The eighteen century
In the late 1700s, Britain became stronger than France because of its growing industries and
expanding trade empire, which it partly took from France. Britain's powerful navy protected its
trade routes, and the government actively supported this empire. The people in charge shifted
from the king to his ministers and their supporters in Parliament.
Trade made Britain rich and led to big changes in farming and industry, making it a top economy
globally. But this progress came with a price: many people lost their land and homes, creating a
new working class in cities.
The industrialization process, marked by the invention of machinery and the rise of factories,
transformed cottage industries and urbanization started, particularly in cities like Birmingham,
Glasgow, Manchester, and Liverpool.
Despite these changes, there was fear of revolution, like what happened in France.
To prevent unrest, Britain's rulers kept tight control, especially in the countryside, and a new
religious movement called Methodism gave hope to the poor without challenging the
government.
Britain, wary of revolutionary ideas, fought against Napoleon Bonaparte, diverting attention from
potential internal turmoil. Factors like local control by the ruling class in rural areas and the rise of
Methodism, a religious movement offering solace to the working class but eschewing involvement
in political and social issues, also helped stave off revolution in Britain.
Politics and finance
After Queen Anne's death in 1714, there was uncertainty about who would become king. Some
Tories wanted James II's son to return as James III, but he refused to give up Catholicism or his
claim to the throne, leading to a failed rebellion against George I, who became king. This allowed
the Whigs to form the government, with Robert Walpole emerging as a key leader, often
considered Britain's first Prime Minister.
Walpole's rise to power was due in part to his financial ability. The government had borrowed
heavily to pay the war with France, leading to the establishment of the Bank of England in 1694.
Financial speculation was high, so people started investing in trading companies like the South Sea
Company, which promised to pay off the national debt but led to a financial crash when it failed.
and thousands of people who had invested their money lost' everything.
Walpole restored public confidence and introduced measures to prevent similar crises. He
emphasized the importance of government ministers working together in a small group called the
Cabinet, where disagreement meant resignation. another important rule in British politics: that all
members of the Cabinet were together responsible for policy decisions.
Walpole also focused on limiting the power of the monarchy. It was he who made sure that the
power of the king would always be limited by the constitution. The limits to monarchy were
these: the king could not be a Catholic; the king could not remove or change laws; the king was
dependent on Parliament for his financial income and for his army.
Walpole aimed to avoid war and repay the national debt by raising taxes on luxury items like tea,
coffee, and chocolate, which were popular among the wealthy. However, this move made him
unpopular. His political adversary, Chatham, shared the belief that trade was crucial for a nation's
wealth and saw France as a competitor. He strengthened the British navy and tried to control
French trading. The conflict with France escalated into war in 1756, with Britain focusing on
disrupting French trade. Victories in Canada and India expanded British control and influence, but
strained relations with India due to British disrespect for its people and culture.
Despite these successes, a new king, George III, sought peace in 1763, ending the costly war.
British international trade flourished, with the West Indies becoming a lucrative part of the
empire. The triangular trade system involving goods, slaves, and sugar boosted Britain's economy,
laying the foundation for its global dominance until the end of the empire in the 20th century.
Wilkes and Liberty
George III was the first Hanoverian born in Britain and aimed to take a more active role in
governing, particularly in choosing his own ministers. Parliament, representing a small number of
property-owning voters, did not seem a major obstacle. Only property owners with a certain
income could vote, which meant fewer than 250,000 voters in a population of almost eight million.
Rich property owners often controlled boroughs, influencing who was elected to Parliament.
Voting was public, and tenants often voted as their landlords wished to avoid losing their land.
One notable MP, John Wilkes, opposed George III's government and advocated for free speech
and open political discussion. Wilkes published a strong attack on the government in his
newspaper, The North Briton, after the king made peace with France without informing Prussia.
Wilkes was arrested and imprisoned, but he fought back in court, winning a landmark case that
affirmed individual freedom over state interests and established that the government could not
arrest individuals without proper cause.
Wilkes's victory made him popular in London and highlighted the growing influence of public
opinion. The number of newspapers increased, allowing more people, including clerks, skilled
workers, and tradesmen, to engage in political discussions. Conversation clubs discussed political
freedom and the need for secret voting. Wilkes's struggle revealed that Parliament did not
represent ordinary people, leading to political organization outside Parliament to win basic rights.
Newspapers began reporting on Parliament, marking the rise of public opinion in politics.
Radicalism and the Loss of the American Colonies
In 1764, a serious conflict arose over taxation between the British government and its American
colonies, exemplifying the type of freedom advocated by John Wilkes. The British government
viewed the colonists as subjects and sought to tax them without their consent, leading to political
division in Britain. Some believed the tax was justified to fund defense against French attacks,
while others, including Wilkes and Chatham, supported the colonists' stance of "no taxation
without representation."
In 1773, the Boston Tea Party occurred when colonists threw tea into the sea to avoid paying
taxes. The British government responded by closing the port of Boston, prompting the colonists to
boycott British goods. This rebellion led to the American War of Independence, which lasted from
1775 to 1783. The British government underestimated the colonists' political resolve and fighting
ability, resulting in a humiliating defeat and the loss of all territories except Canada.
The war garnered support from British radicals, who backed the colonists' right to self-governance
and resistance against the king. This support for colonial rights strengthened new democratic and
independence ideals. Key radicals included Edmund Burke and Tom Paine. Paine was the first to
advocate for American independence, while Burke, with a mix of radical and conservative views,
argued that the king and his advisors were too powerful and that Parliament needed to regain
control of policy.
Ireland
James II's defeat by William of Orange in 1690 had lasting negative effects on the Irish people.
Over the next fifty years, the Protestant parliament in Dublin passed laws excluding Catholics from
participating in national life. Catholics were barred from becoming members of parliament, voting,
becoming lawyers, attending university, joining the navy, or holding public office. They couldn't
own horses worth more than £5, and Catholic schools were forbidden, making it impossible for
Catholics to educate their children according to their faith. This effectively made Catholics second-
class citizens in their own country.
New laws also divided Catholic families, allowing a son who converted to Protestantism to take
over his parents' property. These measures placed Irish Catholics in a similar position to other
colonized peoples. This created inevitable hatred between the ruling Protestant settlers and the
subjugated Catholic Irish.
By the 1770s, some of the harshest laws against Catholics were repealed, but many, particularly in
Ulster, remained opposed to granting Catholics more freedom. In 1801, to increase British control,
Ireland was united with Britain, and the Dublin parliament was closed, forming the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Although politicians had promised equal voting rights for
Catholics, George III, with the support of most Tories and many Protestant Irish landlords,
prevented this from happening.
Scotland
Scotland experienced significant turmoil due to the efforts of the Stuarts to reclaim the throne.
The first Jacobite revolt in 1715, aimed at restoring James II's son, was unsuccessful. The Stuarts
tried again in 1745 with James II's grandson, Prince Charles Edward Stuart, known as "Bonny
Prince Charlie." He landed on the west coast of Scotland and managed to persuade some clan
chiefs to join his cause. However, many chiefs struggled to convince their clansmen to fight, with
threats of burning their homes if they refused. Most clans and the Scottish Lowlands did not
support the rebellion.
Bonny Prince Charlie initially had unexpected success. His Highland army captured Edinburgh and
defeated an English army in a surprise attack, then marched south. Panic spread in England, as
much of the British army was in Europe fighting the French. However, Bonny Prince Charlie's
success hinged on English support, which did not materialize. When the Highland army was
halfway to London, it became clear that few Englishmen would join, and the Highlanders were
reluctant to be far from home. The rebels retreated to Scotland and were defeated by the British
army at Culloden near Inverness in early 1746, ending the rebellion.
The British army responded with brutality, killing many Highlanders, including those not involved
in the rebellion, and sending others to work in America. Their homes and livestock were
destroyed. The fear of the Highland threat led to laws banning traditional Highland attire, such as
the kilt, as well as tartans and bagpipes. Some Highlanders defied these laws and were shot.
Town Life
In 1700, England and Wales had a population of about 5.5 million, which grew slowly until 1750
and then rapidly to about 8.8 million by the end of the century. Including Ireland and Scotland, the
total population was around 13 million. England was predominantly rural, with emerging urban
centers in the North and West Midlands. By mid-century, cities like Liverpool, Manchester,
Birmingham, Sheffield, and Leeds were significant but lacked parliamentary representation, as
they were still considered villages.
Towns were unhygienic, lacking drainage systems, with streets used as open sewers and garbage
dumps. The poor living conditions led to high mortality rates, especially among children, with only
one in four in London surviving to adulthood. The poor often turned to alcohol and gambling for
comfort, prompting Quakers to promote beer over gin to mitigate the harmful effects of excessive
drinking.
Efforts to improve urban health began in the 18th century, with wider streets and street lighting
systems introduced in London by 1734. Post-1760, many towns sought parliamentary approval to
tax residents for social services like street cleaning and lighting. Local councils, which included
Catholics, Jews, and Nonconformists, began organizing these services, bringing together
merchants and industrial leaders to form a new administrative class.
By the late 18th century, London's cleanliness and amenities made it the envy of Europe. The
famed literary figure Samuel Johnson remarked, "When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life.
For there is in London all that life can afford."
Eighteenth-century town populations comprised four main classes: wealthy merchants, ordinary
merchants and traders, skilled craftsmen, and unskilled workers who faced job insecurity.
The rich
In 18th century Britain, social conditions were better than in other European countries. British
aristocrats had less power over the poor compared to their European counterparts. Notably, an
English lord was executed for killing his servant in 1760, an event that would have been unlikely
elsewhere in Europe. Foreigners admired the English legal system for its perceived fairness.
Social mobility was noticeable in Britain, where individuals could ascend or descend the social
ladder with relative ease. In London, a person dressed as a gentleman would be treated as one,
and distinctions between the aristocracy, gentry, and middle class were less pronounced, with
these groups often mingling freely.
Despite this fluidity, the gap between rich and poor was substantial. For instance, the Duke of
Newcastle had an annual income of £100,000, while his workers earned about £15 a year. The
gentry led comfortable but often monotonous lives, engaging in hunting, riding, and estate
improvements. These improvements included rebuilding houses in classical styles and creating
landscaped gardens. Some gentry developed a passion for collecting exotic plants.
Women’s lives were more restricted, primarily involving social visits to London for dances and
parties during winter. They were not involved in serious matters, as societal norms considered
them akin to "children of larger growth."
Spa towns like Bath became fashionable health retreats and social hubs for high society. Bath
remains a prime example of an 18th-century English city. In Scotland, Edinburgh's "New Town,"
designed by Robert Adam, also epitomized the sophistication of British life in the 18th century.
The countrylife
The cultural life in 18th century Edinburgh sharply contrasted with the Scottish Highlands, where
traditional attire like kilts and tartans were banned after 1746. By the time the ban was lifted in
1782, these items had become ceremonial rather than everyday wear.
Economically, the Highlands suffered as clan chiefs began replacing people with sheep to profit
from the wool trade. This led to the "clearances," displacing many Highlanders who ended up in
poverty or emigrated to places like Canada and Australia. This marked the end of traditional
Highland clan society.
In England, the countryside saw significant changes with the enclosure movement, which
transformed communal lands into privately owned, enclosed fields. This change was driven by
wealthy landowners seeking to invest in profitable agricultural improvements, leading to more
efficient farming practices and increased food production. Innovations like Jethro Tull's seed drill
and the introduction of root crops from Holland improved agricultural productivity.
The enclosures, however, had negative social impacts. Many villagers were displaced, leading to
an increase in landless poor who often relied on poor relief systems like the Speenhamland Act.
This act, intended to supplement low wages, inadvertently kept wages low and increased the
population by encouraging larger families. Many displaced individuals moved to towns, fueling the
labor force needed for the Industrial Revolution.
Overall, while agricultural advancements improved productivity and food availability, they also
disrupted traditional rural life and contributed to social inequality and displacement.
Family life
In the 18th century, family life in Britain began to change significantly, with families expressing
affection more openly. Children started being seen as distinct individuals with unique needs, and
there was a growing emphasis on gentleness in their upbringing. Handbooks advised against harsh
punishment, promoting praise and affection instead.
Girls, however, were still subjected to societal pressures to conform to ideals of feminine beauty,
often at the expense of their health. Despite these changes, parents still often arranged marriages
for their children, though they increasingly sought their children's opinions. Marriages based on
love and companionship became more accepted.
The era also saw a rise in individualism, partly due to improved life expectancy from better diets
and hygiene. There was a growing belief that cruelty to humans or animals was wrong, and this
influenced efforts to end slavery and improve factory conditions. This individualism manifested in
a desire for privacy, leading families to restructure homes to provide private bedrooms and reduce
servants' presence.
Britain's middle class, economically and politically strong, led in individualism, crucial for trade and
industrial success. Nonconformists, often successful in trade and industry, valued hard work and
individualism, though this sometimes meant sending sons to boarding schools, fostering
independence but also emotional detachment.
For poorer families, life was harsh. The Speenhamland Act, intended to support low-wage workers,
was not universally practiced, and many families ended up in parish workhouses. Child labor
increased, with workhouse children expected to work from a young age due to their cheapness
and ease of discipline. However, by the end of the century, the use of child labor began to be
viewed as shameful, spurred by a growing aversion to cruelty and the visibility of harsh working
conditions in factories. This shift laid the groundwork for social reforms in the 19th century aimed
at improving children's welfare.
Industrial revolution
The Industrial Revolution in Britain was fueled by several factors: available capital, labor, increased
demand for goods, new power sources, and improved transport. Wealthy families and merchant
banks funded industrial growth. Enclosures pushed landless people into towns, creating a labor
force and new consumers.
Simple machines and the division of labor enabled mass production. The key breakthrough was
using coal to produce high-quality iron and steel, positioning Britain as a leading producer.
Innovators like John Wilkinson advanced ironworks, and James Watt's improved steam engine
expanded its use beyond pumping to driving machinery.
The textile industry saw significant innovations, with machines like the spinning machine and
power loom revolutionizing production. This shift from cottage industries to factories led to job
displacement but boosted production. The pottery industry also grew, with high-quality china like
Josiah Wedgwood's becoming popular.
Improved transport, through new canals and better roads, reduced costs and connected towns
more efficiently. Britain's ability to transport goods quickly and cheaply underpinned the economic
success of the Industrial Revolution.
Socially, the revolution had profound impacts. Workers sought to protect themselves through
societies, but the government banned these, fearing unrest. Unemployed rioters, like the Luddites,
destroyed machinery, leading to harsh government crackdowns to maintain order and support
factory owners.
Society and religión
In the late 18th century, Britain avoided revolution partly due to a new religious movement led by
John Wesley. Wesley, an Anglican priest, founded Methodism, a personal and emotional form of
religion that met the needs of the growing industrial working class, unlike the Church of England,
which was slow to address these changes. Methodism organized small groups or chapels,
especially in industrial areas, and provided ordinary people with a sense of purpose and dignity. By
the end of the century, there were over 360 Methodist chapels, which were more democratic than
the Anglican Church.
John Wesley traveled extensively, preaching and teaching, and his movement emphasized hard
work and honesty while avoiding political radicalism. This conservative approach led people to
accept many societal injustices, which may have prevented a revolution. The Methodist
movement, along with other Christian groups, was part of an "evangelical revival" that focused on
social issues. Notably, Quakers like Elizabeth Fry worked on prison reform, and Christians led the
movement against the slave trade, achieving significant legal victories by 1807 and 1833.
Additionally, Christians advocated for labor reforms, resulting in the first Factory Act of 1802 and
further regulations in 1819 to limit child labor. Although not always enforced, these Acts marked
early government efforts to protect vulnerable populations. The influence of these religious
movements persisted into the next century, shaping trade unionism and the labor movement in
Britain.
Revolution in France and the Napoleonic Wars
The French Revolution of 1789, driven by the middle class leading peasants and urban workers,
posed a significant threat to monarchies across Europe. In Britain, the bourgeoisie and gentry,
having consolidated power in the 17th century, were wary of the revolution's radical ideas and the
potential for similar uprisings, particularly in the countryside and growing towns. Several British
radicals supported the French revolutionaries, leading to a split within the Whig Party and the
formation of the Corresponding Society, the first working-class political organization, which the
government soon suppressed.
The British government, fearing the spread of revolutionary ideas, imprisoned radical leaders and
established army camps to isolate soldiers from the public. This was complemented by creating
"yeomanry" forces from loyal gentry and yeomen, ostensibly to defend against French invasion
but more likely to quell domestic unrest.
Britain eventually declared war on France in 1793 after France invaded the Low Countries. Unlike
other European nations, Britain relied on its naval strength, with Admiral Horatio Nelson securing
crucial victories against the French navy, most notably at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.
Concurrently, the British army, under commanders like Wellington, fought on land, particularly in
the Iberian Peninsula. Wellington's success against French forces culminated in Napoleon's
surrender in 1814, though Napoleon briefly returned to power before being decisively defeated at
the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
