ST A T IST IC A L A C C O U N T

OF
M A N IPU R

R. BROWN

SANSKARAN PRAKASHAK.
DELHI
F irst P u b lish e d 1874

Heprinted 1975
P u b l is h e d b y ^
K.M. Mittal
Sanskaran Prakashak
b5-F, Anand Nagar.
DELHI-110033 (India.
P rin te d a t :
Delux OlFsei Printers
Delhi-110035
 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT

OP THE

NATIVE STATE OF MANIPUR,

akl

THE HILL TERRITORY UNDER ITS RULE.

R. BROWN, F.R.C.S.E.

1873

CALCUTTA :
U F U C E O f T H E SU PER LN TEN D EN T OF GOVERNM ENT PR1N T1N 6
1674.
 CONTENTS

Area
Population
Description of capital
Scenery in the valley
General appearence of the valley
Report on geology
Hills and mountains
Hill ranges, their direction, height
Extent of hill country
Forest and vegetations
Rivers in the valley
Names o f rivers 6
Rivers in hill territory 6
The Jiri river 6
Mukru river ^
Barak river 7
Lengba 7
Erung river 8
Limaiak river 8
Logtak lake 8
Other sheets of water 8
Fisheries 8
Fish 8
Mineral productions 9
Iron ore 9
Gold 9
Limestone 9
Coal 9
Sail 9
Wild animals 10
Tiger '0
Mode o f capturing tigers lO
Deer 11
Wild Fowl 11
Elephant •1
Tigers >I
Leopards 1I
Wild eats 11
Bears 11
Deer II
Wild goat 11
Wild pig 11
Porcupine 11
Wild buffalo 11
Wild methna or hill cow 11
Rhinoceros 11
Flying Lemurs 11
Mole or Mole rat 11
Rat 12
Otter 12
Monkeys 12
Snakes 12
Reptiles- in the valley 12
Honey bee 12
Phoongnai 13
Poisungba 14
Ayokpa 14
Kei 14
Loee 14
Moyangs 14
Musalman or Meithei Pangal 15
Other foreigners I5
The inhabitants of Manipur hill territory , 15
GeneraJ location of the hill tribes 15
Facial & other characteristics of the Naga and Kuki 16
Origin of the hill tribes generally 16
General distinction between the tribes of Naga, Kuki & Maring 16
Cultivation in the hill as applied to the tribes generally I7
Crops raised by the hill-men 18
Cotton IX
Trades and manulacturcs among the hill population 19
Diet of the hill-rr:en generally 19
Use of spirits, mode of manufacture &c. 19
Use ol tobacco by the hill population 19
Health of the hill-men 20
Weapons in use among the hill tribes 20
Relations of the sexes, marriage, polygamy &c. 21
Religion and belief in a future slate 21
Habits of cleanliness 21
Crime among the hill population 21
The hill tribes individually 22
Names of the Naga tribes 22
The Kowpoi Tribe of Nagas 22
Location, Origin, Number &c. of the Kowpoi tribe 22
Facial and other characteristics, dress, mode of wearing
hair, &c. 22
Villages, their sites, construction, village customs &c, 23
On the subject of village government 24
Marriage system, &c 25
Customs at burial 26
Arms, mode of fighting, &c. 27
Religion and religious observations 27
Festivals, games, amusements &c. 28
Dances Flan-sengay, Tinanga lamna, Hcngnaga Tuna,
Tinkum Queina Tanaga lamav, Quanlam 30
Cultivation 30
Hunting and fishing 30
Slavery and lallup 30
Use of tobacco, spirits &c. 31
Trade and occupations 31
Crime ' 31
The Kolya tribes of the Nagas 31
The Angami or Guamai tribe 32
Location, numbers, origin &c. 33
Facial and other characterisiic?. dress &c 33
Villages, their,construction, government. &c. 34
Roads, water, &c. 34
Customs at birth, marriage and death 34
Arms, mode of fighting feuds Ac. 35
Religion and religious observations, superstitions. 36
Festivals, games, amusements. Ac. • 36
Cultivation 36
Use of tobacco, &c. 36
Hunting, fishing &c. 36
Slavery 36
Health 37
Trade and manufactures 37
Crime 37
The Tonfchul and Luhapa tnbes 37
Sub-divisions of the tribes 37
Origin 37
Present numbers, country occupied by them, &c. 37
Facial and other characteristics, dress, ornaments &c. 38
Villages, their site, construction and government 39
Customs at birth, marriage and death 39
Arms and modes of fighting, &c. 41
Religion, and religious observance, superstittions, &c. 41
Festivals, games, amusements. &c. 42
Cultivation 42
Hunting, fishing, &c. 42
Slavery 42
Sickness 42
Diet, use of spirits, tobacco, &c. 42
Trade, &c. 43
Crime, &c. 43
The Jatik tribe of Nagas 43
Murring tribe of hill men 43
Origin of the Murring tribe 44
Present number 44
Facial and other characteristics, dress, mode of wearing hair 44
Villages; their construction, government &c. 45
Customs at birth, marriage, death 45
Festivals game- souges &c. 45
Arms, mode of fighting, &c. 45
Religion &c. 45
Festivals, games, songs, &c. 46
Cultivation, deit, &c 46
Hunting and fishing 46
Other customs 47
Slavery 47
Diseases 47
u se of tobacco, spirits, &c. 47
Trade 47
Crime 47
The Kukis and other tribes 47
The Khongjai tribe of Kukis 47
Names and sub-divisions of the Khangjai tribes 48
Origin of the tribe 48
Present number, &c. 48
Location of the tribe 48
Facial and other characteristics, dress, mode of wearing hair 48
Villages, where situated, constuction, &c. 49
Village government, customs, &c. 49
Customs on birth, marriage and death 50
Arms, mode of fighting, feuds, &c. 51
Religion, &c. 51
Festivals, music and musical instruments, &c. 51
Cultivation. &c. 52
Hunting & fishing 52
Slavery-lallups 52
Sickness 52
Use of tobacco and spirits 52
Trade and occupations 53
Crime 53
 XI

The Kom tribe of Kukis 53

Origin of the Kom tribe 53
Numbers, &c. 53
Facial and other characterstics, dressornairents, &c. 53
Villages 54
Customs at birth, marriage, and death 54
Arms, mode of fighting, Ac. 54
Religion, &c. 55
Songs, dances, &c. 55
Cultivation 55
Hunting, fishing 55
Slavery, sickness, use of tobacco, trade,crime 55
The Chiru Kukis 55
Anal Namfow Kukis 55
Hill men belonging to the Loi population 56
Origin of the Manipuris 57
Physical charcteristics of the Manipuris 57
Personal habits, &c. 57
Older traditions and history 58
Reign of Raja Pakungba 59
Pamheiba or Gharib Newaz 59
Religion of the Manipuris 75
Houses of the Manipuris 76
Social position of women, &c. 76
Marriage customs 76
Polygamy 77
Adultery 77
Early marriages 77
Hair, how worn by men 77
Women’s hair, how worn 77
Dress of the men 78
Dress of the women 78
Ornaments 78
Manners, customs, &c. 78
Diet of the Manipuris 79
Cost of living 79
Use of tobacco, betelnut, &c. 79
Games and amusements 79
Indoor games 80
Festivals or games 81
Lunchel 81
Wrestling 82
Heeyang or boat races 82
Hockey matches after the boat race 82
Howhongba 83
Lallup or forced labour 83
 Ml
J/-5
Cultivation
Domestic animals
Breed of ponies X4
Breed of cattle 85
Domestic animals kepi by hill-men
Area of land fit for cultivation
System of land-holding
Grants of land given to favourites. &c *^5
Proportion of land cultivated by direct system
Tax in kind upon land cultivated
Cultivation extending or otherwise
Mode of land cultivation
Revenue of the country 88
Taxes on imports and exports 88
Currency and coin of the country 89
Manufactures 89
Clothes 89
Leather 89
Cooking pots 89
Pottery 89
Jewellery 89
Iron and steel
Carpemry 90
Turning. &c.
Dyeing 90
Kine Arts 90
Silk Culture 90
Ba/ars and market places 90
Curious custom in the large bazar 91
Slavery in Manipur 91
Its forms 91
Courts 92
Village panchayats 92
Punishment for offences 92
Jail 93
Cattle wounding 93
Education 93
Written character of the Manipuri language 94
Climate. Jte. 94
Temperature 94
Logs in the cold weather 94
Rainfall 94
Thunderstorm. &e. 94
Prevailing winds 95
Earthquakes 95
Roads 97
 ST A TISTIC A L ACCOUNT
OF

MANIPUR,
AN D

THE HILL TERRITORY UNDER ITS RULE.

T he territory whieli constitutes tlie native states of Manipur consists of a

large extent of hill country and of the valley proper of Manipur.
Its boundaries on the north a^e the Angami country and the hills
overlooking the valley of Assam ; on the south the boundary is undefined,
aud abuts on the country in h ab it^ by the various tribes of Lushai, Kukis,
and Sutis; on the west, the British Province of Kachar; and on the east,
by the K uIhj Valley and part of Upper Burmab. I t lies within latitude
24.° 30' and 25° CO' north, and longitude 93° 10' and 94° 50' east.
Jrea.—'The total area of the territory is between 7 and 8,000 square
miles, and that of the valley proper about 650 square miles. As the country
has never been surveyed and mapped, the area stated above is merely approxi­
mate, and represents the size of territory as nearly as possible.
The valley proper of Manipur is situated almost in the centre of the
large tract of mountain country extending between Assam, Kachar, Burmafa,
and Chittagong.
Population,—^The population of the valley of Manipur and that of the
surrounding hills are estimated to be about 74,000 hillmen and 05,000
Manipuris, total 139,000 souls.
No changes of parganas have taken place; but some disputes regarding
the boundaries on the north, i. between Naga Hills District and Manipur,
and on the east between Bnrmah and ManipUr, have arisen. These bounda­
ries will be definitely settled during the eusuing cold season.
The largest tract of country under the Manipur rule is that situated in
the hills, and inhabited by various tribes, divided, however, into the two
great sections of Nagas and Kukis.
In 1835 the British Government, for the preservation of a friendly
intercourse, and as a medium of comL anicatious with the Manipur Govern­
ment, and, as occasions might require, with the Burmese authorities on that
frontier, and more especially to prevent border feuds aud disturbances, which
might lead to hostilities between the’ Manipuris and the Burmese, deemed
it necessary to retain an oflBcer in the character of Political Agent at
Manipnr. In 1851 the future relations with the state of Manipur of the
British Government was declared, and a public avowal of the determination of
Government to uphold the present raja, and to resist and punish promptly
any parties attempting hereafter to dispossess him, was made. In 1861 Gov­
ernment contemplated to withdraw the Agent from Manipur, but on a recon­
sideration of the arguments for his retention was not carried into effect.
 ( * )
Detetipiion o f CtpiAiL—The sadt siAtion or capital is called by the
Manipnris impbal, wUeh simply means a large collection of house; in it
resides the raja and the chief officials, the political agent, &e. This
village, for it is nothing more, covers a extent of ground, and contains
a population estimated at 35,000. The houses are constructed of wood and
bamboo ; some of them, however, esp^ially ivithin the enclosure where the
raja resides, are of l a i ^ size and height. O f brick buildings there arc
very few, and comprise the raja’s powder magazine, a gateway, a curious
pair of symmetrical buildings forming part of the sides of the road leading
through the centre of the raja’s enclosure, and of the object of which no
account can be given, and a few Hindu muts scattered here and there
throughout the capital.
The name " Manipur” is thus accounted for by the Manipnris, who quote
the Mahabharut in confirmation of its accuracy: they say—The name is
from mani, a jewel; this jewel was formerly in the possession of the rajas
of the country ages ago. The country was at one time named Mahendrapur,
or Mahendrapahar (name of a Sigh bill situated but a short distance to the
east of the capital), but on a raja, by name Babra Bahfi, coming into pos­
session of the jewel, which formerly belonged to a Nag Raja, or Serpent
King, and the gadi, he changed the name to Manipur. The name for the
Manipur Valley, recognized amongst the Manipuris themselves, is “ Maithi
laipak,” or the country of the M aithis: this name is not used out of the
country . The Burmese call it Katha, Assamese Mikli, Bengalese Moglai, a
corruption of Mikli.
Tlic Imphal (town) and its suburbs arc divided into four sections, viz.,
Khoai, Khurai, Odngkhai, and Jaskul. Each of these sections has its own
thdnd, and again each thdnd has its three hidels or parganas, all of which
are subject to the orders of the officer in charge of the sections.
The number of houses in section Khodi are 2,267, Khurai 649, Odngkbai
703, and Jaskul 2,118, in all 5,737. Allowing on the average pf five per­
sons to each house, the population will be 28,685.
The following list will show the different castes occupying the 5,787
bouses ennmeraM above:—
Bouse. Fopobb'on.
Hrahmana 308 1,640
Ganaks 31 156
Raja's fuiuly 101 605
Ksaatrias 4256 21,280
Baisyaa 42 210
K a ^ t h s or kyasta 99 495
Sudras 498 2,490
H&ri and chamdrs 97 485
Musahnans 305 1,625

5,737 28,685

Tlio four tbdnds of Uic four sections arc named Thabal, Jarpok, Langpok,
and Seugmei.
Ill Tbabal the hidels or parganas arc called Khekmnl, Subuntongba,
and Lakshm in^ar.
The houses in Klickmul arc calculated 539, Subuntongba 243, anil
L a k sb n iiu ^ r 338, toUil 1,120.
Tlic hidels or parganas in Jarpok Thdnd are Atbokpum, Jarpok, and
Kekni.
There arc 373 houses in Ailiokpiun, 305 in Jarpok, and 345 in Kekru,
total 1,023.
 ( 3 )
In tiling Langiiok the kidels are Langpok, Haiuui>okj and Oonam.
In Laogpok the houses are calculated to be 4)5, iu Haiuupok 205, and
in Oonam 141, total 821.
In tMo5 Sengmei the hidels are named Scngmci, Lanka, and Kh5nii
Chaubah.
There are 439 bonses in Sengmei, 309 in Lanku, and 291 in Kbfind
Chaubah, total 1,089.
O f the different castes inhabiting the above houses, the Manipur
authorities have no reliable information.
In addition to the above, there are the following Police Tkiuas for the
protection of the country:—
On the North-East „ Su O n the South-Weet ». Moirang.
„ North „ South ... Sognnu.
„ North-West South-Sast »■ Pulenz.
„ West „ East — Sektah and Chandrskong.
Scenery in the Valley.—The scenery in the valley is very uninteresting
and monotonous,' rice-fields, swamps, small muddy rivers, bamboo clumps,
barren'bills of low elevation, common-looking villages,—these are the principal
features met w ith : the presence of the varying outline of the hills
surrounding the valley, however, relieves all this, and redeems what would
otherwise be tame and uninteresting.
To the traveller between Kachar and Manipur, the first view of the
valley of Manipur is obtained from the eastern slope of the Limatol Rauge
of hills, nearly 2,500 feet above the plain below. I t is striking and
peculiar; immediately on crossing the ridge the tree jungle disappears, and
the eastern slope of the hill range i.s iusre and covered with grass; scarcely
a tree is to be seen, save in the rai ine« which occur at intervals along the
range.
General appearance o f the FaUey.—Looking down on the valley, the
object which first prominently preseute itself is the Logtak Lake, lying in
front, and to the right with the low hare hills which skirt it reflected on its
surface. In the cold weather, when all vegetation is comparatively dried up,
the general aspect of the valley from above is not inviting; it looks barren
and bleak. To the south of the Logtak Lake up to the boundary of hills
in that direction, the valley is almost entirely uncultivated and covered with
grass jungle, scarcely a tree lieing visible. To the north and east villages
are seen, and in the distance, to the north, in a corner under the hills, lies
the capital ;.here the country is well wood^ and more densely populated than
in any other part. Towards the east, the view is bounded by tlie Hirok
range of hills, which divides the valley from that of Kubo and Upper
Burmah. In the valley are several small ranges of hills running in various
directions, nearly all bare of trees and c o v ert with scanty crops of grass.
Several rivers from the north and west are seen entering the Logtlik Lake,
frotn which emerges one river, which, uniting with others, flows from the
valley to the south.
The general shape of the valley is that of an irregular oval; its length
is about 36 miles, and greatest breadth about 20.
The highest ground is towards the north, where the capital is situated,
the lowest at the Logtdk Lake, and near it, towards the south and south­
west, the ground again rises. The general conformation of the valley is
th a t of a shallow saucer, the lowest part of which is the Logtak Lake.
I Report OH Geology.^Onr knowledge of the geology of the country
has not been in the least improved. The univci-sal prevalence of dense
 ( 4 )

and impervious forests, extciidiug from the suniTniis of the mountains to

their bases, has restricted observation to those portions that have lieen laid
bare by the action of the torrents and to some few of the most conspicuous
peaks and ridges. In that portion of the tract which extends between
Manipur and Kacbar, a light and friable sandstone of a brown colour, and
a red ferruginous clay are found to prevail on the lower heights. On
veaeliing the more lotly elevations, these are succeeded by slate of so soft
and friable a nature as in many instances to be little more than an
indurated clay; it is distinctly stratified in very thin layers, which
generally dip slightly to Itie southward. Petrifactions of the dilTerent
species of woods growing on the borders of the nalahs are very numerous.
Among the central ranges, west of Manipur, limestone has been found
cropping out from the banks of the streams, and it lias since then been
found in the north, south, and cast. The rocks found on (he hills between
Manipur and the Kubo Valley are, on the Manipur side, composed of
dilTerent varieties of sandstone and slate, more or less compact in its
structure. On the Kubo side, hornblende and iron stone are found with
agalmatolite and fuller's earth, which are dug from the ground not far from
Moreh to the extreme south-east of the valley. North of Manipur the
rocks become more solid and compact, and the great central ridge, about
where the Gramei tribe dwells, is composed of hard grey granular slate at
the ridge, having about the base Ixmlders of granite. Tliat coal of an
inferior quality exists in the hills to the north-east of the Manipur Valley
is apparently certain, hut the nature of the deposits or their quality is
unknown. No metals of any kind are found or worked in the hi Is. The
mineral productions of the valley may be mentioned as only two in number,
iron ore and limestone. No metal other than iron has as yet been found
in the valley.
Hills and Mountains.—The following is a list of the hills and mountains
within Manipur Territory j the approximate heights of some of them along
the line of road between Kachar and Manipur are added :—
1. M ukra R ange Elev.ation, l.SOO feet.
2. N ung)aipang..
3. K ala Maga o r Akinalong 3.C00
4. Kumbirong.
5. N ungba ... .» ... 3,450
Soutli-west ... C. Kbulel (Mongjoroiig).
7. Kawnum Range, west of Kawpuni Valley — „ 3,300
8. D itto east of „ 4,700
9. lioanglol-Kholel Limatol.
10. Nungsliai.
11. N garail Lim atah.
. 12. Lumbangtoiig overlooking the M anipur Valley 5,600

1. Kowbru. C. M uram Kholel. 10. Phnbah.

2. Ntingj)how. 7. Mao Range. 11. Kuleab Ching.
N orth 3. Myang-khong. 8. Tangal Hills. 12. Angamei.
4. Sudieiu. 9. K utung Laiya. 13. Kohima.
5. Thiuibab K am ng.

1. M ukok Chiiig. 8. Ngari Mohnig. 15. Chutong Lnmhai.

2. Mapoin Ching. 9. Tiiyboong. 16. H ungdung.
3. M nkeug Ching. 10. Lyi. 17. Ok-khurul.
North-east .- 4. €h>'.oyai Ching. 11. Prowi. 18. H u irin g .
5. Khara.sole t^hing. 12. Tangkhul. 19. N ungbiN unghar.
6. Ly.sul Cliiiig. 13. Lupah. 20. Mukiibang.
7. Kajai Cliiiig. 14 M upithel. 21. Chatik.
 < 5 )

1. Kbonga Khul. 3. Aung Khul. 5. Khebbn Cliiu

West 2. L ang Khong. 4. Akhui.
1. Tbang Ching. 4. Chungbeole. 7. Suitol
South 2. K hong Sungkul. 5. Tseklapai. 8. Molbnng.
3. Lelhang Chingsaog. 6- Hangsi-pat-lel. 9. Chibn.
1. H iio k . 4. Unapokpi. 6. Hainnpokpi.
East 2. W aba Ching. 6. Uchalpakpi. 7. Nuinthow.
t. 3. K aiphum Chiog.
H ill range*, their direction, height, ^ e .—The hill ranges found withiu
the area under Manipur rule generally run nearly north and south,
with occasional connecting spurs and ridges of lower elevatioji between
them. Their greatest altitude is attained to the north about four days’
journey from the Manipur Valley, and here hills are found upwards of
8,000 feet above the level of the sea. From this pointsouth until
the sea is reached, towards Chittagong and Arracan, there is a steady
decrease in the height of the hill ranges; to the north, again, until
the Assam Valley is reached, there is the same gradual decrease
in height.The general aspect of the hill ranges is that of irregular
serrated ridges, occasionally rising into conical peaks and flattened cliffs of
bare rock. Occasionally, as in the western range of hills overlooking the
Manipur Valley, the summit of the hills^resents a more open and rolling
character, and facing the valley is an extent of hill land comparatively flat
and of considerable size.
Extent o f H ill Country.—By far the largest tract of country owned by
Manipur is that situated in the hills surrounding the valley. The total
area of the hill possessions of Manipur is probably .about 7 ,0 0 0 square
miles, .and the population is roughly computed at 7 4 ,0 0 0 . This area has
gradually extended since the re-establishment of the Mauipur power after
the Burmese war of 1 8 2 4 .
Forests and Vegetations.—The whole of (be hill ranges lying between
the valleys of Kachar and Manipur, and far to the north and south, are
densely clothed to' their summits with tree jungle. Almost 'the only
exception to this has been already stated in the descri])tion of the Jlauipur
Valhry, and refers to the hill slopies facing it. The.se slopes have been
steadily cleared of their timber, consequently they present a denuded
appearance. The tree forest presents great variety; aud in the ranges lying
west of the Manipur Valley there are large forest tracts of trees comprising
Nagesar, jarul. India-rubber, tun, oak, ash, &c., &c. Fir trees do not seem
to exist in the hills immediately adjoining the Gfoveniment road. Bamboo
jungle is everywhere plentiful. Towards the aorth, in the valleys dividing
the hill range one from another, the forest trees attain immense sizes and
heights, and where this kind of forest exists, the bamboo is uncommon.
In the Hirok Range, lying between Manipur and Burmah, tbe jungle is
much more open, and very large trees are rarer than either towards the west
or north, and the banaboo is confined to the low-lying ground and ravines.
F ir trees are occasionally seen, but are not plentiful. The tea plant is found
in this range, and apparently spreads over a very large area. Teak is
common on the slope overlooking the Kubo Valley. The Manipuris say
that a thorough search has been made for the tea plants iu the hill ranges
lying between Kachar and Manipur, but w it^ u t success. Although this
may be the case, the soil everywhere between the two valleys appeafs well
adapted for its growth. The cinchona would most likely also grow well
on the slopes of the hills, especially those lying nearest to the Manipur
Valley aud in the llirok Rouge. The tea plant is common iu the hills to the
 ( 0 )

north. The only parts of the immense tracts of forest land lying in
Manipur territory which are utilized to any extent are those of the Jiri
forest and the hill slopes lying nearest to the valley. From the hills to the
south of the valley most of the wood used in building is obtained, some of
the varieties are said to be proof against the ravages of the whiteant. Prom
a tree, found in the hills to the north-east in considerable numbers, a black
resinous fluid is obtained, which is used for japanning by the Manipuris.
The fir tree when met with is highly resinous, and the trees are of larg^
size. Near the salt wells to the north-east of the valley, on the first low
r a n ^ of hills rising from it are numerous cjum ^ of fir; this tree seems to
diminish in numbers as the hill ranges in that direction are ascended. To
the south the fir is plentiful. Palm trees are quite unknown in the hill
ranges throughout the whole hill territory, with the exception of one place
on the eastern slope of the Hirok Range, near Tumu in Burmah, where a
few supari trees grow; on the western slopes of the hill range lying
between Manipur and Kachar and in the Jiri forest there are no palms.
The slopes of the hills, with few exceptions, are easy, and can be
traversed both by ponies and men. The passes that lead throngh them will
be described hereafter in giving the account of roads in the district.
Bivers in the Valley.—The rivers of any volume flowing through the
valley all take their rise in the hills to the north and north-west, and are
insignificant in size and breadth, although carrying a large body of water
with a rapid current during the rains.
Names of Rivers.—^The chief rivers are named the Impal, Eril, Thobal,
Nambul and Nambol. The first three, rising in the hills to the north, flow-
eastward to the Logt&k and do not fall into i t ; the other two, which rise to
the north and north-west, fall into the Logtfik, from which one stream the
Kortak emerges; this eventually joins with the others to form one river, the
Sugunu, which flows south, and eventually falls into the Ningthi or
Kyendweng River in Upper Burmah below the town of Gendat.
. The Iril or Khongbar River, which flows through the capital, rises
in the hills to the north of the Manipur Valley; this river is navigable
for a short distance only for small boats from the capital; further progress
is theh impeded by rocks and rapids. The junction of the rivers of the
valley south of the Logtfik Lake forms one river by name “ Maithi Turel”
or Manipuri River; it is also called “ Achowba” or large; it goes also by
many other names amongst the Manipuris. This river flows nearly J-ie
south, and enters the hills at Sugunu to the extreme south of the valley.
This river is navigable for small craft with difficulty for two days below
Sugunu, when further progress is barred by lofty falls. The,Maithi even­
tually falls into the Ningthi or Kyendweng River, some distance below the
town oF Gendat in Burmese Territory.
Rivers in H ill TerrHory.—The rivers crossed in the hills lying Ijctwcen
the Manipur valleys-and Kachar, and which are the largest ai.d most
important of those rising or flo-wing thro-ugh its hill territory, arc as
follows:—
J iri River. E rung River.
HuJcru River. Lengba River.
B arak River. Limatak River.
Ike Jiri River.—Coming from the west, the first river met with after
leaving Lakipnr is -the Jiri, which forms the Iroundary between British
and Manipur Territory from its source to its termination in the Barak.
The Jiri rises in the bills to llic iiorlh-east of the Kadmr District, and flows
 ( 7 )

nearly due south until Godita Gh^t is reached; here it makes a hcud and
flows west to Jiri Ghat, where the Government road crosses; making
another bend here, it flows south again, and after a course of about 12 miles
falls into the Barak River. From ite junction with the Barak, it is said
to be navigable for small dingis for five ^ y s .
In the dry weather the Jiri is fordable; it is also crossed by a propped
foot bridge of bamboo; during the rains a ferry boat conveys across passen*
gets. The river is about 4-0 yards wide, and its bed is full of snags and
trunks of trees. On the Manipur side of the Jiri commences a large arid
valuable area of dense forest, which ex^nds on either side, but especially in
a southerly direotion for many miles; this forest contains much valuable
timber, India-rubber, &c.
Muknt iiiner.—The next river met with descending the Mnkrn Range
to the east is the Mukru, which flows nearly parallel with the Jiri. Rising
east of the Jiri from the hills to the north near the Burail Range, which
separates the watershed of Assam from that of Manipur, it flows south
and falls into the Barak, about 18 miles below the point at which it is crossed
by the road from Kachar. The Mukru is not navigable for any part of its
course This stream is beautifully clear, about 45 yards broad and well
stocked with mahseer fish. I t is easily fordable in the dry season; the
bottom is of large pebbles and round water-worn stones; the water about
knee deep. In the rains, and when the water is too high for fording, a
bamboo raft is used, which is attached to strong canes stretching across tiie
river from bank to bank and fastened to trees; the raft moves along the
canes and is pulled across by the party on it. The current is swift in the
rail Sj and is too deep to be fordable for several months.
Barak River.—^The Barak, the largest and most important of the rivers
in the Manipur hill territory, rises east of the Mukru under the Burail
range of mountains; flowing south-east, it receives in its course, besides
several small unnamed streams, first the Mukru, next the large river
which rises further east than the Barak, the E ru n g ; stiU pursuing a south­
erly' course, it receives at the southern spur of the mountain range,
continuous with the Kala Naga range of hills, the Tepai River which flows
north from the Lushai country. The Barak now makes a sharp bend and
flows nearly due north until it receives the waters of the Jiri, after which
the one river thus constituted, still named the Barak, enters British Territory
and flows west through the Eachar Valley. The Barak is named by the
Manipuris the Quaiy, and is said to be navigable for canoes for about one
day above its junction with the Tepai River. This river is fordable in the dry
weather, with the water thigh deep; the bed of the river is of small boulders,
and the stream at the ford is about 60 yards wide, with a moderately strong
current. Immediately above the ford the river expands into a wide pool, and
above this again contracts between high banks. The forest jangle at this part
is heavy and dense; below the ford of the Barak, on its right bank, the
bill is almost perpendicular and densely clothed with trees; so high and
steep is this hill, that it is sunset on the river some hours tefore the sun­
shine fades away from the summit of the hill. Like the Mukru, the Barak
is well stocked with fish, and the fishing ground below the ford is remark­
ably good for a considerable distance.
Lengba—A small stream, runs a t the foot of the hill near Nungba, a
vOlage which lies about midway between Kachar and Manipur, and nearly
the same between the two principal rivers, the Barak and Eruug. This
stream is not navigable by boats, but easily fordable at all tunes.
 ( 8 )

Erutig River.— The main branch of the Ernng rises under the high hills
aljout four days' journey north-west of the Manipur Valley; flowing
south-west, it receives numerous small unnamed rivers and the larger ones
named the lyii, rising under the western slope of the high range of hills
to the west of the valley, and the Limatak which rises in the high ranges
which lie south of the Government road, and west of the hills facing the valley;
this river runs nearly due north, and receiving the lyii falls into the Erung,
north of the road. The Erung, before joining the Barak, receives many
small unnamed streams, flowing from the western slopes of the hill ranges
through which it take its course. The Erung and the other lesser rivers
above noted are not navigable. The Ernng is of much the same size and
width as the Barak; its bed is higher, being about 800 feet above sea level;
it is fordable like the Barak in the dry season. The banks of the river
are more open than the Barak, as the surrounding hills, thoi^h lofty, are
more sloping. Mahseer fish of enormous size are to be seen in the deep
pools close to the swing bridge.
Limatak River.—This river is of no great breadth, from 20 to 35 yards,
but with a strong current, it is crossed either by fording or by a swing bridge,
according to the state of the river.
The only river of any importance in the Hirok Bange of hills lying
between Manipur and Burmah is the Lokchao; this hill stream drains
into the Kubo Valley, and is of inconsiderable size and quite unnavigable.
There are no other important rivers in the territory. All the rivers are
fordable at any time during the year, and at such a distance from the sea are
not affected by tide or bore.
Logtak Lake.—The only important lake in the district is the “ Logtak.”
This irregular sheet of water is of considerable size, but is yearly growing less
and less.
The general opinion of observers as to the formation of the Manipur
Valley is, that in former ages it was chiefly a large lake, which has gradu­
ally contracted in size, until what remains of it is seen in the Logtak.
Other sheets o f water.—Other lake-like sheets of water exist iu various
parts of the valley, chiefly towards its northern extremity : in no case, the
Logtdk excepted, does any large stream drain into them.
There are no towns on the banks of the rivers. The only traffic on the
river is carried by small canoes loaded with paddy and building materials,
such as grass, timber, and bamboos.
No other stream, except the Nambol, is used as a motive power for turn­
ing miUs, and only in one instance by the maharaja for grinding wheat at
place close to his residence.
Fisheries.—The principal fisheries in the territory are the Logtkk, Ekop and
Waithau lakes. In the latter a bund is annually constructed to retain the
water^t a certain level. At the bund, there is a toll where revenue is paid to
the raja for the fish caught. The fishing in this lake is given by the raja to
his cavalry soldiei-s in remuneration for their services. They all reside in
its vicinity, and apportion the work of fishing amongst themselves, keeping
what fish is necessary for their own consumption and selling the remainder
for their own benefit at the toll where purchasers arc invariably to be found,
who take it and retail it in tiie Manipur Bazar.
Fish are more plentiful in the dry than in the rainy season, and the
quality.is iofcrior to that of Silhct or Kachar.
Fish.—Of fish there is a considerable variety, and the supply is plentiful.
Uivcr fish afford about 13 different kinds. Of these, the most important are
 ( 9 )
the boali of Bengal (called in Manipur " surreng”) the has machh, gna-ra,
the rani machh, surrong koibi, bagmach, gua-rel, the papia-gnatel; the
rest are small and unimportant. The fish inhabiting the lakes and jhils
are, it is said, of 22 kinds.
The proportion of inhabitant that live by fishing is 1,400 men.
I t is impossible to ascertain with precision whether any rivers or marshes
are embanked with a view to cultivation, but there are many marsh land fit
for reclamation.
No fewer than 17 varieties of rice are grown; these may be divided into
early and late crops. The early crop ripens in three months, and is ready
for cutting about September. Of late years a large quantity of the early
sort has been sown. Of the early there are four varieties. The late crop
ripens in six months, and is reaped about November. The great bulk of
rice grown in the country is of the late varieties, which compri^ 13 kinds,
chiefly distinguished by size of grain and colour. The finest of these are
named phourail, yentik, and loining; these are white and of large grain.
There is no class in this territory who live by river industries.
The drainage of the country is excellent, there being a steady fall
towards the Logtak Lake from whence arises the Sugunu which carries all
superfluous water into the Ningthi in Upper Burmah.
Mineral Productione.—The mineral productions of the country, as already
stated, are two in number—Iron-ore and limestone. No metal other than
iron has as yet been found in the valley.
Iron-ore.—Iron is obtained principally from the beds of small streams
south of Thabal aud th e ' hills near Langatel. I t has also been found
underneath the bills to the north at a place called Kameng. The ironstone
is found a few feet under the surface, and is worked considerably. The loss
produced by smelting the ore amounts to nearly fifty per cent. All the
iron deposits are found in the valley, and are generally accidentally dis­
covered, as Kameng was, in cultivating the fields.
Gold.—Gold is said to have been found at one time in the Kongha and
Emphal Rivers, but although frequent search has been made of late years,
no trace of its presence now can be found.
LimeHone.—Lime was formerly entirely obtained from Sugunu; to the
south of the valley the quality is good, but the quantity is becoming sqpte-
what exliausted. The Manipuris do not quarry but only take the surface
deposits. Towards the north recently, about two days’ journey from the
capital, large deposits have been found. Other places surrounding the
valley are also worked. On the Jiri River, on the Kachar frontier, lime has
also been found, but it is said that the deposits are unimportant and of
indifferent quality.
Coal. —To the south-east, in the hills, it is reported a kind of coal is
found, but as to the extent of the deposits no information can be obtained. Of
the quality nothing can be ascertained, except that the burning power is bad.
Salt.—Nearly the whole of the salt consumed by the Manipuris is
obtained from salt wells situated in the valley. A small quantity is occasion­
ally imported in times of scarcity from Burmah and Kachar.
The principal salt wells are situated at the foot of the hills to the north­
east, about fourteen miles from the capital; they are four in number, and
are named Ning.ail, Chuudrakong, Sikhong, and Waikhoiig; they all lie
close together, and are surrounded by villages, wherein reside those engaged
in the salt manufacture. Wells have beeu oi>ened in other parts of the
valley, but the supply lias not been remunerative.
 ( 10 )

I t is stated that the situation of an under-ground salt spring is dis­

covered by the presence of a peculiar mist seen hanging over the spot in
the morning.
The soil and vegetation surrounding the wells show nothing peculiar,
and there is no appearance of any deposit of salt on or near the surface.
The whole of the salt wells belong to the raja, and are worked for his
benefit. The men employed are, however, remunerated for their labour,
and a certain proportion of salt is set aside for their benefit. The propor­
tion that goes to the raja is 80 per cent, of the quantity manufactured;
the remaining 70 per cent, is d iv id ^ among the workmen. The amount of
salt manufactured varies according to season, the most being made in the
cold weather, when the water is a t its strongest. About 150 maunds a
month is the average. All the men employed in this work are Manipnris
of the loi caste, the lowest among the Manipuris.
No attem pt has at any time been made to reach the salt itself; were
this possible, there is no doubt that rock-salt in large deposits would be
found.
The salt obtained is qnite pure and free from smell. Its wholesale price
is about Be. 6 a maund.
Building stone and materials for metalling roads are procnraoie In the
oonntry.
The only parts of the immense tracts of forest lying in tbe Manipur
Territory which are utilized to any extent, are those of the Jiri forest and
the hill slopes lying nearest to the valley. The revenue derived from the
above is ataazingly small.
The jungle products are chiefly bees' wax. India-rubber, tea seeds,
and a black resinous fluid called khafr, much used in japanning. The
Nagas of the surrounding hills generally trade in these products. They
also bring occasionally elephant tusks for sale.
The country contains many pasture grounds, but no revenue is derived
from them. There is no class in Manipur who live by pasturing cattle.
Wild Animal*.—The wild animals that inhabit the valley are but few
in number—tiger, a species of wild cat, pig, and two species of deer.
Jackal is unknown to Manipur.
Wild fowl, comprising geese, duck, teal, snipe, &c., abound all over the
valley.
Tiger. —The tiger is common in the Manipur Valley, and frequently
attains a large size;—they generally confine their depredations to carrying
off cattle and ponies, but man-eaters are not uncommon.
The tiger and wild hog are a t times destructive to human life. In
one instance a tiger got into a house, killed seven individnals, and was not
destroyed until he had eaten one of them.
Mode o f capturing Tiger*.—As in Bengal, when the lair of a t i ^ r has
been noted and marked, it is surrounded by a strong rope net, and inform­
ation is at once given to the authorities. The oflScer of the “ Lallup"
in which the tiger is found makes arrangements for its destruction, first,
however, informing the raja in case he might want to kill the animal
himself. Villagers are rewarded for the destruction of tigers according to
circumstances, the rewards varying in value from a present of land Mid a
robe of honor to small rewards in money, cloth and salt.
In order to keep down the number of tigers, an arrangement is in
existence all over the country for trapping them ; this is done by “ Karrups,"
or tiger parties, who surround the tiger with a net. There are also scouts.
 < 11 )

called “ Whiroi," whose duly it is to mark the lair of the tig^r, which is
then surrounded by the “ Karrup.”
Now that fire-arms are common in the coantry they are always used
in despatching the tiger.- Spearmen are also always present, but their
services are seldom required. Formerly when spears alone were used, many
fiitalities occurred.
When the raja is present at the killing of a tiger, great crowds assemble
of both sexes, and all the headmen with sepoys, &c., are present.
Deer.—The best time for deer-shooting i6 about March, at which time
the grass jungle is burned, andiihe young grass shoote u p; at other times
the deer retire into the hills. I t is at this time, when jungle is being
burned, that the wild boar is very dangerous. Driven out from their shel­
ter by the fire, are apt to run a muck and attack all before him. The hare
is quite unknown in the country.
Wild Fowl.—The valley towards the Logtak liake during the cold season
positively swarms with wild'fowl, especi^ly geese. Both the geese and
ducks met with in the valley are fine birds, and make good eating. The
wild fowl, especially the geese, nearly all migrate to the hills during the
hot weather; they are ssud to proceed to a lake in the hUls about three
days north of the Manipur Valley.
Of other birds, there are mostly the varieties common to eastern
Bengal. The only crow seen is the large black variety. Kites are few in
number; singing birds, varieties unknown by name, are common; tHeir
song is chiefly heard in the early morning.
The wild animals found in Manipur Hill Territory may now he briefly
enumerated.
Elephant.—This animal exists in large numbers both to the north and
south of the Manipur Valley, also to the south of the Government road
and in the Jiri Forest. The hiU-mcn hunt and kill them for the flesh
and tusks.
Tigert.—These are not very plentiful or destructive; they are chiefly
found following up the herds of elephants, upon whose young they prey.
Leopardi.—These are few in number.
Wild CaU.—O f these there are several varieties.
B ean.—Of these there are two varieties, one small, and one large and
fierce. They are both black, and are mostly found to the north.
beer.—Of these, there are said to be a large variety of a brown colour,
probably Sambar, the variety peculiar to Manipur, of which a few only
are found in the hills; three varieties of small deer, ravine deei, barking
deer (this variety is plentiful), and a small red deer.
Wild Goat.-—One variety very rarely seen of a reddish brown colour and
short hair.
Wild P ^ .—Plentiful and veiy large; tasks very long, and curved up­
wards.
Porcupine.—Plentiful.
Wild Biiffalee.—This animal is found to the south of the valley only.
Wild Methna or H ill Cow.—^This animal in a wild state is now rare, and
is found to the south only.
Mhinocero*.—Is found only in the hills to the east and south.
Flying lemun.—Are said to be not uncommon.
Mole or Mole-rat.— Tkis animal is said to be found of a reddish colour.
Should a Mauipuri meet this animal on the road, he will not pass the place
until he has caught and killed i t ; he afterwards splits the animal length-ways,
 ( 12 )

and flings the halves on either side. If the animal cannot be caught, it is
coDside^ a very bad omen, and the journey is resumed reluctantly.
R at.—This animal is very plentiful in the hills, and is of large size.
This rat often occasions great dertruction of the hill-man’s crop; they appear
in immense swarms a t times, and their coming is said to be simultaneous with
the flowering of the bamboos. These swarms are common in the west an^
south; they appear suddenly, it is said, at night, and eat up the ripened but
standing grain, and the stores in the -^a g e s disappearing as rapidly and
mysteriously as they come. Their last appearance was in 1868, when they
invaded the Naga villages lying close to the Manipur road, and committed so
much dams^e, that supplies of riee had to be sent to the sufferers from the
Manipur Valley. Besides this rat, there is also found the common brown rat
and musk rat. Mice are also common.
OUer.—Of this.there are two varieties, one large, and the other small.
Monkeys.—Hoolook, there are plentiful; lungoor, a large monkey resem­
bling the onrang-outang, is said to be found to the north; the common
brown monkey, a small reddish monkey, which is smd to hide its face
when observed by men.
Bats and flying-foxes, birds, jnngle-fowl, partridge, quail, snipe, hawks,
kites, black crow, doves, eagles of a black colour are said to be found in the
highest peaks; owls, parrots, small birds in great variety, mostly without
song.
Snakes.—^The boa-constrictor is found in the dense forests to the south, and
is said frequently to attain a large size; other small varieties of the snake
tribe are found in the jungles, they are all or nearly all innocuous.
Reptiles in the Valley.—Manipur appears to be singularly free from
dangerous reptiles; poisonous snakes are nearly, if not quite, unknown.
The cobra does not seem to exist in the valley. The natives mention the
existence of a green hill snake, which is said to be poisonous. Small harm­
less snakes are common enough. Large serpents are said to be fpund in the
dense jungle in the hills and the swamps to the south of the valley.
The marshes in the vicinity of the Logt&k also afford a retreat to ser­
pents of a formidable size. Other places in the valley are infested by the
serpent tribe; some of thena are exceedingly active and bold, as the tanglei.
This snike is very fond of ascending bamboos, along the branches of which
he moves with great velocity, and if enraged, throws himself from an ex­
traordinary height upon the object of his anger.. His bite is said to be
mortal. This, added to his great activity and fierceness, makes the tanglei
an object of much terror. This snake is quite as active in the water as he
is on dry land. The Manipuris' speak too of a snake-god called Kharow
which, when met, utters a loud sound, like an ox bellowing, and spits his
venom to a great distance.
Insects, as butterflies, moths, crickets, &c., are plentiful, but present
nothing peculiar to those of Eastern Bengal generally.
The raosquitoe is very common and troublesome during the hot season ;
they disappear during about two months of the coldest part of the year.
Honey-Bee.—A small varietyof the honey-bee is common in the valley.
Another variety of large size, named " Khoibi Namthow, ” is found chiefly
towards the southern extremity of the valley. This bee makes its nest
underground, and it so hollows out the ground and weakens the surface,
that cases are not unfrequent of pedestrians breaking through and being
seriously and even fatally injured by the stings of the insects. The only
sign of tbe nest below is a withering of the grass over the spot. The
 ( 13 )
Manipuris catch this bee, and by tying a thread round its body, so retard
its moTemcnts, that they are able to follow it up aud discover the nest.
The insects are then -smoked oat at night and the honeycomb extracted.
The honey is considered a great luxury.
The whiteant is common and destructive: children eat it in the winged
state; they will also eat the grass-hopper.
Deaths from wild beasts and frpm snakes are very rare ; none have been
heard of for the last few years. No reward is paid for snake killing. No
■trade is carried on in wild beast skins, and the feroe ualmm contribute
nothing towards the wealth of the district.
No attem pt to take a census has ever l>een made. The population of the
valley of Manipur, including only Manipuris, not hill-men, was estimated
byMcCulloch in 1859 at 50,000; in 186S at from 65,000 to 70,000.
The following is a list of the different castes of men living in the valley.
In the Meitliei or Manipur Proper—
B rahm an. Pbeesooba or DhoW.
G anak. Kolesaba or Goldsmith.
K shatrias. Sumkokpa or N ip it.
K ir ta n i or Baisya. ThaoSoomba or Tell.
L arik Yengba or K ayasth. Tliaiig-ga or Fisherm an.
T hang Zaba or E&mar. E ithibee or Htiri.
Fbooeaba or K um ar. M nsalman or Heitfaei P ao g al.
P heesaba or Jogf.
The Brahmans only are exempted from all duties and taxes.
The peculiarity of the Manipur Eithibee or mehter caste is that he
will perform his useful but filthy oiSce for the raja and his family alone.
To the different classes of people according to the Lallup ^stem various
and differing employments are assigned. Amongst the Meithei or Mani­
puri population,,tbere are four great divisions in their order of seniority as
follows:—
Laipham. Kapham. Ahalloop. Nehfiroop.
These, again, are divided into the following classes, the names of which,
with the nature of their employment are herein stated
Sub-division o f Classes.
1. N ingthow Selba B aja’a body and house 13. Poogai Charge of money-cbest.
servants. 14. M aiba tnl Strikers of gongs.
2. Laima Selba R ani’s ditto. 15. Boolai Baba Chuprassies and mes­
3. M aibaSanglel Medical practitioners sengers.
or kabirm. 16. Apalba Mounted troops.
4 Pacha Court o f Ju stice for 17. Doolai roe Song Carry doolais.
women. 18. S ebukT h a n g - B aja’s sword-bearers.
5. Pena Khongba Musicians and singers. Rooba
6. Sagol Sung Ovei-seera of the royal . . Oo-saba Carpenters.
stables. 20. Low i-oongba Cultivators.
7. Samoo Sung Overseers of the ele­ 21. T liang'jaba Blacksmiths.
phants. 22. Kon-saba Jewellers and workers
8. Ai-angba Butlers, look a fter the ill bra-ss.
food. 23. Koodiimba Bone-setters.
9. Tliaugja-panaba Overseers of black­ 24. Ahaiba M etal-casters.
smiths. 25. Sungle Cntcherry work.
10. Bcilodeo Seino Ditto of firewood. 26' Sungnoba Ditto.
11. Phauroongba Ditto of rice. 27. Lai-kai House-builders.
12. Thoomi,ioroongba D itto of s a lt
After the above come the following :—
Pkoongnai.—This class were formerly .slaves of the raja faceording to
another account they still arc so), who were liberated and formed into a
 ( 14 )
separate class; they chiefly reside a t a place calied Tengkai, near the western
slope of the hills. They are Manipuris, and number about six hundred.
PoUuugba.—These take care of the rajVs property. Tengknl w t as
gardeners, &e. They both belong to the Phoongnai.
Ayohpa—Consist of Nagas and other hill-men, who have at any time
become fugitives and become destitute. They have been settled in the
valley by Idie various rajas, and supported by tbem for a tim e; they are
allowed to cultivate one “ pari” of land (about 2 acres'), and perform “ lallup”
the Manipuris do.
Kei.—Slaves of the raja, and formerly N ag u . They cultivate land
chiefly on sooount of the raja, each family cultivates two paris, half of
which goes to the raja, half for their own support. They also have to do
their “ lallup" besides, like the others; during that time, they are chiefly
employed in making brooms and baskets for use in the raja’s stables.
They number about 200 families.
Loee.—The Loee is not recognized as a pure M anipuri; they appear to
be descendants of the former inhabitants of Moirfing, one of the original
tribes which formerly occupied the valley to the south. They were former­
ly independent, but were reduced ages ago by the Meitheis; hence the name
Loee or " subdued,” which was given them after their subjection. They pro­
fess to be Hindus, but are not recognized as such by the orthodox. The
Loee caste seems a sort of “ limbo" for nondescripts of all descriptions.
Manipuris are frequently degraded to Loee as a punishment. In this case
should it not be remitted, which it usually is after a time, the punishment
descends to the wife and family of the culprit who become Loees. All
descendants of people of low caste, other than Musalmans, seem to be
consigned to the Loees. They are, perhaps, the most hard-working and
useful class of people in the valley. All the men are employed in salt-
making. Silk manufacture and fishing belong to this class. The Loees
appear to have a separate language. One village of them, called Sengmai,
speak a language only understood by themselves ; this language is said to
have an aflSnity with the Burmese. Amongst the Loees are a section chiefly
engaged as fishermen on the L ogtik Lake, who do not perform lallup, but
pay tribute to the raja.
This most probably arose from the necessity of having no risk of the
supply of fish, for fish forms the staple of the food of the people. Tbis branch
of the Loees is called Sel Loee. They consist of about 250 families or 1,500
men, women, and children, and each family has to pay tax of ^ o u t
Rs. 2-4 monthly. This seems a very severe tax, considering the
poverty of the country, but it is said that they very frequently make very
large hauls of fish, which they are allowed freely to dispose of without
any restriction; also that in bad seasons the amount of tribute is reduced.
O f the Loees in the valley, the Sel Loee is considered the lowest. There
is a village to the south of the valley named S u ^ n u , and containing
about 300 or 400 people, who are descendants of Manipuris formerly reduced
to the Loee caste. They are chiefly employed as wood-cutters and house­
builders.
Moyangs.—The moyang class are descendants of Hindus who originally
emigrated from the west, also of such captured by the Manipuris, in arms
against them. They formerly occupied a village built upon a raised
mound, named the Moyang Yoomphal. This place is deserted since the
Burmese invasion in 1824, more especially for its want of fertility, and thqr
arc now scattered over the valley. They number about 1,000 people.
 ( 15 )

Mtualman or MeitAei Pa«yo/.—There is a considerable population -of

Musalmans, descendants of settlers from Bengal for the most p a r t; they
number about 900 &milies or 4,500 men, women, and children. They
chiefly reside to the east of the capital. The Manipuris say that from
great antiquity Musalmans have formed part of the population of the valley,
as well as Hindus. The Musalman population appears, before the devastation
of the country by the Burmese, to have attained a very considerable amount;
but, as was the case with all the other sections of the Manipur community, the
greater portion of it was carried into captivity by these ruthless invaders, and
Sie present Musalmans are the descendants of the few that then escaped being
captured. The Musalman population has undoubtedly arisen almost entirely
from emigrant Bengalis, chiefly from the districts of Silhet and Kachar, who
have formed connections with the women of the country and settled in the
valley. All the Musalmans have a decidedly Bengali cast of countenance.
They chiefly follow the trades of gfardening, turning, carpentry, pottery, &c.;
numbers of them also serve as sepoys, and nearly all the buglers and
drummers attached to the rajahs army are Musalmans. They have over
them a kazi, who is appointed by the raja. They have no masjid, and are,
for the most part, very ignorant of the religion they profess.- Their women
conform to the customs of the country as regains non-seclusion. They
have the reputation of bein? an honest, hard-working class, and perform
lallup as Manipuris.
OiAer Foreignert.—Several other individual foreigners reside in the
valley, as Hindustanis and Sikhs.’ A few Burmese have also settled in
Manipur Territory. There are no inhabitants whatever of European descent.
TAe inhabitanU o f Manipur H ill Terrilorg.—'Ehe faill-mcn who inhabit
the mountain tract of country under Manipur rule, altboogh amongst them­
selves divided into innnmerable clans and sections, each having slight differ­
ence in language, customs, or modes of dress, may be at this stage consi­
dered generally under the two great divisions of Naga and Kuki. The
more important sub-divisions of the above will be enumerated hereinafter.
The hill-men generally are all named “ Haow” by the Manipuris, but
they also recognize the distinctions Naga and Kuki. The derivation
sf the term Naga is doubtful, some deriving it from "N a g ," a snake,
others from a corruption of the Bengali word “ nanga,” naked. The
Bengalis use the word " naga" as a reproach. The Nagas, among themselves,
do not seem to have any specific name, but use the tribal names as distinctive.
They scout the name of N ag^ The origin of the term Kuki is unknown.
Oeueral location o f the H ill Although no abrupt boundary line
can be drawn between the tracts of country occupied by the two races of
Nagas and Kukis, it may be taken for granted that a line drawn about a
da3?s journey south of the Government road, or'even at the present day
less, running east from Kachar to the Manipur Valley (about 24° 70' north
latitude), would represent the boundary which separates the two racM, the
Nt^as lying to the north of this line, the Kukw to the sonth. Crossing
the valley, the Hirok Range of hills which separates Manipur from Burmah
is inhabit^ chiefly by three tribes—to the south and east various clans of
Mating Nagas, a race, however, differing essentiaUy from the Nagas to the
north in their facial and other characteristics, hereafter to be described, and
a few Kukis, branches of the great tribe of Khongjais; towards the north
and east the tribe of Nagas called Tankhool or Loohoopa; scattered through­
out the whole of this rang^ are found villages of the Khongjtu tribes.
The Lumlaugtong, oh Limatal range of hills, which bound* the valley to the
 ( Ifi )

west, also contains a mixed population of Kowpoi Nagas, Khongjai and

Clieeroo Kukia. To tlie north, the various trills of Nagas are in contact
with each other, there being no intervening tract of country of any breadth
uninhabited, as is tlie case to tlje south, where, in that part of the hill
country lying immerliately north of that occupied by the Lushai tribe of
Kukis, there are no inhabitants whatever for al'out six days’ journey; and
this uninhabited tract is extending as the Lushai gather strength and attack
the weak tribes to the north of them, the Lushais not occupying the country
they thus depopulate.
The tribes general y are of an inferior order of civilization; their
manual productions are few, rude, and unimportant; they have no written
character of any kind, aud their general intelligence, except in rare instances,
is very low. Their reputed truthfulness is believed to be much exaggerated,
aud the more intelligent of them can lie when occasion serves.
Facial and other chararierisliei of the Naga and Kuii.—When one fairly
comes into contect with the various classes of hill-men in Manipur Territory
in tlieir pure and primitive conditions, the general idea which prevails as to
the facial chai-acteristics of the majority of the tribes has to be modified;
the popular idea is, that all or almost all of the tribes inhabiting the hilly
regions lying east, north, and south of the British Province of Kachar, are
of low stature, with broad flat faces, small flattened noses, and oblique eyes,
of a Mongolian cast of countenance in fact; the real truth being that a
purely Mongolian cast of features is rare, and the majority of the indivi­
duals constituting the various hill-tribes, whether Naga, Kuki, or Maring,
do not have the flat nose and well-marked oblique eye characteristic of that
race. This shape of eye is, perhaps, the most persistent feature amongst
them, showing their probable Mongolian origin ; but even this is by no
means well marked, and is common to the Manipuri as to the hill-men.
Amongst both the Naga and Kuki tribes the stature varies considerably.
The Naga is generally the taller of the two, especially the Tankhul and
Angami. The usual run of Kukis of all the tribes are of medium and fre­
quently of low stature, and amongst those of low height are found the long-
armed individuals, which length of limb is said by some observers to be a
characteristic of the Kuki race. To show, however, that even amongst the
Kukis low stature is not by any means a rule, some of the tallest men seen
in these hills have been Kukis of the Khongjai tribe.
Origin of the H ill Tribes getterallg.—The origin of the various tribes of
Nagas, Kukis, and Marings, wh.i.h last is considered to be a separate race,
differing in origin from either of the above, is a matter merely of specula­
tion, and one difficult to decide. Looking simply at the geographical
positions of the tribes, their facial characteristics, customs, &c., it may be
said that the Naga came originally from the north, the Kuki from the
south and east, and the Maring, who closely resembles the Burmese in
appearance, from the east. T’le subject is, however, a difficult one, and
many questions, especially those connected with the language of the tribes,
wordd have to be considered in even approximately arriviug at a correct
conclusion. On the subject, of the origpn of the Nagas bordering on Kachar, it
is believed that they have been descended from the earliest inhabitants of
the district. The principal reason fox this conjecture was the attachment shown
by Nagas for the sites on which their villages stand, which offers a marked
contrast to tlie migratory habits of most other tribes.
General distinctions Lettoeen the tribes of Naga, Kuki aud Maring.—There
are several well-marked distinctions between the three tribes mentioned
 ( 17 )

above, wbicli may Lore be stated, aud which amjily serve for idciilifyiiig them.
The Naga wears his hair cut in various ways, sometimes very short. The
Kuki (with one exception, the Chiru) wears his hair long and tucked in
behind. The Naga never wears any pagri or head covering on ordinary
occasions; the Kuki (again excepting the ChiJiu) always does. The ear
ornaments of the Naga are various; the Kuki gcherally coniines himself to
a single red pebble head suspended i'roni the lobe by a string, or two large
disks of perforated silver, with a broad ilange, by which the liolcf of the ears
are often enormously distended. This ornament is entirely confined to the
Kuki, and is never seen among any of the Naga tribes. The Marings arc
distinguished from all the others by their we.aring the hair long aud confined
in a bunch, like a horn rising from the front of the head. I t is almost unneces­
sary to say tliat the language of the Naga and Kuki is entirely different.
The peculiar characteristics by which the women of the various tribes may
be recognized will, with other peculiarities and differences as to dress, &c.,
be described when discussing the individual peculiarities of the v.irimis clans.
CttUivatmi in Ike U ilh as applied to ike tribes geHerally.—.Turn culti­
vation is common in these hills, and is carried on by all tribes on the nortb-
casterii frontier, excepting in the Kasia Hills, the peculiar form.olion of its
plateaus aud valley's favoring in many parts permanent cultivation. This
mode of cultivatton, known by the name “ Low Pam” amongst the Maniimris..
is to allow the cultivaterl patches of ground to lie fallow in succession for a
period of about ten years, jungle, chiefly bamboo and coarse grass, being
allowed to grow on them. In the level patches of ground, near the batiks of
rivers and in the small valleys, permanent cultivation is carried on, but those
patches are of considerable size, and most of the liill-men have to depend
entirely upon their jum cultivation on the slopes of the hills. Among
several of the tribes, there is iiermanent cultivation on the hill slopes, which
will be hereafter described. The mountain land around the village within
ccrtiiin fixed bounds is usually the property of the village. This they cul­
tivate with rice in elevations suited to it, and with other crops ju situatior
unfitted for that species of grain. The s]>ot cultiv.atod this y'ear is not again
cultivated for the next ten years, it having been found tliat lliat space ol
time is required for the formation of a cultivable soil by the decay of the
vegetable matter that again springs on it. The chief crop is rice, but the
produce is very uncertain, both from the vicissitudes of we.ather, and the
differing richness of the soil, which they must, of necessity cultivate in their
ten years' rotation. The spot for cultivation being determined on, he must
clear it of jungle of ten years' growth; if the spot happen to be near the
village, he can return in the evcuing after a full day’s work; but if at a
groat distance, as it often is, ho must either give up work early to enable
him to get back to bis village by nightfall, or working late, remain there.
A bamboo jungle of the species called “ mambce'' is to cut, compared
with a dense tree jangle, easy, but still it is no light labor. After having
been cut down, the jungle is allowed to dry, so that it may be lired in
season, for if fired out of season, as sometimes through accidental Coullagra-
tion happens, the crop to be raised will most probably be deteriorated, or the
land even be rendered unfit for it. Great damage has occui'icd to the hill
people from the carelessness of travellers on the Manipur road in lighting
llrcs, and leaving them burning in the neighbourhood of dry jungle.
Tliese lires, communicating with the jungle, have sometimes bccii the cause
of the premature buruiug of the ucwly-felled jungle, not of quc^ but of
many villages. A prematiive lire caused by a hill-maii is visited i4>on him
 ( 18 )

with severe pnnishment, and before a village sets fire to the jnogle cut down
on the spot abont to be cultivated, it gives some days' notice to the neigh*
homing villages of the day on which it means to do so. A t the season of
firing the jnngle cat for cultivation, as all the low uncut jangle is compua-
tively dry, on setting fire to the former, the latter igpiites, and the
whole mountain becomes a sheet of fire.’ This, to a person safe from it, forms
a most magnificient spectacle, but one of fear and the greatest danger to
those exposed to it. I f the felled jungle has been thoroughly dried, the
whole is, with the exception of the larger trees, reduced to ashes. The
soil for an inch or two is throughly hum t, and having been scratched up
with their little hoes, is mixed with the ashes, and becomes ready for the
reception of seed, which is sown broadcast. They measure their cultivation
by the number of baskets required for ssed across the field in parallel lines,
a t no great distance apart, they lay the unconsumed trunks of the trees;
these serve as dams to the water which come down the face of the hill
when its rains, and preventives to the soil being carried away with it. . In
bamboo jangle, the bamboo stumps serve the same puipose. The field has
to be constantly watched against the depredations of birds and wild beasts,
and weeds being very rapid in growth, to be frequently weeded. The crop
having been cut is heat out on the field, and the grain carried to, and
deposited in, the granary close by the village. In the carrying, the whole
viUage joins, receiving as recompence a certain proportion of the loads
carried and their drink. In the best seasons it is only by the most
uufSnitting attention th a t the Eawpoi reaps his crop, and anything at the
cultivating season occurring to interrupt his labours may be attended
with the serious result of a lessened supply of food. After all their
labours, when the grain is ripe and ready to be cut, they lose it sometimes
by a high wind sweeping the field. This wind, they assert, does not merely
shake the grain out of the ear, but carries it away bodily. In such cases
the grain, they say, has been taken up by the divinity. Although the
above description was written as applying to the Kowpoi tribes of Nagas,
it answers with, perhaps, slight modifications for all. Although ten years
is the rule during which the fields are aUowed to lapse into jungle from
several causes, each as exceptional richness of the soil, or from the poverty
of the villagers, five, six, or seven years is the limit in some cases. The
jungle it cut down about the latter end of November, and is allowed to dry
until March, when it is fired; the ground is then roughly tilled, and the
seed sown in April. The rice crop is ready for cutting about the end of
September and beginning of October. In some parts of the hills, especially
in the Hirok Range, the large trunks of trees are left standing; most of
these trees are d e ^ , but some living, with very few branches, however,
as the hill-men destroy them altogether, or cut their branches nearly all
off, so as to prevent their impoverishing the soil.
Crops raised by the Hill-men.—The crops raised by the inhabitants of
Manipur HiU territory comprise rice; this is grown in large quantity, as
it forms the staple food of the people.
Cotton.—A good deal of the cotton raised, which seems of excellent
quality, finds its way into the basars of Manipur, there being no cotton
grown in the valley. The hill-men lying nearest to Kachar also convey
cotton to the bazars of Lakipur, &c., oil seeds, pepper, vegetables of
various kinds, potatoes, small, and of inferior quality, ginger, Indian-com,
tobacco, pfin leaves, &c. There are numbers of jungle roots and plants used
also as food by (he hill-men. The yam is plentiful.
 ( 19 )

Trades and Manufacturet among Vie R ill Popnlaium.—^The snbject of

trade and manufactnies among the hill-men may be dismissed in a few
words. Trade, from the ^ n t y nature of the hill productions not required
for the sustenance of the people, is confined, so & r as Manipur is concerned,
almost entirely to the bartering of raw cotton and a few other articles in the
bazars; salt is chiefly taken in return. The hill-men also for the most part
supply the valley with th e' fire-wood required for the inhabitants. The
bazars in the Kachar Valley, lying nearest the hills, are also thus supplied.
Iron is procured from Kachar and Manipur, and manu&ctnred into daos
and spear heads. Some of the northern tribes also make the brass and
bell-metal ornaments so much affected by certain sections of the tribes, but
by far the largest number of these are the productions of Manipur and
Kachar. The women spin and msnufiMitnre the dotbing required for
themselves and families.
Diet of the Hill-men generally.—The staple food of all the hill-men is
rice. The rice used is usually of a reddish colour and inferior qnality, and
is eaten simply boiled, with vegetables, salt, and a little seasoning, and
occasionally small bits of dried fish. The hill-man will eat almost any kind
of animal food, and that whether it may have been slaaghteied, or died
from disease—nothing comes amiss to them from the carcass of an elephant
to a rat. It is said, indeed, that some of the Kukis are particularly partial
to decomposing elephant; any one who has had a whiff from a decaying car­
cass of this animal can imagine what a savoury morsel this must be. D o ^ are
luxuries among some of the Naga tribes, and it is no uncommon sight in the
cold season to see groups of Nagas wending their way to the central bazar
in Manipur, with a basketful of puppies for disposal, or hauling along an
adult dog, with a bamboo attached to its nedr instead of a rope. Pigs, wild
and tame, are common articles of food; and on great feast days, goats,
fowls, buffaloes, and methnas, are killed and eaten. Fish, when procurable
fresh, are made use o f; but usually the fish prepared in Manipur - is eaten
dry and half putrid. Milk, or any of its products, is avoided equally by all
the tribes : milk seems to be considered unclean and unfit for food. This
prejudice does not extend to the suckling of children, who are not removed
from the breast unusually early.
Use of Spirits, mode o f manu/aeture, ^e.— Spirits of various kinds are
in use by all the tribes; but the Kuki tribe seems to be most inclined to
abuse their use, as they get drunk on every opportunity. Amongst even the
most intemperate of the hill-men, there seems an entire absence of ill effects
from the excessive use of intoxicating drinks,—the tremblings, dyspepsia,
delirium tremens, and other nervous effects, appear unknown. The k in ^ of
liquor prepared by the hill-men vary; the chief are made from fermented
rice, also from a plant, (name unknown,) which yields a white, round, hard
seed, and which is planted expressly for the purpose. These liquors’ are all
fermented, but the process of distUlation is not practised among the hill
people. In the Manipur Valley a strong spirit like rum is distilled from
rice in certain villages inhabited by the L i ^ population; this spirit is sold
to the hill-men at a ^ u t four annas a quart bottle, and is eagerly purchased
by those who can afford it. A royalty is charged on the manufacture of this
spirit by the Manipur Government.
Use of Tobacco by the H ill Population.—Tobacco, simply dried, is of
universal use amongst all the tribes, from chQdhood to old age, and i&
partaken of in three forms—by smoking, chewing, and use of tobacco juice.
Snuffing is quite unknown. The use of the juice of tiie tobacco is apparently
 ( F’0 }

piHiuliur to ilie liibes imw uuJet- cousiJvtatiiiii, tbe Kowpoi Nagas and
the various Kuki tribes l>eiug most giveu to it. The juice is not swallowed,
but a small quantity is tossed under the tongue, and rotiiiued there for
some time ; it is afterwards spat out. I t is an ordinary civility for the hiil-
men, who practise this custom, to hand each other the small bamboo tube
containing the juice, just as the snuff-box was formerly so commonly ten­
dered among Euroiwans. The tobacco juice is prepared in a kind of hookali
tilled with water, nia<le of banilioo amongst the Nagas, and of clay or
bamboo amongst the Kukis. One of the main objects of tbe excessive
smoking that goes on from morning to night, among the women especially,
is the preparation of this juice, which is of ]>oisonous strength, and, even
used in the way it is, must be largely absorbed iulo tlie blood, thus afford­
ing an illustration of the toleration which the system acquires from the
prolonged nse of such a powerful dnig.
llealtK o f the IliU-men.—The hill-men generally are a hardy race, and
some of them show a remarkable indifference to cold. The Kukis have
been frequently seen asleep on tbe hard road, during the coldest month of
the year, n a k ^ , with the exception of their scanty breech cloths. The
disease which proves most fatal to the hill-men is small'po.x; this not nn-
frcqiiently rages in an epidemic form, aud makes sad ravages among them ; as
an individual attacked has a very poor chance of escape, their plan of treat­
ment being to remove the infected party to the jungl<», where they leave
him with a scanty sii]>ply of food aud water, to die or live as the fates
may decide : few, it neeil hardly be said, recover, the majority perish miser­
ably. Inoculation is practised by few of the tribes, and they show an
iiiiaceoiintablc indilfereiice generally to vaccination. Cliolora is unknown iu
the remote parts of the hills, but it not unrrequoutly invades the villages
near the Government road, and those lial>le to be visitctl by travellers from
Bengal, by whom the disease seems to be invariably introduced iu its epide­
mic form. Tlie most prevalent class of diseases common to the hill tract
under consideration are skin affections of various kinds, mostly induced aud
projiagated by the imclcanly habits of the people. Venereal affections are
said to be rare among all tlic tribes. Diseases of tbe eye, chiefly the results
of ulceration, are common. Goitre has never been seen. All tlie .affections
of the lungs seem almost unknown. Fevers are common, but they are
not dangerous to life, and even seldom seen to induce enlargements of the
spleen. Deformities are very rare—very old people are quite common in
all the vilbmes. The hill trilies have no kuowletlge whatever of medicine,
and when sick, the only remedies thought of are incantation and sacrifices
of animals: tliese sacrifices arc encouraged by the village priests,
who get for their perquisites the bodies of tbe animals slain; thus a
long illness frequently proves ruinous to a hill-man. To niwlicine they
do not look for a cure of dise.ase, but to sacrifices offered, as directed
by tbeir priests, to certain deities. All their goods and chattels may he
ex|iended unavailingly ; and when nothing more.is left for the inexorable
gods, their wives and cliildren are sold as slaves, to provide the means of
propitiating them. Iu sickness, therefore, the speedy recovery or the speedy
death of the ]^ticnts is desirable.
Weapons in nse among the H ill Tribes.—The w'eapons used indifferently
by all the trilies are the spear and dao; these v.-iry much in shape, length,
&c., differences which will iicreal'fcr he noted, when the tribes are considered
separately. The how and arrow (tVequentlv poisoned) is almost confined to
the Kuki. The use of tire-arms among the hill tribes subject to Manipur,
 ( 21 )

is as iDach restricted as possible. Concealed pit-falls, panjces, or pointed

bamboo stakes, spring arrows, &c.j are in use by all the tribis; the Kuki
especially makes great use of small panjees in his warlike expeditions.
These panjees, of which each man carries a quiver full, are about six or eight
inches long, shuttle shaped, aud with a double point; each hardened by fire,
and as shaqi as a needle: they are mostly used in casq of a retreat, during
^hich they are stuck all over tl\e road in the grass, where they cannot be
readily seen ; they inflict very nasty wounds.
Relations o f the Sexes, Marriage, Polygamy, Sye.—The relations of the
sexes among the hill tribes may be briefly stated to be a state of a not
extreme moral laxity before marriage, and the very opposite after it.
M a r r i ^ is entered upon by both sexes after they have arrived at full
maturity, and, as a matter of inclination on both sides, as a rule. Adul­
tery is considered a very serious offence, and is punished with death to the
male offender, the woman escaping without punishment. Polygamy is
practised, but is rare. Polyandry is quite unknown.
Religion and belief in a future state.—The hill tribe under consideration
have this in common, a belief in a deity and in a futnre state. They
recognize one Supreme Being, whose disposition is of a benevolent nature,
and numerous other inferior deities and evil spirits, inhabiting tbe lofty
peaks and inaccessible heights of the highest hills. Their worship generally
seems to consist of offerings and sacrifices, usually of animals, which are
used afterwards for food. Tlieir ideas of a future state vary much, but all
seem to believe in one. There is one curious custom which has a religious
significance, and which is common not only to all the hill tribes, but also
to the half-hinduized Loee population of the Manipur Valley; this is
" Namungba" or a periodical closing of individual villages. This custom
does not t ^ e place with any regularity, and its object is the worship of a
deity named Kajung Kurraie, when sacrifices of pigs, buffaloes, &c., are
made. One of the occasions is just before the jungle, which has be-n cut
down on their jhooms, is fired; this lasts for two days, and the villagers
are said to fast during that period; the village remains shut up during
the two days, and uo one is allowed either entry or exit; and it is also
affirmed that any one attempting to force an entrance during this period
would be liable to be killed. On other occasions the proceedings are of a
joyous nature, and may take place after a successful hunt, a warlike expe­
dition, a successful harvest, or other striking events: on these occasions
feasting and drinking are the order of the day.
Habits o f cleanliness.—^Like all hill-men, the tribes under Manipur
are by no means cleanly in their habits; on the whole, however, they would
compare favourably with either Cossyahs, Bhutcahs, or the tribes on the
north-west frontier, as the Waziris, Afridis, or Khybaris. Among them
the Kuki is decidedly the least cleanly. The Murring has the credit of
being the most cleanly, and next to him stands the Kowpoi. Individual
cleanly Kukis are pretty common, and in that case they are very cleanly,
washing frequently and wearing clean clothes.
Grime among the H ill Population.—Amongst the hill population crime
is not vety rife. Theft is, perhaps, the most common offence, and the
Tankhul tribes of Nagas are said to be more addicted to this offence than
the others; they frequently carry off cattle. See., from tbe Manipur Valley.
Human life is held of little account among the hill-men, and murder,
' especially if perpetrated on account of a blood feud, is considered lauda­
ble rather than otherwise. In the tribes more immediately under control
 ( 2^ )
this waste of life is kept in check by the Manipur Government; but still,
especially to the north, these blood feuds are the cause of much loss of
life. Occasionally traders are robbed, and it may be murdered, on the
roads leading from Kachar to Manipur and Burm ah; but such cases are
fortunately exceedingly rare.
The H ill Tribes individmlly.—Having, though imperfectly, described the
hill country under Manipur rule, and the customs of the hill-men generally,
it is now proposed examining the individual tribes and giving some account
of their manners and customs. In doing this, the customs, &o., of the larger
tribes of Nagas and Kukis will be described. To describe minutely every
shade of difference amongst the numerous sub-divisions of each tribe would
be not only tedious, but unprofitable.
Names o f the Naga Tribes.—First, the Nagas residing under Manipur
role are, the Kowpoi, Jatik, Kolya, Augami, or Guamei, Tankhul or
Luhupa, and the tribe which is not considered strictly Naga, the Murring.
The Kowpoi Tribe of Nagas.—The Kowpoi tribe have am o n ^t them the
following sub-divisions ;—
1 Sungbu, 2 Koiveng, 3 Kowpoi. The Korvpoi tribes chiefly inhabit the
hill tract lying near the Government , road leading from Kachar to
Manipur. Formerly, their villages were to be found some three or four
days’ journey south of the road, but on account of Lushai raids they have
been evacuated, and now the farthest off is only some three or four hours’
journey distant from the road in a southerly direction. To the north they
extend for about three or four days’ journey, and abut on the Jatik and
Kolya tribes. There are several villages of them settled in the Manipur
Valley, where they employ themselves in cultivating, also in carrying
firewoodand actiug as coolies. On account of the Lushai disturbances, chiefly
of late years, numbers of Kowpois have also settled in the Kachar District,
in Lakipur, Chandrapur, Banskandi, and also in the tea gardens; they
employ themselves in the gardens, and also in bringing firewood from the
jangles.
location, Origin, Number, ^e., o f the Kovpoi Tribe.—The Kowpoi tribe of
Nagas would appear to have occupied the position they now hold in the
hilb from great antiquity. Their villages are permanent. Their numbers
have decreased of late years and are given at about 5,000. The decrease is
mamly to be ascribed to fear of the Lusbais, to whose raids they lie ex­
posed, which causes them to leave their villages. The Kowpois state that
they originally came from a place on the hills to the south of the Manipur
Valley, but the Mauipuris place their origin at Khebu-Ching, near Bie
Aqui route, north of the Government road, from whence they spread to the
south. The Sungbu branch of the Kowpois are the strongest in numbers;
they inhabit the hilU to the north of the road, chiefly lying along the Aqui
route. The Koireng lie further north, and the Kowpoi along the line of
road. Among the three sub-divisions of the Kowpoi tribe the lairroage
differs much ; indeed, so great is the difference, that these sub-divisions ! s re,
in their intercourse with each other, to revert to the Manipur language a i
means of communication, which language, it may be here remarked, is t l . '
lingua franca of these hills, and is spoken % many individuals among the
tribes, especially those lying in more inunediate contact with the Manipur
ValW .
Facial and other eharaeteristies, dress, mode <f soeating Hair, ^e.—^The
facial cbaracterisiics of the Kowpoi tribe are as various as amongst the
other hilt clans; occasionally an almost parely. Moogcdian cast oounte-
 ( 23 )

nance will be observed, to be succeeded by one closdy approaebing the Arian

type. The statnre is moderate, and sometimes very short men are seen;
men are rare: they have generally well-shaped slendor figures, hat no
very prominent mnscular 'developement. Some of them have good looks,
and, not qnfreqnently, the youngest girls are prepossessing in appearance.
The hair is worn generally short, and the favorite style among the males is
sticking straight up from the head, the hair being cut to about an inch and
a half from the scalp, and occasion^ly a portion of the forehehd shaved.
Others wear the hair longer and cut straight round, divided in the middle;
those who adopt this fashion dsually wear a fillet of bamboo round
the forehead, confining the hair. Small moustaches and rudimentary
beards are occasionally seen. The women wear their hair in a fashion
resembling the Manipuris; the younger girls have their hair cut short
all over; after chis the hair is worn after the manner of the unmarried
Manipuris: the old women have the hair combed back. The dress of
the male is scanty; those living in the juugles only wear a small square
piece of cloth in front hanging below and covering the privates, and
confined to the waist by a string. In the valley of Manipur, and in
Kachar, a more decent costume is adopted : either a kilt-like piece of cloth
round the waist, or a short dhoti put on B en^lee fashion. The only other
article of clothing worn by the men is a thick sheet of cotton cloth, and
this only when the weather is cold. The women wear a piece of cotton
cloth of thick texture, which is put on in the same way aa the Manipuri
Fanek, and reaches to a little below the knee; this garment is confined
round the waist by a colored scarf with fringed ends. The oolont for
ordinary wear is usually of a muddy hew, with coloured stripes of various
widths; on holiday occasions, blue, with red stripes, is the favourite colour.
Over the shoulders is worn a scarf-shaped piece of cloth, generally of blue,
with a border and fringe of other colours. In the cold season a jacket is
sometimes worn resembling the Manipuri phurit, or women’s jacket. The
ornaments worn by the men are earrings of brass of various shapes, some­
times lai^e and heavy, but more frequently small and numerous; some of
the Kowpoi, especially those residing in the valley, wear a single ring like
the Manipuris. Necklaces of beads and shell are commonly worn; a
reddish pebble necklace is the most highly prized. On the upper arm an
ornament of brass is commonly worn; it is made of very thick wire with
a bell-shaped ball at either extremity; this is wound round the arm pretty
light about ten or twelve times, until a large deep ring is formed. Above
the calf of the leg numerous rings of cane, very thin, and generally coloured
black, are frequently worn. The ornaments amongst the women are smilar
to those of the men, but worn in larger numbers; the earrings are always
large and heavy, and the necklaces numerous; bracelets of brass are also
worn besides the upper arm ornament above-mentioned; the legs and ankles
are bare of omameots.
Villagtt, their lites, coniimction, village ctMtosia, ^c.—The sites of the
Kowpoi villages are generally on the slopes of the highest hills, and not
far from the to p ; occasionally a ridge, when flat enough, is selected as asite.
The Kowpois are much attached to their villages as the former homes, the
present graves of their ancestors are held in much esteem; and a village is
only abandoned with the greatest reluctance. The villages are usually
roughly fortified by a wooden palisade, but this is frequently in such had
repair aa to be unserviceable ; they are commonly of no great size. The
Louses of the Kowpois ate well adapted to the climate. In the more flour­
 ( 21 )

ishing villages they are large and substantially built. They are gable-ended,
have the ridge pole not in a horizontal position, but sloping from the front
to the rear, where it is, in comparison with the front, very low, and the
thatched roof on either side reaches the ground. The posts and h^m s are
often of great size, and of such excellent quality that for thirty or forty
ye.irs the only repairs required are to the thatch, and their thatching is so
good that the roof scarcely needs repmr for ten or twelve years. Excellent
thatching grass is found usually in the vicinity of the villages. Besides
their grain, all other articles of food and their more valuable property arc
kept in their granaries at a short distance from the dwelling houses. These
granaries have the Boors raised four or five feet above the ground; they
are thatched like the dwelling houses,' and have their floors and walls of
bamboo matting. Their positions are usually well sheltered, and their
doors are secured only by wooden bolts fastened outside ; but though this is
easy to be opened, a theft from a granary is almost unheard of. In the
grey of the morning, the females of the family are astir, and the village
resound with the blows of the long pestle in the wooden mortar, beating
out the rice from the husk. This finished, breakfast is cooked both for the
family and the pigs; for the latter, the husks mixed with other refuses
serves the purpose. Breakfast over, which it usually is about sun-rise, the
women proceed for water, which they fill into bamboo tubes and bring in
on their backs in baskets. Then they go for firewood, and this brought,
they sat about the internal economy of the house, that is, to see to their
husband’s drink being in proper quantity and quality, to their spinning or
to their weaving, or any of the other household occupations, except sweep­
ing the bouse clean, an act in which they have no pride. In fact, they
rather seem to glory in a dirty house, and iu having the front room half
covered with rice husk, in which the pigs are lying fast asleep or grunting
about, and fowls are busy seeking for food; the family, except the boys,
from the time they begin to wear a cloth round their waist, sleep in the
rear room of the bouse, and in it they also cook their mejvls. In the front
part any one who comes sits down. In it there is a fire-place, and along
the two sides arc placed boards or bamboo platforms for sitting or lying
upon. Some of these boards are as much as 24 feet long by 4 broad. If
not employed in the labors of the field or the chase, the men do little more
than loll about the house during the day, drinking their peculiar- drink,
a harmless one, consisting of pounded rice mixed with boiling water,
brought into fermentation by the addition of germinated paddy. In the
mornings and evenings, they will generally be found sitting in groups in
front of their houses, on large flat stones which cover the graves of deceased
rcl.-itivcs. They then appear to be enjoying themselves greatly; they are
exceedingly loquacious and speak always in a loud tone. Pipes containing
green tobacco arc then smoked, and at such a rate do they pull, they appear
to be smoking for a wager. I t is believed the pleasure of smoking is
nothing to them compared to that of holding in the mouth a sip of the
water of the bowl of the pipe, which has been well impregnated with the
fumes of the smoke passing through it, and that it is only for the purpose
of obtaining this that they so laboriously pull at their pipes morning and
evening.
Oh the »uij ec( o f tillage government.— Every village has three heredi­
tary officers, namely Khul-lakpa, Lup-lakpa, and Lampu; any officers
besides these are elected. If the hereditary Chief or Khul-lakpa be a man
of wealth, he will also be a man of influence, but usually this is not
 ( )

the case, and who the head of the village is, would he difficult for a stranger
to perceive. Before their subjection to Manipur, the most successful warrior
would have been the most inflaential man in the village; now wealth and
the faculty of speaking well, which doubtless in former days also had their
influence, render their possessors leading men. W ith the internal govern­
ment of the Kowpois or of any of the other hill tribes, the Manipur
Government does not interfere; they are left entirely to themselves, and,
looking at them casually, they appear individually to be under no control,
but the appearance is false. The authority of a hereditary chief they have
rejected, but each village has become a small republic, the safety of which,
experience has taught Sie members, is only to be gained by strictly observing
the rights of person and property; individuals infringing the laws or
usages of the community are punished by fine or even expelled. In a time
of scarcity closely approaching to &mine, it has been seen the granaries of
a lone widow sacredly preserved by a village, the inhabitants of which, ate
rice only when they received it from her. Theft, if the thief should happen
to be a married man, is punished severely, but a young unmarried man
might with impunity steal grain not yet housed, whilst theft from a granary
would subject him to the severest punishment. Young unmarried men are
acknowledged to be usually wild. According, as the village is large or
small, all the young men and boys assemble in one or several houses, which
to them for the time become theirs. These clubs are ruled over despotically
by the seniors amongst them, who exact from their juniors with unsparing
band service of all kinds. The young women also have their places of
resort, and between them aud the young men intercourse is quite unres­
tricted without leading to immorality, which is the exception. In the event
of any serious cases occurring amongst the Kowpois, the Manipur authorities
would interfere, but, as above observed, they, as weU as the other tribes, are
left pretty much to themselves in their internal government.
Marriage System, Although in the perfectly unrestricted intercourse
of the sexes which they enjoy, attachments between individiuls must
spring up, still their allianoes are formed usually with but little reference
to the liking of either of the parties for the other. This results fi-om the
cmtom of buying their wives. A man's son has reached an age when, in
his father's opinion, he ought to be wived. The father seta out in search of
a daughter-in-law, and having found one to please himself, he arranges for
her marriage. The fixed price of a wife is seven buffaloes, two daos, two
spears, two strings of beads made of conch shells, two car ornaments, two
black cloths, two eating vessels, two hoes, and what is called a meilon.
Less than this can be ^ven, and is usually; except with the rich, amongst
whom, they having paid a high price for a daughter-in-law, it is a subject of
boasting. 'The meilon is given by the family of the bride; it may te an
article of much value or of little, but without it, it is not thought that the
bride has been fully given. I t does not appear that the general disregard
of the affections produces unhappy results; infidelity is rare. But sous
and daughters do not at all times permit their relations to select their
wives and husbands, and choosing for themselves, run-away matches
arc occasionally made. 'Tliese matches create for a time much indig­
nation, but not usually of an unappeasable nature, and they are not
considered to bo such serious infractious of the general rules as tJ) require
the flight of parties out of the village; they fly merely to the house of
some friend, who affords them protection aud intercedes for them. In cases
of adultery, the woman cscaiics without punishment. Should the adulterer
 ( 2fl )
be killed, the woman is usually taken back by her husbw d; but if not, her
return may be refused, and the family of the adultress is obliged to refund
the price paid in the first instance to tbem by her husband, and also to
pay her debts. Why these expenses are not made to fall upon the adulterer,
they cannot explain. The adulterer, if he did not fly the village, would bo
killed; aware of'the penalty attached to his offence, he dare not stay, and
is glad to leave his house and property to be destroyed by the injured
husband. During the continuance of the discussions, the village council
must be supplied with drink and something to e a t; these the offending
parties furnish and consider themselves lucky if they get off without
being entirely cleared out. On the death of a man’s wife, the extraordinary
practice exists of taking from the husband " munda,’’ or the price of her
bones If he be alive, this will be demanded by her father ; in default of
the lather, by her nearest of kin. Munda is also payable on the death of
their children. On each demand of “ munda,’’ the demander kills a p ig ;
the mnutia or pi ice is fixed at one buffaloe. No " munda’’ is payable for
person killed by enemies or wild beasts, or whose death has been caused by
any swelling, or cholera, or small pox. “ Munda’’ is only demanded in the
event of the wife dying in her husband’s house. Should she die in that off
her paienta, no munda can be demanded. Should a womatx die in child­
birth, her child is not permitted to live, but is buried with her. This
custom, which formerly u s ^ to be practised, is not now allowed according to
Manipuri statements. I f the husband shall die before the wife, tbe wife
is taken by the husband’s brother. She cannot return to her paternal home
as long as there are any near male relatives of her husband living. Poty-
gamy is permitted, but not largely practised. In the event of either
married party wishing a divorce, the rule is that, should the consent be
mutual, there is no difficulty; the couple simply separate. I f the wish for
a separation uomes from the woman, and the husband is agreeable, her pnce
has to be returned; but if the man wishes to send away his wife, which he
may do with or without her consent, then he is not entitled to it. In some
cases where the parties contracting marriage are very poor, and the bride­
groom is unabk to pay at once what has been agreed on for his wife, she
remain- in her.fiither’s house as a pledge until the debt is wiped off, when
the man may Remove his bride to his own house. If a match should break
down from any cause before being completed, the presents given are
returned. With regard to the custom of the brother taking over LL
deceased brother’s widow, it is said that the brother entitled to the woman
m ay refuse to her, in which case she is free to marry any one. Should
the widow not •be willing to be taken by her deceased husband’s brother,
and her parents agree with her, her price doubled must be relumed U> the
brother. One reason for the brother marrying his deceased brother’s widow
is alTO said to be, that in such a case he either obtains his wife free or f6r a
nominal consider.ition.
Cutlnm at burial.—On the death of a Kowpoi Naga a feast is given
by his surviving relations to tbe friends of the family and others should the
|iarties be well off. The cor{^ is buried on the day of death in a ooffin,
in which, under the liody, are placed a hoe, spear, cooking pots and cloths
for his use jn the other world. Tho grave is thus prepared: a trench is
first made, and at right angles to this the ground is excavated and a recess
made, into which tbe poffin is inserted, the earth being afterwards filled in.
This grave is used again and again liefiirc a new is opened. In prcjiaring
the grave, the groiuid is first excavated by the immcdute ndatious of tho
 { *7 )

deceased; shonld there be no near rektions, a friend is selected for the

office. A stone, either flat or upright, resembling those so common in the
Khasia Hills, is placed over the grave. Each village has a burial ground
within its limits, where succeeding generations are interred. In the grave
of a woman is buried wearing and spinning implements and cooking pots;
in those of children, according to the sex, what would be required for an
adult. Amongst some of the Kowpois the side of a hill is excavated for
the reception of the coffin, and the vault, filled and closed with earth and
stones.
Jrms, mode o f fighting, ^ e .—The arms of tbe Kowpoia are the spear and
dSo; those lying farthest north are armed much as the Angami Nagas are,
and have lo n ^ r spears than the others, and shields of wicker work,
ornamented with painted fib re s and dyed hair; these shields are of
great length and curved slightly across. The ordinary Kowpoi spear
is about four feet in length, the extremity opposite the head is shod
with an iron spike for the convenience of sticking in the ground; the shaft
is of wood, quite plain, and the head about eight or ten inches long, of the
ordinary flat spear shape; this is usually kept sharp, and has a close fitting
leather sheath for its protection.
The dao {an instrument resembling a bill hook, and universal amongst
all the hill tribes) in use amongst them, is usually of the ordinary B e n ^ i
pattern, with a slight curve towards the extremity, and is worn stuck in
the waist cloth, either at the side or more usually behind. In the use of the .
spear the Kowpois are very expert; it is thrown at the object, and by
constant practice with bamboos, &c., they have the faculty of aiming and
throw n^ the weapon with ,& tal skill. Like most of the hill tribes, the
Kowpoi aims at surprizing his enemy, and after throwing the spear, comes
to close quarters with the dao. In fighting, the only protection those
of the Kowpois who do not use the shield avail themselv^ of is a
wrapper of thick cloth folded round the abdomen several times. In
defending villages, roads, &c., the Kowpoi also ma&es use of stones and
pacjis. Feuds are numerous, and often arise from very simple Causes, or
have descended from such ancient times that the cause of the feud handed
down from generation to generation has, in process of time, become either
unknown or a mere matter of conjecture. Tbe Kowpois generally are so
thoroughly under control at the present day, that these feuds are suppressed
and not allowed to assume sanguinary proportions.
Religion and religions observations.—The Kowpoi believes in one supreme
deity whose nature is benevolent. This deity is the creator of all things.
Man, they say, was created by another god, named Dumpa-poi, by the
orders of the supreme deity, but they can give no account of the creation,
^ e r e is also another spirit or deity powerful, hut bad; this spirit of evil
is connected with the supreme deity. They reco^ize also numerous s{firits,
good and bad, who inhabit certain parts of the hills, chiefly those inacces­
sible to man, and who require to be propitiated by offerings and sacrifices.
After death the souls descend to an underground world, where they are
met by the shades of their ancestors, who introduce them into their new
habitation; the life they lead in the undergfround world is an exact counter­
part of what they have led in this—the rich, remain rich, tbe poor, poor.
After living their lives thus over again, they return to the upper world,
and are born, live aud die, uncouscious of their former sta te ; the bad,
however, are auuihiiated. A murdered man’s soul receives that of his
murderer in the next world on his death, and makes him his slave. Each
 ( «8 )

village generally has a priest who directs the sacrifices, and also acts as
the physician, performing sacrifices and incantations for the recovery of
the sick. These priests are not held in much veneration, but do no other
work; after a sacrifice the priest claims the carcass of the animal slain.
Their worship consists of offerings, omens, sacrifices and divination by ex­
amining the slaaghtered animals. Any one may become a priest, the office not
being heredita^. Of their superstitions, little need be said. Before going
6n a journey, they hold up by the wings a fowl; should the animal cross its
right foot over the left, the omen is good ; the opposite, bad. Egg-break­
ing, as among the Khasia tribes, is also practised. H gs are Slaughtered,
and gfood or omens read from the position of the iuternal organs. A
number of marks is rapidly made with the finger nail or a piece of bamboo
on the ground; these are afterwards counted: an even number of scratches
is unlucky. A piece of green gringer is cut in two ; one-half is placed on
the ground, with the cnt side up, and the other piece thrown on it from
a short d isto c e ; should the cut surfaces meet, the omen is good. On a
journey, as with the Manipuris, meeting a mole is very unlucky, aud they
try to secure and kill the animal. The barking of a deer in front of them
is unlucky; so are the cries of various birds.
Festival*, Oames, Amusements, Sye.—^Tlie festive occasions among the
K ow ^is are numerous, and are characterized by feasting, drinking, dancing
and singing, and an unmoderate amount of the haw haw, or peculiar cry of
the hili-men, without which no entertainment of any kind would be
complete. The following are the chief festivals, but feasts may be gpven
at any time, as when a villager wishes to entertain his friends or upon any
other joyous occasions. The Kowpois are very particular iu observing
tiieir various festivals and celebrate them with all their m ight; first, the
Enghan, which happens in or about December. Daring the five days of
its continuance, all the inhabitants of the village dressed in their best
attire, keep up the dance and song, interrupted only by short intervals
of repoae and breaks dedicated to feasting. Next, the Ringnai, in
or about January, which lasts for three days. In one day during this
festival the men and women fetch separately the water for their own use.
The men having killed pigs, take a portion for themselves, and give a
pCrtion to the women, and having cooked them separately, they eat them
separately, the men in the house of the head of the family, the women each
in her own house. Aq effigy of a man mode of a plantain is hung on a
tree, and at it they throw pointed bamboos or sticks. Should the javelin
strike it on the h e ^ , the thrower, it is said, will kill an enemy; but if it
lodges in the belly, the thrower is to be blessed with plenty of good. This
festival is said to be in honor of their ancestors, but the only visible sign
of this is sprinkling their graves with their particular drink. On the
termination of the Ringnai, they go through the ceremony of taking the
omens in regard to their place of cultivation, but this seems to have
descended to them merely as a ceremonial relic of former tim es; for the
circle of cultivation is never broken, let the omens be what -they may.
After the Enghan, the fence or stockade around the village is put in order.
I t is then also customary to choose a man to go at midnight to the outer
entrance of the v ills ^ to take the omens regarding their welfare in the
ensqing y » r. If, whilst at the entrance, he hears anything like the dragging
of wood, tigers will do mischief; if the falling of leaves, there will be much
sickness. On these occasions, young men have been kuown to cause the
omeu-taker no smiiill fright, but such pranks are considered sure to bring
 ( 29 )

punisliment on their performers, and not long ago a young man after having
played the tiger, died on his way to the valley ; his death was universally
attributed to his having incurred the anger of the deity on the occasion.
In February thei-e is a festival of three days’ continuance, in which the ears
of the children bom after the last festival of this nature are pierced. This
festival loses its interest for those who have frequently participated in it, and
is looked forward chiefly by those to whom it is uew. These festivals
over, the cutting of the jungle for cultiv.ation is commenced, which, when
finished, is crowned with the festival of “ Oodni Yung" or drinking the
juice of the ginger. At a festival which occurs about July, they clear off
jungle, the paths about tbeir villages and leading to their fields—a most
"rtsml and necessary operation at that season of the year. One night of the
month of August and one of September they dedicate to feasting. Besides these
regular festivals, they have other occasions of rejoicings, as when a person who
has reaped a good harvest determines to treat the vilLago and all comers. This,
if done at all, is done in no stinted manner, and under the influence of plen­
tiful potations ; the dance and song are joyous. The Enghan festival or
Guai-guai, as some of the Kowpois name it, is the one held in honor of their
ancestors. The Bingnai seems to correspond with the “ Laihdraoba” of the
Manipuris. The reasons for the males and females bringing wiiter sepa­
rately during this festival is to begin this ceremony with the making of new
liquor; and the separate cooking and eating of the sexes is merely a mark of
respect to their gods. After the festival of the “ Oodui Yung” or
“ Mahlong,” as it is also called, when the cutting down of the jungle on the
jbooms is finished, a curious ceremony takes place. All the people bathe
after the work is completed, and, in addition, their agricultural implements
are also dipped in a running stream, as they also are supposed to be
exhausted by their labors; thus refreshed, the tools are hung up in their
houses until again required for use. The g^ames amongst the juvenile
population are the Khang Sanaba of the Mauipuris, only, however, played
with the seed of the creeper; they also have the spinning top, spun with
a string, and exactly like those in use amongst English boys. The adults
seem to have no other games or amusements other than practising javelin
throwing to make themselves efficient with the spear, and the ever-popular
amusements of dancing and singing. Their songs are handed down orally,
and none of them appear to be understood in full, the langu.age being
difibrent from that in daily use; their burden, so far as can be understood,
are various war songs, love songs, &c. Dancing is a steady source of amuse­
ment amongst them. In nearly alk cases the dancing is accompanied by a
chant in unison with the music of their only instrument, the drum,
which scarcely varies in spite of the number of dances they have. In their
festivals and dances, the costume for '.’ e men consists of a kilt-shaped piece
of red cloth round the loins; a scotch wool cravat of gay colours is worn as a
scarf round the waist; gaiters of white cloth with marked spots, arc also
commonly worn. Tinsel ornaments and long feathers are worn on the head,
and a favorite ornament with the men only, is a broad, gaudy coloured, natural
butterfly’s wing attached to, and spreading wing-like from, each ear.
In their dances the men carry d£os with the handles ornamented with
coloured bamboo strips, and occasionally spears; these are twirled round in the
hand in unison with the music. The dress of the girls, for only the younger
of the women who are unmarried engage in them as a rule, is similar to
their every-day costume, but of better quality and gayer colours. Tinsel
ornaments are worn in circlets round the head.
 ( 30 )
Dance first—" Han-sengay.” —^In this a circle is formed by young men
and girls, who move round, singing at the same time, the men heading the
circle, the women bearing bamboo tubes which they rap on the ground in
time with the innsic of the drum. The step used is one step forward, then
a bop, using alternate feet. The movement is slow at first, gradually in­
creasing. A t the close of the dance, as in most of the others to be described,
the dance closes by two girls dancing together in the centre of the circle ;
the step is the same, but they change about as in a quadrille, and great
use is made of movements with the hands. This and all the dances end by
the men meeting in a close circle, holding up their and giving vent,
simultaneously, to a long drawn hoey, once repeated.
Dance second.—In this, named “ Tunanga lamna," or the young
women's dance, a circle is formed of young men and girls who dance, but
without moving round so quickly; .in the centre are two couples, men and
girls facing each other. These dance, the girls opposite each other chang­
ing side and turning ronnd as in a quadrille; the step is the same as in the
last.
Dance third.— “ Hengnaga Tuna.” —Two rows of men and girls mixed,
opposite e.acli other, holding the hands clasped, which are occasionally lifted
together in time with the music, step from side to side alternately, then
the line advances and retires, moving the joined hands backwards and
forwards. Dance of two hr four girls by couples in the centre to finish.
Dance fourth.—" Tinkum qaeina Tananga lamay.”—In this only two
;irls dance in the centre of a circle, affecting much motion with the hands,
le circle is stetionary.
Dance fifth .—“ Quanlam.” —Young men’s dance. In this only the
men engage two and two abreast in a circle, which moves round at first all
together; the step is a single step forward, followed by a pause in the stoop­
ing position, a sort of goose step, every one shouting ho, ho, ho, ho.
In the latter part of the dance the circle divides into two, and go round one
within the other in opposite directions; the d rd c again forms as before, and
they meet in the centre and indulge in hoeys in quick time, finishing up
with howls. This is a very favorite dance, and they carry it on sometimes
for days with scarcely an interval for repose or refreshment.
Cnllh'ation.—^Amongst the Kowpois the general system of cultivation
is by jhooming, which has been alre ^ y described ; they have no permanent
cultivation, save in the small valley alluded to formerly.
Hunting and fishing.—The Kowpois do not take so much to hunting
as some of the other tribes; on the p art of the hills occupied by them,
there is not much in the way of game, except deer, and these they
occasionally manage to kill. They also set traps for game. In the smaller
streams, they poison and thus capture the fish ; they also form dams for the
same purpose, but do not use nets. When a successful hunt takes place,
the villagers hold a feast on the products ; the man who first wounds the
animal is entitled to its head, which he hangs up in his house as a trophy.
Slaverg and Lallnp.—Slavery prevails to a great extent amongst the
Kowpois. Slaves are divided into two classes—Asalba and Minai. In
the former, when a slave is sold, a party other than the seller binds himself
as security for the late owner to refund the money given for him in the
event of the slave’s death within a time agreed on Miuai—When the
slave under this system dies, the loss falls on the proprietor for the time.
Poor people frequently sell tliemselves or their children for a certain sum,
upon the repayment of which the jiarties are i^aiu free. Slaves not
 ( 31 )

unfrcquently abscond and conceal themselves in the Manipur Valley. If

the party in whose house the slave takes refuge he willing to retain him,
he may do so on refunding the original price paid. On the other hand,
should the slave not be retained, he must be returned to the original owner.
Female slaves cost about rupees fifty, and male from rupees fifty to rupees
seventy. There is no ^stem amongst the Kowpois resembling the lallup
of the Manipuris.
Use o f Tubaeco, Spirits, §-e.—^Tobacco is used in all three forms mentioned
in the general description of the customs of the hill tribes; the weed is
consumed in large quantity. Their drinks are as already described.
Tradt and Occupations.—^The Kowpoi is not much given to trading,
which is mostly confined to the bartering of the surplus productions of his
fields for articles of luxury and salt, procurable in the bazars of the Mani.
pur Valley. Those also living nearest Kachar take fowls, cotton, ginger,
&c., to the bazars nearest their hills in the Kachar Valley. They have no
manufactures, except the articles of clothing, &c., wliich they wear. They
do not work in metals.
Crime.—Crime is not very rife amongst the Kowpoi tribe; they are
generally honest, and do not interfere, as a rule, with t raders and travellers
passing through their country, although the levy of black mail from traders
is not uncommon. Cases have happened in the Kowpoi country where
traders have been robbed and murdered, but these are rare, and, as a rule,
solitary travellers may pass through them with perfect safety.
The Kolya Tribes of the Nagas.—Occupying the hill tract of country
lying north of the Kowpoi tribe, and abutting nn the Angami tribe of
Nagas, lie the Kolya tribes of Nagas. The sub-divisions of this tribe arc
thus given—
Tangal. Mnrr&m. Threngba. - Meeysng-kluuig.
Mow. Purul. Meitheiphmn. Xokpo-khool.
These tn h s number in all about 6,000. Their origin is said to be from
the Angami tribe, and their languages are similar. Their facial character­
istics, dress, and manner of wearing their hair, closely resemble those of
the Angami tribe Their customs difier but slightly from those of the
Kowpoi. Fei JS which were common amongst them iorraerly have been of
late years kept in check by the Manipur Government, and on this account
their numbers have recently increased. West of the Luhlupas are the Mow
and Murram tribes. They state themselves to be of one common stock,
but they are at deadly feud, though closely allied by intermarriage.
They have two festivals in the year, like the two principal ones of the Kowpois.
Ears are pierced in tbe cold weather; it suits convenience. The houses of ,
the Mow tribe are gable-ended, and the walls are h ig h ; those of the M ur­
rains are the counterparts of the Kowpois. In both tribes the young men
never sleep at home, but at their clubs, where they keep their arms always
in a state of readiness. Amongst the Murrams, the married men even
sleep at the resorts of the bachelors, a custom resulting from their sense
of insecurity from attack. The distinctions of families and the strict rulw
in vogue amongst other tribes against the marriage of the same family arc
observed amongst both the Mows and Murrams. For a wife it is usual to
give something, but the slaughter of men, specially amongst the Murrams,
has made women greatly exceed the men, and a wife can easily be obtained for
a kes or coarse cloth. Adultery is punished as it is amongst the Kovvjiois.
Theft is of ordinary occurrence, and is not amongst these tribes or the
Luhupamen considered disgraceful. If the things etolcu ate Ibuud, they arc
 ( 32 )
(aken hack ; if not, it might he dangerous to accuse a man of theft. The
whole of the Mow tribe is under one chief. The tribe is comprised in twelve
villages, none of which consists of less than one hundred houses, and one of
which numbers four hundred. From each house the chief receives one
basket of rice. The Murrams are confined to one large villzige of, perhaps,
nine hundred houses; there was formerly aaotker village, but it has b ^ u
destroyed. In the single village of the Murrams there are two chiefs. For
this singularity, they account thus—A former chief had two sons, of which
the younger, who was the greatest warrior, desired to usurp the place of his
elder brother. He urged his father to give him the chiofship. The old
chief, afraid of his youngest son, and unable to deprive the eldest cf lik
birth-right, determined on a stratagem. He told his eldest son to go and
secretly bring the head of an enemy. This having been done, th e ' old
chief summoned his sons, and, giving each a packet of provisions, desired
them to proceed in such directions as they chose in search of enemies,
for ho who brought in first the head of an enemy should be king. The
brothers took their leave, the youngest proceeding where he thought he
would soonest procure a head, the eldest bending bis steps to where he
had concealed the one already taken. This he brought out of its conceal­
ment, and proceeded with it in triumph through the village. Nor was the
youngest long in returning with a head, but having b ^ n preceded by his
brother, the chiefship was declared to be the right of the eldest. This, how­
ever, did not satisfy the younger son; he persisted on being called chief, and
the matter was compromised by both being allowed to remain, one as the
great, the other as the little chief; neither of them has any fixed revenue.
B ut the village, when it is necessary, build the great chiePs house, and they
give him the hind leg of all game caught: the lesser chief has no right to
any thing; the houses in his vicinity, however, do at times give him a leg
of game. Formerly, no one was allowed to plant his rice until the great
chief allowed it, or had finished his planting. This mark of superiority is
not at present allowed by the lesser chief, who plants without reference to
his superior. There are many prohibitions in regard to the food, animal and
vegetable, which the chief should eat, and the Murrams say the chiePs post
must be an uncomfortable one on accouut of these restrictions. In sickness
they make small offerings to the deities, or give a fe ^ t to the poor of the
v i l l a s , but their priests or priestesses are not respected sufficiently to make
them, as amongst the Kowpois, reduce themselves to destitution by their
offerings. Slavery is unknown amongst them ; they cultivate in the same
manner as the Luhupas on terraces. The next tribe, Mecyang-khang, is com­
posed of nine villages, situated to the south of the Murrams. I t partakes
more of the character of the Kowpois than of its northern neighbours.
The Mecyang-khang Village is celebrated for its ,fine terraces for cultivation.
The tribe does not keep slaves, but some of its members, it is believed, buy
them with the view of f i n i n g a profit from their sale. Each village has
its chief, a chief in nothing but name. Amongst the nine villages com­
posing this tribe is that of Tangal, which claims to be the birth-place of the
establisher of the present Manipur dynasty. This tribe, the Murrams and
Mows, do not go bare behind, but wear a black cloth round them like a
tight dhoti. This cloth is ornamented with rows of cowrie shells.
Tke Angami or Gmmai Trihe.—The tribe which is now to be described
is the large one lying immediately north of the Kolya, the Angami, or,
as it is called by the Manipuris, “ Guamai,” The tribe is sub-divided into
the following, according to their relative positions. These sub-divisions.
 ( 33 )

although recoguized amongst themselves and by the Maaipuri, arc unimport­

ant, and chiefly refer to names of villages—
L ying to the N orth. To the South. ■
Monjutnai
Siimmumai Nanuag.
Lamb-ta
Thebomai or Eohima
The Manipuri Government, it should be mentioned, has been but lately
deprived by the British Government of all control over the Angami Naga
tribes, a ratification of Iwuudary having been deemed necessary, which ex­
cludes them from Manipur Hill T enitory; the description given below is,
however, still retained.
Location, NumberSi Origin, ^ c .—The Angami tiibe of Nagas are under
both British and Manipur rule, part of them lying to the north of the
boundary line between Manipur and Assam, part to the south. Those under
Manipur rule are said to be most numerous, although the area occupied by
them is less in extent. They are Said to number about 30,000, who.,are
under M anipur; and their nnmbers'would appear to have rem ain^ nearly
stationary for many years. This conntry commences about three days’jour­
ney north of the Manipur Valley, and extends about four days more to the
north-west, until the boundary line is reached. Prom east to west the extent
of hill territory occupied by them is about a seven-days’ journey. To the
east they border on the Tonkhul; to the west, the Nagas inhabiting north
Kachar, Tularam's country as it is called, 'fheir origin is given by them­
selves thus ;—There is a jhecl situated in the Angami country; from this
jheel three men emerged, one i-emaiued in the country and became an
Angami, one went towards North Kachar, and the remaining one towards
Manipur. Thus were formed three tribes of hill-men, Kacharima,
Angami .and Mow.'
Facial and other characterisliea, dress, Sfc.—The Angami in feature pos­
sesses a greater regularity tlian most of the other Naga tribes, and the
Mongolian features are scarcely at all marked. In general facial characteris­
tics they more resemble the Maori of New Zealand than any other tribe on
tbe frontier. They are generally tall, of spare frames, but straight and
muscular; in breadth and depth of chest they are inferior to the Bhutias for
example, but their lower limbs are usually better develojied. Round the
waist, they wear a short piece of cloth worn like a k ilt; this is fastened by a
girdle of cloth round tlie waist, and reaches but a short way below the h ip ;
the cloth is of cotton and black in colour, with three or four rows of closely-
placed cowrie shells stitched upon it longitndinally. They wear also a thick
cotton sheet on ordinary occasions, of a drab colour, with narrow coloured
stripes; for a better occasion, dark blue, with bright red and yellow stripes on
the borders. They occasionally wear closely-fitting gaiters of fine 'matting,
reaching from below the knee to the-ankle. The hair is sometimes worn
very short in front, hot in this a longer portion is left behind, which is tied
up into a stiff little pig-tail with black ribbon or cotton; occasionally, the
hair is worn long, parted in the middle and without the tail. The ornaments
in use amongst the men are for the ear; bits of string and small quantities
of dyed cotton thread both in the lobes of the ears and in the upper cartil-
lagc; small brass rings sometimes in great numbers; occasionally, large brass
rings of various patterns and very heavy. For the neck the most common
ornament is half of a large white shell, which is worn at the back of the neck ;
occasionally, two halves of the same kind of shell worn one on cither side of
 ( 34 )

the neck. Bead necklaces and strings, of pipe-^tem-shaped pieces of shell,

are also worn. Above the elbow, bnt rarely, they place a ring of elephant’s
tusks. Like the Kowpoi, rings of thin cane are frequently placed above the
calf of the leg. The women wear a kilt-shaped garment of white cloth, reach-
ing about balf-way to the knee; over this, from under the breasts, a petti­
coat-like cloth reaching below the knee, also white; overall, a knotted sheet,
worn as among the Khasia, concealing the bust; this is of colouried doth
for the young women and of white for the old. The hair is thus worn.
Before marriage all the girls have their heads shaved all over. After mar­
riage, the hair is allowed up to grow, and when long enough, is parted in
the centre, combed back, and gathered into a loose knot tied with a hair
string low down on the neck. The hair, from constant shaving, is long and
heavy. Before marriage, the girls wear a piece of aheh, aoout two inches
broad, fastened to a string pa^ed through a hole in the lobe of the ear.
After marriage this is removed, and the ear left bare of ornaments.
Numerous stciugs of beads aud shell reaching to the waist are worn.
They have also brass ornaments on the npper arm like those oi the Kow-
pois.
TiUafes, their construetion, government, ^ e .—The villages of the Anga-
mis are permanent, and are placed in situations similar to those of the
Kowpois; the construction of the houses is also similar, bat the mode of the'^
thatching is different, and is the same as that in ordinary use. Their vil­
lages are occasionally of great size, containingas many as one thousand
houses. All the villages are well fortified by ditches, stone walls, and strong
palisades. The office of chief or headman of a village is not bereditaiy,
and there may be more than one in each village; they are selected for their
fighting qualities, and when more than one chief exists, they seem to form a
council. Each village has its own chief and peculiar government apart from
the others, there being no central authority among them to whom they owe
allegiance. This is one reason for the village feuds which are so common
amongst them, but the evil is not unmitigated, as their form of government
prevents their combining in any formidable number for raids on their neigh­
bours. Like the Kowpois, the young men slet-p in a house or bouses apart,
hut unlike them, again, there is no similar restraint put upon the young
women and girls, who have therefore opportunities for immoral behaviour
which they are not slow tc take advantage of. For one year after marriage
the young mairied men are kept with the others a t night.
Roads, Water, ^e.—The roails in the Angami cou«iry are narrow, rough
and steep paths. W ater is generally found close to the vill^es, which de­
pend entirely upon the little streams flowing down the hill si^-s.
Cb*A ms at Birth, Marriage and Death.—On the birth of a child, the woman
is carefully secluded in her house alone with the child for five days; during
this tWhe she is fed only on fowls. The meaning of this seetns to be tla t
the woman and all her surroundings are nnclean. After the live days have
elapsed, all the woman’s clothes are washed, and the clay pots used by her
since her confinement for cooking thrown away. She may now mix with the
v ill^crs as before, who make her small presents of food, drink, &e. There is
no special rejoicing or festive preparations on the birth of a ciiild. In one
Angami village formerly female infanticide prevailed; it was put a stop to by
the late Agent Colonel McCullocb. From recent enquiries made, it would
appear that the practice has not been revived, and it has no existence in any
other of the Angami villages. Marriages are thus arranged amongst them.
The father of the young man or girl first makes proposals to the family
 ( 36 )

with whom he wishes his boy or gitl to intermarry. In nearly all cases the
wishes of th e young people are first ooosalted. The father of the youth,
as a preliminary, gives to the father of the girl a pig and a spsar,. but
receives notbing' in return. On the wedding day, the y o u ^ couple
sepuately parade the village with boskets containing liquor in gourds,
with which they treat the vDlagers. The bride then, accompanfed by four
or five of her female friends, proceeds to the bridegroom's house, where she
regales them with fowls. This completes the ceremony; but, as before
mentioned, the young bridegroom is not allowed to remain at night with
his wife for one year. The o^ect of this is to allow the woman’s hair to
grow before she has a chfid, as having children before the hair is long
enough to tie behind is considered amongst them to be reproach. As a
rule, the women remain faithful to tbeir husbands after marriage, and
adultery is uncommon; the punishment, when it does occur, is death to the
male offender. The woman has her hair cut off and her nose slit Divorce,
when the consent is mutual, is easily arranged, the woman taking her pro­
perty. A man may put away his wife with or without her consent.
Divorce is rare. The oostora of a widow marrying her deceased husband’s
brother prevails, as amongst the Kowpois; “ Mundoo,” or the price of wife’s
bones, is not demanded on any occasion. On a death occurring amongst
the Angami, a feast is only prepared for the deceased’s family and friends.
'The burial t^ e s place on the day of death, and a rude kind of coffin is used for
the corpse. The grave is dug about four or five feet deep and horizontal;
a dfio, spear, and a chicken are bitried with the corpse, whose ornaments are
not removed; an upright stone is afterwards placed on the grave.
Jrm , of fighting, fends, ^c.—All the Angamis are armed with
spears of about six feet and a half in len g th ; the iron head a foot and a
half long, and about three inches broad at the widrat p a rt; the opposite
end is shod with an iron spike, as with the Kowpois; the shaft is of wood,
and from immediately below the head about to foot from the iron-spiked
end, it is ornamented with goat’s hair in close cut rings, red above, and red
and black below. On the war path, each man has two of these spears and
a wicker work shield, ornamented and painted as amongst the northern
Kowpois. D5os, which are heavy and straight, broad at the extremity, are
only carried by the most noted warriors, whose privilege it is to wear & em ;
an ordinary Angami would meet with ridicule if he assumed the wearing
of the dfio until he had qualified himself by many deeds of bloodshed for
the honor. The spear is thrown at the enemy with great force and preci­
sion, and during their encounters the combatants perform a kind of war
dance, advancing, retreating, and leaping in the air with great agility,
nttering a t the same time guttural cries. The spear, not in use, is held in
the hand which grasps the shield. - Bows and arrows are not u s ^ by any
section of the Angamis, but panjees are common; they are also very
dexterous at stone throwing by band. When an attack by one vUlage on
another is determined on, like the Bhutias, the custom is not unfrequent
amongst them of giving warning to the opposite village before the attack,
but w ey do not name any time for the same. When the contending
parties are pretty well matched, they usually % h t out in the open_ away
from the village. When a weaker v illa ^ is attacked, they await the
attack from behind their village fortification. Should a village be taken,
every man, woman, and child in it is slain, and the village burned. When
peace is desired, one man from either side meet and exchange spears and
drink b o t h e r , a fowl is killed when peace is finally concluded. Occasion­
 ( 86 )

ally a meie Ivuce is arranged, the (larties meeting again after a lime agreed
on. The heads of the slain are cut off and removed by the victorious
p.ai'ty; after the hair has been removed, which is kept for ornamenting
their arin.s, the hc.ids are buried outeide, but if the headman of a v illi^
is killed, his head will be kept in the house of the opposing headman.
Feuds m.ay arise from the most trifling cause, as disputes about water,
their rive fields, &c. Blood feuds amongst individuals are kept alive by a
custom by which men may be hired to carry on a quarrel when the male
members of a family are either wanting or unable to do so. So long as the
heads of one village are kept by the opposite party, the fend remains active,
the surrender of the heads oi rather skulls ends the quarrel for the time.
Religion and religions observations, «nperstUions, ^c.—^The Angamis,
like the Kowpois, believe in a future state; also in a supreme deity of a
benevolent disposition, who inhabits the inaccessible heights of the highest
bills. After death they go to another world;' at the entrance they are met
by a doorkeeper; should the soul be that of a man who has been a great
warrior, hunter or snake-killer, then he is received courteously; if not,
small notice is taken of him. Like the Kowpoi idea, they here live tfieir
lives over again, and are afterwards born again into the world; this goes
on seven times, when they are finally changed into insects, especially butter­
flies; some species of which, on this account, they carefully refrain from in­
juring. They are not aware of any differeuae in the treatment of the good
and the bad. Their village priests resemble those of the Kowpois, but
they only s.acrifice fowls on ordinary occasions; on the death of a relative
other animals are killed. Their superstitions relating to journeys, &c., differ
but little from those of tlie Kowpois.
Festivals, Games, Amusements, ^ e .—Their festivals have a general re­
semblance to those of the Kowpois, but the women do not dance. Augpist
and September are the months for their chief festivals, but no reason can
be given by them for this, except that it is the custom: the festivals con­
sist of feasting, drinking, dancing, and singing, in which latter all join.
They have no musical instruments of any kind, and their only accompani­
ment to the song and dance is clapping the hands. The games for the
juveniles are Kang sannaba and the peg top.
Cullivalioti.—Amongst the Angamis jhoom cultivation is rather the
exception than the ride, aud all, or nearly all, their rice crops are raised
on hill slopes regularly terraced. These terraced slopes are regularly
manured, the manure being furnished by their cows, of which they keep
large numbers, instead of the buffaloe and m ethna; the manure is care­
fully incorporated with the soil, which is watered by trenches, into which
a stream from the hill slope is led.
Use of Tobacco, ^e.—Tobacco is used by them in the same form as
amongst the Kowpois, but the use is much more restricted, young people
using the weed sparingly, old people more freely. The liquors u s ^ are as
among the Kowpois.
Hunting, fishing, ^o.—Angamis make use of their dogs in tbe chase.
This animal is a large, long haired variety. The spear is only, used in
hunting. Elephants are caught in concealed pit-fails, aud killed with
the spear. Wicker work baskets, or traps, are u s ^ in fishing; they have
so nets.
Slavery.—Amongst themselves they have no slave system like that of
the Kowpois; occasionally, captives in battle are made slaves, but more
nsnally these are killed for their heads.
 ( 37 )
Health.—There is very little sickness amongst the A n^m is. Cholera
seems to be unknown; small-pox is not unfrequently epidemic; venereal
diseases are rare. They have no knowledge of medicine, and employ sacri­
fices, as the Kowpois do in cases of sickness.
Trade and Mannfactnree.—The Angamis seem to have more of the trad­
ing spirit amongst them than any of the other tribes: they trade with
Assam, Kachar, and Manipur.
They chiefly export a coarse cloth made from the bark of a tree, and
wax; importing iron, salt and thread. Their only manufactures are the
coarse cloth above mentioned, and the iron arms and implements required
for tlieir own use.
Crime.—Theft is not very common, and the punishment is death, if
cangbt red-handed and a house is broken into; in other ca^es of theft, fines
are inflicted.
The Toakhul and Jdihupa Tribes.—^The next of the Naga tribes requir­
ing description are the Tonkhul and Luhupa. The branch of the Tonkhul
tribe, to which the name of Luhupa is given by the Manipuris (from
" Lnhup,” a hat or head covering), seems to have been adopted in port at least
by them, as they have no equivalent to the name " Luhupa” in their own
language. The term Luhupa is applied to the more savage of the Tonkhuls,
who inhabit the hills to the north and east, farthest removed from the
Manipur Valley, from the fact of their being almost incessantly engaged in
feuds and from their wearing, .vhilst so engaged, a peculiar helmet-shaped
complicated head dress. There are also slight differences in language between
the tribes lying farthest from each other, and other unimportant differences,
such as are found amongst sections of the other tribes.
Sttb-divisions o f the Tribes.—There are many sub-divisions among the
above; but as these are simply taken from the names of villages and con­
vey no meaning, it is not deemed necessary to detail them.
Origin.—The origin of the Tonkhuls is thus given by themselves.
They say, they came out of a cave in the earth, at a place called Murringphy,
in the hills, about four days’ journey north-east of the Manipur Valley.
They attempted to leave this cave one by one, but a large tiger, who was
on the watch, devoured them shccessively as they emerged. Seeing this, the
occupiers of the cave, by a stratagem, throwing out the effigy of a man
they had dressed up, distracted the attention of the tiger, and took the
opportunity of leaving the cave in a body : the tiger on seeing the numbers
before him, fled. They placed a large stone on the top of a high hill near
this spot (which still remains) as a mark, from which situation they spread
in the hills around.
Present Numbers, country occupied by them, ^c.—The Tonkhuls and
Luhupas, under the Manipur rule, are said at present to number from twenty
to twenty-five thousand. They have d e c re a ^ in numbers of late years;
and this they ascribe to their fatal interval feuds, to cholera and small-pox,
especially the latter; cholera, it may be here mentioned, appears to have
been unknown either in the Manipur Valley or the neighbouring hills, until
about thirty years ago. The hills seem to be always infested from the
valley, and it in its turn from the west, in cases of epidemics. Their country
lies immediately north-east of the M.anipnr Valley, commencing from it
and extending north-east for about eight days’ journey; from that, east,
to a great distance until the country of the Siugphu is reached. The Luluip:»
to the north hold the Toukhub in a general state of subjection, although this
does not seem to go beyond au occasional demand for tribute, as the Mani-.
 ( «8 )
pur Government affords them protection. Their country is not very high,
although there are occasionally lofty hills to be seen, especially north-east.
Their roads, are good, and are said to be nearly all fit for pony traffic.
Valleys of moderate size are frequently met witii, and in these valleys,
usually salt springs and wells are found, which are worked regularly by
them. The rivers flowing through the Manipur Valley, with one exception,
all take their rise in the Tonkhul country. The fir tree in the interior is
very plentiful, and attains a large size.
Facial and other characteristics, dress, ornaments, ^ c .—The Tonkhuls
and Lohupas are a tall race of men, with large heads and heavy stolid fea­
tures, as a role; their general facial characteristics resemble those of the
Angami, and some of them are remarkably muscular. The dress of the
ihen is very scanty, consisting of a piece of cloth folded round the
waist, a portion of which hangs down in fro n t; even this scanty
covering is frequently dispensed with, when they are engaged in any
hard work. Over the upper part of the body they wear a sheet, after
the fashion of the Angami. The hair of the men is worn in a very pecu­
liar fashion; the sides of the head are shaven, leaving a ridge of hair on
the top about four or five inches broad at the top of the head and nairow-
ing to the front and behind, where they have a small knotted pig tail abont
three inches long. This cock’s comb style of wearing the hair gives them
a very grotesque appearance, not unlike that of a circus clown. The crest
of hair is kept pretty short, though sometimes long enough to be parted in
the centre. Their tradition regarding this peculiar fashion is to the effect,
that formerly, ages ago, the two sexes wore their hair alike, and combed
back as among the Kukis ; to distinguish them, the above effective plan was
resorted to. The Tonkhul and Luhupa tribes have no hair whatever in their
faces. The ornaments amongst the men are—for the ear, pieces of reed,
round thick pieces of cork, skeins of thread, &c.; a favourite with the men
is a small bale of cotton, for it can scarcely be called anything else, with
which the lobe of the ear is enormously distended; the ascending cartillage
of the ear is frequently bored with numerous holes, into which small skeins
of blue or black cotton thread are introduced. No metal ornaments of any
kind are worn in the ears. Necklaces of beads are occasionally worn, and
a favourite and peculiar ornameut is a loose deep collar of brass, about six
inches wide in front of the neck and tapering gradually to the back, where
it is fastened; this collar is usually plain, and projects out some way in
front of the chin. In lieu of the brass collar, coloured ones of cane work are
also worn of the same pattern : gaiters of matwork are occasionally worn;
on the upper arm the coiled wire rings are worn, as with the Kowpois; and
on the wrist heavy solid bracelets of brass; below the knee cane rings; those
formerly described, are worn frequently in large numbers. The Tonkhul and
Luhupa tribes have a custom amongst them, which is believed to be
unique and peculiar to them. This consists in the wearing of a ring from
an eighth to a fourth of an inch wide, made of deer’s horn or ivory,
which is p ^ e d over the fores'kiu, fitting tightly. The object of this
custom, which is of great antiquity, is to prevent an ereclio penis, they
.holding apparently that a mere exposure of the person, unless so attended,
is not a matter to be ashamed of. They carry out this idea with great
boldness; for gangs of them may be seen working on the roads and in the
women’s bazars in the Manipur Valley without a stitch of clothing on
them, the wearing of the ring being considered a sufficient sacrifice to
modesty. This ring is assumed on read in g puberty, and is worn until
 ( 39 )

death. On first assuming it great pain is felt for some days, bnt fi;om the
pressure the organ gradually alters its form, and after a time the ring
can be slipped off >nd- on with great ease. The ring is removed for
micturition and at night, and its size is altered from time to time as may
be found necessary. Although the claims of modesty are the only reasons
assigned for the custom, it is not improbable that it may have originally
had a deeper meaning, as will be seen in alluding to the marriage customs
of the tribe. The dress of the women is somewhat scanty: a kilt­
shaped piece of cloth is folded round the waist, and reaches half way to
the knee; this cloth may be either white or coloured. Over the breast
another piece of cloth is usually folded, although amongst old women
especially, it is not uncommon to , leave the chest .bare. Over all a sheet
is worn. The hair of the women is worn in a fashion resembling that
of the Manipuris when young; after marriage the hair is combed back
and gathered behind in to 'a quene; over the hair is placed a piew of
cloth drawn tight and folded round the quene behind tightly. Ornaments
are not so much affected by the women of this tribe as by others. In the
ears are placed cylindrical pieces of cork; no metal rings are used. Shell
necklaces and beads are worn, and before marriage bracelets of brass;
these, after marriage, are replaced by round bracelets of a metal-like solder
or lead, seven oh the right arm and four on the left. The women of
the Luhupas to the north are tatooed black, in simple patterns, on the
thighs, arms, and breast. These women are much sought for by the
southern men, because, however fierce may be their feuds, a tatooed woman
always goes unscathed, fear -of the dire vengeance which would be
exacted by her northern relations were she injured giving her ,jia
immunity.
Villages, their site, construetion, and government.—The villages of ( bis
tribe are situated in a similar manner to those of the Kowpois; on the
slopes of the higher hills, in the south, they are small; but north, amongst
the Luhupas, they are large, and may number as many as five hundred
houses in one village. Their houses are constructed in the same way as
those of the Kowpois; but to the north, owing to the scarcity of th®
thatching grass, the roofs are planked with fir. The arrangement of tl^
houses in a village, and their internal fittings, &c., closely resem|,|e
th at of the Kowpois. Water, especially amongst the southern trif^^
is always close to a village site, and each village is strongly forti-
fied by a wooden palisade. The village sites are fixed. As with
Murring tribe, to be next described, they have two village chjefg_
the Khulbu, being the head, and the K hul^pa, the inferior; these
officers are hereditary, and the Khulbu, by virtue of his office, receives
the beads of all the game killed, and the first brew of liquor made Ijy
family in the village community. The Kliulltkpa receives inferior Jiresente
and they are both entitled to seats of honor at feasts and othe^ village
meetings. Each village forms a republic of its own, as ainoj,g^t the
other Naga tribes, and they have no principal chiefs. The youncr, un­
married boys and girls sleep in separate houses apart, as vvith' the
Kowpois.
Customs at Birth, Marriage, and Death.—On the birth of a chjij whether
male or female, fowls are sacrificed, and the women only op the village
are treated to liquor. The child immediately after birth baa chewed rice
placed in its mouth, and is immersed in water, heated nearly to the boiling
point; this treatment is supposed to render the child gmJ pierent
 ( 40 )

'it in after-life from' suffering from pains about the back and loins, xne
mother of the child is al§o made to sweal profusely, by being mapped
in hot water blankets, until &intness ensues; this is repeat^ two or
three times, and on the third day, the woman is aUowed to go about as
usual. Ear-boring is a canse of great expense in feasting; to save tiiis
the children in many.cases are aUowed to aecumnlate, when oneenter-
t ^ m e n t serves for all; A t puberfy the ring formerly described is
assumed. Before marriage immorality is uncommon; the age for the
marriage does not differ from that of the other Naga tribes, and may
occnratany time after puberty. The price of wife to those well off
is one methna; others pay in cowries or Monipnr “ sel,” about the value
of ten rupees. In instituting the preliminaries for a marriage, omens
are taken, as amongst the Kowpois, ly holding op a fowl and observing
how it crosses its 1 ^ ; if favorable, the preliminaries may li^ arranged
either parents or friends. The Tonkhul and Luhnpa tribes are said
to exercise more free will in regard to their marriage arrangements than
any of the other tribes; and, as a consequence, mn-aw^y matches are not
unfi%qnent when the parents of a couple do not a^ e e . The couple in this
case fly to another village, and remain there u n ^ they are recalled by
the parents, which usually speedily takes place. No disgrace or punish­
ment follows, but the accustomed price must be given. On the marriage
day, two dogs, two dios, with liquor, are presented by the parents of
the man to those of the woman; the woman's father then kUls a pig,
which is eaten in the house of the man's parents. The man after
marriage lives for a few days in . the house of the bride's parents, after
which he is conveyed to his own house, and another feast of dogs and fowls
ends the proceeding; and now comes into play a custom quite peculiar
to this tribe, and one which I cannot help, rightly or wrongly,
associating with the origin of wearing the ring, also peculiar to them.
On the eldest son of a family marrying, the ^ re n ts are obliged to leave
their house with the remainder of their family, the son who had married
taking two-thirds of the parents' property, not only of the household,
but of his father’s fields, &c. Occasionally, the parents are recalled and
allowed to remain for some time, but eventually they have to leave,
and the property is claimed and divided, as above stated. When
the parents are well off, they provide a house beforehand. On the
marriage of another son the same process is repeated, and may he
again and again; but, according to the nsual custom, the parents may,
afterthe process has been repeat^ several times, return to the honse of the
eldest son. When a couple have a large family of sons, who marry in
enccessipn, the poor people are often thus reduced to serious straits. May
not the origin of the wearing of the ring have something to do with tluls
practice; and may i f not have been introduced, by some parent anxious, by
placing a bbcck upon the amatory propensity of his offspring to so put off
the evil day of bis own turnin,q out ? 'fliis, however, is mere conjecture, as
there is no trace of any story or tradition of the kind amongst the
Tonkhuls thensselves. Polygamy is occasionally practised, and, in rare in-
tanccs, many wives arc kept. Divorce is allowed, but seldom resorted to,
on account'of its ^ a t expenses. Adultery is rare; and the adulterer, it'
seized, is killed, his goods and property seized: under any circumstances,
the woman is never taken back by.the injured husband. On the death of
a Tonkhul or Luhujia, it used to be tbe custom to make human sacrilices;
now, amongst those of them under Manipur rule, this is not permitted,
 (41 )
and instead cattle are sacrificed before the corpse can be buried. The cattle
aamifioed are eaten, with the exception of one 1 ^ , which is buried under
the head of the deceased. The dead are b u ri^ ip deep graves, fashioned
after the manner of the Kowpoi trib e.. Spears, ddoe, &o., are buried with
the body. All who die of disease are ^ r ie d inside the vUlage precincts;
b u t thaw who are killed in battle, or by wild animals, are b n r i^ in due
plaoe. out of the village. On the death of a' warrior, his neatest naale
relation takes a spear and wounds the corpee by a blow whh it on the head,
ao that on his arrival in the n e tt world he may be , known and received
with distinctions.
Armt, and mode o f fighting, ^ c .—Their only arm used’ m warfifie is a
long heavy spear; this is thm st, as it is too heavy to be tiirown. On the left
iwm is worn an oblong shield of hide, ornamented with tresses of human
hair and wool dyed in varions colours. Amongst the Luhupas, the hwd
dress of the warrior is peculiar; hence the name Luhnpa, which ris fbnnmiy
mentioned. The basis of his head-pieoe is a conical stmctqre of wicker
work, about a foot high; over this is a layer of for and hair, black and red
in oolonr; to the sides are stitched as wings ronnd stmctures, filled in with
coloured seeds in rings; in front is a disc of polished brass, with a button-
shaped knob in the centre; slips of bamboo, feathers, &c., are also attached
to the head-piece, and occasionaUy a long m escoit-aha]^ piece of bnfihlo
bom scraped thin is placed in front of tiie helmet. Warriors of distinctions,
who have shun many people, wear the hair of their victims, depwding from
the side ornaments of the helmet in tire first instance, and, as they aocumu- -
late)‘made into a kind of fringe worn round the lace, l^ e the' mane of a
lion. Women’s tresses are preferred, as being longer. The rest of the
warrior’s dress presents notiung pecnliar. When the villagers are desirous
of fighting, notice on the one tide is invariably g^ven; and, as amongst the
Angamis, the date may be given, and a stand-up fight in the open agreed
upon at a given place. In other cases, intimation is made to one village
from another that its members from a certain time will be killed, whenever
an opportunity is found. In fighting, the mear is th ru st; two hmds being -
generally nsed. When an enemy is killed, the head is immediately cut off
Ire the ^ g e of the spear; these heads are dried and hung up in the bouses
of ^ victors, and, as with the Angamis, may be returned, and the feud
ended. Feuds are handed down from generation to generation, and the
original causes of them have not unfrequently, as amongst the other tribes,
been completely forgotten. Village feuds are very common. The southern
portion of the tribe—the Tonkhuls—use the how and arrow, fr^uently
poisoned with some v ^ ta b le composition, the nature of which is kept a
secret, and its manufacture only known to a few. The northern, or Lnhupa,
portion do not use the bow and arrow.
Religion, and religion* <^*ervanee», snpertliUont, ^e.—The Tonkhuls and
Luhupas believe in one supreme deity, who is of a benevolent disposition,
and who inhabits space; also another deity of an evil disposition,, who
retides between heaven and earth, and in whose hands is the power of
death. Their ideas of a future state are, that after death they go to the
west, where there is another world; in this future state they live and die,
men six times, and women five times; after this they are turned into clouds,
remaining in that condition. The people killed by a Tonkbul or Luhupa,
become his slaves in the next world. The nature of the life they lead in a
future state, they cannot explain. Their general religions obMrvances do
not iffe r essentially from those of the Kowpoi tribe. Their superstitious
 { 42 )

are also similar, with one exception. In the month of December, in every
year each village bolds a solemn festival, in honor of those of tbeir number
who have died during the preceding year. The village priests conduct the
ceremonies, which culminate on a night when the moon is young; on this
occasion, it is said, the spirits of the departed appear a t a distance from the
village in the faint moonlight, wending their way slowly over the hills,
and driving before them the victims they may hiave slain or the cattle
stolen during their lives ; the procession disappears over the distant hills
amidst the wailings of the villagers. Unless the village priests are well
fed, it is said this appearance will not take place.
Festivals, Games, Amusements, SfC.—^The Tonkhuls and Luhupas have
no stated times for holding their festivals, with the exception of the
example mentioned above. The Tonkhul of both sexes sing and dance
together. The Luhupa men only dance a sort of war dance, the wom^n
supplying them with liquor the while: they have drums, but only use
gongs for their dances. They dance sometimes for a whole night, until
quite exhausted. Their singing is pleasing, being executed in weU-toned
parts, blending together and forming a pleasing melody. Men and women,,
in equal numbers, sing thus together, and sometimes men alone. The
melody is always in slow time, whatever the nature of the song, joyous or
otherwise. They understand the meaning of their songs as a rule, and
these vary, though those of a melancholy nature prevail. Tbe burden of
one is to this effect:—" A young man and woman were attached to each
other; the youth proceeded into the jungle for cane to make a basket for
the girl, he is devoured by a tiger, and announces his fate to his lover in a
d ^ m .” The amusements of the adults would seem to be almost confined to
singing and dancing. The young men' amuse themselves by throwing
spears, and also putting the stone, which is round and heavy.
Cultivation.—The Tonkhul portion of the tribe all cultivate, by jhoom-
ing, but the Luhupas cultivate the slopes of the hills by terracing, mannr-
ing the lands from ttieir bufialoes and cows. The manure thus used is
not spread dry on the ground, but is mixed with the streams of water used
for irrigation.
Hunting, fishing, ^c.—The Tonkhul and Luhupa tribes use dogs in
hunting as the Murrings and Augamis do ; these dogs are trained to drive
game into some pool of waiter, where the animals are speared. Amongst
them they have a large species of dog with long straight hair, like the
TKbetan breed; this variety is not used for hunting, but to protect the
villages. They cut the ears and tails of their dogs quite short, believ­
ing that this improves their appearance. Fish are caught by poisoning
the water; they have no nets.
Slavery.—Slavery has uo existence a m o n ^ them, and they are violent­
ly opposed to it. To such a degree Is the idea of slavery hateful to them,
on occasion of inability to release his children who had been captured
in resistance to the State (Manipur) and sold as slaves, their father coming
down frona the hills, slew them both, and carried away with him their
heads. Since then it has not been attempted to make any Luhupas
sjaves.
Sieiness.—Small-pox and cholera occarionally make sad ravages amongst
them; venereal diseies appear unknown. They have no Imowledge of
medicines.
Diet, uee of Spirile, Tobacco, Ife.—Their diet presents no peculiarities;
their liquor resembles that made by the Murrings; tobacco smoking is very
 -( 43 )

prevalent, and they use small pipes of stone with bamboo mouth-pieces or
stems.
Trade, 8fc.—Trade amongst them is very restricted. They do not go
to Assam, but bring'd£os, spears, cloths, &c., to Manipur, taking salt in
exchange. Their women make cloth superior to any of the other tribes,
excepting the M u rrin ^
Crime, ^c.—Theft is very common, not only in their own country, but
they commit theft, chiefly cattle lifting in the Manipur Valley also; thieves
caught red-handed may be killed, or beaten; fines are also inflicted.
The Jatik Tribe o f Nagas.—Of the Jatik tribe of Nagas little is at
present known, they having only recently come under subjection in small
numbers. They wear the ring, sprak a similar langut^e to the above, and
their manners and customs are identical.
Mnrring Tribe of Hill-men.—The Murring tribe occupy the range of
hills lying between the two valleys of Manipur and Kubo; this range, the
Hirok, is not, however, exclusively occupied by them, there being scattered
over nearly the whole of it villages of the Khongjai tribe of Kukis.
There are two divisions of the Murring tribe, Saibu, the eldest branch,
and Murring; they are identical in appearance, dress, customs. See., but
their language differs slightly, and they do not intermarry. These two
tribes are sub-divided as follows; the names of the sub-divisions are the
same in both, and are given
Khulbu. Knnsowa. 'Fangsowa.
Chnrungna. M akunga. T nngtangna.
Klaya,
These seven snb-divisions or families do not marry amongst themselves,
th at is, a Khulbn will not marry a Khulbu, but may any other of the
seven. The division of a tribe into seven families appears tc be common
to all the tribes, as well as the Manipuris, and the ra '-' =orof' cases
very strict against intermarriage.
Origin of the Murring Tribe.—The origin of the Murring is thus givc-u
by themselves—We originally came out of the earth near the eastern
foot of the Hirok Range, but in the Kubo Valley, in the higher ground
immediately under the hills a t a place named Mungsa. Seven men and
seven women thus emerged. A t this time women and men wore the same
clothes (the dhoti or cloth round the loins is to this day identical in both
sexes, though worn differently). The hair was also worn in the same way
by both sexes. By way of making a distinction, the males dressed their
hair into a horn-like knot in front of the head, the women behind. The
females also lengthened their waist cloths, while the men shortened theirs.
N ot being satisfied with their location in the plain, they migrated in a
body to the hills lying close by, where they have since remained. The
tradition, amongst them is, that the Kubo Valley was then almost entirely
a vast lake. The nature of the ground a t the foot of the Hirok Range,
at Mungsa bears out this tradition, as under the hills there is a strip of
forest land of no great breadth, which is much higher than the plain to
the east below it. They have since resided in the Hirok Range, spread­
ing over it as they increased in number. Some Murrings s.ay that the
place of the origin of a portion of their tribe was part of the Manipur
capital at present called “ Haubum Maruk,” and that another portion
took their origin a t “ Laisangkhong," a village in the valley, some seven
or eight miles south of the capital; but on account of the immense amount
of water then in the valley, after an occnpation, the length of time of
 ( 44 )

which is unknown, the sites were evacoated. No Hnrrings now reside

in the valley.
Pretent Number.—^The total number of the Marring tribe, as at present
given, is about three thousand, in about twenty v i l l a ^ , all situated in the
Hirok Range of hills. They are said to have increas^ in numbers within
the last five or six years. About thirty-two years ago, when Nursing was
raja, they were oppressed and ill treated by the Manipuris, which canaed
them to leave their country and take refuge in Burma, but lately t h ^
are returning, the policy of the Manipur Government having changed in
regard to them, and the Knbo Valley, towards which the majority bad
fl^ , being to them unhealthy, and the measures of the Burmese being also
oppressive, they are coming back in numbers.
Facial and other eharaeteritties, dress, mode o f wearing hair, ^ e .—
As observed formerly, the features of the Mnrrings approximate to those of
the Burmese; some of them have flat, and others well shaped, noses, and
their general expression is mild and intelligent. They are cleanly in their
persons, diet and houses, and altogether are superior to any of the other
tribes. In stature they are of medium height, muscular, and active, and
with well developed lower limbs. Their dress consists, amongst both men
and women, of a sheet, white, with a striped border or striped throughout;
this is folded across the waist and twisted or tucked in at the side; the
men fasten one end behind dhotie wise, in the women this is allowed to hang
down, so as to form a petticoat. For the men, the only other article of
clothing worn is a sheet for the upper part of the body, of thick cloth,
either striped or checked, and sometimes a woollen blanket. The women’s
dress, besides the waist cloth, common to both sexes, consists of a white
sheet with striped borders, worn like the fanek, and reaching
from over the breast to a littie way below the knee. A sheet, like the men’s,
is also worn; and some of the women wear the Manipuri " furit,” or
jacket during the cold weather. The men comb their hair from behind
and from the sides, and gather it into a horn-shaped protuberanee above
the centre of the forehead; round the base of this horn are usually wound
strin g of beads of various kinds, and transfixing it cross-wise is a steel
bodkin-shaped instrament, with a sharp point, about fifteen inches long,
and flattened for abont a third of its length at the other extremity. The
story attached to this instrument is as follows;—To the seven families
of the Mnrrings, after their creation, the deity gave pens of reed and skins
of leather to write upon. The leather skins were eaten by dogs, and the
pens wearing out or being los^ the art of writing was forgotten, and has
never been recovered ; the bodkin-shaped piece of steel is retained by them
as a memento of the pen. The men have occasionally rudimentary mous­
taches and beards. The hair of the women is simply parted in the centre
and combed back; it is gathered in a loose knot, tying low down on the
neck. The ornaments for the men are not numerous. Before marriage,
young men wear small rings in the lobes of the ear, made of brass.
After m arria^ these are removed, and a rounded piece of shell, wood
covered with finely twisted horse hair, or, for the better off, silver, about
an inch and a half long, of no great thickness, is worn instead. The
men wear no necklaces, or any other ornament round the neck. Heavy
bracelets of bell metal above the wrist are occasionally worn; these are
handed down from father to son for. generations. Brass rings on the
fingers, are sometimes worn. The women wear shell ornaments in the
ears, but, unlike those of the men, round and fastened to the lobe of the
 ( « )

ear by a piece of string; long bead and shell necklaces are worn in profa-
aion, as amongst the Kow}>ois. On the upper arm ia worn the twisted
coil of brass; this ornament ia twisted into shape before being placed on
the arm. Bracelets of the same material, as those of the men, are occasion­
ally worn: these are not so heavy as those of the men. The women
■stain their teeth black.
Village* ; their etmtiruetio*, government, —^The Mnrrings constmct
their villages on the slopes of the higher hWs, bat with a regard to the
convenient situation of their water-supply. Their village sites are fixed,
as with the Kowpois. The general style of building is.similar to that of
(ke above, but their houses are not so strongly built—the roofs do not reach
so low, nor is the thatching as good. Oceasionally, the house is raised
from off the ground on a bamboo platform, like those of the Burmese; in
other cases, the floors aj% planked. The arrangement of the houses in a
village is similar to that of the Kowpoi, but they have no fortifications
round i t ; they give as a reason for this, that for many years .the Tonkhnl
tribe of Nagas, with whom they used to be at constant feud, have been
friendly, and they do not fear any of the other tribes. Their villages ''are
small in size, the largest containing only nineteen bouses, the smallest three
or four. Each village has two headmen—the Khulbu and Khnl&kpa; both
offices are hereditary, the Khulbu being the chief. These headmen are not
entitled to any s e ttl^ revenue, but receive a share of flesh a t feasts, and a
portion of the drink made by the villagers. There isalso in every village of
any consequence an interpreter, or “ Meithei Lum hu;” this official is selected
for his know led^ of M anipuri: be gets nothing from the villagers, but
occasionally receives a present from Manipuris when any case occurs ro-
quiring his assistance. The custom of separating the young of both sexes
prevails, as amongst the Kowpois; their village paths and roads are snperior
to those of the other tribes.
Cutloms at Birth, Marriage, Death.—Tha customs on the birth of a child,
amongst the Murrings, are similar to those of the Kowpois: there is a
feast given by those who can afford it, or drink is distributed; the woman
is not secluded in any way after the birth of a child. Hie naming of
children amongst the M a rrin g is curious; the eldest male child of a family
is invariaUy called Moba;' this name is given immediately after birth. The
second male child is called Koba; the third Mayba; the fourth Ungba; the fifth
Kumba. After the fifth, every male child bom is called Kumba. For female
children, the first is called T ebi; the second Tobi; the third Tnngbi; the fonrth
Sungkobi; the fifth and others Knmbi. Thus, in any village, many of the same
name may be found ; other names may afterwards be given. But as the giving
of a second name involves a laige expenditure in the shape of a feast to the vil­
lagers and presente, the privilege is not often taken advantage of. Amongst
seventeen men assembled at one time, only ibnr of them had second names ;
these names were Mohsil, Modar, Moruogba, and Motil. Individuals of the
same name are identified by the clan or family name; also by the father's
number, so to speak, or by personal peculiarities, as long, ^ o r t, stout, &c. On
the occasion of a marriage, the arrangements are initiated by friends sent
by the parents, and not, as with the Kowpois, by the parents themselves.
Ik e price for a wife is much the same as with that tribe, varying with the
circumstances of the parties; bnt in all cases a gong forms part of the
presents given. A feast is given on the wedding day, after which the newly
married couple may retire to their own houses. In cases where a sepwa-
tion is desired by either of a married couple, it is necessary to prove a fault
 ( )

on either side, and even then a heavy fine is levied in the shape of feasting
and drinking. Polyg^amy is rarely practised, as, when a second wife is
taken, tbe parents of the first demand and receive presents from the hnsband.
In cases of adultery, the male offender’s life is spared; but his house is wrecked,
and all his property seized by the injared husband. Should the husband be
agreeable, the ^ u lte re r may keep the woman, giving the husband presents.
In doubtful cases of adultery, the evidence of the woman is taken, and when
the case is considered proved by her evidence, a fine only is inflicted on the
accused. Adultery is a rare offence. Their customs on a death very
closely resemble those of the Kowpois; but no coffin is used, and the
burial place is some distance apart from the village.
A m s, mode o f fighting, ^c.—The arms in use amongst" the M urring
tribe are, the spear, ddo, and bow and arrow. The spear is larger and
longer than that of the Kowpois, but of the same make, and is thrown in
fighting. The dfio is square at the point, and is worn in a kind of wooden
sheath open in front, and so worn behind as to be handy for drawing by
placing the hands over the shoulder. The bow is strong, and the arrow­
head barbed. The arrows are occasionally poisoned with some vegetable
extract, the nature of which is not know n; they describe this poison as
so potent, that animals die from its effects in half an hour, or an hour after
being wounded. This poison, which is used also by the Kuki tribes, is
a dark brown gummy-looking extract, soluble in greater part in water.
The poison used by the Bhutias is very much the same as that used by
the Murrings and Kukis, in appearance at least. The Murring also uses
a shield of strong hide, round in shape, and japanned black. The Murrings,
like most of the hill tribes, t r j to surprise their enemies; before entering
on any warlike expedition, they consult the omens, as the Kowpois do. They
are at present a t peace with all their neighbours, and have no internal feuds.
Religion, ^c.—They believe in numerous spirits inhabiting the high
hills; the supreme of these is named Domhai, and is of a good disposition.
There are two devils of great power. After death the good are bom again
at once into this world. The bad are retained in a future state, and tortured
in accordance with the nature of their offences. Their priests and sacrifices
generally resemble those of the Kowpois. Their superstitions are also very
similar.
Festivals, Games, Songs, 8fe.—Their festivals resemble those of the Kow­
pois, but they have only one annually in April, the reason of which is un­
known. During this festival, they dance, feast, and drink for three days.
Their dance is accompanied by a kind of chant, in honor of the occasion,
and the music of the drum. The young men and women dance together.
They have no songs whatever amongst them, and account for it th n s;
When the deity distributed songs to the inhabitants of the world, some
caught them in their hands, some secured them carefully in their clothes,
aud thus retained them; but the Murringsnnfortunately caught their share
in a wide-meshed bivsket, through which the songs escaped, never to be re­
covered. They seem to have no games amongst them ; but children amuse
themselves with a swing of rope suspended between two trees, and with a
wooden scat, like that of English children.
CnUivation, JJiel, ^c.—Their cultivation is entirely jhoom, as with the
Kowpois. As regards their diet, they are said to be more cleanly in the
selection of what they eat, and also to pay more attention to cooking.
Hunting and fishing.—The Murrings are fond of hunting, aud train
their village dogs to assist them ; these arc of the ordinary pariah breed,
 ( 47 )

and are useful iu tracking game and following it up, giving tongue at the
same time. They will dso seize smaller games. Tkro or three dogs are
used at one time. The game is killed with the bow and arrow and spear.
Fishing is restricted from .the paucity of streams of any size in their hills;
when fishing is attempted, the method employed is by poisoning the water ;
they have no nets.
Other Customs.—To erect a pile of stones is considered a meritorious
act. The individual who does this must be rich ; for on such occasions six
methnas are expended, but from the hope that their names will live as long
as the mounds erected by them ; the methnas are not grudged. A Mur­
ring must not think of white-washing the front of his bouse (which is of
ooaids) unless he can give a feast, for which six methnas are killed; and
the young men of the village, who assemble together like the Kowpois, can­
not have a rejoicing of their clubs under an expenditure of four methnas.
Slavery.—Slavery amongst, the Mnrrings is in existence only in a veiy
restricted shape; its general form is as with the Kowpois.
Diseases.— Small-pox is the most fatal disease amongst them, and, like
the other tribes, they abandon their sick from this complaint in the jungle.
Skin affections are rare, and venereal diseases are said to be unknown.
Cholera is rare, and mild ia'form- Their conntry seems also to be free from
malarious fevers.
Use of Tobacco, Spvrits, ^ e .—Tobacco is much used, and is partaken of
in the three forms in use amongst the Kowpois. Their drink is somewhat
diflferently prepared: bran is as well as rioe, and the branches of a
p la n t; the drink is allowed to ferment and distil over, but without the
aid of heat; it is sweet and of no great strength.
Trade.—They have no trade whatever amongst them; they work in
metals, making their spear heads, d£os, &c., from iron pro cur^ in tbe Mani­
pur Valley.
Crime.—Theft is raie, and is punished with heavy fines; there as no
other crime of note, and they are reputed to be very truthful.
The Kukis and other Tribes.—The only tribes of hiU-men under Mani­
pur rule left to be described are those of the Kukis, and the few non­
descripts residing in or nesu: the valley, who are include amongst the Loi
population, formerly aUnded to. And firat of the largest of the Kuki tribes,
the Khongjai, ----
The Khongjai tribe o f Kukis.—This important tribe of Knkis has only,
in comparatively recent times, come under the rule of Manipur in its
entirety. The Khongjais formerly occupied that portion of the hill country
now uninhabited, Ijdng between the country of the Lushais and that occu­
pied by the Kowpoi tribe of Nagas. They resemble the Lushai tribe in
appearance and language, but have always been in feud with them. As
time went on, the Lushais, proving too powerful for them, caused them to
evacuate their country. Before this ot irred, they were at constaiit feud
with the hill tribes to the north of them under Manipur, and with the
Manipuris themselves; but when it was found that they could no longer
cope with the Lushais, they at once came under the protection of Manipur,
and all enmity between them and the Manipur Government and the
Naga tribes at once ceased. They now constitute an important body of
contented useful men, as friendly to Manipur as can be desired. I t is now
about thirty years since the movement togan, and they finally settled in
Manipur Hill Territory. A t this time, also, a great movement of Kukis took
place towards the Kachar Hills, where they settled under British protection.
 ( 48 ;
The movement was caused by the same pressnre, aud the tribe consisted of
the Chingsol section of the Khongjais, vffio resided in the Jeeree Forest and
the Bobun range of hills bordering on -the Kachar- District. T i |^ tracto
of country are now uninhabited
Names and Sul-divitions o f the -Khongjai Tribe.—The K h o n g u tribe
of Kukis have the following chief sab-divisions:—Kndingma, Tlswldp,
Mohbi, Chongfnt, and Snmti. Many other names might be given, bat
the above represent the chief families or divisions. The manners and
customs of each sub-division are so much alike, that one description will
serve for all.
Origin o f ike Tribe.—Although occupants of the hills to the sonth of
the valley of Manipnr, their traditions do not give the sonthern hills as
the place of their origin, bat rather lead them to the belief th at it was
in the north. Some of the Khongjais say that the country of (heir
origin was that now occupied by the Poi or Shmtdn tribe of hill-men abont
twenty days south of the Manipur Valley. The. isct of their langpoage
b e i ^ nearly identical with th a t of the LosIuub, points still further to
their probable southern origin.
Present Number, Sfe.—The total nnmber of the tribe is given at present
a t abont eight to tan thousand, and they say th at they have steadily
decreased in numbers since they came under the Manipnr m ie; and this
they attribute to increased sickness and the spread of fatal diseases, as small­
pox and cholera amongst them.
Location of the Since the tribe came under the role of Manipnr,
they have/remained scattered over nearly the whole of its hill territory,
except to the extreme north. Numbers of them are to be found in the
western ranges of hills overlooking the valley to tbe north of the Govern­
ment road, in the Hirok Range of hills between Maaipor and the Knbo
Vidley and in the hill ranges south of the Manipur Valley.
Faeiat and other eharaeteristies, dress, mode of wearing heur, ^ e .—Like
the tribes already described, their features ate various, and one standard can­
not be hud down for a ll; tbe stature also varies, and tall men alternate with
short; but the middle height is that most frequently met with. Their legs and
arms are occasionally very mnscnlar, and they are capable of carrying heavy
weights. The dress of the men is very scanty; sm a rule, they only have
a piece of cloth hanging down from the waist in front, the parte behind
being bare; in other cases, even this is dispensed with, and a loose sheet
only covers the body, d is p o ^ , however, so as to conceal the private parts
in the day tim e; this sheet is wound ronnd the waist, and at night fo iw
a blanket. Like the Lushais, every Khongjai carries a netted bag, which
contains his' tobacco, flint and steel, a small knife, and other ^ d s and
ends; this bag b worn on the hip, and the strap is nsnally of hide, and
often ornamented with cowrie sheUs. The hair of the men is worn long,
combed back, and formed into a knot behind; it is usually kept iu a very
dirty condition. One section of the Khongjais, the Snmti, wear in the
centre of tbe head, reachii^ behind and incorporated with the rest of the
hair, asmaU plaited pig tm l; this fashion prevails also amongst the Lushais.
The Khongjais have occasionally small moustaches and pointed beards.
The ornaments for the men are not numerous; for the ears, a jnece of
string is passed through the lobe, and on this is strong one or more reddish
colocned pebble beads. On the upper arm one or two p i^ s tusks are com­
monly worn, and frequently on the left wrist a thick piece of ivory; but
this is more for use than ornament, to protect the arm in using the bow
 ( *9 )

aod arrow. Ronnd the neck a piece of string, with a tiger’s or pig’s tooth, is
h ^ o en tly worn, oOcasionaDy a single pebble necklace, x>r one composed of
pieces of a. substance like amber or of amber itself. Nothing is worn on
the t ^ . The dress of the women consists of a kilt-shaped piece of
coloured cloth reaching from below the naval to half way down the thigh ;
over the breasts another piece of cloth is folded, the portion between this
and the waist cloth being left bare j over all a sheet is worn in the usual
way. Tlie hair is worn long and parted in the centre; the two portions
are plaited, crossed behind, and brought round oyer the front of the forehead,
where the meeting ends are tied together. The favourite ear ornament of
tbe women is the large disc of silver p^uliar to the Kpki tribe; this,
however, is never worn by the Khongjai males, although common to both
sexes among all the other Kuki tribes to be yet mentioned. Necklaces of
beads in numbers are worn, as with the Kowpoi tnbe. On the upper arm
leaden or solder armlets are worn, and on the wrists and fore-arms bracelets
r f thick brass wire, like those of the Kowpoi women, but differing slightly
in form; these reach to near the elbow sometimes. All the males of the
Khongjai Kuki tribe, it shonld have been mentioned, wear a p u g ^ , gener­
ally with a fringe, amongst thqse at all careful of their appearance, of
small red feathers. The tribes are, as a rule, very dirty in their persons
and clothes, and althongb clean individuals are occasionaUy to be met with.
Villages, where sUtuUed, eemstruetion, ^ e .—Unlike the Naga tribes
above descril>ed, the Kukis are constantly changing the sites of their
villages to suit the exigencies of their cnltivation. On this acconnt the
villages of the Khongjais have not that permanent and comfortable lode
that a Naga village possesses, and their houses are very much inferior in
oonstraction. The houses themselves are small, with two gable ends, walls
of bamboo matting, and raised floors of bamboo or wood for the better sort;
each house is usually surrounded by a bamboo fence, and in situations likely
to be attacked by other tribes ; a strong palisading snrronnds the villag^e.
.The houses are closely huddled together, and the vilh^^es are usually smidl
in size; they have, however, large villag^es, containing about four hundred
houses; but these are rare, and confined to places where the facilities for
^ tiv a tin g , &c., are unnsoally good. The village sites are altered accord­
ing to the kind of cultivation near them ; when the amount of land is
small, or its quality is inferior, the villages may not remain on the spot
for more than two or three years; in other cases, they may remain eight or
ten, but seldom more.
VUlage geeemmeni, customs, —In each village, as with the Nagas,
there is a headman, or Khul&kpa, whose office is hereditary. Besides these
village chiefs, they have among^st them, as with the Loshais, hereditary
cbiefi of some conseqAence, whose orders are, or rather formerly were,
g^enerally respected. O f these superior chiefs, there are at present three, the
most important of them being named Kuding^ma; this chiefs village is at
present north of the Government road, near the Kala Naga range of hills.
The Khulftkpa, or village chief, is entirely supported by tbe villag^ers; they cul­
tivate his fields, and give him a certain proportion of the produce, both animal
and v^;etable, of the village. On the birth of children he also receives presents,
and is entitled to part of the spoils of chase captured by the villagers. 'The
more influential rajas, or chiefs, although their authority may be recognized
out of the bounds of their village, only receive tribute from their oWn imme­
diate village. The village chieft also receive presents on the marriage of a
villager; on the sale of a methna or any large transaction of this kind, a
 ( fiO )

tax is levied for the benefit of the chief; the right tusk of every elephant
killed is also his perquisite. Of late years the influence of the principal
chiefs has much declined, and it is said that orders given by them out of
their respective villages would not now be attended to. As amongst the
Lnsbais, a popular chief gathers together a ' itoa follAnring, and becomes
in this way a man of influence for the time, until succeeded by some other
chief, who becomes more popular, when his influence wanes and his follow­
ers desert him for his more successful or popular rival. The young of both
sexes are not separated as with the Naga trilies, but are allowed to mix
freely together; a certain amount of care is, however,, taken, by the parents
of the girls of the village, as when bed times arrives any young men who
may be about the house get a hint to move, and the girl or girls retire into
the inner apartments with the parents. In many cases intrigues are car­
ried on by the young people, but these lapses generally end in marriage
with the parent’s consent, or should this be denied, the young couples,
remaining of one mind, frequently elope either to another viUage or to some
friend’s bouse in their own.
' Cuslom* on Birth, Marriage and Death.—Supposing the rq a had a son,
five days after his birth there would be a feast, when they would shave his
head, name him, bore his ears, and his mother after proper ceremonies would
tie some of the feathers of a red fowl which had been sacrificed to the gods
as a charm about his neck. All his relations come to the feast, bringing
with them what each is able of flesh and wine. When the boy has grown
up, be associates with the young men of the village, and joins in all their
sports and pastimes. Yearly they brew wine called “ Lomyii,” and on its
ripening they invite the young women of the village to a grand feast. I f
able, his father and mother now seek a wife for him, and she must be the
daughter of a raja. To her father they proceed, and, presenting wine, they
beg his daughter for their son. If he agrees, the wine is drunk, what is to
be given for the girl is asked, and a bargain is concluded. The articles
comprising the girl’s price are taken together with wine to her house, and
her relations .having killed a methna or pig, they all eat of it together.
The party who brought the girl’s price contend with the young men of the
village at their games, and if in this contention bones are broken, no notice
of it is taken. The games over, the girl must go to her husband’s house;
with this view she is dressed in all her finery, a gong is placed on her head
as an umbrella, the hind leg of a methna and half a pig are given to her,
and having taken a sip of well fumigated water of the pipe bowl, she parts
amidst tears with her family. On reaching her husband’s house, a feast is
given to all who went for her. The eldest son on his marriage remains
with his father; a younger son has a part of his father’s subjects made over
to him, and sets up for himself. In the manner of obtaining a wife, there
is no difference between the raja’s son and his lowest subjects, except that
the latter has not to pay the same high price for his partner. After the
birth of a child the Kbongjai almost immediately resumes her ordinary
duties, even heavy work, such as rice pounding. Adultery is not common,
and, as with the other tribes, the male offender may be killed. Usually, the
village chief pardons the offender, who, however, becomes his slave. I f the
adultery has been without the consent of the woman, she is taken back; in
other cases, she is severely beaten, and her price has to he returned to her
husband. Divorce is rare, and the individual initiating proceedings, whether
the man or woman, has to give back the original price paid. On the death
of a Kbongjai the body is washed and carefully dressed; it is then strapped
 ( 51 )

to a board in a sitting posture. Tlie friends and -relations of the deceased

are then summoned; after they arrive, the body is removed to a temporary
small house erected for it. A feast is then held, the friends, &c., contribut­
ing their share towards it. In the case of a chief’s death, as with the
Lushais at the present day, the former custom prevailed of smoking the
body to preserve it until the number of human heads considered necessary
for the proper performance of the funeral rites had beeu collected. 'The
necessity for a certain number of heads being got ready, probably gave rise
to the idea of smoking the body, as it cannot be buried until the requisite
nnmber are got together. Since the Khongjai tribe came under the rule
of Manipur, they have had to relinquish the practice of human sacrifices on
such occasions, and content themselves with animals, chiefly dogs. Poor
people who cannot afford the constant feasting, which has to be kept up so
long as the body remains unburied, only keep it one night. The grave is
prepared by the relatives of the deceased, and the body is buried, as with
the Kowpois, the sitting position of the corpse being retained; an upright
stone is placed over the grave, and above a bamboo, from which is suspend­
ed the heads of the animals slain. With the body, as amongst the Naga
tribes, weapons, &c., are buried. In cases of death from disease, the body
is buried within the village close to the deceased’s bouse. I f the death
has been in battle or from accidents, the body is inferred outside.
Arms, mode o f fighting, feuds, Syc.—The arms of the Khongjai are the
E][«ar, dao, bow and arrows, and panjis. The spear is about six feet long,
with a shaft of plain wood and a spike at the bottom ; the head js about six
inches long, and of a triangular shape. The spear is used sometimes to
thrust, and sometimes it is thrown. The dao has a'short handle, ornatrentcd
with a tail of goat’s hair depending from its extrem ity; the blade is strong,
heavy, and with a blunt square extremity. The bows and arrows used
closely resemble those of the Mui-rings, but the bow is not so strong, and
in using it the string is drawn towards the chest. They use poisoned aiTows,
but they do not make the poison, but procure it from other tiibcs. Like
the Lushais, whom they so closely resemble in every way, they try to sur­
prise their enemies and attack immediately before day-break. They are
very expert at throwing stones. Their feuds are now kept under, but for­
merly they-were constantly fighting amongst themselves and with their
neighbours on all sides.
Religion, ^c.—The Bibongjais believe in two supreme deities of a
benevolent disposition; these two, they say, are brothers, and of equal power.
They reside in another world. They also believe in numerous evil spirits;
these inhabit the high hills and jungles. After death, they say, they
ascend to the sky ; those amongst them who die" from disease have a safer
and quicker journey to the better land, than those who die from accident
or in warfare. The next world, according to their notions, does not differ
from this, saving that its inhabitants fare differently, according to the
nature of the deaths they die. The theory of a return to this world again,
' BO prevalent amongst the Naga tribes, they know nothing of. Their village
priests, sacrifices, &c., do not differ materially from those of the Kow-
pois.
Festivals, Music, and Musical Instruments, —The Khongjais, onee a
year, about January, have a large festival, which lasts for ten days or more,
if the supplies of liquor and food hold out. During the whole time of this
festival, all the villagers, young and old, enjoy themselves in feasting,
drinking, singing and dancing. The meaning of the festival they have
 ( 52 )

DO notion of. The music of their songs is peculiar, and is almost identical
with that of the Tonkhuls, formerly alluded to. W ith the Khongjais the
measure is more lively, but the singing in parts is exactly the same. I t is
exceedingly curious to find these two t r i t o so differing from each other,
and so remote, having a style of singing almost exactly alike, and peculiar
to these two tribes; none of tbe others, either Naga or Kuki, having any­
thing like it amongst them. The words of the songs thejy sing are known
to them, and their burdens are various. The dancing of the Khongjais, and
the Kukis generally, presents a remarkable contrast to that of the N aga
tribes. W ith the Naga male especially, the dancing is vigorous, and con­
sists of well-defined steps and leaps. W ith the Kukis the motion is slow,
monotonoua, and with little variation. To see a group of male Kukis
dancing for the first time, would convey the impression th at they were all
suffering from Inmbago; with back bent tbey move slowly, with a jerky
motion of the knees downwards eveiT now end ^ a i n , as if weak in that
locality; the feet move but little, and the steps, if they can be called so,
consist of a slow shuflfling movement, the body being turned slowly round
from side to side alternately; the hands are clapped with every jerk of the
knees. They dance usually in an irregular circle, if the n nm ^rs admit
of it. The women dance with the body erect, but with the same jerky
motion of tbe knees. They also use the motions of the hands and arms
as tbe girls of the Kowpoi tribe d o ; the men also move their arms when
dancing. 'Rieir musical instruments are drums, small gongs, and a bag­
pipe-looking instenment, with the bag-like portion fo rm ^ out of ag o u id ;
this instrument has a mouth pipe and three or fonr holes for the fingers;
the notes are few and low in tone. The dance is also accompanied by the
by-standers clapping their hands, and by rapping with pieces of wood apon
horns of the methna or wild cow.
Culiivatim, ^e.—Their cultivation is entirely jhoom. They have among^
.them a superior variety of rice, the seed of which, they say, was givea them
by Baja Cbingtong Komba, or Jaee Singb, during bis wanderings in tbe hUls
i ^ r having been expelled from Manipur by the Burmese.
Hunting aud Since the Khongjais came under Manipur, they
do not form the large hunting parties that they used to ; but those who
possess fire-arms, occasionally shoot pig or deer. They sometimes use small
'nets in fishing,.a practice they have apparently picked up ftom the Mani-
puris; they also poison the hills streams, as the other hill tribes do.
Slavery—Lallups.—As a punishment slavery is not uncommon : in this
case the custom in its details much resembles the slavery of tbe Manipuris;
th at is, in a case of theft, say, if the thief cannot make restitution in full,
he may be made a slave of. Sometimes, as amongst the Kowpois, men
become slaves voluntarily to pay off a debt or otherwise. The system of
working for their village chiefs closely resembles that in existence in the
Manipur Valley, but is much less onerous in its nature.
Sietneie.—O f late years, the Khongjais say they have been healthier
than before, and that, should cholera and smrdl-pox spare them, they con­
fidently look forward to their numbers increasing in coming years. O f
diseases amongst them, venereal is said to be unknown. Fevers and rheuma­
tism are prevalent. In spite of their very dirty habits, they have not
much skin diseases amongst them. They, in common with the other hill
tribes, have no knowledge of medicine.
l/ie o f Toiaceo and Spirit*.—The Khongjais, like all tbe Kukis, is an
inveterate smoker, both sexes from an early age smoking to excess. Boys
 ( 53 )

begin smoking a t 10 or 11 years of a g e ; girls later; they are .^allowed to

taste the tobacco juice first; the use of the juice, in the manner formerly
alluded to, is universal amongst the Khongjais. The incipient smoker, it
may be here mentioned, has to go through the same jungs in acquiring
the habit as his more civilized " confreres.” The spirits used, resembles
those of the Murring tribe. They speak with much relish of a peculiar
bean called “ qa," which, after having been steeped in a running stream
for some days to take away its deleterious properties, is boiled in water,
the liquid forming an exciting drink without causing intoxication.
Trade and Oeeupatiom. —The trade of the Khongjai tribe is very limited,
aud only occasionally cloth is brought to the Manipur Valley and exchanged
for iron, salt, &c. Some of the more enterprising amongst them occasionally
take iron from the Manipur Valley, and sell or barter it for pebbles, guns,
or cloth, with the Lushai or K ai^o w tribe. The women weave common
cloths, and the men work in iron, making their own spear, aud arrow heads,
daos, &c.
Crime.—^Theft is common amongst them, and is punished by fine, or,
if unable to meet this, by slavery.
The Kom Tribe o f Kukis.—The only remaining Kuki tribe of importance
is that called Kom. The following are the sub-divisions of this tribe •—
Eaim p. Purom. Quoireng. Mundang.
Chirn. Aimol. Earam. Laikot.

Origin o f the Kom Tribe.—The Kom tribe originally, it is said,

belonged to the hills Ip n g south of the Manipur Valley. During the
reign of Gambhir Singh, some 40 years ago, they suffered so much from
the oppressions of the Khongjai and Lushai tribes, that they left their
country in a body and sought refuge in other parts of the hills belonging
to Manipur. They are now scattered about the hills near the Manipur
Valley, and, like the Khongjais, have no fixed villages.
Numbers, ^ c .—The Kom tribe numbers at present about 2,000;
they are said to be decreasing, which is attributed to increased sickness
an'ongst them, and to their not having any remedies to combat the increase.
'Facial and other characteristics, dress, ornaments, ^c.—Facially, the
Korns do not differ appreciably in appearance from the Khongjais, and, as
amongst them, tall men are seen as with the Koins, although they are
usually of a medium height. They are well built in person, b u t more
sleuder than the Khongjais as a rule, though some of them are squat and
very muscular. The men wear a small breech cloth fastened like a dfaotie ;
they also have a sheet; and they all, with one exception (the Chiru), wear
the pugri wound round the temples and back of the head, leaving the
crown of the head bare. The hair is combed back, as with the Khongjais.
They have no hair on their faces. The ornaments for the men are, for the
lobes of the ears, the large wheel-like discs of silver. These are worn uni­
versally by the Korns, when they can afford them ; and the larger they are,
the more is the ornament valued. Tlie holes for these ornaments are bored
in the male child's eai-s ten days after b irth ; the holes are first slightly
distended with thread, then raw cotton, then pieces of bamboo in a ring­
like form, which gradually distends the ear. To get the lobe sufficiently
distended to admit the largest sized discs, measuring about one and a half
inches across, is a work occupying years ; and many are the instances seen
where the work of ycais has been marred bv the impatience of the would-
 ( 54 )

be wearer trying to hurry on the process, only succeeding in rapturing the

thin piece of skin which the lobe of the ear has resolved itself into. Success
accruing, the ornaments are rather handsome than otherwise, as the broad
flange conceals the distended lobe. A pair of the largest sized discs will
contain about seven rupees worth of silver; and when in difficulties, the
Kom parts frequently with one or both of them, getting others when
better fortnne returns to him. Round the neck, before the marriage, the
men wear strings of red pebble beads; after marriage, these are removed
and replaced by a thread, on which is usually fastened a charm consisting
of a piece of a dog’s jaw, with two or three teeth in i t : this charm they use
in their pujahs. A sinall pair of tweezers for extracting hair is also
commonly worn. The dress of the women consists of a fanek, like that
worn by the Manipuris, white, black, or coloured : a white sheet is worn
over the shoulders. The hair is parted in the centre and combed to
either side. There are two waj^s of dressing i t : among young girls
the two parted portions are lied somewhat loosely into a clubbed knot
on either side hanging over and in front of the ears. The other
style is more complicated, and is worn by the older women. In
this, the extremity of each knot is wound round with thick black chord or
thread about two inches deep; into this is stuck a bodkin-shaped piece of
brass and another of steel: coloured porcupine quills are also thus used.
The meaning of the use of these articles they cannot explain. In the ears
they only wear small skeins of black thread. Round the neck they have
numerous strings of beads, like those of the Kowpoi women. On the
upper arm they wear armlets of the metal resembling solder, and on the
fingers brass rings.
Villages.—^The Kom villages resemble, in all respects, those of the Khong-
jais; their system of government is also similar.
Customs at Birth, Marriage, and Death.—Five days after the birth of a
boy, and three days after that of a girl, a feast is gpven to the old people of
the village Only; again at the ceremony of ear-boring, which may take
place at any time. When a marriage is contemplated, the parents send
parties to initiate the consideration of the affair. For a wife, one gong at
least must be given, and for the well off several. About two rupees value in
coin is Mso given to the bride’s father. The bride is expected to bring with
her a goodly store of clothfng. On the wedding day, a feast is given by
both families to the villagers generally, after which the couple retire to
their own bouse. Divotcc is unknown : adultery is not now punished with
death amongst them, but all the male offender’s property is seized, the
woman after bring severely beaten, is taken back by the husband. Adul­
tery is said to be very rare amongst the Koms. The Kom tribe do not
keep their dead, as the Khongjais do, but bury them . one day after the
death. Tiie body is strapped on a plank and wrapped up in many cloths.
The burial-ground is outside of tbe village, and to the south of it. The
grave is dug very deep, and from this a vault runs, into which the body is
placed, the entrance being carefully closed with planks : dishes and weapons
are buried with the body. The’hair of any one killed by the deceased,
with heads of dogs, pigs, &c., killed during the feasting after a death, are
suspended over the grave. The Koms have never at any time resorted to
human sacrifices on these occasions.
Arms, mode of fighting., Sye.—The arms of the Koms are the spear, dilo,
bow and arrows, and panjis. The spear is a long heavy weapon, like that
iu use amongst the Tonkhuls, and is thrust, and not thrown in
 ( 56 )

Strong- The dio is the same as that of the Khongjais. The

bow is very strong, large, and heavy, and the arrow heads of a double
barb. They are occasionally poisoned. Their style of fighting is to sur­
prise their enemy : the h e ^ s of those they may slay are always cut off.
Feuds of consequence have no existence now among the Koms, although
formerly they were a t constant warfare with the Khongjais and Kowpois.
Religion, Spe.—The Koms believe in one supreme deity, who resides
above, and is of a benevolent disposition : this deity has one wife. Devils
of all kinds, they believe, reside in the high ranges of hills. After death
they go to a country situated to the south, where they live their lives over
again, and die, and are born into the world for five tim es; after this they
biroome birds and insects. Should any one die on a day corresponding with
th a t of his birth, say on a Monday (for they only count by days, not months
or years), they are not born again into this world. This dying once is
coveted by them. Their village priests, festivals, sacrifices, and supersti-
tioDs, closely resemble those of the Kowpois.
Sosye, Lances, ^-c.—^The part style of singing is not practised by the
Koms, although men and women sing together: singing is, however,
usually relegated to the women. Their favourite songs are duets, in which
the women sing alternate verses. The music of these duets is pleasing
and very suggestive of some kinds of Irish airs. Their musical instru­
ments are similar to those of the Kowpois. Their songs are but imper­
fectly understood by them.
CnUivation.—Tbe only cultivation carried on by them is by jhooming,
and they change about as the Khongjais do.
Hunting, fishing.—^They do not use dogs in their hunting expeditions,
but numbers of them unite to drive the game, which is killed with the
poisoned arrow. Fish are caught by poisoning the streams.
Slavery, Sickness, use o f Tobacco, Trade, Crime.—Slavery exists amongst
them, but on a limited scale. Sickness.—Small-pox, cholera, venereal dis­
eases, exist, but are said to be uncommon; they have no treatment. Tobacco
is smoked and chewed; they make no use of the juice. Trade is very-
limited ; the women make cloth of various kinds, and the men work in
iron obtained from Manipur. Crime.—Theft is not uncommon, and is
punished by the infliction of fine.
The Chirn Kukis.—There are some important differences distinguishing
the Chiru branch of the Kom tribe from the other. The men wear their
hair cut like the Kowpois. The women also dress like the Kowpois, and
wear their hair in a similar manner. Tlieir langu.age also slightly differs
from th at of the other Koms. Altogether they appear to form a connecting
link between the southern tribes and the Kowpois. They wear the silver
ear ornament as the other Koms do.
Anal Namfow Kukis.—The whole of the people in a large tract in the
south-east have received the name of Anal Namfow, from the two largest
villages amongst them. These people say they came from a position south
of their present one, and they celebrate in their songs the beauties of the
land of their origin. In personal appearance they are much like the
Khongjais, with whom, though they are at deadly fend, they appear to
have an affinity. The Anals, in more immediate connection with Manipnr,
have been corrupted so far as to have given up many of their former cus­
toms. They have now no longer amongst them hereditary chiefs, but the
villages in the interior retain their old habits and hereditary heads. Their
houses are made like those of the Khougjais, aud in their social usages
 ( 56 ,
there is but little difference. From its birth every male child is called
" M ote/' and every female one " Kinu." Their ears are pierced at the aimoal
festival for this purpose, and a distinguishing name is added to the “ Mote"
or " K i n u b u t for this there does not appear to be any fixed time or par­
ticularity as to tlie name to be given. Their marriages are effected much
in tbe same way as those of tbe Khongjais. After the first application for
their daughter, if tbe parents consent and drink of the wine brought, the
young man goes to the girl’s father’s house as acceptctl husband. After
this, the young man, four different times, feasts the bride’s family; at the
fourth feast they settle what is to be given finally for the girl—tbe rich
giving according to their means, and the poorer according to their’^!, not
less, however, than a pig and a piece of iron, one cubit long. Tlie want of
eyebrows and eyelashes amongst this people is admired, and the yoniig
men, to render themselves attractive, carefully cxti-act-tbem.
Hill-meii belonging to the Loi Populaliou.—Of the mixed tribes of hill-
men inhabiting the valley, and who have partially adopted Manipur
habits, and become “ Lois," there is little to be said. They number in all
about one thousand individuals, and their ranks are constantly receiving
small accessions from individual hill-men. From intermarriage amongst
themselves, they speedily lose the distinctive facial characters of the races
from which they have originated, and become in every respect impossible to
distinguish from the ordinary Manipuri, whose dress they adopt. They
retain their own language, however, amongst themselves, and their customs
become a mixture of those practised by hill-men and by the Manipuris.
They are the most hard-working part of the Manipur jxrpulation.
In January and February 1872, during the expedition against the
Lushais, some 649 captives were rescued, and 2,112 i-efugees came to seek
the maharaja’s protection and settle in Manipur. As to the captives res­
cued, they are all Khongjai Kukis and subjects of M anipur; they were
from time to time carried into captivity some years ago from Nungthur
Hills, and the villages in the vicinity of Chibu, by the Lushais. They
escaped from Lenkum and Poiboy’s northern villages, and joined the
Manipur camp; whilst the contingent which assisted the Lushai expedition
was encamped at Chibu. As for the refugees, out of the 2,112, including
men, women, and children, 373 are of the Sooti tribe, who had taken
refuge with the Lushais at a time of scarcity, 957 Pytais, vassals of the
Lushais from Poiboy’s villages, 110 Soomties, vassals of Kamhow’s tribe of
Suties, and 612 Lushais from Bomhung’s villages, which were destroyed
by Kambow’s force.
The whole of the above have been settled by the maharaja in the
Thangching range of hills and valley south-west of Moirang, have had
lands allotted to them, and arrangements have been made for their future
safety and protection. They have also been provided with food until they
raise crop fer themselves.
As regards emigration from this territory, some months ago a large
exodus of Khongjai Nagas took place from the neighbourhood of Kam­
how’s tribe. The flight of these, about a thousand men, women, and
children, i^ to seek protection in Burma against threats which have been
held out to them by Kamhow’s people, who promise to revenge themselves
against Manipur for capturing a chief named Kokatung and some of his
followers in March 1872. This-flight is nothing new; it periodically
occurs, whenever they are thus threatened. Tliey will return in time
and resume their old quar tci's. Tbe Manipur Govei iimeut is also strcngtben-
 { 57 )

ing tlieir out-posis in that direction. When these arrangements are com­
pleted, confidence will be restored.
There may be said, practically, to be no emigration either into Ul iitilD
the country towards the west of Burma,
The different castes and classes of men amongst the Meithei or Mani­
puri proper, living in the valley, having already been described, it is now
proposed to give some idea of their origin, physical characteristics, personal
habits, &c.
Origin o f the Manipurit.—The origin of the Manipuris is obscure, and
the written records having mostly been composed since they became Hin­
dus, are not worthy of much credit. From the most credible traditions the
valley app^rs originally to have been occupied by several tribes, the princi­
pal of which were named Khumul, Luang, Moirang, and Meithei, all of
whom came from different directions. For a time the Khumul appears to
have been the most frowerful, and after its declension the Moirang tribe.
But by degrees the Meitheis subdued the whole, and the name Meithei has
become applicable to all. Their claim to a Hindu descent has been rejected
by some |»rsons who studied the subject with great attention. One officer
formed his opinion that they are descended from a Tartar colony from
China. Another imagines them to be descendants of the surrounding hill
tribes. ,
The upper and learned classes of the Manipuris do not accept the above
conclusions as correct, and deny their origin from the hill tribes surrounding
the valley. They state that they always belonged to the valley, and have
always been a separate race, and Hindus. They account for their origin
thus, and quote “ Mahabharuta” in support of their statement:—
“ When the five brothers (‘ Fandabs’) were expelled by Baja Duijyo-
dhan from Hastina (Delhi), they, in their wanderings, came to this part of
the country, and one of them, the second brother, named Bhim, married
Hirambi at Kachar, and had a son named Gututh Kutcha, whose descend­
ants, called Bhimputras, are still living in Kachar. The third brother, Aijun,
entered Manipur, and subsequently married Chitrangada, daughter of the
raja of the country, and had a son named Babra Bahaa, who came into
possession of the ^ d i . Since the accession of Babra Bahaa, they assert
they have been Hindus. They also state that as the appearance of the
Bhimputras now living in the Kachar District are alike to theirs, they have
no hesitation in drawing the conclusion that they are descended from the
' Pandabs.’ ”
PAytieal eAaraeieritties o f the Manipwit.—Although the gfeneral facial
characteristics of the Manipuri are of the Mongolian type, there is a great
diversity of feature amongst them, some of them showing a regularity
approaching the Arian type. Among both men and women the stature is
very various, differing about as much as is found among Europeans. Some
of them are very go^-looking and fsur. I t is not uncommon to meet with
girls with brownish black hair, brown eyes, fair complexions, straight noses,
and rosy cheeks. The Manipuris are decidedly a muscular race, some of
the men particularly s o ; they are generally spare in habit of body, and fat
people are rare. They have good chests and well-formed limbs.
PersQval Aaditt, ^e.—In their habits generally, the Manipuris, are
cleanly, and they bathe their bodies frequently. The women have a dis­
agreeable habit of cleaning their hair with putrid rice water, which, if not
carefully removed (which it usually is) by washing, leaves a very offensive
smell. Their houses are kept clean.
 ( 58 )

(M et TmdiUom and Hhtory.—The records of Mauipnr coutaiu a long

list of chiefs, unaccompasied, however, by any notice of their actions fur­
ther than the occasional killing of distinguish^ members of adverse tribes,
through whose fall the Meithei influence was increased. B ut by a Shan
account of the Shan kingdom of Pong, considered authentic, it appears that
Shamlong, a brother of the Pong King, in returning to his own country
from Tipperah in 777 A. D., descended into the Manipur-Valley at Moi-
rang, the chief village of the tribe of that name. Moirang appears to
have been then independent, but certamly not prosperous, for so trifling
was the tribute Shamlong obtained, that he ordered it to be offered to the
deities of the place, and to the present day Moirang makes a yearly offering
as then directed. Prom Moirang, Shamlong proceeded to Meithei. He
found the Meitheis in the same miserable condition ae>the people of Moi­
rang, and excused their paying tribute, demanding from them only .that
they should dress more decently than they did, and eat pawn instead of
masticating bits of dried fish, a habit which appears to have been universal
amongst them. At the period before mentioned, the Shan kingdom of-
Pong was one of considerable importance. Its capital was Mogaung, and
it embraced in its limits the whole -country between Ava and Assam, Kubo
and Yunftn. I t exacted obedience from Assam, Kachar.and Tipperah, and
the Shan chiefs in the Kubo Valley were its tributaries. After Shamlong’s
visit, for nearly 700 years the annals of Manipur record nothing worthy of
notice. During this period, the Meithei supremacy had bron established,
and the Meithei Chief was, in 1-174, a person of importance, sufficient to
permit a Fong King to demand his daughter in marriage. The demand was
acceded to. Previous to this, the Pong King had promised one of his own
daughters to the Chief of Khumbat. She was on her way to Khumbat,
when she c h an g ^ her mind, and, with her father’s consent, married an­
other, Considering himself disgraced, the Khumbat Chief vowed revenge,
and found in 1475 an opportunity of gratifying it by carrying off the
Manipnri bride of the Pong King, whilst she was being escorted to
Mogaung by the Pong embassadors. This act brought.upon him the united
forces- of Pong and Manipur, by whom he was immediately attacked, his
fortress re d a c t, and himself obliged to fly. The territory he governed was
transferred to Manipur. After the reduction of Khumbat, King Komba,
the Pong King, accompanied Kiyamba, the Meithei Chief, to Manipur, and
as his ancestor Shamlong had-caused alterations in the manner of dressing,
he caused a change in the style cf building houses. The Manipnri ChiePs
Naga house appears to have been then abandoned as a residence, and his
present one, the “ Sung Kaie-poon-Seaba,’''’or long-lived house, to have
l ^ n made. This Pong King presented to the raja a golden pauudan, a
silver mounted dao, and a “ dulai" or litter. Ikese, and a sacred spear,
descended for a time from raja to raja, aud were the insignia of ro y ^ty ;
but since the expulsion of the Raja Maijit Singh by the Burmese, they
have never all of them been in the possession of any raja.
I t would be interesting to know the physical condition of the valley
a t the time of Shamlong's visit and the amount of land then covered with
witter. From the account of his visit, however, it would appear that the
two divisions of Moirangs and Meitheis inhabiting the further extremities
of the valley, the Moirangs to the extreme south, the Meitheis to the north,
the situation of the present capital had not yet come in contact, and may
not have done so -until many generations ^ te r Shamlong^s visit, when the
Meitheis probably after many encounters succeeded in subduing the Moriangs.
 ( 59 )
■In the Mahabhaint it is mentioned that Aijun, the prince wha visited
the valley, found Manipur on the edge of a sea. As, however, he came
apparently from the direction of Assam, and afterwards proceeded still
further south iu the course of his wanderings, if there is any credence to
be placed in the story, the sea in question must have b ^ n the Logtak
Lake, which to any one from Hindoostan might readily be supposed to be
a sea. The Manipur authorities state that the change in the mode M
building the houses mentioned above did not take place as there stated.
A t that period, in history they, say, several villagers who had seen the houses
in the Kubo Valley built thmr’s in the same style, the change in fashion
not being universal. The raja’s house was not changed at that time. Of
the presents given by the Pong King there is now not a trace, the last of
the articles remaining; the golden paundan and dAo were taken away by
Kaja Debendro Sing when he fled from Manipur in 1860, but the present
raja as insignia of royalty bais made exact imitations of them, and they
accompanying him' whenever he leaves his palace. The Fong capital,
Moganug, is said to have been situated in the Kubo Valley.
Reign o f Raja Pahungha.—'A raja, by the name of Pakungba, who
flourished, it is supposed, about 300 years ago, is credited with the consolida­
tion of the Manipur power. In his reign the Kubo Valley was occupied.
Tradition also assigns to him the introduction of '' Lallup," Hockey, and
the game of Kangsanaba.
Pamheiba or Gharib N ewaz.—Until about the year 1714thereis nothing(ff
special interest in the history of Manipur. Pamheiba, who appears to have bren
a Naga boy, brought up and adopted by the Baja Churai Bomba, shot his
adopW father, it is said, accidentally whilst hunting, and succeeded him.
The follovring is the account given of Pamheiba by the authorities, who deny
th at he was of Naga extraction. The father of Pamheiba was, they say, the
Baja Churai Bomba himself; the name of his mother was Nungtil Chaibi,
one of the raja’s wives, but not the head wife or rani The custom at
that time in Manipur was to kill all male children by any of the wives
except the ram. Nungtil Chaibi concealed the fact of the birth of Pam­
heiba, and anxious to save his life, persuaded her father to take charge of
him. This he did, and carried off the child to a village named Lai Sang-
kong, to the extreme west of the valley. When Pamheiba was about four
years old, the rani beard of his existence, and sent secretly to kilt him.
The boy’s grandfather escaped with him to the village of Tangal, in the
hills to the north occupied by the Quireng tribe of Nagas. Time went on,
and the rani having no family, there arose a difficulty about the succession.
The raja was unaware up to tiiis time of th e . existence of his son Pam­
heiba, although he had a suspicion of the fact. He made a declaration
before all his wives that, if any of them should have concealed a male child,
they would be freely forgiven, and the child be made his heir. The mother
of Pamheiba promised to make enquiries if the raja would swear that no
harm would befal the child, and on his doing so, she confessed to the ex­
istence of Pamheiba. The boy was sent for, and acknowledged by the
raja and people to be the son of Churai Bomba. The villagers who shel­
tered the boy were also rewarded. Churai Bomba, according to the Manipur
accouut, was killed by a poisoned arrow in fighting a tribe to the south,
called Tusuk, upon which Pamheiba, better known by his Hindoo name of
Gharib Newaz, ascended the gadi.
Gharib Newaz succeeded to the raj when he was twenty-two years of
age. At this time, according to the Manipuris, Manipur would appear
 ( 60 )

to have been a powerful state. Their influence is said to have extended to

Ava, and althoagh that country was not occupied by the Manipuris, they
established a Burmese Baja on the throne, who acknowledged the sr.pre-
macy of Manipur. To the west, their influence extended to Kachar; to
the south, as far ^ the water-shed flowing seawards j and to the north for
about nine days'journey from the capital Another account states, “ Gharib
Newaz several times invaded the Burmese dominions, and even reached
the capital. But he made no permanent conquest, and his last expedition,
in the year 1749, resulted in a retreat, his safety in which was only secured
by his giving up his daughter to the Burmese K ing." The Manipuris
deny that any such retreat took place, and say the princess given in mar­
riage to the Burmese King was a daughter of a brother of Gharib Newaz,
for it would appear that he was not the only one who escaped slanghter
under the custom above alluded to of killing the male children of all but
the head wife; four others were brought forward afterwards. This custom
was appropriately abolished by Gharib Newaz, who had himself so nearly
fallen a victim to it.
In one of Gharib Nawaz’s expeditions to Burmah he was accompanied
by his eldest son. Sham Shai, whom he intended seating upon the throne of
Ava. They got no farther than the Ningthi Eiver, about five days from
Manipur, when information was brought them that J it Shai, another son of
Gharib Newaz, had seized the gadi, and determined on the murder of his
father and brother. Shortly after. J it Sahai sent a force from Manipur,
which surprised and murdered Gharib Newaz and his son Sham Sahi, with
a number of their followers, on the banks of the Ningthi.
The principal event in the reign of Gharib Newaz is the introduction,
or revival, as some have it, of Hinduism. Gharib Newaz reigned for the
long period of forty years, and Manipuris influence in Burmah, &c., is said
to have lasted throughout his reign.
J it Shai only reigned five years after the murder of his father, when
he was expelled by his brother, Barut Shai. J it Shai fled to the Khasia
H ills; nothing further is known of him. Barut Shai died after a reign of
two years.
On the death of Barut Shai the succession devolved on Gouru Sham,
the eldest son of the murdered Sham Shai. This Gouru Sham was a
cripple, and it is related that, considering himself from his infirmity unfit to
be sole ruler, he associated with himself his brother Ja i Siugh, or Chiug-
tung Komba, and that they ruled alternately. This arrangement lasted
until Gouru Sham’s death, about 1764, when the sole authority - fell to
Chingtung Komba, who held it up to 1796.
During the reign of Gharib Newaz, Manipur would seem to have been
at least powerful enough to hold its own against Burmah. Indeed, accord­
ing to the Manipuris, a large ]^rtion of Upper Burmah was in a condition of
vassalage to Mauipur, the ruling prince, a Burman, having been actually
placed on the throne of Ava by Gharib Newaz. Still following the accounts
given by the Manipuris,during J it Shai’s reign, matters remained in much
the same state, no active hostilities having t ^ e n place between the two
powers; although thejr were unfriendly owing to the murder of Gharib
Newaz, which caused dissatisfaction to the Burmese King. In the reign of
the cripple, Gouru Sham, and Jai Singh, active hostilities commenced, and
after as stout a resistance as the Manipuris could make, they were driven
hack and the valley occupied by the Burmese; they only remained on this
occasion nine days, the Manipuris rallying and forcing them back. The
 { 61 )

Burmese during their first invasion of the country, committed S''**'*'

ravages, and bore away numbers of its inhabitants into slavery. No at­
tempt at retaliation was made by the Manipuris, who doubtless found
themselves too weak to make any such attempt. Almost immediately after
this, the first Burmese invasion of Manipur, the Manipuris feeling their
inability alone to cope with their now powerful enemy, and having heard
of the rising power of the British, sought their aid, a deputation being
sent to Sllhet for that purpose, offering to pay an annual tribute if desired.
A detachment of the Company’s troops was sent as far as Kanpur, the
capital of Kachar, with a view of assisting the Manipuris ; but for some
reason or other, was recalled from that place, without proceeding any
further to the direction of Manipur.
About a year after the first invasion of Manipur by the Burmese,
Gonru Sham ffied, and Jai Singh alone occupied the g ^ i .
About two years had elapsed after the invasion of the country before hosti­
lities were renewed by the Burmese. The Manipuris on this occasion
crossed the Hirok Range of mountain, dividing the Manipur Valley - from
Burmah, and gave battle to tbe Burmese at Tummu, close to the base of the
hills. Tummu was at this period under Manipur. The result of the fight
was unfavorable to the Manipuris who had to retreat, the valley being
agtain occupied after a series of sanguinary fights, all in favor of the
Burmese, who possessed numbers of fire-arms, which weapons were scarce
with the Manipuris. After sustaining a defence as long as practicable, Jai
Singh was forced to fly to Kachar, from whence he made his way to Assam.
During this occupation of Manipur, the Burmese established a descen­
dant of the former Moirang Rajas on the throne, named Kelemba. Tliis
raja reigned under the protection of Burmah for three years, Jai Siugli then
returning from Assam; on his arrival, Kelemba at once fled to Burmah,
and Jai Singh resumed his rule.
After a year’s interval, Kelemba again made an attempt on Manipur, but
he was killed on his way by two Manipuris spears-men sent for the purpose,
and who obtained access to the raja by professing to bear a message from
Jai Singh. The assassins succeeded in making their escape.
Kelemba’s brothers again, a year after this, invaded Manipur, and forced
Jai Singh again to fly towards Kachar. Following this, there was an
interval of anarchy, during which period many princes, Burmese and
Mauipuri, would appear to have alternately held the country.
A Manipuri prince, by name Eeremba, at last succeeded in restoring
something like order, and kept the gadi for a period of three years.
During the third year of Eeremba’s reign, the Burmese again invaded
Manipur. Eeremba would seem to have defeated the Burmese on this
occasion with great slaughter, killing, it is said, no fewer than seven thousand
of them, and forcing the remainder to retreat. On hearing this news, Jai
Singh returned, and Eeremba immediately handed over the raj to him
without objection.
After only one year of peace, the Burmese again invaded Manipur, Jai
Singh again fled. The same changes of rajas and anarchy now, as be­
fore, prevailed. During this period, in the reign of one Wankai, a great
flood happened in the valley, which was very destructive to life and pro­
perty.
Jai Singh again returned, crossing the hills from Assam; during his
progress, he was attacked by tbe hill tribes, but he succeeded in defeating
them and making his way to Manipur.
 ( 62 )

Jui SiugL, bLui'lly atW he returned, apparently tired out by his con­
stant fights, resigned the laj to his eldest son, Rabino or Labino Chandra,
and proceeded to Nadiya on a pilgrimage, where he died one year after,
ill 1799. His reign, after the death of Ooum Sham, extended altogether to
a period of thirty-four years.
Rabino Chandra only held the raj three years, when he was killed by
orders of bis younger brother, by a different mother, while looking on at
a hockey match. This brother, Madu Chandra, who thereupon succeeded
him, after three years, in his turn, was killed in battle by Chouijit Singh,
another brother. Rabino Chandra’s death is ascribed to his unpopularity
among the people, who were anxious for a change of rulers.
Madu Chandra was driven out by Cbouijit Singh, and proceeding i/j
Kachar, obtained aid from the raja of that place, whose daughter he had
married. W ith the men and arms thus obtained, he immediately returned
to Manipur, and fell in a sanguinary engagement, fought at the western
base of the hills, in which the Kachar force was routed after fighting for
two days.
Chourjit Singh did not enjoy his tenure of power for any length of
time unmolested, for another brother, named Maijit, commenced intriguing
against him. A series of fights took place, ending in the defeat of Maijit,
who fled to Kachar.
Maijit in his flight took with him a celebrated hockey pony, which the
Kachar Raja’s brother, Gobind Chandra, coveting, attempted to induce
M aijit to part with it. Failing in this, he forcibly seized it, an act which
was afterwards to get him into serious trouble, for Maijit never forgave
him. Seeing the hopelessness of expecting any aid under the circumstances
from tbe Kachar Raja, Marjit betook himself by sea to Rangun, and there ask­
ed for aid from tbe Burmese King, to enable him to gain a footing iu Mani­
pur. This aid was afforded him, and he succeeded in expelling Chouijit, who
fled to Kachar.
About four years after the flight of Chouijit, M aijit determined upon
invading Kachar to revenge himself for the 1<^ of his pony, Gobin
Chandra, who had taken it, having succeeded his brother as raja. The
force of the Manipuris numbered no fewer, according to an old survivor
of the force, than 10,000 men. Entering the territory of the Kachar
Raja, an engagement was fought at a place called Rangpur, on the right
bank of the Barak, and nearly opposite the present station of Kachar, in
which the Kachar Raja, who had only about 1,000 men well armed with
muskets, had to retreat. Next day the Manipuris crossed the river, and
sacked and burned the raja’s palace. Tbe raja had meanwhile retreated
to Hilakandy to the south-west.
Leaving one thousand men to garrison Kachar, which he placed in charge
of his brother, Chouijit, and putting another and younger brother, Gambhir
Singh, in possession of certain other portions of the district, he, with the
remainder of hia force, returned to Manipur.
For a period of three years peace was uninten-apted in Manipnr, but
daring this interval Maijit Singh appears to have meditated throwing off
the yoke of Burmese supremacy at tbe first opportunity. A change of
kings occurring in Burmah, the new ruler sent a message to M aijit,
demanding his presence as a feudatory. M arjit, after cousulting with his
officers, determined upon refusing to obey, and replied to that effect. The
result was another invasion of the Buimesc in 1819. The Manipuris
resisted Ibr seven days, but were at last overcome, and Marjit fled to Kachar.
 ( 63 )

During this invasion the Burmese almost completely devastated tlie

coonttj. The houses of the villages were extensively destroyed, and the
walls of the raja’s enclosures levelled with the ground. Great numbers of
the inhabitants fled the country and sought safety in the adjoining districts
of Kachar and Silhet, swelling the Manipnri colonies in those districts,
which were at this time grradually formitg' from the aggregation o f the people
who had settled down after flying from the Burmese.
When Marjit fled to Kachar, that country was still in the possession of
the two brothers, Chouijit and ^ m b b ir Singh, for, although the Kachar
Baja had attempted to dislodge the brothers, he had failed, and was then
residing on the borders of the Silhet District in the British provinces.
The Burmese remained meantime in possession of Manipur. A prince
of the name of Jagu Singh, a son-in-law of Gharib Newaz, was made nomi­
nally raja. Jagu Singh was afterwards removed, and a brother of Narsiag
(to be afterwards mentioned) replaced him. The Manipuris do not recog­
nise these two as belonging to their list of rulers. The occupation of the
Burmese and their complete influence over Manipur lasted until the brcak-
ing out of the first Burmese war in 1824.
In Kachar, during the interval mentioned above, four Manipuri princes
resided there, Chourjit, Maijit, Gambhir Singh and a younger brother,
Biswanath Singh. Chourjit Singh assumed to b« raja, and resided at Sunai
Mukh to the sonth of the district. Maijit took up his residence to the
sontb-west, in Hilakandi. Gambhir Singh and Biswanath Singh in Kalyue
and Bikrampnr, near Badarpur. They shared among them the revenues of
Kachar, but did not live long ttgether in harmony. Gambhir Singh demand­
ed from Chouijit an increase of territory. Chourjit refusing, an encounter
took place, in which Chourjit was defeated. Gambhir Singh immediately
d e c la ^ himself raja, and Chourjit proceeded to Silhet, where he remained
until the outbreak of the war with Burmah.
During the period when his country was occupied by the Manipur princes,
the Kachar Baja was supposed to be intriguing with the Burmese &r aid in
expelling them. Whether or not this was the case, in 1823, the Province
of Kachar was invaded by the Burmese. Gambhir Singh resisted, and finally
drove them back. M arjit fled to Silhet, one year after, in 1824. W ar having
been declared between the British and the Burmese, they (the Burmese)
returned in greatly increased numbers, invading simultaneously Kachar and
Assam.
In the interval between 1823 and 1824, Gambhir Singh implored British
aid against the Burmese. On the invasion of Kachar for the second time, this
was afforded him, aftd a force of sepoys and artillery sent towards Kachar.
The Burmese had meantime fortified themselves on a low range of
hills about five miles west of Silchar; they numbered about ten thousand
strong, but were destitute of artillery Here the combined British and
Manipur force attacked them. By the aid of the artillery the Burmese
were speedily dislodged, and beat a retreat towards Manipur. The Burmese
met with great losses during this retreat, as they were harassed in eveiy
way by the Manipuris, and the inhabitants of the hiffs through which they
were forced to pass lost no opportunily of catting off the wounded and
stragglers.
Before the above action took place, five hundred Manipuris were fur­
nished with muskets by the British; these muskets were allowed to be
retained, and the five hundred men thus raised formed the nucleus of B»e
Manipur Levy.
 ( 64 )

After the expulsion ol t)«e Burmese from Kachar, the Britisli officers
called togetlier the three brothers, Chonijit, Maijit, and Gambbir Singh, and
proposed making the following arrangements for restoring the state of
Manipur. Chounit, they proposed, should be raja, with Maijit as jubraj,
or successor, and Gambhir Singh to be senaputi, or general-in-chief, uhour-
j i t and M ^ i t , however, on acconnt of age, it is said, declined to act, and
Gambhir Singh w.18 accordingly made raja. N ar Singh, a great grandson of
Raja Gharib Newaz, and a man of considerable ability, was made senaputi.
The Burmese, after their retreat from Kachar, remained in occupation of
llie Manipur Valley. At this time a large British force had assembled in
Kachar with a view of entering Manipur and invading Burmah, but they
met with so many difficulties on account of the jungly and swampy nature
of the country, that they got no further than the Jiri River. They had
numbers of camels with them, the most unsuitable of all baggage animals
for a sw.impy and jungly country; these died in large nambcrs, and finally,
after great losses, from sickness, the force returned, never having even
entered the Manipur Hills. This force, it is said, numbered about six
thousand men.
On the departure of the above force, which was withdrawn altogether
from the province, the British anthorities communicated with Gambhir
Singh, who expressed his willingness to advance into Manipur with the five
b u n d r^ men who now constituted the Manipur Levy. Accompanied by
the late Captain Pemberton, the force with Gambhir Singh marched for
Manipur unopposed as far as the valley. The Burmese were found to have
entrenched themselves on a low hill above the Ningail, Salt-well village,
but were easily dislodged.
The Burmese were ab.)Ut one thousand strong, and it is said their loss
was about three hundred men, with but few casualties in the Manipur side.
The Burmese, after this engagement, at once evacuated the Manipur Valley
and made for Burmah, not being followed up by the Manipuris.
After the. discomfiture and retreat of the Burmese, and their evacuation
of the valley, Gambhir Singh visited Silhet at the request of Mr. Scott,
the Governor General’s A gent; one thousand and five hundred more mus­
kets were supplied by him to the raja, who arranged to raise the requisite
nnmber of men. The men were assembled at Banskandi, and thus the
Manipur Levy was finally constituted and two European officers. Captain
G rant and Captain Pemberton, appointed to it.
The population of the valley had been so mncb reduced during the
Burmese occupation that when Gambhir Singh established himself, the adult
male population is said not to have exceeded three thousand, with a scanty
proportion of women and children.
When Raja Gambhir Singh marched to dislodge the Burmese from
Manipur, an arrangement was made by the British Government for the
restoration to his country of the Kachar Raja, who, it will be remembered,
bad been dis|>osseg8ed of his rights by the three brothers, Cbouijit, Maijit,
and Gambhir Singh, and bad taken refuge in Silhet. A small portion of
the district, however, near Banskandi, named Chandrapur, was reserved
for Gambhir Singh. This small estate b.ad been in the possession of the
Manipur Rajas from the time of Chingtung Komba or Jai Singh. When
the district was annexed by the British, this portion was also ab^rbed, but
as compensation, the Manipur frontier was advanced in 1834, from the
summit of the Kala Naga range of hills to the Jiri River, the present
boundary.
 ( )

The brothers of Raja Gambhir Singh were thus disposed of. Chonijit
selected to take up his residence in Nadiya, where he died; he had an
Allowance of rupees one hundred a mouth from the British Government.
Maijit settled in Silbet ou the same allowance; he died at Baluah Gh&t,
in the south of the district Biswanath, the remaining brother, never
having been raja, received no allowance; be also died in Silhct. The
above allowances only lasted during the lifetime of the recipients.
Ou Gambhir Singh returning to Mauipur with the Eurojiean officers
and the increased levy, arrangements were at once made for invading
Burmah, and occupying the Kubo Valley, the Burmese war still continuing.
The Burmese resisted strenuously, especially at Tummu, which they hs^
strongly fortified, but they were eventually overpowered, and had to re­
treat across the Ningthi River; they were not further pursued. The
Manipuris remained in possession of the Kubo Valley until 1831, wben,
by an arrangement concluded at the request of the Burmese Government,
the Manipuris were directed to evacuate the Kubo Valley, receiving in
compensation sicca rupees (500) five huudrcd monthly from the British
Goverument.
On the conclusion of the Burmese war by the treaty of Gendaijo in
1826, Manipur was declared independent, aud in 1835 a political agent
was appointed.
Until his death in 1831, GamWiir Singh was occupied in settling the
country, inducing fugitive Manipuris to return, and generally regaining
and extending Manipur influence over the surroundiug UiU tribes. A t his
death, the population of the valley had increased, it is said, to alxiut forty
thousand. The Manipur Levy was, during this period, still kept up and paid
by the British Government, aud two European officers still attached to it.
On the death of Gambhir Singh, Nar Singh, who had been senaputi,
found himself to be the most powerful man in Manipur. He might easily
have put aside the infant son of Gambhir Singh, and have assumed the
gadi himself, but with a moderation not shown by any of his predecessors,
he raised the infant to the gadi, declaring himself regent during the
■minority. Nar Singh conducted the duties voluntarily imposed on himself
with ability aud firmness, and preserved the gadi for the infant raja
against the attempts of various princes to wrest it from him. But the
more the regent evinced his fitness to rule, the more was he hated by the
young raja's mother, who looked on him as an obstacle to her ambition,
which ought to be removed. Accordingly, in concert with her favourites,
she planned a conspiracy to murder the regent, which was, in January
1841, attempted to be carried into effect. 'The regent was set upon at
the evening worship, and narrowly escaped with his life after having been
severely wounded. Some of the conspirators were apprehended, and the
rani, fearing the consequences of the miscarriage of her plot, fled from the
country, taking her young son, the raja, with her. This flight was con­
sidered an abdication, and the gadi was taken possession of by Nar Singh,
who governed the country until his death in 1850. The infant son of
Gambhir Singh was only one year old at the time of his (Gambhir Singh's)
death, and the regency of Nai- Singh.
Although 1 believe the above account of the plot against N ar Singh
to be in all probability the correct one, the Manipuri vei-sion of the story
is herein, given. They say that the plot to murder Nar Singli was entirely
concocted by a prince named Nobin Singh, a great great-grandson of
Gharib Newaz; this Nobin Singh was the individual who struck down
 { 66 )

Nar Singh. This prince was at one time imprisoned and ironed by order of
N ar Singh; this he resented, and swore to be revenged. On his release he
obtained the fetters which'had been used on him, and swore that he would
make a tulwar with them, with which to slay Nar Singh. I t is said th at
the rani fled at once, under the impression that N ar Singh had been killed,
and was no longer able to protect the young raja. She also feared
Debendra Singh, N ar Singh’s brother, who h ^ always been against her and
the raja. Nobin Singh, after severely wounding Nar Singh, was seized by
liim and his gtiards, who at once cut down and despatched the intended
assassin. During the occurrence of the above events heither the political
agent nor his assistant was in the valley; they were both looking after
the road then under construction. The rani, in her flight, avoided the
new road, and did not meet with either of the above. She made her way
to Kachar and placed herself and the son under tbe protection of the British.
Nar Singh, suspecting, or profe^ing to suspect, the complicity of the
rani in the attempt on his hfe, did nut hesitate to proclaim himself raja,
and although the British Government were not quite satisfied with tbe
arrangement, it was allowed to pass.
During the regency of N ar Singh nnmerous attempte were made to
upset the government. The first occurred in 1838. In that year Tarring
Komba, eldest son of a former Raja, Rabino Chandra, made a raid with
three hundred followers from Kachar. They were met by five hundred men
of Nar Singh’s on entering the valley of Manipur. In the fight which en­
sued, Tarring Komba and his brother, with many followers, were killed, one
hundred were taken prisoners, the remainder fled. The prisoners were
released after beiug detained 'one year. Within the next few years, the
following attempts at securing the raj took place: Marjit's eldest son,
named Jogendra Singh, tried to invade tbe country; but he and his brother
were both killed in the hills on their way to the valley. Two sons* of
Chourjit Singh also made an attem pt; they managed to get inside the
raja’s enclosure at night, bnt iu the fight which ensued in the morning
both were killed.
After Nar Singh had declared himself raja, another attempt was made, not
long before his death, by one Melai Romba and his brother, descendants of
Baja Chnrai Bom ba; they invaded the valley from Kachar. In an engage­
ment which took place in the valley, Melai Romba’s brother was killed, and
himself taken prisoner; he was executed by being put into a basket and
flung into the river. This was the last politicd executioa up to the pieaent
time.
I t will readily be imagined th at these continued disturbances and fighte
rendered the position of the political agent anything but pleasant: how­
ever, he was never interfered with, although sometimes ratoer awkwardly
situated, as when, in the progress of one of the skirmishes, a cannon hall
coming from tbe raja's enclosure, struck bis bouse.
On the rani reaching Kachar, as before mentioned, she placed herself
under British protection, and had a small guard of sepoys told off for her
security. Au ^ow ance of rupees one hundred a mouth was allowed her
from the Kubo compensation money for her and the young raja’s support.
During a stay of five years in Kachar, she made many applications to Gov­
ernment to regain the gadi for the raja; but these were not listened to,
Nar Singh having become raja. She then proceeded to Assam, with a view
of consulting with Captain Jenkins, the Commisrioner, who, she supposed,
* Tribliubtnijit Hml Ram
 ( 67 )

would be able to aid her in her efforts to regain the ^ J i for her son. Some
correspondence went bn, it is believed, on the subject, but tlie rani was
finally referred to the Manipur Political Agent. After remaining one year
in Assam, she returned with the raja to Kachar, where she remained until
the death of Nar Singh in 1850.
After the death of Nar Singh, which took place from cholera, an epidemic
of that disease being then raging in the valley, his brother, Debendra Singh,
a man of less firmness and talent than Nar Singb, assumed the raj, it is said
in the political agent’s correspondence of the time, at the request of Nar
Singh. According to the Manipur authorities, Nar Singh was averse to his
suoreeding him, desiring the restoration of Gambliir Singh’s son, Chandra
Kirti Singh. He is said also to have exhorted his three sons to proceed to
Kachar, and render every assistance in their power to further this end. Be
this as it may, there is no doubt that the three sons of N ar Singh, almost
immediately after his death, fled to Kachar and put themtelves in communica-
tion, together with other influential men who had left Manipur, with Chandra
Kirti Singh.
Fearing disturbances after the flight of Nar Singh’s sons to Kachar, the
political agent communicated with the officials in Kachar, and a guard was
placed over the Raja Chandra Kirti Singh. About this time the raja peti­
tioned for the restoration of his raj, but before he had time to receive an
answer, he had contrived to elude his guards, and was in full march for
Manipur, accompanied by Nar Singh’s three sons, and about one hundred
followers. Halting a t the Jiri River, where he was joined by more recruits,
he sent a letter to the political agent, intimating his intentions of coming
on to Manipur. He met with but little opposition on the way, and reached
the valley safely. After another trifling skirmish, he establish^ himself iu
a former residence of the raja’s, situated three miles south of the capital,
and commanding the most fertile part of the. valley. During five days
matters rem ain^ quiet. Many of the followers of Debendra Singh desert^
him and went over the young raja, whose advent was apparently approved
of by the majority of the people. After this period Debendra Singh’s pros­
pects became hopeless, and he was forced to fly after having been att^ked
by the troops, who had up to this time adhered to his cause. Debendra
Singh made bis way with his family to Kachar, where he remained, making,
no doubt, preparations for the attempts he afterwards made to recover the
raj.
It would appear, both from the opinions of the then political agent
and the present statements of the Manipuris, that Debendra Singh was not
popular, and that, when a son of Gambhir Singh appeared on the scene, the
prestige of his being the only male descendant of the raja, who bad freed
the country from the hated Burmese, told immensely in his favor. The fact
of Chandra Kirti Siagb having been accompanied in his expedition by Nar
Singh’s sons hod also a favorable effect, as tending to unite the two gp%at
factions of the country—the supporters of Gambhir Singh’s family and that
of Nar Singh.
DebendraSingh having fled after only occupying the gadifor three months,
Chandra Kirti Singh assumed the raj, naming as jnhraj, or successor, the
eldest son of Nar Singh, another son to be senaputi. The attitude of the
political agent at this period was of simple expectancy, and, with the ex­
ception that the Kubo compensation money was withheld, nothing was
done. He stated as his opinion that the above arrangement with Nar
Singh’s sons was not likely to continue, and feared that from his ignorance
 ( 68 )

of the country the young raja will fall entirely into the bauds of bis
advisers, and great oppression and misery result.
N ot more than a fortnight had elapsed after the flight of Debendra
Singh, when disturbances, as the political agent feared, broke out. A younger
brother of Debendra Singh's, who had remained behind on his flight, united
witii Nar Singh’s sons, and with six hundred followers attacked the raja;
but tbey were defeated, and fled towards Kachar.
When Debendra Singh assumed the raj, apparently by desire of Nar
Singh, the political agent recommended that he should be recogprized by
Government. This recognition was accorded, but as it arrived eleven days
afler Debendra’s flight, it could not be acted on, and was not made known.
Before the above orders were received, however, .and to add to the com­
plications of the situation, Debendra Singh had made known his intentions of
making an attempt to recover the raj. Tbe first attempt was made about
two months alter his flight from Manipur, and was unsuccessful, his
adherents being dispersed by the raja's troops in the hills about half way
to Manipur. Another attempt was made after this, but defeated by Govern­
ment sepoys, who followed up aud dispersed the raiders.
After the last raid, Debendra Singh was seized by the Kachar officials,
aud couveycd first to Silhet, and afterwards to Daka, where he died in
November 1871. He was supported by an allowance from the Kubo com­
pensation money of rupees seventy a month.
In the meantime, matters id Manipur were going on from bad to w o ^ ,
and great oppression was caused by the reckless behaviour of the authorities,
unchecked apparently by the raja. These unscrupulous men fearing the
success of Debendra Singh’s plans for regaining the raj, only thought of
enriching themselves at the expense of the unfortunate, inhabitants, who by
this time had become so dissatisfied with tbe rule of Chandra Kirti Singh,
that the majority of them would have gladly welcomed back Debendra Singb,
who would doubtless have succeeded in reaching the valley in his second
attempt, had he not been attacked and routed by the British force.
Not content with oppressing the people, the attitude of the raja and
his advisers was at this period one of decided hostility to the political agent,
who was accused unjustly, it need scarcely be said, of keeping back the
Kubo compensation allowance, which the raja and his harpies constantly
clamoured for, and which was withheld until it could be clearly shown that
the raja was able to hold his own. So insolent had they become, although
they bad been assured that the political agent, in withholding the Kubo
allowauce, was only acting up to the orders of Government, that they
openly gave out that, if they did not receive the allowance when the next
instalment become due, they would re-occupy the Kubo Valley. The whole
of the conduct of the Manipur Government at this time is characterized by
the political agent as being ‘‘ unbecoming from the court of the son of the
man who owed his throne to the British Government.” The political
agent, writing to Government at this period, states: “ I have met witii
“ some petty acts of annoyance indicating a bad spirit in the authorities,
“ who (at least many of them) seem to think that tiie presence of the
“ representative of the British Government ought to be no check on them ;
“ that they by their prowess gained the throne for the young raja in spite
“ of the British Government, and now they have got it, they may do
■“ exactly as they choose. I trust, however, as they cool down, they may
“ understand their position. Tlie young raja, I believe, does.” Again, in
October 1850, the political agent fears that the continued unsettled state
 ( 68 )

of the coantiy may indiiue the Burmese to interfere aud assist a Prince
named Nibitjit who was then in high favonr with the Court of Ava.
In December 1850, matters at length reached a limax demanding inter­
ference. A t this time it was clearly shown th at the Manipur Governmeut
had supplied arms and men to a tribe of Nagas to the north at that time
hostile to the British Government. All the remonstrances of the political
agent failed in eliciting any satisfactory explanation of this transaction and
the matter was reported to Government. In reply. Government adminis­
tered a rebuke to the Manipur Raja, and reminded him that bis state exist­
ed only by the sufferance and countenance of the British Government. A t
this the state of affairs improved considerably, the raja evidently being
recalled to a proper sense of hs$ position, and ruling with a greater regard
to the rights and feelings of his subjects.
In February 1851, the orders of Government recognizing the snccession
of Chandra Kirti Singh to the raj of Manipur were conveyed to him, and
shortly afterwards another assurance of stability was given by Government,
undertaking still further to guarantee the raj to him aud his descendants,
and to prevent, by force of arms, if necessary, any attempt by rival chiefs
to dislodge him.
Very shortly after the above recognition other raids on Manipur took
place, which are related briefly as follows
In 1851,Debendra Singhs and Nar Singh’s sons made an attempt. In
the subsequent fight which ensued, Debeudra Singii’s eldest son was killed
and two qf Nar Singh’s sons taken prisoners; these were afterwards forgiven
and made officials: they are still alive in Manipur. One year after tbe
above, two sons of Madu Chandra and one of Marjit Singh’s named Kauai
Singh made an attempt. Madu Chandra’s two sons were captured, and
afterwards died in M anipur; Kanai Singh escaped, and has since made other
attempts.
Up to the time of the outbreak of the Indian mutiny of 1857 no other
raids took place. A t the latter end of 1857, or beginning of 1858, the
sepoys stationed in Chittagong mutinied and made for Kachar ; they were
met and defeated at Latu on the borders of the Silhet and Kachar Districts
by a detachment of the Silhet Light Infantry, now the 44th Native In ­
fantry ; they afterwards continued on their way east, in the direction' of the
Manipur frontier. The political agent, on hearing of the Chittagong
mutiny, asked the raja to send a body of his troops to the frontier to pre­
vent the mutineers entering the country: this was at once done, and four
hundred men under two majors despatched. These troops did good service,
and captured a number of the mutineers, who were giiyjii up to the British
officials. I t is supposed that nearly, if not, all the mutineers were killed,
captured, or perished miserably iu the jungles of the Manipur and Kuki
Hills. During the whole of tbe period of the mutiny, the political agent
in bis reports to Government, st.ites that the conduct and feelings of the
raja and the majority of the officials aud inhabitants were at that time
good, and the raja’s offei-s of assistance to the British Government in case
of need sincere. Advantage was taken of the arrival of the mutineers by
some of the Manipuri chiefs in Kachar, and several joined them with a view
of getting their aid in overthrowing the Manipur Government. Among
them was Nurendrojit or Chai Ahum {“ Chai Ahum,’’ three years, so
called as he was supposed to have been three years in his mother’s womb)
a younger son of Chourjit Singh’s ; he was made prisoner aud handed over
to the British officers; he was eventually transport^.
 ( 70 )

During the mutiny an attempt was made by Government to enlist men

as sepoys for general service, but it quite failed, as the Manipuris did not
like the idea of serving in the North-Western Provinces, more especiaily
as disturbances were still g^jing on.
In 1859, at the recommendation of the political agent, the raja was
presented with a dress of honour, sword, and belt, at the same time eight
of his chief officers received khilluts. These gifts were expressive of approval
of the conduct of the raja and his officers during the mutiny. One Major
Roma Singh, also received the mutiny medal, he having been actually engaged
with the mutinious sepoys from Chittagong.
In 1859, Mypak, a descendant of Gharib Newaz, made an attem pt; he
reached the valley, but was defeated under the western hills and fled. In
1862, he again invaded the valley, his party was followed up by sepoys
from Kachar, who had a skirmish with the raiders in the hills, but did not
succeed in stopping them. Mypak succeeded in eluding the parties sent
against him, including a guard of fifty men of the 44th Sikh L ight In­
fantry under an European officer, and attached to the political agency at
that time, and got inside the raja’s enclosnre at night. In the morning
he and his party were easily overcome by the Manipuris, and Mypak
wounded and taken prisoner. The sepoys were not called upon to act.
Mypak died in Manipur some two or three years afterwards. Several of
his descendants and followers are still alive in the valley.
Towards the end of 1861 or beginning of 1865, Kanai Singh made his
second attempt, accompanied by about two hundred followers, fie only got
as far as the Jiri River, where he was overtaken by a party of the 33rd
Native Infantry and police, who completely defeated and dispersed the
raiders; Kanai Singh making his escape.
In December 1886 the last of these raids took place, led by Goknl Singh,
a younger son of Debendra Singh, who had not accompanied his father
to Daka- With about one hundred followers, he managed to reach the
valley unmolested, though closely followed up by a party of sepoys and
police from Kachar. The Manipuris sent out a party to meet him so soon
as the news came in ; this party came up with the raiders under the hills to
the west, about ten miles from the capital. I t being nearly dark when
they came in contact, little was done, and the raja’s men proceeded to
entrench them^lves, proposing to attack the raiders in the morning. In
the meantime, unknown to the Manipuri force, the sepoys from Kachar
were approaching, their advance having been observed by Gokul Singh, ho
and his adherents fled. The British force- coming suddenly in the dark
upon the force of entrenched Manipuris, and supposing them to be the
euemy, at once attacked them. The Manipuris on their side were under
the impression, the night being dark, that they in their ttlm were being
attacked by Gokul Singh and his men,and defended themselves. An irregular
firing on both sides was kept up all night, and in the morning the mistake was
at once discovered. In the meantime, Gokul Singh and his adherents had
got clear off. In this unfortunate affair several men were wounded on
either side: one man, a sepoy of tbe British force, afterwards died. Gokul
Singh eluded pursuit until L868, when he was apprehended by the police
in Kuch Bebar; he was afterwards tried in Kachar and sentenced to seven
years’ impsisonment.
Tlie number of Manipuri princes now resident in the British provlnoes,
who are influential enough to make raids on Manipur, are few. Deliendra
Singh died last year, and his nephew, a sou of Nar Singh’s, named Shaikur
 ( 71 )

' Singh, is detained at Dacca under British surveillance as a political detenus

on an allowance of Rs. 20 per month. ELanai Singh, who has been at large
since his last raid in 1865, was captured two years ago, and he, as well as
Gokul Singh, are a t Hazaribagh as exiles and receive from the Manipui
Durbar an allowance of Rs. 80 each per mensem. Kala alias Daya-
bant Singh, a grandson of Chouijit Singh, is also at Hazaribagh under British
surveillance. Nirjit Singh, another son of Debendra Singh, is living at Daka
with Sbaikar Singh. Kanai Singh has an elder brother who resides in Angar-
tolah, in Tipperab, named Durjai. Singh, but there is nothing against him.
Quirakpa, a grandson of Maijit’s, formerly resided in the vaSey, hot as he
wanted to raise disturbances, he was made to leave the country by the pre­
sent raja : he now resides in Silhet. Fourteen Manipuris exiled from time
to time for adhering to the cause of the raiders have been recently released
by Government at the request of the maharaja. There seems to be no
apprehension of any atte upts to seize the Raj from the Burmese side.
Before the introduotica' of fire-arms at the time of the Burmese war, the
numerous hill tribes now under control were then almost entirely inde­
pendent, they being constantly at feud amongst themselves aud with
Manipur. The inhabitant of the valley to meet the hill-man with his
own weapons, the spear, bow and arrow, &c. Amcngst the whole of the hill
tribes at this period the Tonkhuls and Luhupas were the most troublesome,
occasionally making raids into the valley itself, but, like all hill-men, afraid
to quit the shelter of their hills for any distance, and easily beaten back
by the pony cavalry of the state. Communication with the west at this
time had scarcely any existence, and only large armed bodies of men could
go with any safety from the Manipur Valley towards Kachar. The Kowpois
and Jlurrings were then, as now, the most under control; during the inva­
sion of the Burmese, the hill-men on the line of road invariably fled, and
none of the Burmese operations involved the subjection of the hill tribes
away from their lines of route. The whole of the bill tribes were un­
friendly to the Burmese, and although no organized attempt at resist­
ance to their march was ever made by them, they lost no opportunity
of annoying them and cutting ofl!' stragglers. Alter the defeat of the
Burmese in Kachar, on their retreat they lost a number of men in the
hills.
As soon as the country became somewhat settled after the Burmese
war, Raja Gambhir Singh turned his attention to the subjugation of
the hill tribes.- He, by the aid of the fire-arms now in his possession,
speedily reduced the major portion of them to subjugation. Before his
death he reduced the Kowpois completely, aud brought the Tonk­
huls, Luhupas, and Angami Nagas into fair order. During tiis period
it was nndonbtedly found necessary to resort occasionally to severe
measures, and it may be supposed that the Manipuris, smarting
under all that they had sq.fiered from the hands of the tribes, made fatal
nse of their new weapons ; but this excessive punishment has long ago
ceased. During the time of R.aja Gambbir Singh, two British oflicers, the
late Captains Jenkins and Pemberton, accompanied by some one thousand
Manipuri sepoys, crossed the hills between the Mauipui- and Assam valleys;
they met with much opposition from the warlike tribe of Angamis.
Raids by any of the hill tribes on the valley of Manipur have long ago
ceased. Although it would not be profitable to .detail every little raid
or disturbances that has, taken place of late years, some particulars witli
regard to raids by the Lnsh'si tribe of Kukis may be found of iuterest.
 { 72 )

Until some thirty-two years ago, the tribes to the south in contact
with the Manipuris were the Khongjai and Komkukis. On these being
driven out by tbe Lushais, a series of raids and annoyances by the latter
oommenoed, and continual until 1870-71. Dbturbances have always
been confined to the hills occupied by the Kowpoi tribe of NagM, although
they once on their first appearance invaded the valley. This raid, the
first by the Lnsfaais, occurred about twenty-niue years ago, when
Bajoh Nar Singh occupied the gadi. The leader was chief Vonolail, now
dead. A village of Khongjais near the south of the valley was first
destroyed, ^ te r which the Lushtus entered the valley. The Manipuris
in the villages adjacent turned out to the number of five hundred with
one m ount^ man armed with a spear to oppose them, and the Lushais
were driven back with a loss of ten men killed, the Manipuri loss being
only two. I t is said that the one mounted man behaved with great
bravery, and inflicted great damage on them ; after this raid the only
thing done was to establish a post at the point where they had entered
the valley. About three years after the above occurrence, a village, named
Nomidong or Nungdan^' (the same village as destroyed by the Lushais
in October 1868, and m which they awaited the attack of the Manipuris
sent against them), was out up, bnt it was never clearly ascertained whether
the outrage was committed by Khongjais or Lushais. After an interval
of about two years, during the incumbency of the present Baja Chandra
Kirti Singh, the thana of Kala Naga, containing only ten men at the
time, was suddenly attacked, the sepoys making g ^ their escape. About
five hundred Lushais were engaged in this expedition, and the thana and
gurronniTing villages were destroyed. The Lushais after this retreated,
bnt returned in three months and committed great ravages iu aud around
the Kala Naga range of hills, the few sepoys in the thana, which had
not been strengthened, again retreating. Three hundred men were at once
despatched from Manipur on this occasion,, but they arrived only to find
that the Lushais had gone. The Kala Naga post was now strengthened,
three hundred men being posted in it. Shortly after this the Lushais
returned for the third time, and burned a viUage close to the thana. Evidently
unaware of the reinforcement that had been thrown into the post, the
Manipuris having concealed themselves, a party of them entered, and
tiie Manipuris, rushing from their concealment, captured ten of them
before they -could offer any resistance, the rest escaping. The prisoners
were brought into Manipur, where they were detained for three or four
years, after which nine of them succeeded in escaping from custody, but
they were all killed by Khongjai Kukis while trying to make their way
back to their own country. After this negociations were opened with
the chief Vonolail, and the surviving prisoner, who was a relation of his,
was ifileased on the chiefs giving a promise not to molest Manipur for
the future. This promise the Lushais faithfully kept until 1868, when
they again broke out,and made raids on Mnkti, Nungdang, &c., aud
attacked and burned Kala Naga stockade.
Last year the British Government sent an expeditionary force into
the Lushai country, and punished the tribes that committed raids in the
Kachar District. The Manipur Government at the instance of the Govern­
ment of India also sent a force of two thousand sepoys under two majors,
with » view to co-operate with the Kachar column. They were detached
at Cbibu, in order to' restrain Kamhow’s tribe and ^ a r d the southern
frontier. Though they were not employed in any active service, yet they
 ( 78 )
»
succeeded in sssistiog and escorting some captaves and refugees into their
camp. On the return of the force, in March 1872, some eight Lushai
chiefs, consisting of Dambum and others, came into Manipur and entered
into a treaty with the maharaja. The GovemmeDt of India has also
acknowledged the services rendered bjr the Mauipur Darbar during the
expedition, and presented the raja with five hundred Victoria muskets,
and twelve sporting rifles for hiihMlf and his princess. Three of his officers,
Bolaiam, Tangal, and Gokul, have also received khilato from Government
in recognition of their services.
The present raja, as has often been mentioned in the preceding p a ra ,
is Chandra Kirti Singh, only son of Gambhir Singh; he is a heMthy-
looking man of forty, and looks as if he would rule for many years.
He is very sensible and obliging, and is of a mild disposition. His
successor is to be his eldest son, a g ^ about twenty years, named Jubaraj
Sur Chandra Singh. This young man, like bis father, is sensible and
kind-hearted. Ik e raja has besides eight sons and nine daughters. Ik e
present senaputi, or general-in-chief, is a son of Chouijii Singh’s, named
Dhurmoeatu Singh. The maharaja's mother, Bani Kumulini, is still alive,
and resides in Manipur. This was the lady who fled with her son, the present
raja, when the attempt on the life of Nar Singh regent was unsnccemful.
Altiiough the origin of British influence in the aSairs of Mauipori-
has been already referred to, it may be well here to give a connected
account of its rise and the benefits it has comerred on the country. Up to
the time of the first Burmese war, or rather shortly before it, little
had been heard of the Maotpiiris. During the reign of Jai Singh,
Chingtung Khomba, negotiations were entered into with the British
Government about 1762, with a view to obtain its assistance against the
Burmese, but notbiug was effected. There is no knowledge among the
Manipuris of the present day of any actual treaty, as mentioned in
Aitchison’s Treaties, page 121, having W n concluded. The events leading
to assistance having b e ^ given to Manipur in 1834, with its nature, have
been already narrated.
In 18S3, tbe following treaty was concluded with Ganabbir Singh. Of
this treaty the raja has no copy, and never seems to have possessed one :
“ The Governor O ener^ aud Supreme Council of Hindustan declare as
"follows;—
“ With r^:ard to tbe two ranges of hills, the one called the Kala Naga
"B auge, and the other called Nungjai range, which are situated between
" th e essteru and western bends of the Barak, we will give up all claim
" on tbe part of the Hon’ble Company thereunto, and we will make these
"hills over in the possession of the raja, and give him tlie Une of the
" Jiri, and the western bend of the Barak as a boundary, provided that
" th e raja agrees to the who\e of what is written in this paper, which
“ is as follows:—
" 1st.—The raja will, agreeably to instructions received, without delay,
“ remove his thin& from Chandrapur, and establish it on the eastern bank
" o f t{;e Jiri.
" in d .—The raja will in no way obstruct the trade carried on between
" the two countries by Bengalee or Manipuri merchants. He will not exact
" heavy duties, and he will make a monopoly of no articles of merchandize
“ whatever.
" Srd.—The raja will in no way prevent the Nagas inhabiting the
" Kala Nag^a and Nungjai Ranges of hills from selling or bartering ging'
 ( H )

“ cotton, pepper, aud every other article, the produce ot their country, in the
" plains of Kachar, at the Banskandi and Oodherban bazars, as has been
“ their custom.
“ Ath.—W ith regard to the road commencing from the eastern bank of
“ the Jiri, and continued via Kala Naga and Kowpum, as far as the valley
“ of Manipur, after this road has been finished, the raja will keep it in
“ repairs, so as to enable laden bullocks to pass during the cold and dry
“ seasons. Further, at the making of the road, if British officers be sent
“ to examine or superintend the same, the raja will agree to every thing
“ these officers may suggest.
“ 5tA.—With reference to the intercourse already existing between the
“ territories of the British Government and those of the raja, if the inter-
" course be further extended, it will be well in eveiy resnect, and it wifi be
“ highly advantag^us to both the raja and his country. In order, there-
“ fore, that this may speedily take place, the raja, at the requisition of
“ the British Government, will furnish a quota of Nagas to assist in the
“ construction of the road.
“ MA.—In the event of war with the Burmese, if the troops be sent to
“ Manipur either to protect the country or to advance beyond the Ningthi,
“ the raja, at the requisition ot the British Government, will provide hill
“ porters to assist in transporting ammunition and baggage of such
“ troops.
"I tA.—In the event of anything happening on the eastern frontier of
“ the British territories, the raja will, when required, assist the British
“ Government with a portion of his troops.
“ StA.—The raja will be answerable .for all the ammunition he receives
“ from the British Government, and will, for the information of the British
“ Government, give in every month a statement of expenditure to the
“ British officer attached to the Levy."
All the provisions of the above treaty, with the exception of the last,
remain in force.
The only other arrangement carried out between the British and Mani­
pur Governments in the form of a treaty relates tc the handing over of the
Kabo Valley to the Burmese, and the payment ot the monthly allowance
in lieu. This arrangement bears date, 25th January 1834, and stipulates
that, should the Kubo Valley from any circumstances again revert to
Manipur, the allowance shall cease.
I n 1835, the British support in pay was withdrawn from the force consti­
tuting the Manipur Levy, and the British Government established the
political agency. The objects of the establishment of the political agency
were, as already stated, to preserve a friendly intercourse with the Manipur
Government, and, as occasion may require, with the Burmese anthorities on
that frontier, and more especially to prevent border feuds and disturbances,
which might lead to hostilities between the Manipnris and the Burmese,
rach were the original duties of the political agent. I t took many years
to bring about the geneial peace that now prevails on the Burmese frontier,
but any relaxation in the endeavours to keep the tribes on that border quiet
would be followed by infractions of the peace, such as were formerly so
frequent, and which might lead to hostilities between the Manipuris aud
Burmese.
Having given a brief history of Manipur and of the hill tribes, it is now
proposed to give some account of the Manipuri religion, their Buumers, cus­
toms, &C. This, it is hoped, will be interesting.
 ( 75 )

Religion o f the Jfan^nri*.—Tbe religion of the country is ostensibly

Hinduism, and this is apparently of comparatively recent introduction, or,
according to pundits and authorities, a revival. The proof of the revival
it so meagre, and the statements in support of the idea that the Hindu
religion existed in the country at a very ancient period are so contradic­
tory and unsatisfactory, that there is no- hesitation in stating that in
every probability, although a spurious and imperfect form of Hinduism
may have e x ists in individual cases previous to the reign of the Gharib
Newaz, about A. D. 1750, it was during his reign that the Hindu
religion became g^eneral, and was adopted by him and by the majority
of the people. The Manipuris quote the Mahabharut in support of
their statement that they were originally Hindus, but, saving that
mention of Aijun’s coming into Manipur aud marrying a daughter of the
raja of the country, there is nothing further bearing on the point; they
theorize that Aijun bring a Hindu, the country must consequently, from
the birth of his son Babruoaba who became raja, have become Hindu, of
which there is no proof whatever. When questioned as to what occasioned
their backsliding, for all are agreed that previous to its revival the Hindu
religion had fallen into abeyance, they sometime ago abscribed it to the
ravages made on the country by the Burmese, which, by dispersing the in­
habitants, caused them to forget their religion, they not taking into account,
apparently, that Burmese ravages are almost things of yesterday, and that
the Burmese occupation of the country only la s t^ for a very short period
on each occasion of invasion. But the latest and most astounding reason
assigned is -to the effect that, after the death of Babrubaha, their religion as­
sumed a monotheistic form; in fact, they became Brahmoists, or worshippers
of one God. This form, tbey say, continued until the reign of Charairom-
ba, about A. D. 1715 to 1720, when Hinduism Ijegan again to be professed
by a few ; this continued until the advent of & ja Gharib Newaz about
A. D. 1750, when all, or nearly all, reverted to their original faith, in which
they have since continued. The real history of tbe conversion of the Mani­
puris to Hinduism appears to be as follows : During the reign of Gharib
Newaz, a wandering fakir arrived in Manipur; he professed to have dis­
covered traces of the former existence of the Hindi] religion, and converted
the raja and the people, and admitted them into the Kshatria caste. According
to the Manipuris, this fakir had a mysterious call to proceed to Manipur and
re-admit the backsliding Hindus into their former faith. Since then they
have remained Hindus, but even at this date they are very ignorant of the
faith they profess. The present raja, who is a religious man, and devotes
much of his time iu its pursuits, seems to aim at introducing Hindu obser­
vances, &c., in their entirety, and, during the last few years, greater
attention has been paid to the various festivals, as the Doorga Poojah, &c.
All the Manipuris are “ Baishnabs” or the followers of Vishnu. There is
no “Tlrahraa Samaj” in this country.
The Muhammadans of this country are also very ignorant of their reli­
gion, and there is but one sect amongst them, vie., Sunni. No Christian
community is in existence here.
The Brahmans of this country are well-to-do. They are provided with
lands by the maharaja, and live generally by cultivation and trade.
The Kshatrias are mostly employed in military duties and other works in
tlie jialace. They, and all the other castes in the country, live by cultivation,
and have to work, according to the lallup system, ten days in a month for
tbe raja.
 ( 76 )

House* o f the MuHipuris.—Hie bouseB do not differ essentially from those

of the Bengalees in Kaebar; the shape is somewhat different, but the material
used is the same.
The bouses of the better sort are constructed of wood, bamboo, &c., while
those of the poorer classes are entirely, as regards the frame-work, of bam­
boo. The walls are usually of reeds p la ^ re d over with mud and cow-dung.
The dwelling-houses of the Manipuris are all of the same form, but those of
the rich are larger and constrncted of better materials than those of the poor.
The roofs of all are thatched with grass. All the dwelling-houses face to the
eastward, in which direction they have a large open verandah. In this
verandah the family sits daring the day, and in it all the work of the house­
hold is carried on, except cooking, which is performed inside. In the south
side of the verandah is the seat of honor; here a mat or cloth is laid for the
head of the family, upon which no one intmdes. Inside the house is without
partitions. The brf of the head of the family is placed in what is called the
“ Luplengka,” close to the wall on the south side about the middle. I t is
usually screened by mats. The daughters usually sleep on the north sida
'There are no windows in the houses ; the only light admitted being by two
doors, one opening into the open verandah,.the other to the north, near the
north-west corner of the honse. The fire place is on the floor towards the
north-west comer. There is no chimney at all. The fuel used is generally
dry reed jungle. This answers every purpose in the warm weather, but is a
sad substitute for wood in the colder months; connected with the making of
their houses are many superstitious practices; first, the house must be com­
menced on a lucky day, and that day having been fixed by the astrologer,
on it (it makes no difference whether the other materials are ready or not),
the first post called “ Jattra" is erected. The post is bound towards the
top with a band of cloth, over which is tied a wreath of leaves and flowers.
Milk, juice of the sugarcane and ghee are poured in the lower extremity,
and into tho hole, in the ground i n , which it is to be fixed, are. put a llttie
gold and silver. The number of bamboos forming the body of tlie frame for
tbe thatch must not be equal on the south and north sides. I f they were
80, misfortune, they consider, would overtake the family.
Social position of Women, The women in Manipur, married or unmar­
ried, are not confined in zenanas as they are in BeiigaJ or Uindastan ; all
classes are alike in this respect,- neither do they cover their faces before
strangers. They are very industrious; in this respect the opposite of the men,
who are lazy and indolent. The most of the work of the country, except
the heaviest, is performed by them, and they are consequently the mainstay
of the family circle.
All the marketing is done by women, all the work of buying and
selling in public, and the canydng to and fro of the articles to be sold.
While at home they are busily employed in weaving and spinning. I t
would be difficult to find a more industrious woman in Inffia than the
Manipuri. With aU their industry and usefulness, women hold but a
very inferior social position, and are considered more in the light of goods
and chattels than as persons to be treated with honor and consideration.
This is partly owing, no doubt, to the laxity of their marriage customs,
which are loose in the extreme, but still more to the baneful system of
domestic slavery which is tbe prevailing custom of the county.
Marriage Customs.—Although, to become man and wife it is not neces­
sary that the marriage ceremony should be performed, still it is usually
performed, but as often after as before cohabitation. A man can put away
 ( 77 )

liis wife without any fault on her part, and if a person of iuflnenee, he
tnay do so without ite being notio^. The rule, however, is that, if a
man pnts away his wife without any &ult on her part, she takes posses­
sion of all his properly, except a drinking vessel and the cloth round his
loins. A man and mfe may separate by mutual consent, and a wife may
quit her husband on giving him the value of a slave. Women are really
the slaves of their hnsbands ; they are aold in satisfaction of their debts,
and it is said that men often pawn tbeir wives to purchase some office or
even a pony.
Polygamy.—Polygamy is common among the well-to-do psrt of tike
prqinlation, but the lower orders do not often indulge in it.
Adultery.—Adultery is punished by the offending male who receives the
wife of another man &ing condemned to pay a iSxM sum of rupees fifty
for all classes of the population, besides fines to the Court that tries such
cases, hereafter to be described. Should the offender not be able to pay,
his family are seized and sold as slaves for the satisfaction of the claim.
Both the male and female offenders are arrested and confined until the
daun is satisfied, after which they are free. For carrying off a woman
living under a man’s protection, but not married, the expenses incurred
by the man on aoconnt of the woman must be paid by the party who
tMes tbe woman.
Early Marriage*.—Ewrly child marriag^es are unknown. Widows, except
those of the Brahmans, may re-marry. In contracting marriage, as a
general rule, the young eonple are allowed to see and approve of each
other. When the parents approve of a marriage, the heads of the families
arrange matters, presents are sent by the young man’s parents to the
house of the g ir l; no retnrn presents are made a t this stage. Money
presents are not given. Food, fish, frnit, &c., constitute the gifts sent,
which mnst be presented three times before the arrangement is considered
concluded. After marriage there is no rale as to living separate from the
parents or otherwise.
Among the Manipuris of Kachar, the relations of the sexes are very
loose, and productive of great immorality. This may in part be owing
to the prevalence of the Gundharva form of marriage, for the legalizing
of which the Hindn law declares reciprocal amordns agreement to Ite alone
necessary. This is the sort of marriage which is now prevalent amOng
the Kachar Manipuris, but the Bakasha form of marriage exists, in which
the bride is c a rri^ off with a show of force, or sometimes stolen from
her father’s honse.
Hair, how worn by Men.—The men wear their hair, which is coarse and
black, long, and combed back from the forehead, which is occasionally
s b a v ^ ; the hair is gathered into a coil behind. Aloustaches are uncom­
mon, although occasionally a man with a thick straight moustache will be
seen; beards are very uncommon. Boys’ beads are generally shaved,
leaving only a straggling quantity of hair on the back.
/('omen’s hair, how worn.—The hair of the females is worn in three
different ways, aeooriing to age. When quite young, up to the age of
about ten, the front part of the head is shaved, the back part from about
the level of the ears ronnd the head being allowed to grow loose behind.
The next fashion is that for unmarried girls, and is very peculiar; the
hair behind, from about the middle of each ear round, is allowed to grow
long, is combed back, and tied in a knot or left loose. In front of this
the hair is combed forwards, and cut equally so as to reach over the fore-
 ( 78 )

bead an inch or above the eyebrow. In front of and ovei each ear
is a lock of hair about two inches broad and reaching down to the angle
of the jaw. In married women the hair is allow ^ to grow long, and is
combed, back from the forehead in Bengalee fashion, and tied in a knot
behind, le.iving a few inches de^ndent from the knot. AH who can
afford the luxury wear a false hair, which, aswith the Bengalees, is in­
corporated with the knot of back hair.
Brets of the Men.—The dress of the men does not differ materially
from that of the Bengalees, and consists of the dhoti, a kurta, or shirt,
only occasionally worn, and a chudder or sheet. In winter, those who can
afford it wear a quilted and padded coat, like that worn in the Panjab,
generally having long uncomfortable!' sleeves and enormously high collars.
Shoes are seldom worn. The puggree is shorter than that worn by Hindus­
tanis, but is put on in the same manner. The Manipuri generadly wears
small rings of gold in bis ears when he can afford it, and a well-to-do
among them have necklaces of coral and gold and hollow chased armlets
of gold called “ Khuji” on their wrists, 'fhey are very fond of carrying
flowers in their earrings or in holes in the ears, and in their head-dress.
Brest o f the Women.—The dress of the women, when of good quality,
is picturesque and pleasing. Daring the hot weather it consists of a piece
of cloth open except at the bottom, where it is stitched together by the
edges for a few inches; this is folded round the body, under the armpits
and over the breast, and tucked in by the hand at the side of the body; in
length it reaches to the ground, but as this would be inconvenient in walk*
ing, it is hitched up about half-way to the knee, and tacked in again at the
waist. This piece of cloth, called a " Fanek,” is only wide enough to go
one and a half times round the body; this gives enough room, however, for
the legs in walking. The Fanek is made of cotton and silk, and the only
patterns are stripes of various colours and widths running across the mate­
rial, the groiind-work beiug of different colours. Tlie commoner patterns
are red, with gp:een stripes, green, and black, blue with black and white
stripes, yellorj and brown, dark-blue with green and white stripes, &c., &c.
A t the top and bottom of the garment is a broad margin, on which geome­
trical figures or patterns of various kinds are ^w n by hand with floss silk
in various colours. Over the Paneb is worn a white sheet, which is folded
in the usual native fashion, the face, however, being left uncovered.
In the cold season a short jacket with long sleeves is worn; this reaches
below the bust over the Fanek, and is worn tight-fitting; the material
is usually velvet or satin, black, blue, and green being the favourite colours.
The great drawback to their dress in a European’s eyes is its tendency to
spoil the figure; the whole weight of the fanek resting on the breast soon
ruins the shape. Female children, until puberty, or near it, wear faneks
round the waist, the upper part of the body being bare.
Ornaments.—'The ornaments are earrings,jnecklets, and bracelets; ankle
ornaments are never worn, or rings on the toes. Nose ornaments are
limited to a snaall piece of ^ I d wire in the side of each nostril.
The only oroaments which may be worn without restriction are earrings;
these may be worn by any one. W ith regard to other ornaments of gold,
permission for all but the upper classes to wear them must be obtained
from the raja. Gold-embroider^ clothes are also forbidden. Ornaments of
other metal than gold may be worn freely.
Manners, Customs, —In their intercourse amongst themselves, the
Manipuris are ceremonious. They address one another by the name of the
 ( 70 )

office they may hold, or as younger or elder brothers. To call a man

" Angang" (literally child) is most respectful, and when called by asuperior
to answer “ Agya” , is the most respectful response. The raja anil
members of the royal family call all male Manipuris “ Eepoo," grandfather,
and females “ Eebel," grandmother. The male members of the royal
family are all called “ Sunna” or golden, the females “ Siza”, Theii-
actions are described in a different style of language from that of the rest
of the people; thus they do not walk, bat move, they do not sleep, but
recline. A common Manipuri if riding would be spoken of as “ Sagonbong-
lai,” a prince as “ S a g o n - te lle th e eating of the commoner would be
designated “ Chuk-chaba,” of the prince, “ look-haba,” and so on.
JJiel o f tie ManipurU.—The usual diet of the Manipuris differs in no
important particular from that of the Bengali in the adjacent district ot
Kachar. Children up to about the age of nine years, when they receive the
sacred thread of the Hindus, may eat what they choose without loss of caste;
after that period they require to be more strict, aud eat only what is alloweil
by the Hindu religion to which the Manipuris professedly belong. The
staple food of the Manipuris being rice, d a l, and fish. They do not eat auy
flesh whatever; ghee and milk is seldom used.
Cott of living.—The cost of living in Manipur is cheap, and said to be
about one half of that in the British province of Kachar.
Use o f Tobacco, Betelnut, ^e., Spc.—The Manipuris, both wale and
female, are inveterate chewers of pfi.n and supari. The whole of this is
brought from the neighbouring district of Kachar, and forms a considerable
trade. The betelnut tree will not grow in Manipur Territory. Tobacco is
also used by all classes and ages, and the tobacco is manufactured and
smoked as in Bengal. Opium is not used by the Hindu ^ r t of the
population, neither is there any consumption whatever of ganja, (Indian
hemp) or any other intoxicating d ru g s; drinking is most strictly
prohibited.
Games and Amusements.—^The out-door games of the Manipuris are few;
indeed, the only one, it may be said, which has any popularity, is hoekey-
on-horseback, a game formerly peculiar to Manipur, but which of late years
has spread over, and become popular throughout a large portion of British
India. This is the game named polo in England which is now so
fashionable.
The traditions of Manipur have it that the game of hockey was first
introduced by a Raja named Pakungba, who flourished about five hundred
years ago. According to some, the introduction is given as late as the reign
of Gharib Newaz, about one hundred and twenty years ago. The game,
it is said, ha.s not altered since that time, and‘as it is now so generally
understood, a brief description of it will sufiice. In the more important
games as played in Manipur, seven me" on either side is considered the
correct number, but in ordinary games a,.y number may play. As might
be expected, in the place of its birth, the play is much superior to what can
be seen else where; it is much faster, and tlie hits are delivered with greater
precision. The games are always started from the centre of the ground
by the hall being thrown into the middle of the players; it is frequently
struck before reaching the ground. The pace is kept fast from the com­
mencement of the game, and such a thing as a player being allowed to
spoon a ball along, before delivering his stroke, is unknown : an attempt at
this kind of play would result in the ball being at once taken away by a
stroke from one of the opposite party. M'hen an evening’s play has com­
 ( 80 )

menced, the games succeed each other quickly. So soon as the ball is driven
to goal, tbe players hurry back to the centre of the ground, and a fresh
game is begun. When a ball is sent off tbe ground to either side, it is
flung as at starting among the players opposite tbe point of exit. The
Manipur riding costume for the game is a scanty dhoti, well tucked up,
a n d a pair of thick woollen gaiterd reaching from the aukle to the knee;
a whip is carried in the left hand suspended from the wrist, to al'ow free
motion of the band.
Tbe saddle is furnished with curved flaps of enamelled leather, suspended
from the sides opposite the stirrups, and stirrup leathers. The ball used is
made of bamboo root, and is large and light. The clubs have handles of
well seasoned cane ; the angular striking part is of heavy wood.
As might be expected, a good hockey pony is a valuable animal, and is
parted with reluctantly. All classes, from the raja, who is a good player,
down, play the game, and an unusually good player is sure of royal fovour.
Hockey on foot is played by the juveniles.
Indoor Games.—Of indoor games there are many, mostly resembling
those popular in Bengal, as chess, cards, See. The game called " Kang-
sanaba” is very popular, both amongst men and women. A modification of
this game is common also in the hills, but is simpler than that practised
among the Manipuris.
There is another game, called " Kekri.ke-Sanaba,” only played by the
women; in it a number of them join hands dancing round in a circle and
Ghanting the praises of Baja Chiugtupg Komba in his fights with the
Nagas to the south.
The indoor amusement in its season most enjoyed, is kang-sanaba, a
game as peculiar to Manipur as that of liockey-on-horsebaek. I t is
played only in the spring, the players being generally young women
and girls, with usual y a spriukling of men on each side. The game
seems to cause great excitement, and there is great emulation between
tbe sides. The kang is the seed of a creeper; it is nearly circular, about
an inch and a half in diameter, and about three quarters of an inch thick.
This is placed upon the ground upright, at one time with its broad side
towards the party by whom it is to be struck, at another edge-wisa When
the kang is placed with its broad side to (he party, it is to be pitched at
with an ivory disk; when it is placed edge-wise, it is to be struck by the
disk propelled on its flat side along the surface of the ground, by the force
of the middle finger of tbe right hand acting off tbe fore finger of tbe left.
A gcod player can propel the disk in this w m with great force and
precision. The side having most bits, wins. The whole is closed by a
feast at tbe expense of the losers.
“ Conundrums” are a fertile source of amusement. They appear usually
far-fetched, and sometimes not over delicate. The tale of Khamba and
Thoibi, sung by their Eesai Sokpa, or bards, never fails, with a popular
singer, to rivet attention. The scene of this Ude, and the place where it
was originally sung, is Moirang. The hero aud heroine are persons said to
have flourished hundreds of years b m . Thoibi is the daughter of the
Moirang Chiefs brother, she loves Khamba, a lad poor in worldly riches,
but rich iu personal beauty, of good descent, great modesty, courage,
strength, and agility. Thoibi herself is a lady of surpassed branty, and
Khamba, having seen her by chance while boating on the Logtak, loved
her at first sight, but the coui-se of true love never yet runs smooth, and it
was no exception with these lovers. A person, named Kong-yamba, saw
 ( 81 )

Thoibi’s love for KhamBa, and wishing to gain her for himself, he used all
the means th at a powerfnl connection gave him to crush Khamba. The
various perils through which Khamba has to . pass and the constancy of
Thoibi form the subject of the song. After having won his foot race,
speared his tiger, caught a wild bull, and been tied to the foot of an elephant,
Khamba gains Thoibi, who has also passed through various troubles. The
end is tragical. Khamba doubts his wife, and wishing to try her fidelity,
she, not knowing who he was, spears him. Having discovered what she
bad done, she spears herself. Some of the characters introduced in the
story are veiy good. The constant repetition of this tale only seems to
increase the desire to hear it. Thoibi is regarded as a goddess, and that
Khamba was a man of ^ a n t proportions is held to be incontestible. Tliig
idea of the great size of Khamba is not, however, derived merely from his
celebrity in song: that their ancestors were giants is believed by all.
Some of the language used in their songs is quite different from that usually
spoken. The same is the case in their writings, buttiie meaning of songs is
known to most, whereas the writings are intelligible only to the initiated.
Amongst the hill tribes there is the same difference between the common lan­
guage and that in their songs. The singers of the adventures of Khamba and
Thoibi accompany their songs with the notes of the “ Pena,” tbe solitary
musical instrument of Manipur, a sort of fiddle, with one string of horse hair,
the body of which is formed of the shell of a cocoanut. On the bow of the
fiddle is a row of little bells, which jingle in harmony with the air.
The singing of the Manipuris is not agreeable; it is harsh, shrill, aud
quavery; a few of the songs have, however, more pleasant airs. Some
of them are of interminable length, and the longest of these have a spoken
part alternating with the song proper. Besides the “ Pena” above descri­
bed, the Manipuris use oymbris, (kums, &c., differing in no respect from
those used in Bengal.
PetlivaU or Game*.—There are three public festivals oi; games held
annually in Manipur, and which are pwu iar to tlje country, are of great
antiquity, and are unconnected with religious matters. The first of these is
held in July, and consists chiefly of foot races. This is called the “ Lum-
chel” (Lum or Lumbi, a road; Chelba, to run). The next in September,
called “ Heeyang,” lasts five days; the chief sport is boat racing on the
moat in front of the raja’s palace. The third is an assembly of the hill-
men under the Manipur Government, called the “ Haochongba.”
Lumchd.—The Liimchel is a comjx'tition between the different “ Pan-
nahs” or classes among the Manipuri population. Brahmans, as also tbe
lowest class of Manipuris, the Lois, are not allowed to compete; but
Mussulmans may. The distance run by the competitors is a straight
course from a brick bridge to the inside of the raja’s enclosure; tbe distance
ia under half a mile. The first part of the races consists of trials of speed
by two Pannahs at a time : the winners in these races run again when all
have had their trial, and the first man in of the whole wins the race of
the year. The first man receives. as his reward sundry presents, and is
e x c u ^ from lallup, or forced labour, for the rest of his life; he becomes a
hanger-on about the raja usually after his victory. Old winners are
allowed to run again for the honor of the th in g : when they win more than
once, they get presents. The first in at the peliminary races between the
Pannahs are allowed three months exemption from lallup. These races cause
great competition, and for months before they come off, various lon^-look-
ing men, with somty {sroportion of clothing, may be seen morning and
 ( 82 )
evening trotting along the roads, getting themselves into training for
the important event. The raja is always present at these and the other
games, seated in a sort of gateway which bounds the straight road along
which the races are run.
Wrestling.—After the races there is an exhibition of wrestling. This
presents nothing very peculiar; the only thing that need be mentioned
regarding it is a curious custom which prevails. The victor over the
wrestler who competes with him, before salaaming to the raja, leaps up in
the air, alighting on his left foot j as he descends, he g^ves his right buttock
a resounding slap with his right hand; having thus asserted his superior
skill, he makes his salaum in the usual manner.
Heeyang or Boat Races.—The boat-races occupy five days in September,
and take place on the moat which surrounds on three sides the raja’s
enclosure. This ditch is about 25 or 30 yards broad, and at the season
when the boat-races come off contains plenty of water. This festival is
the most important held in Manipur, and great preparations are made for i t :
stands are erected on both sides of the moat, the one for the raja being of
considerable size and height. The women occupy stands on the opposite
side of the moat. The boats used in the races are two in number, of great
length, and hollowed out of a single tree; the rowers number about seventy-
men, each with a short paddle. Besides the rowers are several men attend­
ing to the steering and urging on the crew. One of these .stands in the
front of the boat, and, leaning on his paddle, encourages tbe efforts of the
men by stamping violently with bis right foot at intervals. The race itself
differs from most boat races, in the fact that here the great object is for the
one boat to foul the other and bore it into the bank, so that one side of the
boat is disabled, the men not being able to use their paddles ; the boats are
thus always close together until at the finish, when the race is usually won
by a foot or two only; the distance paddled is about quarter of a mile.
race is rowed twice, whichever wins, and the results are carried on
from year to year. As in the Lumchel, the competitors are men belong­
ing to the different Punnahs. There are no rewards for the races, they
being rowed merely for the honor of the thing. The raja in his boat,
which is like the others, but ornamented with a carved deer’s head and
horns gilt at the prow, accompanies the race, the raja on the chief race
day steering his own boat in an ancient Manipuri costume. The boat
race, in the opinion of many, is not a fair race, but a struggle between the
rowers on either side, in which those who can deal the hardest blows, are
usually the victors. That fights occasionally happen is correct, but they
arise from accidental causes, and are really not a premeditated part of
the performance. While the boats are paddling down to the starting place, a
g^ood deal of chaffing, flinging of weeds, water, S ec., between the rival boats
takes place, but all seems to be conductetl in a good-humoured manner.
One very peculiar custom in vogue at this boat race is tbe following
I f one boat succeeds in swamping the other, the hriad man of the
swamped boat becomes the property of the head man of the boat that
caused his trouble. All his personal ornaments and clothing go with him,
and before he can be freed he has to pay sixty rupees, the value of an adult
slave. This year one boat was swamped, and its hc.ad man would have
become a slave, but he was the brether-in-law of tlie maharaja, who was
on the spot in his own boat, and forbade his being caught.
Hockey matches ajter the Boat Races.—On each of the five days devoted
to the boat race, important hockey matches take place. Immediately after
 ( 83 )
the races, an adjournment takes place to the hockey ground, close by, and
the game at once commenced, the play being mnA better than can be
witnessed at any other time. The ground a t that season not being in
good condition, many falls take place, which are not allowed, however, to
interrupt the sport. The scoring is carried on from year to year also in
this case, and many sporting gentlemen may be seen in various parts of
the field carefully marking the results with pieces of pebble. The excite­
ment and interest manifesto in the result is very great. In the first day's
hockey match a male member of the royal heads either side of
the players.
UavBchongha.—^The festival called Hawchongba, in October, lasts for only
one day; it is a gathering of the hill tribes under the Manipuri Govern­
ment, and is a curious sight on account of tbe great number of different
tribes assembled, with their curious dress and weapons, differing from each
other in feature and language, but all unanimons in one particular, to get
drunk as speedily and remain so as long as possible. The hill men indulge
in feats of strength before the laja, such as carrying heavy weights,
They also indulge in war dances and sham fights. The sports of the day
conclude with a feast, at which they are r a ile d with the flesh of cows,
buffaloes, dogs, cats, &c., which may have died in the valley. The flesh
is dried and preserved on purpose for this feast.
Lallup or forced Labor.—As frequent mention has been made of
lallup or forced labor for the state in the preceding pages, it is expedient
now to give some acconnt of it. This institution is one of the greatest
consequence to the people of Manipur.
The general system of lallup is based on the assumption that it is the
duty of every'male between the ages of 17 and 60 to place his services
at the disposal of the state, without remuneration, for a certain number of
days in each year. The system of lallnp was first introduced, it is said,
in the reign of Pakungba, and it has undergone little change since. The
number of days thus placed nominally at the disposal of Sie state is ten
days in every forty. This ten days service is so arranged that a man
works his ten days and has his interval of thirty with regularity all the
year round. On an individual coming of age to perform lallup, he
is entitled to cultivate for his support one purree of laud, subject to the
payment in kind of the tax to the i-aja. In the ease of permanent illness
or disability, a man under sixty may be excused from labour, but notice
must be given and the authorities satisfied of the true nature of the ease.
In the event of an individual wishing to escape his turn of duty, he must
either provide a substitute or pay a certain sum, which sum goes to pay
for a substitute if required, or the rest of the lallup may agree to do the
extra duty, receiving the money. In no case does the money paid for ex­
emption go to Government. A payment of twelve annas will, it is said,
exempt a man for forty days. Over every lallup or class of labourer
independent of number is an officer named the “ Lakpa,” who is responsible
for the performance of the prescribed duties. Tliere is no Lallup for
women.
Cultivation.—As already stated, no fewer than nineteen varieties of
rice are grown in the country; these may be divided into early and late
crops. The early crop ripens in three months, and is ready for cutting in
Septemlier. O f late years a large quantity of the early sort has been
sown. Of the early there are four varieties, viz., Snjikhong, Dumai, Kubo
Phow, and Phowrel Augulbah. The late crop ripens in six mouths, and is
 ( 84 )

reaped abont November. Tlje great bulk of rice grown in the country
is of the late varieties, which comprise .fifteen I^inds, diiefly distinguished
by size of grain and color. Tlieir names are as follows: —
Phowrail. Loining. Knckchew Phow.
Tentbik. Phong&ng. Hoidup Phow.
Moirang Pbow. Towthubi Pbow. ' Bngole Yangba.
Phowkuk Chabow. .Cbahow Poritole. Chabow Enkole.
Cbahow MusaapalbL Cbahow M unkbang. Cbahow Sempak.
Rice is mostly transplanted, and the land snitable for it is moist and
marshy.
Dal.—The following is a list of the dais procniable in the country:—
Mong. Ebesari. Mongn] or H atter.
Sngole Hasyeor Knlye. Nonghasye. Cha Hasye.
Hasye Moirungbi. Hnrramhasye. Haoye Tocbnmbi.
The vegetable productions of the country are as follows:—
Potato^ of inferior quality, sweet potatoes or »ukurkunds, kaliudri,
kolee hasye, haoye assungba, brinjals, cucumber, pumpkins, onions, pepper,
and tobacco of good quality. English vegetables, peas, indigenous and
English, cabbage, cauliflowers, beans. See.
Wheat is grown in the cold season in small quantity, but thrives
splendidly.
Fruits are scarce, and few in oumlicr. Plantains of fair quality; pine­
apples, mangoes (some of large size and fine quality) are almost the
only fruits procurable, which would be relished by an European. The
stone of the mangoe at Manipur seems wonderfully prolific, for
each seed often produces as many as three or four seedlings, which, if
separated when young, would all grow into healthy trete. A plum resem­
bling an English variety is common, but, as met with in the bazars, is
excessively bitter. Peaches grow, but of poor quality. Apples grow on
the slopes of the kills, of fair appevance externally, but quite uneatable.
Throughout the valley and the neighbouring hills, the bramble and wild
raspberry are common. Jack, guava, and rasberry are procurable. Palm
and cocoanut trees are quite-unknown. Cotton does not grow in the valley.
The cultivation of ragarcane is very limited, but thrives well.
The crops raised by the inhabitants of the Manipur Hill Territory com­
prise rice, cotton, oil seeds, pepper, tobacco, vegetables of various kinds,
potatoes of small and inferior quality, ginger, sweet potatoes of very supe­
rior quality, Indian-oorn, pan leaves, &c. There are numbers of jungle
roots and plants usea also as food by the hill-men. The yam is plentiful.
Jute, flax, hemp, are not cultivated. Opium is cultivated by the
Muhammadan population only to a small extent.
Domestic Animals.—The domestic animals kept by the Manipuris are
the horse or rather pony, the cow, bufihlo, goat, fowls, ducks, geese, pigeons,
cat. Dogs are only occasionally kej)t by them. They look upon them as
unclean, and therefore have to bathe if touched by them.
Dreed of Ponies.—The breed of ponies in Manipur is similar to that
in Burma; they are generally small, under twelve hands high, but strong
and hardy. Good ponies are decidedly scarce, and the Manipuris show a re­
markable carelessness in breeding them. They are aflpwed to graze about
the country in herds. Consequent upon this, good ponies are becoming
more and more rare every year, aud threaten to become altogether extinct
at no distant dutc.
 ( 86 )

Some thirty-three years ago, an attempt was made to breed horses in

the valley, but the experiment faded. In 1839 Government, a t the request
of Nar Singh, then re ^ u t,se n ta n Arab ^talliou and eight mares^ apjmrent-
ly stud bred, to Manipur. In a few years, however, they and their pro­
geny had all died.
No other experiment of the sort has since been tried. I t is liko}^, how­
ever, that Cabul horses wonld thrive, as that breed is the one th a t' stands
all climates in India, probably the best. Arabs, as a rule, don't thrive in
the climates of Assam or Eastern Bengal, which Manipur resembles.
Breed o f Cattle.—^The ordinary breed of cattle is the same as th a t of
Bengal; they are, however, a better looking class of animals, probably from
the climate being more favourable, and grazing ground being of bette;
quality. They have lately decreased to a great extent owing to the murrain
of the year 1870-71. There is also a variety resembling the Brahmany
breed. Bu&loes were plentifnl, and formed the chief trade of the countiy,
but they also were kdled by the murrain, as many as ninety-five per cent,
of all the buffaloes perish^. Sheep are not bred in the valley, although
imported ones thrive well, the ewes giving as many as two, three, and
four lambs at a time. The other domestic animals resemble in all points
those common in B e n ^ .
Domeetie Animals Kept hy Hill-men.—^The domestic animals kept in com­
mon by the hill-men are buffaloes, cows, methnas, goats, pigs, dogs, cats,
fowls, ducks, and pigeons. The methna or hill cow is an animal peculiar
to the hills bordering on the north-eastern frontier- I t is a large animal,
and in shape of body closely resembles the buffalo; its horns are short,
however, Ime the cow and thick at the base; it is also seen, unlike the
buffaloe, with the hide marked in coloured patches, although black is the or­
dinary colour; neither is it half amphibious like the buflhlo. This animal
is highly valued by the hill-men, and is consequently expensive; the cost
of a methna being from rupees forty to seventy, thus very few can afford to
keep them. No use is made of the animal while alive, it not being worked
like the buffalo. I t is killed for feasts and sacrifices. The goat common
in the hills is the long-haired variety. The dog, except to the north, is
bimilar to the Bengali pariah. The same with the other animals mentioned
above.
' Area o f land fit for Cullivation.—I t is impossible to ascertain with any
precision the amount of land cultivable in Manipur, but it is believed about
one half of the whole area of the valley is fit for raising crops of varions
kinds. Of this, only about a half is under cultivation.
^stem o f laud-holding.—^The whole land system of the valley starts
with the assumption that all the land belongs to the raja, and is his, to
give away or retain as he pleases. Under the raja is an official namtii the
Fhnnan Salungba, whose duty it is to superintend all matters connected
with land cultivation; he loolts after the measurement, receives the rent in
kind, and transacts all b u s in g m a ^ r s connected with land on behalf of
the raja. The land is sub-divided into villages and their surroundings:
the headman of each division or village looks after the cultivation, and is
responsible for the realization of the tax payable in kind by each cultivator ,*
he holds no interest in the land, and is merely an agent of the raja.
Orante o f land given to favourites, ^c.—Besides the laud thus djrectly,
as it were, cultivate for the raja, grante of lands are given to officials
and favourites, sometimes for their own lives only, or for a spmified time,
sometimes for themselves and descendants. These hold their lands on
 ( 86 )
payment of the osoal tax in kind. Connexions of the raja, brahmans, and
sepnys, pay no rent ar tax on a fixed pro^rtimi of land regulated in each
case, bat on any increase on the land ciiltivated above that proportion rent
is paid.
Proportion c f land cnHhated ly direct The proportion of land
eoltivated under what may be called the« direct system on account of the
raja, is about a third of the whole; rather more than a third is in the
poesession of the members of tbe rnling ffinuly, brahmans, andsepoys; the
remainder is in the hands of the headmen, officials, &c., who hold it by favour
from tbe raja. Each individual liable for lallup or forced labour for the state
ia entitled to cultivate for his snpportone purree of land, equivalent to
about three English acres, subject to the payment of the r ^ u la r tax
in kind.
Hue in kind upon land cultivated.—^The tax in kind reali<^ed from each
cultivator, and which goes to tbe raja, is liable to many modifications,
although in theory the tax is a fixed one. The tax varies from two baskets
to thirteen from each purree.. I t is said that the two baskets which nomi­
nally should only be taken from every one alike, is realized from favourites,
and that the average from others may be set down a t twelve baskets yearly;.
this is seldom exceeded, except in rare emergencies, as war, &c. This, again,
will only apply to land cultivated for the raja or held by those subject to
lallup. In cases where lands are held by officials, &c., as the middle class
of men, the burdens are more severe, running as high as twenty-four
baskets per purree, which is said to be the outside limit.
Considering, however, that the worst purree of land yields one hundred
baskets, and the best from one hundred and sixty to two hundred, tbe
thirteen baskets is not a high rent, but so long as tbe rent taken by the
state is given out as two, every basket over this is an exaction, and may be
made a matter of grievance as it is now.
The .average yield per purree, or three acres, is about one hundred and
fifty baskets annually; each basket contains about sixty pounds.
Cultivation extending or otkerieiee.—The raja, as already said, is the
aibeolate proprietor of the soil, and can dispose of it as be likes. No one
is prohibited from cultivating, but rather the contrary; for every male who
comes on duty is entitled to cultivate one purree of land, paying in rent for
tbe same in kind. The tax taken over two baskets is considered a matter
of grievance; but this grievance can only be one as long as the purree of
the cultivator is of the standard measure, which is very seldom the case.
Indeed, it has sometimes been found nearer two, and until a survey has
been made, neither the raja nor' the people can be satisfied. Seeing the
necessity for a survey, the raja commenced one in 1868, but it was much
disliked. Several persons connected with it have been punished for taking
bribes; but bribes will still be taken,'and so the measurement will not to
honestly done, even if the people empbyed were qualified to survey it, which
is doubted.
The land under cultivation yields sufficient for the wants of tbe people;
but the action of the Keiroithiiu is against the extension of cultivation, and
pnless steadily looked to, would lead to its diminution. For some time past,
attention has been direct^ to the improvement in the Keiroithau; and as the
raja is anxbus to bring more land into cultivation, for which purpose he has
caused water-oourses to be dug, he will see clearly the necessity of so
managing ‘the Keiroithau as to make the people willing to take up the land
which wUl be thus rendered fit for cultivation. I t has been ascertaiaed
 ( 87 )

from all sides that within the last few years more especially, cultivation
has been considerably increased; water-coorses have been extensively con­
structed, tbe survey is being still carried on, and with more satisfaction
to the people, and the Keiroitbau has been so modified as to be no longer a
cause of dissatisfactiou to the cultivators.
Mode c f Land CuUivation.—^The mode of cultivation of tbe soil does not,
from what is the practice in Bengal, materially differ, so far as tillage is con­
cerned. The operation of scratching up the soil, and preparing the field for
the reception of tbe rice seed, commences in February, and in May they sow
what is called " pung-hul,'” or dry seed, cast in dry ground. In June the rains
having set in, the field is brought successive plougbings and harrowings
into a state of liquid mud, and in this the “ pung-hul" is cast. The seed for
the “ pung-hul" is first quickened by being moistened with water and kept in a
c o v e rt basket until it shoots. As this s ^ floats on the surface of the mud,
it has to be careftJly watched nutil it takes root, and three or four leaves spring
up, in order to protect it from wild ducks and other birds. After this comes
the "ling-ba,” or transplanting. The seed for the plants, which are
destined to be transplanted, are usually sown very close, in plots carefully
prepared for the purpose. When tbe transplanting season arrives, the
plants are palled in hmidsful out of the ground ; the roots are by w ai^ng
divested of all the earth attached to them, and having been taken to the
field, they are one by one separately inserted in the mud. For a time after
transplanting, they look as if they were all withered up, but they soon
spring up and afford an excellent crop. I f the ground has been carefully
deprived of weeds before sowing the crop, weeding afterwards is not required.
The only cultivation of any importance is th at of rice. N ot a particle of
manure is ever placed ou the ground, and yet, year after year, good crops
ate raised on tbe Evme spot. The yield has, of course, lessened from what
i t was, but its being still so very considerable as it is, evinces a very rich
soil. Tbe mainstay, however, of Munipur is tbe crop raised at Thobal and
its vicinity. There the river, once at least in the year, inundates the rice
fields, giving them amazing fertility. About Thobal they weed with a
barrow, which, drawn by a buffalo over the rice fields, uproots indiscrimi­
nately the weeds and rice. The former die, but the rice plants take root
agaiuj and is not injured. When tbe rice begins to ripen, it has to be
watched against the depredations of immense flights of birds. Deer, and
other wild animals also, do a great deal of mischief, and against them pre­
cautions have to be taken. The rice having ripened, is out with a knife
slightly carved at the top, aud having a rough edge like a saw. As it is
cut, it is laid in handsful on the ground, and when dry, tied up in sheaves.
These sheaves are carried to the part of the field most convenient for the
purpose, and the rice heat from them on a large reed mat. After having
been winnowed by means of fans, the rioe is ready for the granary, and
removed to it. This sun-dried rice keeps very well in husk; but when
cleared of the husks, it can be kept for a short time only. The straw is
left lying in a pile round the place where the paddy was beat out. Except
as luel, no use is made of it.
I t will be seen from the above description that the mode of cultivation,
the planting and transplanting the rice, &c., is the same as that followed
in Eastern Bengal. The fertility of the soil, which contbues without
manure to yield good crop, is doubtiess owing to the fact that the rivers
flowing through the valley are in the rainy season enormously loaded with
mud, which becomes annoally deposited m the rice fields. The Munipuris
 ( 88 )

themBelves eeem, however, to be noaware of the vahe of the rivers in

this leepect, and attribute dlie fertility of the soil to its own inherent
richnesa.
The soil of the valley is nearly aU throughout of excellent quality,
and of great depth. The general run of it is a blaridah loam towards the
hills, and on the hills themselves this becomes reddish and of inferior
quality. The low hills in the valley, as a mle, have a poor soil, clayey
and pebbly: on some of them, however, the soil is good, and of fair depth.
Bevenue o f the Country.—As m ight' be expected from the isolated
position of the country, and the poverty of its inhabitants, the money
revenue of the state is but small. Were it not the policy of the Govern­
ment to render no assistance—^nay, to cramp any efforts to make anything
of the natand resources of the country, this need not be. The money
revenue of the state, including the compensation of Rs. 6,870 per annnm
paid by the British Government for the surrender to the Burmese of the
Knbo Valley, is estimated from twenty-five to thirty thousand rupees
annually from all sonrces.
Taxt* on Imports and Exports.—The Munipuri authorities have furnished
an aoconnt of taxes levied on goods im port^ and exported for one year,
1868-69, which is subjoined l^low ; whether correct or not, there is no
means of verifying.
No further informatiaa regarding imports or exports has Ijeen rince
supplied.
Import* from Kachar.
Tm levied.
Ri. A. P.
Betelnut tad oka .m 7 tl S 0
Cloth ... 662 J3 0
yarn s „ ... - ... - »3 6 3
Brass and other raetab » _ X38 7 0
Hukas ... ... ... ... - » 6 6 t5 9
Misceilaseous _ . « . . . ... 62 5 9
Total um T 0

Export* from Marupar to Kachar.

_Cloths .- SOS 14 3
Yarns _ — 127 3 6
Manipur buffaloes — 1,600 0 0
Bwma ditto _ 600 0 0
Manipur poiaes >. 900 0 0

T o ta l 3,833 1 9

Export from M anipur to Burmah.

Silk -. ... ... 100 0 0

Other Retsnn*.
Idoeases for cutting wood, bamboo, and oane, in the Jiri
Forest . ... ... ... ... .406 2 8
By ssle of elephants caught in the Jiri Forest .... 7,000 0 0
The trade in bofihloeB has been stopped owing to the mnrniin in the
conntry.
 ( 89 )
This year some thirty elephants have been can^ht from the Limatol range
of hills, and will more taan compensate the loss in revenue by the stoppage
of the trade in bufialoes.
I t is impossible to get anything like a correct idea of the revenue realized
from the Manipuri inhabitwts of the valley, the e8timate~of the author­
ities themselves is between rupees twelve to fifteen thousand per annum.
Currency and Coin o f tie country.—The only coin proper to the oonntty
is of bell-metal, and small in size, weighing only about sixteen grains.
This is coined by the raja as required, goods or money being taken in ex­
change. The metal is obtained chiefly from Burma, and consists of old
gongs, &c.; some of it is also procured-from the British provinces. The
process of coining is very primitive: the metal is first cast in little pelleto;
these are then softened by fire and placed on an anvil; one blow of tbe
hammer flattens the pellet into an irreg^arly round figure: a pnnch, with
the word " s r i " cut on it, is then driven on it by another blow, which
completes the process. The market valne of the "sel," as it is called,varies
when rupees are plenty, then "sel” is cheap; when scarce, the opposite.
The preaent value of the coin is 428 to one British or Burmese rupee, and
its usual variation is said to be from 420 to 450. There is uo evi^noe
whatever of there having been at any time a gold coinage in existence; but
it 18 stated that Chouijit Singh, about 1815, coiiied silver of a square form
and of the same value and weight as the British rupee. The British and
Burmese rupee, both representing the. same value, circulate freely ; also the
smaller silver coins, as four-anna and two-anna pieces. About seven years
ago an attempt was made by the then political agent to introduce copper
coinage, and a large quantity was supplied by Government. The experi­
ment totally tailed '>« the women in the bazars positively refused to have
an^hing to do with it, and the coin had to be returned. The bell-metal
coin, in conjunction with rupees and smaller silver coins, are amply sufficient
for the wants of the coontiy. Besides coin, bartering articles in the b t ^ r
is quite common.
Manufactures.—As might be anticipated from the isolated position of
Manipur, its manufactures are few and unimportant; they comprise—
Cloths.—These are manafactnred in cotton of various kinds, chiefly a
coarse quality, called " kess.” These coarse cloths are purchased by the
hill tribes chiefly; some, however, find their way into Kachar. Of late
years finer qualities of cloth have been made from English yan «.
Leather.—In leather manufactures, it is said, there has been of late,
years a great improvement. Formerly tanning was a matter of grMt
difficulty, and the results inferior. Now they use the bark of a tree, which
is found in plenty in the jungles; by this they make leather superior to auy
formerly known in the country; they also enamel the leather veiy nicely
in black. The skins used are those of deer and calf, and the articles made,
saddles, shoes, belts, pouches, &c., for the use of the troops.
Cooking Pols.—Cooking pots, &c., are made in brass, copper, bell-metal,
fcc.; they do not differ from those in nse in Eastern Bengal.
Pottery.—In clay only ordinary pots and water gharas are made.
Stone bowls are also to be found nicely made and polished; the stone used
is ordinary sand-stone, artificially blackened.
Jewellery.—The jewellery manufactured is of fair workmanship, but not
distinguish^ by any special merit ; rings, bi acelets, necklets are the articles
chiefly made. A large number of brass and bell-metal armlets are made,
which are disposed of to the hill-men.
 { 90 )

Iron and Steel.—lu iron and steel are made daos of various kinds, spear,
and arrow heads, &c. Firearms are not made in any form.
Carpentry.—The Manipuris have a great reputation as carpenters in
the adjoining provinces of Kachar and Silhet, especially for the better kinds
of work : here good workmen are few, and are entirely monopolized by the
raja. The good carpenters there are, however, capable of turning out
first rate works, and can imitate English work successfully.
Turning, ^c.—Turning in wood and ivory is common. They can also
silver glass, and electroplate, make good serviceable locks, and can at a
pinch repair and clean a clock.
Dyeing.—Dyeing in a few colours is practised; a yellow dye is common,
procured in the hills.
Fine ArU.—The Manipuris have some taste in the arrangement of
colours, but of drawing or painting they have little or no idea.
Silk Culture.—The cultivation of silk, which, if properly developed,
wonld form a most important article of export, is unfortunately much
restricted. The silk culture is entirely in the hands of the Loi part of
the popnlation, and only five villages to the west and north-west of the
valley close to the hills rears the worm. The fact of the Loi being the
caltivator of silk is fatal to its extension, as by the custom of the country,
which so much associates position or easte with the nature of the various
employments pursued, any one wishing to engage in silk culture must lose
position and will become a L oi; thus it is that the production of silk is on a very
limited scale. The food of the silkworm is the mulberry leaf, and the
species is common in Bengal, although the silk yielded is of a decidedly
superior quality. About three handred*persons are employed in the silk cul-
tnre, and they pay for the privilege some three hundred rupees annually, they
are for this payment excused from the operation of lallup, or forced labour.
The raw silk is disposed of by the above to a weaver class called
“ Kttho,” they having originally, it is said, emigrated from the Kubo
Valley in Upper Burma. These weave it into various clothes, dhotis,
pagrts, kamarbands, dresses for the women, &c. A small quantity of
silk cloths find their way into Kachar. The Burmese traders who freqaent
Manipur buy up greedily all the raw silk they can g e t; this speaks well
for the quality of the silk, as the silkVrorm is plentiful in and near the
Kubo Valley.
Bazars and Idarkei Places.—'All the marketing of the Country. is con-
dncted in the open air by women.
Many of these collections of women are to be found throughout the
Elmphal or capital, but the principal meeting-place fqr women trading
there is on a vacant plot of ground to one side of a brick bridge; here,
during the early part of the day, the women congregate with their wares
for s ^ . In the afternoon this market-place is deserted, and the women
all migrate to the side of the road leading to the raja’s enclosure, quite
close to the gate, and a very short distance from the bridge. There is no
attempt in any of the market-places at the erection of shelter of any kind,
and the women renaain exposed to rain or sun as the case may be. The
same custom prevails in the British provinees of Kachar and Silhet among
the Mauipuri population settled there. There is very little to interest a
European in the contents of the various market-places, which consists of
food, such as dry fish, rice, vegetables, pfiu, supari, clothes, ornaments
for the hill-men, and sweetmeats. Here, however, especially during the
cold season, the curious observer will be rewarded by seeing large numbers
 ( 91 )

of bill-men from the northern hills, especially in their curious costames.

About three thousand wonr 3n assemble in the afternoon bazar. MeA, with
the exception of foreigners, are not allowed to enter the market places : all
the "buying and selling is conducted by women.
(hriotis custom »» the large basar.—There is a cnrions custom in con­
nection with this afternoon bazar deserving of mention, as illustrating the
sort of petty of oppressiveness which is so characteristic of Manipuri rule.
A oertadn number of the raja's house servants, called “ Haomacha," ten
in number, daily visit this bazar, and take from the women enough food to
last for one day; this is bitterly complained against by the women, who
suffer much from the indiscriminate plundering which is carried on, and
which comes hard on some of them ; the amount of food thus carried off by
the raja’s servants amounts to about 1-8-0 per diem in value; but so
w edd^ are the Aianipnris to their customs that successive political
agents have failed" in indncing them to carry out any reform in this,
although the women express their wiUingoess to submit to any small regular
tax that may be impos^, to avoid the irregular plundering that is thus
openly carried on. This custom was snpposed to have been abolished in
187 i on representations being made by the officiating political agent, a
small tax being substituted on all the women frequenting the bazar with
articles for sale. After a time, however, the custom was revived, the
raja’s mother getting the credit of making daily requisitions in the bazar,
instead of the raja's retainers; thus matters are actually worse than beforcj
as the poor women find themselves saddled with a tax, an5 get robbed, tn
some extent at least, as before, into the bargain.
Slavery in Manipur.—Another of the institutions of the country which
will now briefly be described is slavery. The name of slavery, however,
as it appears to European ideas, is, perhaps, too harsh a name for the mild
form, which in most, if not in all, instances obtains in Manipur.
lls Jorms.—The slavery which exists in Manipur may properly oe
divided into two classes; 1st, that in which any one becomes a slave
either temporarily or permanently of bis own Iree will; and 2nd, when he or
she is made a slave of forcibly, and against the wilh" Debt is perhaps the
most general cause of voluntary slavery. In this base a man in debt will
confess his inability to pay, and agree to serve his creditor until such time
as the debt can be paid; his services thus are credited as interest on
the original debt, although i t does not follow that the original sum in all
cases taken; a greater or less sum may be taken, as may be agreed on. Men
not in debt also become slaves for a money consideration of whieh they may
have need; often as they are fed and clothed at their owner’s expense, as
McCulloch observes, from “ sheer laziness.” Nothing can be said in favour
of the system under which people may become,slaves hot of their own free
will. A not uncommon form of this kind of slavery is that of parents
disposing of their children either temporarily or permanently, a fraitfnl
source of immorality. I t is said that this is only resorted to in extreme
cases, as want of food, &c., and is looked upon as a disgrace; but this is
somewhat doubtful. For certain crimes people are made slaves. In cases
of theft, when the culprit is caught but the goods not recovered in fnll,
he and his family may be seized and sold until the claim for the stolen
goods is recovered. In cases of debt, when the claim is not settled and
no arrangement is made, the debtor and his family may be seized and sold
in satisfaction of the debt. In adultery c.ises, when the claim for damages
cannot be realized, the same may happen. The raja’s slaves number about
 ( 98 )

1,200 or 1,500. The classes who are the raja’s slaves are the Ayokpa,
Tengkul, and Kei. On a change taking place in th e rulers of the country,
i t was formerly the costom to seize the slaves of those who had held office,
and to divide them among the adherents of the new ruler. This practice,
when the changes of rulers become so very frequent as it latterly did, was
found to entail upon individuals more har^hip -than the worth of the slave.
Slaves, therefore, when seized were not distributed amongst adherents, but
made to work for the raja under the name of “ Ayokpa.” The present
raja has, it is said, ordered that slaves -s^U remain, in case of a change
of officers, the property of their owners nnder all circumstances. Ill-usage
of slaves does not seem common; they are generally treated as part of the
family with whom they reside, and do not hesitate to nm away when they
are ill treated, which creates a scandal, aud is carefully avoid^. Cases of
cruelty do, however, occur, hut such cases are exceptional.
Courts.—The chief conrts are two in number, Cbirap, and the Ghuud
or Military Court. There is also a court for tiie trial of cases in which
women are concerned, and other minor courts for cattle disputes, &a, &c.
Cases decided by any of the conrts may t e appealed to the raja, who
decides the case as be thinks proper. The Chirap, which is the ehiri court,
consists of thirteen senior members, all of whom are appointed by the raja.
The two senior members of the court as at present constituted are tbe
Joobraj, or eldest son of the raja, and a chief of a district, named the
Dola Raja. The guard or Military Court, is composed of the eight senior
army officers, named majors, and other officers of the army. In it all
cases in which sepoys are concerned are heard j it also occasionally takes up
other eases. The Paja or women’s court consiste of six members appoint­
ed by the raja from no particular class. In this court all cases of family
disputes in which women are concerned, wife-heating cases, adultery, &c.,
are, in the first instance, heard; serious cases may afterwards come before
the Chirap. The other conrts are nnimportant. In former times, the
membership of the various courts was hereffitary; now all the appointments
are made by the raja.
Village Puuekayets.—In the villages sitnated in the Manipur Valley are
dabs, named “ Singlup” or wood clnbe, resembling tiie pnncbayrie of
Bengal. Tbese cln ^, under tbe sirdar or head of tbe village, have the
general control of it, and adjudicate in triffing cases arising in the village,
in the event of a villager sinking into a state of extreme poverty, these
clubs supply him with necessary food. In sickness.they look after him, and
when dead, provide the wood, &c., for his last rites. In this way, although
many of the inhabitants are very poor, actual starvation or fatal neglect is
rendered impossible.
Puuiskmeul fo r (fences.—The pnnishments inflicted for the various
offences are numerous. Treason or conspiracy ag ain st. tbe raja is the
highest offence that can be committed. Before the advent of the present
raja, who has relaxed the severity of the punishments awarded in such
cases, death was the penalty, not only to the chief offender, but to all his
foUowers. If the chief culprit belong to the royal family, he was put in a
basket and thrown into a river, and there kept until drowned. (This
kind of punishment is believed to be common in Bhootan); the predece^r
of the present Raja, Narsingh, carried out the panishment in its integrity.
Murder is the next offence in point of magnitude. For this crime, the
punbhment b death, except in the case of Bnhm ans (whose punbh-
■nent for murder is simply banbhment from the country) and women.
 ( w )

Execution in its form varies with the nature of the murder. Should
the deed have been done by beating, then the punishment is being
beaten to death with clubs. If by catting or stabbing, the head is cut ofT.
Hanging is also mentioned as being one of the means of executing. No
executions have taken place for the last four or five years. Cases of assault
and petty theft are punished by flogging with a cane on the shoulders,
the culprit on his face on the ground, and by exposure in the bazar; also
imprisonment. The hair is occasionally cut off as a punishment, but rarely.
Fining is the commonest of all punishments, and leads to gross abases.
'Women are not confined in the ja il: their usual punishment is shaving the
head and exposure in the basmrs, the offender being walked round them
on successive days. They, in the event of not ans'jrering freely before the
court, may be tortured with thumb screws. They are also, as a punishment
chiefly for loose behaviour, made prostitutes of occasionally. In the cases
where imprisonment is carried out as a punishment, iu a good many in­
stances, as in cases of arms stealing, which is reckoned a very serious oi^nce,
and debt, no time for the imprisonment to expire is mentioned. In the
case of the debtor, release follows payment of the debt. Political offeures
come under the same category, the term of imprisonment not being
defined. Specified terms of imprisonment vary from one week to twelve
years.
Jatl.—T he'jail is sitnated within the raja’s enclosure; it is surrounded
by a high sun-dried brick wall, and is calculated to accommodate one hundred
and fifty prisoners. The sanitary conditions seem as bad as they could be,
and yet, since its construction some-nine or ten years ago, among an average
of one hundred prisoners only five deaths have occurr^. The prisoners
are freely em ploy^ on the roads, &c., outside, which may help to accouut
for the small mortality. The interior discipline of the jail is looked after
by the guards, &c. Breaches of discipline are punished by flogging, in­
creased weight of irons, lengthened term of imprisonment, &c. Most of
the prisoners are ironed, but not heavily.
CattU wounding.—^ f o r e quitting the subject of offences, some allusion
may be made to cattle wounding or killing, which u e serious crimes accord­
ing to the Manipnri code of law. In every caae where a cow dies, the
authorities have to be informed of the circumstanoe; and an enquiry takes
place, followed in a good many instances, if not in all, by the fining of
the individual to whom the oow belonged, or, in doubtful cases, the village
in which it is found. This gives rise to a great deal of rascality, as any
one having a spite against another, has only to smuggle a dead cow into
his premises, or wound some of his cattle to get him into trouble. The
meitahers of the court for trying such cases, like the others, receive a share
(about 30 per cent) of the fines inflicted; so, it may be imagined, few
escape. In cattle cases, according to tiie autiiorities, fines vary from four­
teen annas to mpees otae hundred.
Edueaiion.— The question of education may oe dismissed in a very few
words. Last year a school was established in Manipur nt the sugges­
tion of the late Political -Agent, Major-General W. P. Nuthall, aud the
Government of Bengal presented books, maps, &c., to the value of four or
five hundred rupees, but for want of encouragement on the part of the
authorities it has been nearly closed. Some few boys attend occasionally.
The Manipuri prefers remaining ignorant. So illiterate are they, that some
of the highest officials can neither read n«» write,- and are not a whit
ashamed for their want of knowledge.
 ( w )
Written character o f the Manipuri language.—The Manipuris possess
a written character of their own, which seems a modification of the Nagri.
This character is said to be very ancient, only a few can write it Of late
years, the Bengali character has been chiefly used, except in cases relating
to Manipur Proper itself.
Climate, Sfc.—The Manipur Valley being situated at an elevation of
2,500 feet above the sea, is naturally cooler than either Kachar, or the neigh­
bouring valley of Kubo, both of which are but little elevated. The
difference is not 80 striking thermomctrically as might be anticipated; bnt
so far as actual feeling goes, the difference is great.
Temperature.—The following will show the average temperature, with
the highest and lowest readings, at 3 p.ti., for each month in the year
1868-69, from May to A pril:—
Months. Average.. H ighest. Lowest.
May 79° Itf 89° 74°
June 83° 6" 92° 76°
July ... ~. 81° 14' 86° 77°
August 82° t S 89° 78°
September ... 81° ao" 86° 74°
October — 78° 14' 84° 66°
November 71° 20' 78° 66°
December 65° 13' 70° 60°
January ... ... 64° 3' 67° 61°
February ... 75° 13' 81° 61°
March 76° 12 84° 64°
April 80° 25' 88° 71°
At the hottest season the nights and mornings are always cool, and
every breeze is gratefully fresh and cool. Punkahs are not used or required;
and drinking and bathing water is always cool, if kept under cover and iu
the shade.
Fogs J« the Cold Weather.—During the cold weather fogs are common,
especially in the swampy ground to the south of the valley; they do not
last long, disapprariug usually about 9 a. m. In the coldest part of the
season hoar frost is always seen in the early morning; but ice does not
form in the pools.
Rainfall.—The av era^ annual rainfall is considerably under what
it is the neighbouring district of Kacbar.
Tbe following shows the total rainfall registered in each month duriog
the year 1872-73
May 1872 ................ 2- 4" November 1872 _. _ O' 0"
June „ ... — 1‘80" December „ ... „ 0'46''
July „ -. ... 8-98' January 1873 ... 0 5ff'
August „ ... 6’38' February ,, ... ... 0'56"
September » ... -• 5‘12" March „ ... ... 3' (f
October „ S-14’’ April „ ... ... 3 76"
Toth ... 3674''

This season, 1872-73, there is a general complaint of the rainfall being

too plentiful. In October there was a very heavy rainfall, which did some
damage to the crops, but which was afterwards repairctrtby Se-planting,
re-sowing.
Thnnder-slorm, ^c.—Thunder-storm and violent winds are uncommon :
these storms seem to spend their force in the hills before reaching the
valley.
 { 95 )

Prevailing. Winds.—The prevailing wind is from the south-west, and

blows with remarkable steadiness, seldom varying all tbe year round. -East
winds are reckoned unhealthy.
Earthquakes.—The Manipur Valley has occasionally been subject to
earthquakes, but' of a slight nature, until the formidable convulsion of
January 1869. The following is a brief account of it, chiefly taken from
Dr. Brown's official report sent in to Government shortly after the occur­
rence ;—
“ At the commencement of the earthquake I was standing in the centre
“ room of my house. I did not take alarm at the first one or two vibrations,
"thinking that, as usual, they would rapidly cease; the vibrations in-
" creasing, however, I made at once for the door of exit. I experienced
“ some difficulty in making my way through the front room, the ground at
“ this lime undulating so strongly that walking was a difficult matter.
“ Arrived a t the outside of the house, the ground was in such violent
" motion that I found it impossible to proceed more than a few paces, when
" I was either thrown down, or sauk down involuntarily, my face turned
“ towards the house, and on my hands and knees. At this time the motion
“ of the ground was most remarkable : it seemed to rise and fall in waves
“ of about three feet in height. A very short experience of this wavy
“ motion sutficed to settle the fate of my house; after swaying about and
“ creaking and groaning for a brief space, tbe upper storey, built of wood
“ and bamboo, settled down with a crash on the lower walls, which fortu-
" nately, althougli much fissured and thrown out of the perpendicular, with-
“ stood the.pressure. Almost immediately after the. fall of the'house the
motion ceased, and I was enabled to regain my feet, and see what damage
“ had been done, I found the house iuside in a deplorable state, and one
“ illustrating tiie wonderful force of the earthquake; heavy book-cases and
“ other articles of furniture had been literally thrown violently about, and
“ the destruction of crockery, bottles, &c., was very great. Outside my
“ compouud I found the house in which the treasure chest was kept level
“ with the ground, but no one hurt. A glance at the rajbari close by
" showed me that, the raja's pucka house was in ruins, with many other less
"substantfal buildings. In fact, in every direction fallen houses of all
“ descriptions, slight or substantial, attested the great violence of the earth.
“ quake. Every one was in a state of very great alarm, never having expe-
“ rienced anything of the kind, except the very slightest shocks before. In
“ a time of such terror and confusion, it is a difficult matter to make accu-
“ rate observations as to time, &c., however, I looked at my watch when the
“ shock commenced and found it three minutes past five (evening), on ris-
" ing from the ground after the earthquake waS over, it was exactly five
“ minutes p ^ t five; allowing for errors, I think it may be almost assumed
“ with certainty that the shock lasted about a minute and a half. So far as
" I could observe, tbe lower animals did not seem to be a t all affected by the
“ phenomenou. There was nothing unusual in the weather or the tempera-
“ turC at the time of tbe shock. I had an excellent opportunity of oteerv-
" ing the state of the weather on the day of tbe earthquake, as I rode into
" tbe capital from the foot of the hills to the south-west of the valley that
“ mornina:; the only two things that struck me were the entire absence of
" the usual morning fog, aud the presence of a particularly dense bank of
" blackish cloud over the high hills to the north-west, the rest of the sky
“ being clear. The natives all say, and I agree with them, that Uie first
" shock was almost due north and south, but according to them tbe undu-
 ( M )

"lations almost immediately after this sssamed a circular character, and

" Seemed to come from all quarters. This may be, but I did not at the
" time become consciuns of any c h a n ^ of direction in the motion. About
“ 15 minutes after tbe occurrence ^ the first shock, another took place,
" slig h t however in character. Without giving the particulars of every
" slight shock which followed the major one, it may be stated that up till a
“ quarter before 10 p. x . on the 14th, the shocks, although slight, were very
“ frequent, keeping the inhabitants in a constant state of darm , most of
"th e m camping out all night, afraid to sleep inside their houses after the
"experience they had on the lOth. During the 15th, 16th and 17th, I
" olwerved no shocks, but on the morning of the 18th they again recom-
" menced, and I observed distinct shocfa, slight and not lasting more than
" a few seconds, one at 7 minutes from 2 a . u ., another at 10 Quinutes to 8
“ A. M. On the morning after the occurrence of the earthquake, I visited
" the rajbari and other places to witness its effects. In the rajbari enclo-
" sure, which is of great size, there is a maidan (plain) of some extent,
“ which lies rather lower than most of the other parts of the ground ; in
“ this space were the remains of many openings, now closed with fine mud,
“ where the ground had opened, and great volumes of mnddy water had
“ been poured out. In this space also the ground was much fissured, and
“ for 20 or 30 feet it was broken, and had sunk in portions more than a
"foot. Many of these closed apertures were quite ^ f t, and allowed a
"w alking atiA to be pushed down 10 or 12 inches until the solid ground
" was reached. Tbe main branch of the riv ^ which runs through the
" capital flows at a short distance from the rajbari, and an inspection of
" its banks showed most unmistakeablj that along the course of the river,
" the disturbance of the earth had been mnch more severe than in places
“ situated at a distance from it. The §prohnd along the banks and near the
" riv^r was most extensively and widely fissured, and it had sank several
"fe e t in many places. On the morning of the 1lib , the river had fallen
" about a foot, and the current was very sluggish; evidently the bed bad
" been d e p r e s ^ ; tbe following day the river had risen about a foot above
" its formm- level, and the cnrrent was re-established. In the fall of the
" raja's tw o-stori^ brick honse, a most substantial and ornamental build-
" ing, and which had only been finished five years ago, I regret to say
" four Women were crush^ to death and a number of people wounded.
“ The raja's leas in property is very g^eat, and is not yet fully known ; he
" is especially sorry about his muskets, numbers of which, but recently
" received from Government, have been irretrievably destroyed. Pull parti-
“ culars from all the outlying districts and thanas have not yet been receiv-
" ed, but w &r as 1 can ascertain, the earthquake has bmn universal all
" over the valley and in every direction in the hills, and much damage has
“ been done, but so far as 1 can hear without loss of life. At Moreh Thana,
" on the Burmese frontier, four days’ journey from this, the earthquake is
“ described as having been very severe and the ^ u n d was extensively fis-
" sured. To the north many viUs^es belonging to the Nagas have been
" demolished. The hill streanos have all risen fixim 1 to 2 feet. A t
" the salt-wells in the valley, some 14 miles from this, but little damage
" was done to the houses, but the salt water in the wells is reported to
" have increased in depth 6 feet, and this increase was accompanied
" by much noise. I have made enquiries as to the behaviour of the
“ large lake or jhil to the sonth of this, about 14 miles, as I expected
" that it would show some remarkable phenomena, and I am informed
 { 97 )
that daring the earthquake the water was violently agitated, and be-
•'came of a reddish colour. After the earthquake the water appeared
" pennanently increased, and a most remarkably thick crop of water plants
“ appeared on the surface, rendering IJie progre^ of boats very diffictdt.
“ Tlie reports from the line of road between this and British territory all
" point to most extensive damage, the road in many places being completely
“ destroyed. An enormous mass of rock is described as having' blocked
" up the Eernng Biver dose to the ford, leaving but a few feet for the pass-
“ age of the watM.”
“ After the above account was written, I had opportunities of observing
the results of the earthquake in various parts of the valley, along the road
towards Kachar through the Manipur Hills, and in the hills to the north
leading towards Assam. W ith respect to the valley, there could be
no doubt that the centre of the disturbance was the capital itself, the
effects, as one increased his distance from it, seemed to lessen gradually.
I could not trace any marks of blocking up of the Eernng River as men­
tioned in the above account, when I e r o s ^ the river on my way towards
Kachar, about nine months after the earthquake took place, two days’
journey north-west among the hills. The convulsion must have been un­
usually severe; in a confined valley snrrounded by high hills and inter­
sected by streams I found, a year after the event, evidences of a marked
character and more severe in effects than 1 had observed anywhere else;
it was evident that a large area of ground had suddenly sunk about 20
feet or more, and that simultaneously a tretnendous discharge of water
had taken place, as the whole of the sunken area had been swept quite
bare, not a scrap of verdure being le ft; large tranks of trees were strewn
about, and boulders of all sizes had been swept here and there. At the
time of my v ia t to this spot, a considerable stream of slat.;-coloaTed water
was still pouring out from near the centre of the space.
“ Still further north and north-east large land-slips had occurred, and
trees and enormous masses of rock had been riven asunder and thrown
about.
“ I heard of no deaths other than those mentioned in the foregoing
account as having occurred in the valley, and there would seem to have
been none a t all in the hills.
“ Since the occurrence of the earthqnake of 1869, and the various
subsequent minor shocks so far as I can ascertain, there have been only
a few repetitions of the phenomena, but on a very nuld scale, such in
fact as are commonly experienced in many parts of India.”
I t is the custom among the Manipuris on the occurrence of an earth­
quake to shout “gna, cbak” (fish, food); this custom is stated to arise from
a notion th at it has an effect on tbeir food, and as a prayer that the supply
of fish and rice may not be diminished,
I^ a d t.—The most important of tbe roads is that leading from the
Manipur Territory to the British province of Cachar. Before the con-
stenction of this road by Government, communication with the British pro­
vinces was chiefly carried on by two routes, the Kala Naga, along which
the road was constructed, and the Aqnee route lying to the north of the
above and still used, though onfrequently, by the hill-people. The distance
of the road is calculated to be 103 miles from the sudder station of Silchar
to the capital of Manipur.
This road was constracied by Government P o rtly atter the first Bur­
mese war, and was kept in repair by it until 1865, when, by mutual arrange­
 ( 98 )
ment with th e Mimipar Baja, its repairs were undertaken by him ; siaoe
then the road has been yearly getting worse, and threatens eventually, un­
less repairs are msisted on, to become in some places almost impassable.
The larger rivers are bridged with cane awinging-bridges during the rains.
The roads in the Manipur Valley are few. One leads from the foot ol
the hills to the capital; it is continuous with the hill road, an^ is in fair
order. Good b r i d ^ are much wanted for all the roads.
Another road has been recently constructed leading north-east to the
salt wells; it is about 14 miles long, and is in fair order.
There are no other roads of any consequence in the country.

M a n ip u k : 1 R. BBOWN, F.B.C.S.E.,
3014 Jugutt 1873. / Fo/iiical Agent, Manipnr.

O. S, G. P .-M o. 302 B. A. 4 C .-B -8-74.-lS a