UNIT 1

Meaning of Research

Research is an academic activity. It is a movement from the known to the unknown, which
may be called a discovery. Different definitions of research are given by the experts.
According to Redman and Mory, “Research is a systematized effort to gain new
knowledge.”

According to P.M. Cook, “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts
and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem.”

J.M. Francis Rumel defines, “Research is an endeavour to discover, develop and verify
knowledge.”

RESEARCH:-

Systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge by

discovering new facts.

Objectives

The main objectives of Research are

1. To gain familiarity or to achieve new insights into a phenomenon. This is known as

Exploratory or Formularize Research studies.
2. To describe the accurate characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. This is
known as Descriptive Research studies.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
other things. This is known as Diagnostic Research studies.
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables. Such studies are known as
Hypothesis-testing Research studies.

Characteristics of Research

1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

2. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary sources.
3. Research is based upon observable experience or experimental evidence.
4. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the data collected
and the procedures employed.
5. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation.
6. Research demands accurate observation and description.
7. Research requires patience and courage. The researcher should courageously face the
unpleasant consequences of his finding if any.
8. Research is highly purposive. It deals with a significant problem which must be solved.
9. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Everything must be carefully defined and
described in detail.
10. Research activity is characterized by carefully designed procedures which are to be analyzed
thoroughly.

Aims and Objectives of Research Methodology

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

Types of research:-

(1)Applied Research

Applied research “aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, or
an industrial/business organization. Applied research is considered to be non-systematic
inquiry and it is usually launched by a company, agency or an individual in order to address a
specific problem.

ex:-Improve agricultural crop production, treat or cure specific disease.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

• Improve agricultural crop production

• Treat or cure a specific disease

• Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

(2) Basic Research

Basic research, also called pure research or fundamental research, is scientific research
aimed to improve scientific theories for improved understanding or prediction of natural or
other phenomena. Applied research, in turn, uses scientific theories to develop technology
or techniques to intervene and alter natural or other phenomena. Though often driven by
curiosity, basic research fuels applied science’s innovations. The two aims are often
coordinated in research and development.

Ex:- how did the universe begin?

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:
• How did the universe begin?

• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

• How do slime molds reproduce?

• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

(4) Experimental Research

This is an experiment where the re-searcher manipulates one variable, and

control/randomizes the rest of the variables. It has a control group, the subjects have been
randomly assigned between the groups, and the researcher only tests one effect at a time. It
is also important to know what variable(s) you want to test and measure.

Aims of Experimental Research:-

Experiments are conducted to be able to predict phenomenon. Typically, an experiment is

constructed to be able to explain some kind of causation. Experimental research is
important to society – it helps us to improve our everyday lives.

(5) Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is research conducted for a problem that has not been studied more
clearly, intended to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the
final research design.[1] Exploratory research helps determine the best research design,
data-collection method and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only
with extreme caution. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes
that a perceived problem does not actually exist.
 Exploratory research often relies on techniques such as:-

 Secondary research – such as reviewing available literature and/or data

 Informal qualitative approaches, such as discussions with consumers, employees,
management or competitors
 Formal qualitative research through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods,
case studies or pilot studies.

Descriptive research

refers to research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular

individual, situation, or group. Descriptive research, also known as statistical research. These
studies are a means of discovering new meaning, describing what exists, determining the
frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing information.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied, which
has an impact of the lives of the people it deals with.

For example, • finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The
reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus, more people will
live a healthy life.

Advantages: • The people individual studied are unaware so they act naturally or as they
usually do in everyday situation;

• It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative experiments;

• Collects a large amount of notes for detailed studying;

• As it is used to describe and not make any conclusions it is to start the research with it;
Disadvantages

• Descriptive research requires more skills.

• Does not identify cause behind a phenomenon

• Response rate is low in this research.

• Results of this research can change over the period of time.

Research Process:

Research Process involves identifying, locating, assessing, and analyzing the information you
need to support your research question, and then developing and expressing your ideas.
These are the same skills you need any time you write a report, proposal, or put together a
presentation.
 The research process can be broken down into seven steps, making it more manageable and
easier to understand. This module will give you an idea of what’s involved at each step in
order to give you a better overall picture of where you are in your research, where you will
be going, and what to expect at each step.

Steps involved in Research Process in Research Methodology

At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken.If
subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages, serious
difficulties may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should
remember that the various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive;
nor they are separate and distinct.

They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be
constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the requirements of the
subsequent steps. However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful
procedural guideline regarding the research process:

 Formulating the research problem.

 Extensive literature survey.
 Developing the hypothesis.
 Preparing the research design.
 Determining sample design.
 Collecting the data.
 Execution of the project.
 Analysis of data.
 Hypothesis testing.
 Generalizations and interpretation, and
 Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, vi., those
which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables.
At thievery outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he
must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to
inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the
ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular
solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up.
The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the
first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the
research problem, vi., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should
be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to
write synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board
for approval.At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem.

For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier
studies, if any, which are similar to the study in and should be carefully studied. A good
library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should

state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As
such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since
they provide the focal point for research.

4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state
the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of
such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.

In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be
achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into
four categories, vi.,

 Exploration,
 Description,
 Diagnosis, and
 Experimentation
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the
items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in
practice this may not be true.

Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number
of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its
extent except through are survey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry
involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible
in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on sample
basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study
purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called sample.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any
data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to
select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can
be either probability samples or non-probability samples.

With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the
sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this
probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are
those based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques.

6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand
are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There
are severing always of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of
money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the
data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.

7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed
in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well
as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.

8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
 establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher
should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is
usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into
symbols that may be tabulated and counted.

9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position
to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the
hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be
answered while testing hypotheses .Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test,
have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested
through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of
research inquiry. Hypothesis -testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on
the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in
times to come.

10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
maybe possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a
matter of fact,the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.
If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may
quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done.

Formulation of Research problem

1.Specify the Research Objectives

A clear statement defining your objectives will help you develop effective research.

It will help the decision makers evaluate the research questions your project should answer
as well as the research methods your project will use to answer those questions. It’s critical
that you have manageable objectives. (Two or three clear goals will help to keep your
research project focused and relevant.)

2. Review the Environment or Context of the Research Problem

As a marketing researcher, you must work closely with your team of researchers in defining
and testing environmental variables. This will help you determine whether the findings of
your project will produce enough information to be worth the cost.
 In order to do this, you have to identify the environmental variables that will affect the
research project and begin formulating different methods to control these variables.

3. Explore the Nature of the Problem

Research problems range from simple to complex, depending on the number of variables
and the nature of their relationship. Sometimes the relationship between two variables is
directly related to a problem or questions, and other times the relationship is entirely
unimportant.

If you understand the nature of the research problem as a researcher, you will be able to
better develop a solution for the problem.

To help you understand all dimensions, you might want to consider focus groups of
consumers, sales people, managers, or professionals to provide what is sometimes much
needed insight into a particular set of questions or problems.

4. Define the Variable Relationships

Marketing plans often focus on creating a sequence of behaviors that occur over time, as in
the adoption of a new package design, or the introduction of a new product.

Such programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral pattern or method in the
future.

Studying such a process involves:

 Determining which variables affect the solution to the research problem.

 Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled and used for the purposes
of the company.
 Determining the functional relationships between the variables and which variables are
critical to the solution of the research problem.
 During the problem formulation stage, you will want to generate and consider as many
courses of action and variable relationships as possible.

5. The Consequences of Alternative Courses of Action

There are always consequences to any course of action used in one or more projects.
Anticipating and communicating the possible outcomes of various courses of action is a
primary responsibility in the research process.