Biological Bases of Behavior 81

Cognition 69

Development and Learning 79

Social Psychology and

67
Personality

Explain how health psychology addresses

issues of physical health and wellness as
they apply to behavior and mental
processes.

Stress is a factor in heightened

susceptibility to disorders and disease.
Stress has been linked to physiological
issues such as hypertension, headaches,
and immune suppression.
stress
Stressors can be viewed as motivating
(eustress) or debilitating (distress).
Stressors can be experienced as traumatic
or as daily hassles that can build up over
time. Adverse childhood experiences
(ACEs) are sources of stress that can affect
a person throughout the lifespan.

The general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

describes the process of experiencing
stress. Initially, alarm reaction occurs when
Introduction to Health Psychology
the stress is encountered. Then, a
resistance phase occurs as the stress is
confronted (via a fight-flight-freeze
response). Finally, an exhaustion phase
occurs when the stress subsides, or
resources are spent. The greatest
reactions to stress susceptibility to illness occurs during the
exhaustion phase.
The tend-and-befriend theory proposes
that some people react to stress by
tending to their own needs and/or the
needs of others and seeking connection
with others. This phenomenon seems to
occur mostly in women.

Problem-focused coping involves seeing

stress as a problem to be solved and
working solutions until a solution is found.

cope with stress Emotion-focused coping involves

managing emotional reactions to stress as
a means of coping. Strategies that are
emotion-focused may include deep
breathing, meditation, or taking
medication aimed at reducing stressful
emotional responses.

Positive psychology seeks to identify

factors that lead to well-being, resilience,
positive psychology
positive emotions, and psychological
health.

Expressing gratitude, a positive subjective

experience, increases subjective well-being.
Positive Psychology
People who exercise their signature
strengths or virtues report higher levels of
positive objective experiences such as
happiness
positive subjective experiences and subjective well-being. A classification
of character strengths has been developed
around 6 categories of virtues: wisdom,
courage, humanity, justice, temperance,
and transcendence.

Posttraumatic growth, a positive subjective

experience, may result after the experience
of trauma or stress.

Level of dysfunction, perception of distress,

and deviation from the social norm are all
factors used to identify psychological
disorders.

Diagnosing or classifying psychological

disorders has positive and negative
consequences depending on the nature of
the disorder, the individual being
approaches used to define behaviors and diagnosed, and the presence of
mental processes as psychological cultural/societal norms, stigma, racism,
disorders. sexism, ageism, and discrimination.

Diagnosing psychological disorders

requires specialized training and the use of
evidence- based diagnostic tools. The
AP Psychology American Psychiatric Association
developed the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual (DSM) of Mental Disorders to
classify mental disorders. The World Health
Organization developed the International
Classification of Mental Disorders (ICD) to
classify mental disorders. These
classification systems are updated
regularly to be responsive to new research
and practice advances.
Most psychologists employ an eclectic
approach (using more than one
psychological perspective) when
diagnosing and treating clients.

The behavioral perspective proposes that

the causes of mental disorders focus on
maladaptive learned associations between
or among responses to stimuli.

The psychodynamic perspective proposes

that the causes of mental disorders focus
on unconscious thoughts and experiences,
Explaining and Classifying Psychological often developed during childhood.
Disorders
The humanistic perspective proposes that
the causes of mental disorders focus on a
lack of social support and being unable to
how psychological perspectives define fulfill one’s potential.
psychological disorders
The cognitive perspective proposes that
the causes of mental disorders focus on
maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or
emotions.

The evolutionary perspective proposes that

the causes of mental disorders focus on
behaviors and mental processes that
reduce the likelihood of survival.

The sociocultural perspective proposes

that the causes of mental disorders focus
on maladaptive social and cultural
relationships and dynamics.

The biological perspective proposes that

the causes of mental disorders focus on
physiological or genetic issues.

The biopsychosocial model assumes that

any psychological problem potentially
involves a combination of biological,
psychological, and sociocultural factors.
how interaction models define
psychological disorders. The diathesis-stress model assumes that
psychological disorders develop due to a
genetic vulnerability (diathesis) in
combination with stressful life experiences
(stress).

Neurodevelopmental disorders are a

group of disorders with onset occurring
during the developmental period.
Symptoms of neurodevelopmental attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder
disorders focus on whether the person is (ADHD)
exhibiting behaviors appropriate for their
age or maturity range. autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Selected disorders in scope for AP
Psychology in this category are attention-
neurodevelopmental disorders
deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and
autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
Possible causes of neurodevelopmental
disorders may be environmental,
physiological, or genetic in nature.

Delusions (false beliefs) are positive

symptoms and may manifest in ways such
as delusions of persecution or grandeur.

Hallucinations (false perceptions) are

positive symptoms and may involve one or
more of the senses

Schizophrenic spectrum disorders are Disorganized thinking or speech is a

characterized by issues in one or more of positive symptom and may manifest as
these five areas: delusions, hallucinations, speaking in ways such as speaking in a
disorganized thinking or speech, word salad (stringing together words in
disorganized motor behavior, and negative nonsensical ways).
symptoms. Schizophrenia can be
Disorganized motor behavior may
experienced as an acute or chronic
manifest as catatonia. Catatonia, or
condition.
disordered movement, may be
experienced as excitement (a positive
symptom manifestation) or stupor (a
negative symptom manifestation).
schizophrenic spectrum disorders
Negative symptoms present as the lack
of a typical behavior, such as the lack of
emotional expression (flat affect) or lack of
movement (catatonic stupor).

Possible causes of schizophrenia suggest a

genetic or biological link, such as prenatal
virus exposure or imbalances with certain
neurotransmitters (dopamine hypothesis).
Mental and Physical Health
Depressive disorders are characterized by
the presence of sad, empty, or irritable major depressive disorder
mood along with physical and cognitive
changes that affect a person’s ability to persistent depressive disorder
depressive disorders function.

Possible causes of depressive disorders

focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural,
behavioral, or cognitive sources.

Bipolar disorders are characterized by

periods of mania and periods of Bipolar I disorder
depression. Bipolar cycling involves
experiencing periods of depression and
Bipolar II disorder
mania in alternating periods that can last
bipolar disorders various amounts of time.

Possible causes of bipolar disorders focus

on biological, genetic, social, cultural,
behavioral, or cognitive sources.

Specific phobia involves fear or anxiety

toward a specific object or situation, such
as acrophobia (heights) or arachnophobia
(spiders).

Agoraphobia is intense fear of specific

social situations, including using public
transportation, being in open spaces,
being in enclosed spaces (e.g., shops,
theaters, etc.), standing in line or being in a
crowd, or being outside of the home alone.

Panic disorder involves the experience

of panic attacks (unanticipated and
overwhelming biological, cognitive, and
emotional experiences of fear/anxiety).
Anxiety disorders are characterized by
Panic disorder can manifest as a culture-
excessive fear and/or anxiety with related
bound anxiety disorder such as ataque de
disturbances to behavior.
Selection of Categories of Psychological nervios (experienced mainly by people of
Disorders Caribbean or Iberian descent)

Social anxiety disorder involves the intense

fear of being judged or watched by others.
Social anxiety disorder is distinct from but
may include agoraphobia. Taijin kyofusho
is a culture-bound anxiety disorder
experienced mainly by Japanese people in
anxiety disorders which people fear others are judging their
bodies as undesirable, offensive, or
unpleasing.

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

involves prolonged experiences of
nonspecific anxiety or fear.

Possible causes of anxiety disorders focus

on learned associations between and
among stimuli, maladaptive thinking or
emotional responses, and biological or
genetic sources.

Obsessive-compulsive and related

disorders are characterized by the obsessive-compulsive disorder
presence of obsessions (intrusive thoughts)
and compulsions (intrusive, often
hoarding disorder
repetitive, behaviors intended to address
obsessive-compulsive disorders and obsessions).
related disorders
Possible causes of obsessive-compulsive
disorders involve learned associations
between and among stimuli, maladaptive
thinking or emotional responses, and
biological or genetic sources.

Dissociative disorders are characterized by dissociative amnesia (with and without

dissociations from consciousness, memory, fugue)
identity, emotion, perception, body
representation, motor control, and dissociative identity disorder
dissociative disorders behavior.

Possible causes of dissociative disorders

involve the experience of trauma or stress.

Trauma and stressor-related disorders are

characterized by exposure to a traumatic
or stressful event with subsequent
psychological distress. Symptoms of
trauma and stressor- related disorders may posttraumatic stress disorder
involve hypervigilance, severe anxiety,
flashbacks to traumatic or stressful
trauma and stressor-related disorders experiences, insomnia, emotional
detachment, and hostility.

Possible causes of trauma and stressor-

related disorders involve the experience of
trauma or stress.

Feeding and eating disorders are anorexia nervosa

characterized by altered consumption or
absorption of food that impairs health or
bulimia nervosa
psychological functioning.
feeding and eating disorders
Possible causes of feeding and eating
disorders focus on biological, genetic,
social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive
sources.

Cluster A is the odd or eccentric cluster

and includes paranoid, schizoid, and
Personality disorders (which fall into three schizotypal personality disorders.
clusters) are characterized by enduring
patterns of internal experience and Cluster B is the dramatic, emotional, or
behavior that is deviant from one’s culture; erratic cluster and includes antisocial,
is pervasive and inflexible; begins in histrionic, narcissistic, and borderline
adolescence or early adulthood; is stable personality disorders.
over time; and leads to personal distress or
Cluster C is the anxious or fearful cluster
impairment.
personality disorders and includes avoidant, dependent,
and obsessive-compulsive personality
disorders.

Possible causes of personality disorders

focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural,
behavioral, or cognitive sources.

Many researchers who have conducted

meta- analytic studies of psychotherapy
conclude that psychotherapies are
generally effective. Many psychologists use
evidence-based interventions to develop
treatment plans. Therapists should exhibit
cultural humility and establish a
therapeutic alliance with the client to
research and trends deliver therapy successfully.

Due to the increased use and effectiveness

of psychotropic medication therapy,
hospitals and asylums deinstitutionalized
massive numbers of people in the late
20th century. Therapists now prefer to
treat in decentralized ways,
often with a combination of medication
and psychological therapies.

Psychologists in clinical or therapeutic

situations must follow certain ethical
ethical principles principles as established by the APA,
including nonmaleficence, fidelity,
integrity, and respect for people’s rights
and dignity.

Psychodynamic therapies employ free

association and dream interpretation to
uncover the unconscious mind.

Cognitive therapies may employ cognitive

restructuring or fear hierarchies to combat
maladaptive thinking. Cognitive therapy
proposes that people should focus on the
cognitive triad—negative thoughts about
oneself, the world, and the future.

Applied behavior analysis involves

applying principles of conditioning to
address mental disorders and
developmental disabilities. Exposure
therapies (such as systematic
desensitization), aversion therapies, and
techniques used with psychological token economies all employ principles of
therapies applied behavior analysis. Biofeedback
Treatment of Psychological Disorders uses principles of conditioning to help
clients regulate
body systems (such as the sympathetic
and parasympathetic nervous systems)
that contribute to feelings of anxiety or
depression.
Cognitive-behavioral therapies, such as
dialectical behavior therapy and rational-
emotive behavior therapy, combine
techniques from the cognitive and
behavioral perspectives to treat mental
and behavioral disorders.

Therapy from the humanistic perspective,

commonly referred to as person-centered
therapy, employs active listening and
unconditional positive regard.

Explain how group therapy is different

from individual therapy.

Hypnosis has shown effectiveness in

treating pain and anxiety. Research does
Describe effective uses of hypnosis.
not support the use of hypnosis to retrieve
accurate memories or regress in age.

Psychoactive medications, such as

antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium,
or antipsychotic medications, interact with
specific neurotransmitters in the central
nervous system to address possible
biochemical causes of mental disorders.
Psychoactive medications can have side
effects such as tardive dyskinesia (a
movement disorder related to the
interventions derived from the biological regulation of dopamine in the nervous
perspective. system).
Surgical or invasive interventions include
psychosurgery (which may involve
lesioning), TMS (transcranial magnetic
stimulation), or electroconvulsive therapy.
The lobotomy is a form of psychosurgery
that was popular in the mid-20th century
but is rarely, if ever, performed today.