the paper erasable made
the characters subject to smudging due to ordinary friction and deliberate alteration after the fact, making it
unacceptable for business correspondence, contracts, or any archival use.[109]

Correction fluid

In the 1950s and 1960s, correction fluid made its appearance, under brand names such as Liquid Paper,
Wite-Out and Tipp-Ex; it was invented by Bette Nesmith Graham. Correction fluid was a kind of opaque,
white, fast-drying paint that produced a fresh white surface onto which, when dry, a correction could be
retyped. However, when held to the light, the covered-up characters were visible, as was the patch of dry
correction fluid (which was never perfectly flat, and frequently not a perfect match for the color, texture,
and luster of the surrounding paper). The standard trick for solving this problem was photocopying the
corrected page, but this was possible only with high quality photocopiers.[110]

A different fluid was available for correcting stencils. It sealed up the stencil ready for retyping but did not
attempt to color match.[111]

Legacy

Keyboard layouts

QWERTY

The 1874 Sholes & Glidden typewriters established the

"QWERTY" layout for the letter keys. During the period in which
Sholes and his colleagues were experimenting with this invention,
other keyboard arrangements were apparently tried, but these are
poorly documented.[112] The QWERTY layout of keys has become
the de facto standard for English-language typewriter and computer
keyboards. Other languages written in the Latin alphabet sometimes
use variants of the QWERTY layouts, such as the French The "QWERTY" layout of typewriter
AZERTY, the Italian QZERTY and the German QWERTZ keys became a de facto standard
layouts.[113] and continues to be used long after
the reasons for its adoption
The QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout possible for (including reduction of key/lever
the English language. Touch-typists are required to move their entanglements) have ceased to
fingers between rows to type the most common letters. Although apply.
the QWERTY keyboard was the most commonly used layout in
typewriters, a better, less strenuous keyboard was being searched
for throughout the late 1900s.[114]
One popular but incorrect[5] explanation for the QWERTY arrangement is that it was designed to reduce
the likelihood of internal clashing of typebars by placing commonly used combinations of letters farther
from each other inside the machine.[115]

Other layouts for English

A number of radically different layouts such as Dvorak have been proposed to reduce the perceived
inefficiencies of QWERTY, but none have been able to displace the QWERTY layout; their proponents
claim considerable advantages, but so far none has been widely used. The Blickensderfer typewriter with its
DHIATENSOR layout may have possibly been the first attempt at optimizing the keyboard layout for
efficiency advantages.[116]

On modern keyboards, the exclamation point is the shifted character on the 1 key, because these were the
last characters to become "standard" on keyboards. Holding the spacebar down usually suspended the
carriage advance mechanism (a so-called "dead key" feature), allowing one to superimpose multiple
keystrikes on a single location. The ¢ symbol (meaning cents) was located above the number 6 on
American electric typewriters, whereas ANSI-INCITS-standard computer keyboards have ^ instead.[117]

Keyboards for other languages

The keyboards for other Latin languages are broadly similar to

QWERTY but are optimised for the relevant orthography. In
addition to some changes in the order of letters, perhaps the most
obvious is the presence of precomposed characters and diacritics.

Many non-Latin alphabets have keyboard layouts that have nothing

to do with QWERTY. The Russian layout, for instance, puts the
common trigrams ыва, про, and ить on adjacent keys so that they
can be typed by rolling the fingers.[118]

Typewriters were also made for East Asian languages with

thousands of characters, such as Chinese or Japanese. They were Italian typewriter Olivetti Lettera 22
not easy to operate, but professional typists used them for a long
time until the development of electronic word processors and laser
printers in the 1980s.[119]

Typewriter conventions

A number of typographical conventions stem from the typewriter's characteristics and limitations. For
example, the QWERTY keyboard typewriter did not include keys for the en dash and the em dash. To
overcome this limitation, users typically typed more than one adjacent hyphen to approximate these
symbols.[120] This typewriter convention is still sometimes used today, even though modern computer word
processing applications can input the correct en and em dashes for each font type.[121]

Other examples of typewriter practices that are sometimes still used in desktop publishing systems include
inserting a double space between sentences,[122][123] and the use of the typewriter apostrophe, ' , and
straight quotes, " , as quotation marks and prime marks.[124] The practice of underlining text in place of
italics and the use of all capitals to provide emphasis are additional examples of typographical conventions
that derived from the limitations of the typewriter keyboard that still carry on today.[125]
Many older typewriters did not include a separate key for the
numeral 1 or the exclamation point ! , and some even older ones
also lacked the numeral zero, 0 . Typists who trained on these
machines learned the habit of using the lowercase letter l ("ell") for
the digit 1 , and the uppercase O ("oh") for the zero. A cents
symbol, ¢ was created by combining (over-striking) a lower case c
with a slash character (typing c , then backspace, then /). Similarly,
the exclamation point was created by combining an apostrophe and
a period ( ' + . ≈ ! ).[126]

Terminology repurposed for the computer age

Some terminology from the typewriter age has survived into the
computer era.

backspace (BS) – a keystroke that moved the cursor This typed page uses a number of
backwards one position (on a typewriter, this moved the typographic conventions stemming
physical platen backwards), to enable a character to be from the mechanical limitations of
overtyped. Originally this was used to combine the typewriter: two hyphens in place
characters (for example, the sequence ' , backspace, . to of an em dash, double sentence
make !). Subsequently it facilitated "erase and retype" spacing, straight quotation marks,
corrections (using correction tape or fluid.[127]) Only the tab indents for paragraphs, and
latter concept has survived into the computer age. double carriage returns between
carriage return (CR) – return to the first column of text. paragraphs
(Most typewriters switched automatically to the next line.
In computer systems, "line feed" (see below) is a function
that is controlled independently.)[128]
cursor – a marker used to indicate where the next character will be printed. The cursor was
originally a term to describe the clear slider on a slide rule;[129] on typewriters, it was the
paper that moved and the insertion point was fixed.
cut and paste – taking text, a numerical table, or an image and pasting it into a document.
The term originated when such compound documents were created using manual paste up
techniques for typographic page layout. Actual brushes and paste were later replaced by hot-
wax machines equipped with cylinders that applied melted adhesive wax to developed
prints of "typeset" copy. This copy was then cut out with knives and rulers, and slid into
position on layout sheets on slanting layout tables. After the "copy" had been correctly
positioned and squared up using a T-square and set square, it was pressed down with a
brayer, or roller. The whole point of the exercise was to create so-called "camera-ready copy"
which existed only to be photographed and then printed, usually by offset lithography.[130]
dead key – a key that, when typed, does not advance the typing position, thus allowing
another character to be overstruck on top of the original character. This was typically used to
combine diacritical marks with letters they modified (e.g. è can be generated by first pressing
` and then e ). In Europe, where most languages have diacritics, a typical mechanical
arrangement meant that hitting the accent key typed the symbol but did not advance the
carriage, consequently the next character to be typed 'landed' on the same position. It was
this method that carried across to the computer age whereas an alternative method (press
the space bar simultaneously) did not.
line feed (LF), also called "newline" – Whereas most typewriters rolled the paper forward
automatically on a "carriage return), this is an explicit control character on computer systems
that moves the cursor to the next on-screen line of text.[128] (But not to the beginning of that
line – a CR is also needed if that effect is desired.)
 shift – a modifier key used to type capital letters and other alternate "upper case" characters;
when pressed and held down, would shift a typewriter's mechanism to allow a different
typebar impression (such as 'D' instead of 'd') to press into the ribbon and print on a page.
The concept of a shift key or modifier key was later extended to Ctrl, Alt, AltGr and Super
("Windows" or "Apple") keys on modern computer keyboards. The generalized concept of a
shift key reached its apex in the MIT space-cadet keyboard.[131]
tab (HT), shortened from "horizontal tab" or "tabulator stop" – caused the print position to
advance horizontally to the next pre-set "tab stop". This was used for typing lists and tables
with vertical columns of numbers or words.[132]
The vertical tab (VT) control character, named by analogy with HT, was designed for use
with early computer line printers, and would cause the fan-fold paper to be fed until the
next line's position.
tty, short for teletypewriter – used in Unix-like operating systems to designate a given
"terminal".[133]

Social effects
When Remington started marketing typewriters, the company assumed the
machine would not be used for composing but for transcribing dictation,
and that the person typing would be a woman. The 1800s Sholes and
Glidden typewriter had floral ornamentation on the case.[134]

During World Wars I and II, increasing numbers of women were entering
the workforce. In the United States, women often started in the professional
workplace as copy typists. Being a typist was considered the right choice
for a "good girl", meaning women who present themselves as being chaste
Humorous "Get out! Can't
and having good conduct.[135] According to the 1900 census, 94.9% of
you see I'm busy" postcard
(1900s)
stenographers and typists were unmarried women.[136]This also led to an
increase in schools and classes for typing in order to prepare for future
jobs.[137] Moreover, the word typewriter also became associated with the
women who typed during the timeperiod.[137]

Questions about morals made a salacious businessman making sexual advances to a female typist into a
cliché of office life, appearing in vaudeville and movies. The "Tijuana bibles" – adult comic books
produced in Mexico for the American market, starting in the 1930s – often featured women typists. In one
panel, a businessman in a three-piece suit, ogling his secretary's thigh, says, "Miss Higby, are you ready for
—ahem!—er—dictation?"[64]

The typewriter was a useful machine during the censorship era of the Soviet government, starting during the
Russian Civil War (1917–1922). Samizdat was a form of surreptitious self-publication used when the
government was censoring what literature the public could see. The Soviet government signed a Decree on
Press which prohibited the publishing of any written work that had not been previously officially reviewed
and approved.[138] Unapproved work was copied manually, most often on typewriters.[139] In 1983, a new
law required anyone who needed a typewriter to get police permission to buy or keep one. In addition, the
owner would have to register a typed sample of all its letters and numbers, to ensure that any illegal
literature typed with it could be traced back to its source.[140] The typewriter became increasingly popular
as the interest in prohibited books grew.[141]

Writers with notable associations with typewriters

Early adopters
Henry James dictated to a typist.[64]
Mark Twain claimed in his autobiography that he was the first important writer to present a
publisher with a typewritten manuscript, for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876).
Research showed that Twain's memory was incorrect and that the first book submitted in
typed form was Life on the Mississippi (1883, also by Twain).[142]

Others
William S. Burroughs wrote in some of his novels – and
possibly believed – that "a machine he called the 'Soft
Typewriter' was writing our lives, and our books, into
existence", according to a book review in The New
Yorker. In the film adaptation of his novel Naked Lunch,
his typewriter is a living, insect-like entity (voiced by
North American actor Peter Boretski) and actually
dictates the book to him.[143]
J. R. R. Tolkien was accustomed to typing from awkward William Faulkner's Underwood
positions: "balancing his typewriter on his attic bed, Universal Portable sits in his office
because there was no room on his desk".[144] at Rowan Oak, which is now
Jack Kerouac, a fast typist at 100 words per minute, maintained by the University of
typed On the Road on a roll of paper so he would not be Mississippi in Oxford as a museum.
interrupted by having to change the paper. Within two
weeks of starting to write On the Road, Kerouac had one
single-spaced paragraph, 120 feet (37 m) long. Some scholars say the scroll was shelf
paper; others contend it was a Thermal-fax roll; another theory is that the roll consisted of
sheets of architect's paper taped together.[64] Kerouac himself stated that he used 100-foot
(30 m) rolls of teletype paper.[145]
Don Marquis purposely used the limitations of a typewriter (or more precisely, a particular
typist) in his archy and mehitabel series of newspaper columns, which were later compiled
into a series of books. According to his literary conceit, a cockroach named "Archy" was a
reincarnated free-verse poet, who would type articles overnight by jumping onto the keys of a
manual typewriter. The writings were typed completely in lower case, because of the
cockroach's inability to generate the heavy force needed to operate the shift key. The lone
exception is the poem "CAPITALS AT LAST" from archys life of mehitabel, written in 1933.

Late users
Richard Polt, a philosophy professor at Xavier University in Cincinnati who collects
typewriters, edits ETCetera, a quarterly magazine about historic writing machines, and is the
author of the book The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist's Companion for the 21st
Century.[105][36]
 William Gibson used a Hermes 2000 model manual typewriter to write Neuromancer and
half of Count Zero before a mechanical failure and lack of replacement parts forced him to
upgrade to an Apple IIc computer.[146]
Harlan Ellison used typewriters for his entire career, and when he was no longer able to
have them repaired, learned to do it himself; he repeatedly stated his belief that computers
are bad for writing, maintaining that "Art is not supposed to be easier!"[147]
Cormac McCarthy wrote his novels on an Olivetti Lettera 32 typewriter until his death. In
2009, the Lettera he obtained from a pawn shop in 1963, on which nearly all his novels and
screenplays have been written, was auctioned for charity at Christie's for US$254,500;[148]
McCarthy obtained an identical replacement for $20 to continue writing on.[149][150]
Will Self explains why he uses a manual typewriter: "I think the computer user does their
thinking on the screen, and the non-computer user is compelled, because he or she has to
retype a whole text, to do a lot more thinking in the head."[151]
Ted Kaczynski (the "Unabomber") infamously used two old manual typewriters to write his
polemic essays and messages.[150]
Actor Tom Hanks uses and collects manual typewriters.[152][150] To control the size of his
collection, he gifts autographed machines to appreciative fans and repair shops around the
world.[153]
Historian David McCullough used a Royal typewriter to compose his books.[154]
Biographer Robert Caro has used various models of the Smith Corona Electra 210 to write
his biographies of Robert Moses and Lyndon Johnson.[155]

Typewriters in popular culture

In music
Erik Satie's 1917 score for the ballet Parade includes a "Mach. à écrire" as a percussion
instrument, along with (elsewhere) a roulette wheel and a pistol.[156]
The composer Leroy Anderson wrote The Typewriter (1950) for orchestra and typewriter, and
it has since been used as the theme for numerous radio programs. The solo instrument is a
real typewriter played by a percussionist. The piece was later made famous by comedian
Jerry Lewis as part of his regular routine both on screen and stage, most notably in the 1963
film Who's Minding the Store?.
The Boston Typewriter Orchestra (BTO), a comedic musical percussion group, has
performed at numerous art festivals, clubs, and parties since 2004.[157][158]
South Korean improviser Ryu Hankil frequently performs on typewriters, most prominently in
his 2009 album Becoming Typewriter.[159]

Other
The 2012 French comedy movie Populaire, starring Romain Duris and Déborah François,
centers on a young secretary in the 1950s striving to win typewriting speed competitions.[160]
The manga (2015–2020) and anime (2018) Violet Evergarden series follows a disabled war
veteran who learns to type because her handwriting has been impaired, and soon she
becomes a popular typist.
 California Typewriter, a 2016 documentary film,
investigates the culture of typewriter enthusiasts,
including an eponymous repair store in Berkeley,
California.

Forensic examination
Typewritten documents may be examined by forensic document
examiners. This is done primarily to determine 1) the make and/or
model of the typewriter used to produce a document, or 2) whether
Typewriting speed competition
or not a particular suspect typewriter might have been used to
(The Hague, 1954)
produce a document.[161]

The determination of a make and/or model of typewriter is a

'classification' problem and several systems have been developed for this purpose.[161] These include the
original Haas Typewriter Atlases (Pica version)[162] and (Non-Pica version)[163] and the TYPE system
developed by Philip Bouffard,[164] the Royal Canadian Mounted Police's Termatrex Typewriter
classification system,[165] and Interpol's typewriter classification system,[166] among others.[161]

The earliest reference in fictional literature to the potential identification of a typewriter as having produced
a document was by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who wrote the Sherlock Holmes short story "A Case of
Identity" in 1891.[167]

In non-fiction, the first document examiner[167] to describe how a typewriter might be identified was
William E. Hagan who wrote, in 1894, "All typewriter machines, even when using the same kind of type,
become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them".[168] Other early discussions of the topic
were provided by A. S. Osborn in his 1908 treatise, Typewriting as Evidence,[169] and again in his 1929
textbook, Questioned Documents.[170]

A modern description of the examination procedure is laid out in ASTM Standard E2494-08 (Standard
Guide for Examination of Typewritten Items).[171]

Typewriter examination was used in the Leopold and Loeb and Alger Hiss cases.

In the Eastern Bloc, typewriters (together with printing presses, copy machines, and later computer printers)
were a controlled technology, with secret police in charge of maintaining records of the typewriters and
their owners. In the Soviet Union, the First Department of each organization sent data on organization's
typewriters to the KGB. This posed a significant risk for dissidents and samizdat authors. In Romania,
according to State Council Decree No. 98 of March 28, 1983, owning a typewriter, both by businesses or
by private persons, was subject to an approval given by the local police authorities. People previously
convicted of any crime or those who because of their behaviour were considered to be "a danger to public
order or to the security of the state" were refused approval. In addition, once a year, typewriter owners had
to take the typewriter to the local police station, where they would be asked to type a sample of all the
typewriter's characters. It was also forbidden to borrow, lend, or repair typewriters other than at the places
that had been authorized by the police.[172][173]

Collections
Public and private collections of typewriters exist around the world, including:[174]

Schreibmaschinenmuseum Peter Mitterhofer (Parcines, Italy)[175]

 Museo della Macchina da Scrivere (Milan, Italy)[176]
Liverpool Typewriter Museum (Liverpool, England)
Museum of Printing – MoP (Haverhill, Massachusetts, US)
Chestnut Ridge Typewriter Museum (Fairmont, West Virginia, US)
Technical Museum of the Empordà (Figueres, Girona, Spain)
Musée de la machine à écrire (Lausanne, Switzerland)[177]
Lu Hanbin Typewriter Museum Shanghai (Shanghai, China)
Wattens Typewriter Museum (Wattens, Austria)
German Typewriter Museum (Bayreuth, Germany)
Tayfun Talipoğlu Typewriter Museum (Odunpazarı, Eskişehir, Turkey)

Several online-only virtual museums collect and display information about typewriters and their history:

Virtual Typewriter Museum[178]

Chuck & Rich's Antique Typewriter Website
Mr. Martin's Typewriter Museum[179]

Gallery

Peter Mitterhofer 1864 Hansen Writing Ball, 1868 patent drawing Hammond 1B
typewriter invented in 1865 (1870 for the Sholes, typewriter, invented
model) Glidden, and Soule 1870s, manufactured
typewriter 1881

Hammond 1B, as US Army Typebars in a 1920s Chinese typewriter

used by a newspaper Quartermaster typewriter produced by
office in Saskatoon soldiers in typewriter Shuangge, with 2,450
around 1910 repair shop, Tours, characters
France, 1919
 Japanese typewriter Hermes 3000 1920s Underwood Chinese typewriter at
SH-280, a small typewriter typewriter with Deutsches
machine with 2,268 Swedish layout Technikmuseum
characters

typewriter robotron S Personal typewriter of An Olivetti Studio 45

1001 from VEB Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Typewriter
Robotron-Elektronik at Qajar, the fifth Qajar
the GDR, this sample king of Persia (Iran),
is owned by the MEK made in late 19th
century

See also
Chorded keyboard Projection keyboard
Computer keyboard Teletype Model 33
Duplicating machines Typeface
Friden Flexowriter Typescript
JOHNNIAC Typewriter desk
Letter (alphabet) UNIVAC 1102

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Patents
US79265 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US79265) – Improvement in Type-Writing
Machines (the patent that laid the basis for the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer)
 US349026 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US349026) – typewriter ribbon, by George K.
Anderson of Memphis, Tennessee.

Further reading
Adler, M.H. (1973). The Writing Machine: A History of the Typewriter. Allen and Unwin.
Beeching, Wilfred A. (1974). Century of the Typewriter. St. Martin's Press. pp. 276 Beeching
was the Director of the British Typewriter Museum.
Casillo, Anthony (2017), Typewriters: Iconic Machines from the Golden Age of Mechanical
Writing. Chronical Books. pp. 208 Foreword by Tom Hanks.
Polt, Richard (2015). The typewriter revolution : a typist's companion for the 21st century.
Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press. ISBN 978-1581573114.
Wichary, Marcin (2023). Shift Happens (https://shifthappens.site/). Lewiston, Maine: Penmor.

External links
The Eclectisaurus online Museum of Typewriters by manufacturers from Adler to Voss. (http://
www.eclectisaurus.com/tmtypewritermuseum.html)
Most Definitely My Type (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2y3HK9yTqYo) on YouTube
Video showcasing historical typewriters, with soundtrack by Boston Typewriter Orchestra
Oliveira Typewriter (em português) (http://www.maquinasantigasdeescrever.com.br/historia.h
tml)
Early Typewriter Collectors' Association (https://web.archive.org/web/20090126014136/htt
p://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/etc.html)
The Classic Typewriter Page (http://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/)

Revival
Ding, click clack – typewriter is back (https://qctimes.com/news/opinion/editorial/columnists/b
ill-wundram/article_03dd1536-4423-11de-a7be-001cc4c002e0.html) –Quad-City Times,
May 18, 2009
Typewriters experience a comeback (http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2011/12/19/Typewriters
-experience-a-comeback/UPI-30661324327372/) – United Press International, Dec. 19,
2011
Documentary Film – The Typewriter (In the 21st Century) (http://typewritermovie.com/) –
2012
Kremlin returns to typewriters to avoid computer leaks (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/wor
ldnews/europe/russia/10173645/Kremlin-returns-to-typewriters-to-avoid-computer-leaks.htm
l) – The Daily Telegraph, July 11, 2013
Germany 'may revert to typewriters' to counter hi-tech espionage (https://www.theguardian.co
m/world/2014/jul/15/germany-typewriters-espionage-nsa-spying-surveillance) – The
Guardian, July 15, 2014

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