Group I

Mohamed Mohamed Ehsan 820751

Mohamed Emad Ahmed Ali 820741
Mohamed Maher rizk Mohamed 820748
Mohamed Emad Mahmoud 820743
Mohamed Ali Hamdy Mohamed 820740
Mohamed Adel Mokhtar 820731
Mohamed Abd elfatah hessian Hassan 820734
Marwan Mohamed elaid 820801
Mohamed Mumdouh Mohamed Ahmed 820762
Mohamed Abdallah Mohamed 82035
Mahmoud A li Mohamed abdrabou 820785
Mohamed hamdy mahmouh 820776
Mohamed said Hariedy 820729
Mohammed mohammed ehssan 820751
Mohamed Samir Sobhy Abd El Fatah 820726

Mohamed sherif Abdelraziq 820730

Mohamed Abdallah Mohamed Abdo 820735

Mohamed essam abd al hamid 820736

Mohamed abd alhalim mohamed 820733

 Money

 *introduction:1.1. Definition of Money*:

 Money is a universally accepted medium of exchange that facilitates transactions in an economy. It serves as a unit of account, a store of value,
and a medium of exchange. Money can take various forms, including physical currency such as coins and banknotes issued by the government,
as well as digital forms such as bank deposits and electronic transfers. Money has several characteristics:-
 *Medium of Exchange*: Money allows people to trade goods and services without the need for bartering. Instead of exchanging goods
directly, individuals can use money as an intermediary to facilitate transactions.-
 *Unit of Account*: Money provides a common unit of measurement for valuing goods and services. Prices are expressed in terms of a
monetary unit, making it easier to compare the value of different goods and services.
 Store of Value*:
 Money serves as a store of wealth, allowing individuals and businesses to save purchasing power for future use. Unlike perishable goods,
money can be held for extended periods without losing its value.- *Standard of Deferred Payment*:
 Money enables individuals to enter into contracts and agreements with future payment obligations. Contracts can be denominated in terms of a
monetary unit, providing clarity and enforceability.
*1.2. Importance of Money*:
The importance of money in an economy cannot be overstated. Here are several reasons why money is essential:- *Facilitating

Transactions*: Money simplifies the exchange of goods and services, making it more efficient and convenient for individuals and businesses

to engage in trade and commerce.- *Promoting Specialization and Efficiency*: Money enables specialization and division of labor by

allowing individuals and businesses to focus on producing goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. This

specialization leads to increased productivity and efficiency in the economy.- *Store of Value*: Money serves as a store of wealth, allowing

individuals to save and accumulate assets over time. This ability to save and invest helps promote long-term economic growth and stability.
 - Measure of Value*:

 Money provides a common unit of measurement for valuing goods and services. Prices expressed in monetary terms

facilitate price comparisons, market transactions, and resource allocation decisions.- *Liquidity*: Money is highly

liquid, meaning it can be quickly converted into goods, services, or other assets. This liquidity provides flexibility

and financial security for individuals and businesses, enabling them to respond to changing economic conditions

and emergencies. Overall, money plays a crucial role in modern economies by facilitating transactions, promoting

efficiency and specialization, serving as a store of value, providing a measure of value, and offering liquidity.

Without money, the functioning of modern economies would be severely impaired.

 the field of banknote issuing were crowned by the establishment of a printing house for banknote works instead of printing
them abroad. Production of banknotes in different denominations started in December 1967. The Central Bank also printed
banknotes for some Arab central banks. In view of the increasing need for banknotes to facilitate transactions resulting from
the growth of economic activity following the introduction of the global economy policy, the Central Bank of Egypt issued
notes of large denominations (20, 50, and 100 LE). It launched the 20 and 100 LE denominations in May 1979, and the 50
LE denomination in March 1993.

 The Economic MoneyThe money came into existence to overcome the drawbacks of the barter system. Earlier, people use to
exchange goods and services as a form of commerce. This often led to many disadvantages, one of which was the double
coincidence of wants. To solve this problem, a standard medium of exchange, money, was introduced. What is money? A
medium of exchange that is centralized, generally accepted, recognized, and facilitates transactions of goods and services, is
known as money. Money is a medium of exchange for various goods and services in an economy. The money system varies
with the governments and countries. Different countries have different currencies.
 he central authority is responsible for monitoring the monetary system.There are many forms of money, and cryptocurrency
is the newest addition to the forms of money and can be internationally exchanged.Characteristics of MoneyFungible
currency: A currency must be fungible which means that the units used as a currency must be equal in quality and shall be
interchangeable. A non-fungible form of currency is not considered reliable for transactions.Durable: A good currency is
durable enough to be used more than just one time. It should not be perishable. A perishable good or article should not be
used as a currency because it cannot be used multiple times and also cannot be stored for future transactions. Therefore, to
conserve the future-oriented use-value of the money, a currency must be durable.
 Easily recognizable: The users of the money must be ascertained of its authenticity. In other words, the currency must be
universally recognized. An unrecognized currency or money leads to disagreement with the exchange terms. A recognized
currency ensures trust in the money system as well as its acceptance.Stability: A currency must be stable in terms of value. In
simple terms, money should have a constant or increasing value. Money cannot be unstable whose value keeps drastically
changing. An unstable currency can give room to the risk of a sudden drop in value which can hamper the acceptance and
authenticity of the money system.Portable: A currency must be portable and can be conveniently transported from one place
to another. The money must be divisible into various quantities making its use better. Money if not portable can lead to an
exceeded cost of transportation of the currency itself. Therefore, money should be able to be divided into further smaller
units to facilitate smooth transactions of various quantities of goods. Secondly, it should be easily transferable and portable.
 Functions of MoneyMedium of exchange: Money is the generally accepted medium of exchange that is used to
make all the transactions. Ex- payments of goods, payment of tax, etc.A measure of Value: Money expresses the
value of every service as well as goods. Therefore, it is a common denomination.Standard of deferred
payments: Money is considered the standard for future payments. Ex- The payment of the electricity bill on the
upcoming due date.Store of value: It means that money is capable of being stored and transferring the purchasing
power from today to the future. Ex: Using the money in a savings account to buy new furniture.Distribution of
social income: Income can easily be distributed with the help of money. Ex: Distribution of total money earned by a
school in the form of salaries, wages, utility bills, etc.
 Basis of Credit Creation: The "store of value" function of the money helps in credit creation by the
banks. Ex: Using the money of demand deposits as a tool for credit creation.Liquidity: Money is
the most liquid asset of the economy. Ex: Credit cards, debit cards, cash.Types of Money:The
following are the types of money:Market Determined Money: Any good that can be generally
accepted by the people of the economy to exchange it indirectly for various goods and
services between different parties is called Market determined money.
 Fiat Money and Legal Tender: The form of money that is issued by the government and is not backed by any
commodity is known as fiat money. Ex: INR, Dollar, Pounds, etc. The term legal tender states the money that is
legally issued by the government. Ex: Coins and Banknotes.Cryptocurrencies: Cryptocurrencies are an electronic
medium of exchange that exists virtually. Crypto is a peer-to-peer system that runs on the blockchain. In simple
terms, it is an intangible form of currency and has opportunities for international exchange.What is the functional
definition of money?The functional definition of money states that the money should be capable of bringing a
generally accepted medium of exchange, the measure of value, the standard of deferred payment, and a store of
value.How many functions of money are there?There are three functions of money: Primary, secondary, and other
functions.What is Convertible Virtual Currency?Convertible virtual Currency is used as a substitute for the legal
money accepted in the economy. These currencies can easily be exchanged for fiat money like cryptocurrencies
2-History of Money
Barter System

The barter system is the earliest form of exchange, and it is believed to have been used for thousands of years. In a barter system,

goods and services are directly exchanged for other goods and services. There is no medium of exchange, such as money, so the value

of each good or service must be negotiated between the two parties involved in the transaction.The barter system had a number of

limitations. For example, it could be difficult to find someone who wanted what you had to offer and who also had something that

you wanted. It could also be difficult to determine the relative value of different goods and services.

 Development of Currency

 The development of currency was a major breakthrough in the history of money. Currency is a medium of

exchange that is widely accepted by people in exchange for goods and services. The first forms of currency

were commodities, such as salt, cattle, and cowrie shells. These commodities were chosen as currency because

they were durable, portable, and divisible.

 Over time, people began to use metals, such as gold and silver, as currency. Metals were a more convenient form of
currency than commodities because they were more durable, portable, and divisible. They were also relatively
scarce, which gave them value.The development of coinage was another major breakthrough in the history of
currency. Coins are small, pieces of metal that have a guaranteed weight and purity. The first coins were minted in
Lydia, a kingdom in Asia Minor, in the 7th century BC. The use of coins made it easier to conduct transactions
because it eliminated the need to weigh and measure pieces of metal .

 3 Evolution of Banking

 The evolution of banking is closely linked to the development of currency. Banks first emerged
as storehouses for precious metals. People would deposit their gold and silver with banks for
safekeeping. In return, the banks would give them receipts that could be used to withdraw their
deposits. These receipts were a form of paper currency, and they could be used to make
payments to other people. Over time, banks began to offer other services, such as loans and
money transfers. The development of these services helped to promote economic growth.
 3-Types of Money
 1. Physical Currency*: - *Tangible Form*: Physical currency includes coins and banknotes that people can touch, hold, and
exchange physically. - *Issued by Authorities*: Governments and central banks are responsible for issuing physical currency.
They regulate its circulation and value through monetary policies, such as setting interest rates and controlling the money
supply. - *Legal Tender*: Physical currency is often designated as legal tender, meaning it's recognized by law as a valid
form of payment for goods and services within a country's borders. - *Face Value and Intrinsic Value*: Banknotes and coins
have face value (the value printed on them) and intrinsic value (the value of the material they are made of, such as paper or
metal). The face value typically exceeds the intrinsic value. - *Physical Security Features*: To prevent counterfeiting,
physical currency often incorporates security features such as watermarks, security threads, holograms, and special inks.2.
*Digital Money*: - *Electronic Transactions*: Digital money exists in electronic form and is used for transactions conducted
over electronic networks, such as the internet or electronic payment systems. - *Bank Deposits*: Most money held in bank
accounts exists in digital form. When you deposit money into a bank, it's recorded electronically, and you can access it
through various electronic means, such as ATMs, online banking, and mobile apps. - *Debit and Credit Cards*: Debit and
credit cards are widely used forms of digital money. They allow users to make purchases electronically by transferring funds
from their bank accounts or accessing a line of credit. - *Online Payment Systems*: Services like PayPal, Venmo, and
Google Pay facilitate digital transactions between individuals and businesses. Users link their bank accounts or credit cards to
these platforms to send and receive money electronically. - *Advantages*: Digital money offers convenience, speed, and
security. It eliminates the need for physical cash and enables seamless transactions across different locations and currencies
.
 3. *Cryptocurrency*: - *Decentralization*: Cryptocurrencies operate on decentralized networks based on blockchain
technology. Unlike traditional currencies, they are not controlled by any central authority, such as a government or central
bank. - *Blockchain Technology*: Transactions involving cryptocurrencies are recorded on a public ledger called the
blockchain. This distributed ledger ensures transparency, security, and immutability of transactions. - *Anonymity and
Privacy*: Cryptocurrencies offer varying degrees of anonymity and privacy, depending on the specific cryptocurrency and its
features. Users can conduct transactions without revealing their identities or personal information. - *Volatility*:
Cryptocurrency prices can be highly volatile, with values fluctuating dramatically over short periods. This volatility is
influenced by factors such as market demand, investor sentiment, regulatory developments, and technological advancements.
- *Security Risks*: While blockchain technology provides robust security mechanisms, cryptocurrencies are still susceptible
to hacking, fraud, and other cyberattacks. Investors need to take precautions to safeguard their digital assets, such as using
secure wallets and following best practices for digital security.
 4-Functions of money
 The medium of exchange: A medium of exchange is an intermediate tool used to enable the
sale, purchase, or transfer of products between parties. For a system to operate as a medium of
exchange, it must represent a standard of value. Further, all parties involved in the transactions
must accept it. In contemporary economies, the most common means of trade is cash. As a
medium of exchange, money acts as an intermediary. It facilitates exchange. When acting as
the intermediary, it helps one good or service to be traded indirectly for others. It helps
production indirectly through specialization and division of labor which, in turn, increase
efficiency and output* Store of value: it refers to the ability of an asset to hold its purchasing
power over time. For one asset to be considered money, it has to have value over time. If you
have an asset that will decrease in value in a short time, it can't be considered money. For it to
be considered money, it must have value for a long period, meaning that you can still buy
goods and services with it. Imagine having money that today can get you ten apples, but
3|Pageno one accepts it the following day, and your purchasing power disappears into thin air.
Stores of value also include interest-bearing assets, which qualify as such since they provide
income while simultaneously retaining their worth. A commodity, on the other hand, such as
milk, is a poor store of value since it is perishable and will expire in due course,
 rendering it useless. Throughout much of history, many commodities served as money in various forms. Initially,
trade agents relied on assets and commodities, such as gold, as means of exchange because of their inherent worth,
durability, and mobility, as opposed to currency. Generally speaking, money is regarded as a store of value in the
monetary system, where it may be utilized to store and transfer capital. Money's ability to act as a store of value
makes it easier to move buying power over a period of time. Because cash has the ability to transmit buying power
from one time to another, it is an excellent means of storing value. For example, when individuals keep money in
their pockets until they wish to trade it for products or services, the value of the money remains stable.Unit of
account: Another essential function of money is the unit of account. This means that the money can be measured
based on goods and services it can buy. This means it can be used to set prices for goods and services that people
want to consume
 5-Monetary system:
 5.1.fiat Money
 The alternative to a commodity money system is fiat money which is defined by a central bank and government law
as legal tender even if it has no intrinsic value. Originally fiat money was paper currency or base metal coinage, but
in modern economies it mainly exists as data such as bank balances and records of credit or debit card purchases,[3]
and the fraction that exists as notes and coins is relatively small.[4] Money is mostly created by banks when they
loan to customers. Put simply, banks lending currency to customers, subject to each bank's regulatory limit, is the
principal mode of new deposit creation.[5]The central bank does not directly fix the amount of currency in
circulation, nor is central bank money. Although commercial banks create circulating money via lending, they
cannot do so freely without limit. Banks are limited in how much they can lend both by regulatory limits and by
good management practice, in order to remain profitable and solvent. Prudential regulation also acts as a constraint
on banks' activities in order to maintain the resilience of the financial system. And the households and companies
who receive
 he money created by new lending may take actions that affect the stock of money – they could quickly 'destroy' the
money or currency by using it to repay their existing debt, for instance.[6] When the principal of the loan is being
repaid by the borrower that money is erased/destroyed and the bank only keeps the interest as income.Central banks
control the creation of money by commercial banks, by setting interest rates on reserves. This limits the amount of
money the commercial banks are willing to lend, and thus create, as it affects the profitability of lending in a
competitive market.[6] This is the opposite of what many people believe about the creation of fiat money. The most
common misconception was that central banks print all the money, this is not reflective of what actually
happens.Today's global monetary system is essentially a fiat system because people can use paper bills or bank
balances to buy goods.[7]
 .2.Commodity Money

 A commodity money system is a type of monetary system in which a commodity such as gold or seashells is made
the unit of value and physically used as money. The money retains its value because of its physical properties. In
some cases, a government may stamp a metal coin with a face, value or mark that indicates its weight or asserts its
purity, but the value remains the same even if the coin is melted down.5.3.Representative MoneyRepresentative
money or receipt money is any medium of exchange, printed or digital, that represents something of value, but has
little or no value of its own (intrinsic value). Unlike some forms of fiat money (which may have no commodity
backing), More specifically, the term representative money has been used variously to mean:
 A claim on a commodity, for example gold and silver certificates.[1][2][3] In this sense it may be called
"commodity-backed money".•Any type of money that has face value greater than its value as material substance.
Used in this sense, most types of fiat money are a type of representative money.[4]genuine representative money
must have something of intrinsic value supporting the face value.[1]There is no concrete evidence that the clay
tokens used as an accounting tool to keep track of warehouse stores in ancient Mesopotamia were also used as
representative money. [5][6] However, the idea has been suggested.[1]In 1895 economist Joseph Shield Nicholson
wrote that credit expansion and contraction was in fact the expansion and contraction of representative money.[7]In
1934 economist William Howard Steiner wrote that the term was used "at one time to signify that a certain amount
of bullion was stored in the Treasury while the equivalent paper in circulation" represented the bullion.[
 6-Central Bank:
 .1. Role of Central Banks: Central banks play a crucial role in the economy by controlling the nation's monetary
policy, issuing currency, regulating the banking system, and sometimes overseeing the nation's financial system.
They aim to achieve economic stability, primarily by controlling inflation and promoting sustainable economic
growth.6.2. Monetary Policy: Monetary policy refers to the actions taken by a central bank to manage the money
supply and interest rates to achieve specific economic objectives. This includes setting interest rates, conducting
open market operations (buying and selling government securities), and establishing reserve requirements for banks.
The main goals of monetary policy typically include price stability, full employment, and stable economic
growth.6.3. Regulation and Supervision: Regulation and supervision involve overseeing financial institutions such
as banks, credit unions, and insurance companies to ensure their stability and soundness. Central banks, along with
other regulatory bodies, establish and enforce rules and regulations to safeguard the financial system, prevent fraud,
and protect consumers. This includes monitoring banks' capital levels, liquidity, and risk management practices to
mitigate systemic risks and maintain financial stability.
 Eference 1. “
 Central Banking: Theory and Practice in Sustaining Monetary and Financial Stability" by Thammarak
Moenjak2. "Monetary Policy, Inflation, and the Business Cycle: An Introduction to the New Keynesian
Framework and Its Applications" by Jordi Galí3. "The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial
Markets" by Frederic S. Mishkin4. "Central Banking and Financial Stability in East Asia" edited by Dong
Chul. Cho, Andrew Mason, and Chulhee Lee5. "Principles of Financial Regulation" by Mathias
Dewatripont, Jean-Charles Rochet, and Jean Tirole
8.Personal finance

1. Budgeting: Budgeting
2. is the foundation of personal finance. It involves creating a plan for how you will allocate your income to cover
your expenses, savings, and investments. Here's a breakdown: Creating a Budget: Start by listing all sources of
income and then categorize your expenses into fixed (e.g., rent/mortgage, utilities) and variable (e.g., groceries,
entertainment). Use budgeting tools or apps to help you track your spending. Setting Financial Goals: Identify
your short-term (e.g., paying off debt), medium-term (e.g., saving for a vacation), and long-term goals (e.g.,
buying a house, retirement). Allocate funds in your budget to prioritize these goals. Tracking and Adjusting:
Regularly monitor your spending against your budget and make adjustments as needed. This might involve cutting
back on non-essential expenses or finding ways to increase your income.
 Tracking and Adjusting: Regularly monitor your spending against your budget and make adjustments as needed.

This might involve cutting back on non-essential expenses or finding ways to increase your income.
 2. Saving and Investment:
 Saving and investing are essential for building wealth over the long term. Here's what you need to know:Emergency Fund: Start
by building an emergency fund to cover unexpected expenses, such as medical bills or car repairs. Aim to save enough to cover
3-6 months' worth of living expenses. Types of Investments: Consider different investment options based on your risk tolerance,
time horizon, and financial goals. These may include stocks, bonds, mutual funds, ETFs (Exchange-Traded Funds), real estate,
and retirement accounts like 401(k)s or IRAs. Diversification: Spread your investments across different asset classes to reduce
risk. Diversification can help mitigate losses if one investment performs poorly while others perform well.Compound Interest:
Take advantage of compound interest by starting to invest early and consistently contributing to your investments over time.
This allows your money to grow exponentially over the long term.
 3. Managing Debt:

 Managing debt effectively is crucial for achieving financial stability. Here are some strategies:Debt Repayment
Plan: Prioritize high-interest debt (such as credit card debt) and create a plan to pay it off as quickly as possible.
Consider strategies like the debt snowball (paying off smallest debts first) or the debt avalanche (paying off highest-
interest debts first).Consolidation and Refinancing: Explore options for consolidating multiple debts into a single
loan with a lower interest rate. Refinancing can also help lower monthly payments or reduce the total interest paid
over time. Budgeting for Debt Payments: Allocate a portion of your budget specifically for debt repayment. This
ensures that you're making consistent progress towards becoming debt-free. Avoiding Future Debt: Develop healthy
financial habits to avoid accumulating more debt in the future. This may involve living within your means,
budgeting responsibly, and using credit cards wisely.
 Personal finance is the management of an individual's financial activities,

including budgeting, saving, investing, and managing debt, with the goal

of achieving financial well-being and long-term stability. It encompasses a

wide range of topics and skills that are essential for making informed

financial decisions and achieving financial goals throughout life.

 - 2. Saving and Investment:Saving and investing are essential for building wealth over the long term. Here's what you need to

know:Emergency Fund: Start by building an emergency fund to cover unexpected expenses, such as medical bills or car

repairs. Aim to save enough to cover 3-6 months' worth of living expenses.Types of Investments: Consider different

investment options based on your risk tolerance, time horizon, and financial goals. These may include stocks, bonds, mutual

funds, ETFs (Exchange-Traded Funds), real estate, and retirement accounts like 401(k)s or IRAs.Diversification: Spread

your investments across different asset classes to reduce risk. Diversification can help mitigate losses if one nvestment

performs poorly while others perform well.Compound Interest: Take advantage of compound interest by starting to invest

early and consistently contributing to your investments over time. This allows your money to grow exponentially over the

long term.

 3. Managing Debt:Managing debt effectively is crucial for achieving financial stability. Here are some
strategies:Debt Repayment Plan: Prioritize high-interest debt (such as credit card debt) and create a plan to pay it off
as quickly as possible. Consider strategies like the debt snowball (paying off smallest debts first) or the debt
avalanche (paying off highest-interest debts first).Consolidation and Refinancing: Explore options for consolidating
multiple debts into a single loan with a lower interest rate. Refinancing can also help lower monthly payments or
reduce the total interest paid over time.Budgeting for Debt Payments: Allocate a portion of your budget specifically
for debt repayment. This ensures that you're making consistent progress towards becoming debt-free.Avoiding
Future Debt: Develop healthy financial habits to avoid accumulating more debt in the future. This may involve
living within your means, budgeting responsibly, and using credit cards wisely .
Conclusion

 n conclusion, this research project has delved into the general meaning of money, its
fundamental functions, and the evolution of money over time, with a particular emphasis on the
Egyptian context and its relationship to digitalization and e-money.Money, as we have explored,
serves as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, and a store of value, forming the
backbone of economic systems worldwide. Its evolution from bartering and commodity money
to modern fiat currency and digital currencies reflects the dynamic nature of human society,
shaped by cultural, economic, and technological forces.In the Egyptian context, the story of
money is intertwined with the country’s rich history and cultural heritage. From the use of ancient
forms of currency to the adoption of modern banking systems, Egypt has witnessed a profound
evolution in its monetary landscape. The rise of digitalization and e-money represents the latest
chapter in this ongoing narrative, with significant implications for financial inclusion, economic
development, and monetary policy.The transition towards digital payment systems, including
mobile wallets, digital banking, and online transactions, has the potential to enhance financial
 access and efficiency in Egypt. However, it also poses challenges such as
cybersecurity risks, regulatory frameworks, and ensuring equitable access to
digital financial services.As Egypt continues to embrace digitalization and e-
money, policymakers, financial institutions, and society as a whole must
navigate these complexities to realize the full potential of digital finance while
safeguarding against potential pitfalls. By leveraging technology, fostering
innovation, and promoting financial literacy, Egypt can harness the power of
digitalization to foster inclusive economic growth and prosperity for all its
citizens.In essence, the study of money, its functions, and its evolution provides
valuable insights into the workings of economies and societies. By examining
these concepts through the lens of the Egyptian context and its journey
towards digitalization, we gain a deeper understanding of the transformative
power of money and the opportunities and challenges that lie ahead in the
digital age.
opic Number 1 Reference: Sources: Mervyn A. King, “The Institutions of Monetary Policy”
(lecture, American Economics Association Annual Meeting, San Diego, January 4, 2004),
available at http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/speeches/speech208.pdf. Hal R. Varian,
“Paper Currency Can Have Value without Government Backing, but Such Backing Adds
Substantially to Its Value,” New York Times, January 15, 2004Topic Number 2 Reference
:Neal, L. (2010) The rise of financial capitalism, Cambridge Core. Available at:
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-financial-
capitalism/D9CAE646A13D321E9B19F090B87265E6#Laidler, D. (2003). Meltzer’s History of
the Federal Reserve [Review of A History of the Federal Reserve, Volume 1: 1913-1951, by
A. H. Meltzer]. Journal of Economic Literature, 41(4), 1256–1271.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/321 Topic number 3 Refrences :Physical Currency:the official
website of the Central Bank of Egypt (CBE)Digital Money:"The Age of Cryptocurrency:
How Bitcoin and Digital Money Are Challenging the GlobalCryptocurrency:"Mastering
Bitcoin: Unlocking Digital Cryptocurrencies" by Andreas M. Antonopoulos.Egypt: An
Economic Geography" by Fouad N. Ibrahim - This book provides an in-depth analysis of
Egypt's economy, including its historical context, geographical factors, and current
economic challenges."Egypt: The Political Economy of Change" by Clement M. Henry
and Robert Springborg - This book explores the political and economic dynamics shaping
Egypt's development, including discussions on economic policy, reform efforts, and
societal impacts."The Egyptian Economy, 1952-2000: Performance, Policies, and Issues" by
Samir Amin - This comprehensive study offers a detailed examination of Egypt's economy
from the mid-20th century to the turn of the millennium, covering various aspects such as
 growth, industrialization, and external relations.Online resources such as reports from the
World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and Egypt's Central Bank can also provide
valuable insights into the country's economy, monetary policies, and financial
indicators.Topic number 4 references:1-Ashtor, E
liyahu, Histoire des prix et des salaires dans l’orient médiéval (Paris, 1969).Google Scholar 2-
Ashtor, Eliyahu, Les Métaux precieux et la balance des payements du Proche-Orient à la
basse époque (Paris, 1971).Google Scholar3-Ashtor, Eliyahu, Levant Trade in the Later Middle
Ages (Princeton, 1983).Google Scholar 4-Ashtor, Eliyahu, Studies on the Levantine Trade in
the Middle Ages (London, 1978).Google ScholarTopic Number 5 Reference :1/ "What is
monetary system? definition and meaning". BusinessDictionary.com. Archived from the
original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2015.2/ Velde, Francois R., "Following the
Yellow Brick Road: How the United States Adopted the Gold Standard". Economic
Perspectives, 4th Quarter, 2002. Available at SSRN:3/ Brent Radcliffe. "Fiat Money".
Investopedia. Retrieved 25 April 20154/ Hockett, Robert C.; Omarova, Saule T. (2017). "The
Finance Franchise". Cornell Law Review. 102: 1153–1155.5/ Robert A. Mundell, The Birth of
Coinage, Discussion Paper #:0102-08, Department of Economics, Columbia University,
February 2002.Topic number 6 References :1. "Central Banking: Theory and Practice in
Sustaining Monetary and Financial Stability" by Thammarak Moenjak2.
"Monetary Policy, Inflation, and the Business Cycle: An Introduction to the New
Keynesian Framework and Its Applications" by Jordi Galí3. "The Economics of Money,
Banking, and Financial Markets" by Frederic S. Mishkin4. "Central Banking and Financial
Stability in East Asia" edited by Dongchul Cho, Andrew Mason, and Chulhee Lee5.
"Principles of Financial Regulation" by Mathias Dewatripont, Jean-Charles Rochet, and
Jean TiroleTopic number 7 References :Mishkin, Frederic S. (2007). The Economics of
Money, Banking, and Financial Markets (Alternate ed.). Boston: Addison Wesley. p.
8money : The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics". The New Palgrave Dictionary of
Economics. Retrieved 18 December 2010https://www.investopedia.com/insights/what-is-
money/6/William Howard Steiner, Money and banking, p. 30, H. Holt and company,
19417/ John Maynard Keynes (1965) [1930]. "1. The Classification of Money". A Treatise on
Money. Vol. 1. Macmillan & Co Ltd. p. 7. Fiat Money is Representative (or token) Money
(i.e something the intrinsic value of the material substance of which is divorced from its
monetary face value) Topic Number 8 Refernces :-The Balance : Budgeting -Arab
Finance Corporation: personal budgeting guide -Ivestopedia : setting financial goals -
Nerdwallet : Emergency fund -Vanguard : Investing basics-Fidelity : the Importance of
Diversification -Bank misr : Debt Repayment Strategies